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# Angus, Scotland
## Demography
### Population structure {#population_structure}
In the 2001 census, the population of Angus was recorded as 108,400. 20.14% were under the age of 16, 63.15% were between 16 and 65 and 18.05% were aged 65 or above.
Of the 16 to 74 age group, 32.84% had no formal qualifications, 27.08% were educated to \'O\' Grade/Standard Grade level, 14.38% to Higher level, 7.64% to HND or equivalent level and 18.06% to degree level.
### Language in Angus {#language_in_angus}
The most recent available census results (2001) show that Gaelic is spoken by 0.45% of the Angus population. This, similar to other lowland areas, is lower than the national average of 1.16%. These figures are self-reported and are not broken down into levels of fluency.
Category Number Percentage
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------- ------------
All people 108,400 100
Understands spoken Gaelic but cannot speak, read or write it 351 0.32
Speaks reads and writes Gaelic 238 0.22
Speaks but neither reads nor writes Gaelic 188 0.17
Speaks and reads but cannot write Gaelic 59 0.05
Reads but neither speaks not writes Gaelic 61 0.06
Writes but neither speaks nor reads Gaelic 13 0.01
Reads and writes but does not speak Gaelic 22 0.02
Other combination of skills in Gaelic 7 0.01
No knowledge of Gaelic 107,461 99.13
Meanwhile, the 2011 census found that 38.4% of the population in Angus can speak Scots, above the Scottish average of 30.1%. This puts Angus as the council area with the sixth highest proficiency in Scots, behind only Shetland, Orkney, Moray, Aberdeenshire, and East Ayrshire.
Historically, the dominant language in Angus was Pictish until the sixth to seventh centuries AD when the area became progressively gaelicised, with Pictish extinct by the mid-ninth century. Gaelic/Middle Irish began to retreat from lowland areas in the late-eleventh century and was absent from the Eastern lowlands by the fourteenth century. It was replaced there by Middle Scots, the contemporary local South Northern dialect of Modern Scots, while Gaelic persisted as a majority language in the Highlands and Hebrides until the 19th century.
Angus Council are planning to raise the status of Gaelic in the county by adopting a series of measures, including bilingual road signage, communications, vehicle livery and staffing.
## Government
## Community council areas {#community_council_areas}
Angus is divided into 25 community council areas and all apart from Friockheim district have an active council. The areas are: Aberlemno; Auchterhouse; Carnoustie; City of Brechin & District; Ferryden & Craig; Friockheim & District; Glamis; Hillside, Dun, & Logie Pert; Inverarity; Inveresk; Kirriemuir; Kirriemuir Landward East; Kirriemuir Landward West; Letham & District; Lunanhead & District; Monifieth; Monikie & Newbigging; Montrose; Muirhead, Birkhill and Liff; Murroes & Wellbank; Newtyle & Eassie; Royal Burgh of Arbroath; Royal Burgh of Forfar; Strathmartine; and Tealing.
## Parliamentary representation {#parliamentary_representation}
### UK Parliament {#uk_parliament}
Angus is represented by two MPs for the UK Parliament.
- Angus and Perthshire Glens -- covers the following wards: Kirriemuir and Dean, Brechin and Edzell, Forfar and District, and Montrose and District, and parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw; currently represented by Dave Doogan of the Scottish National Party, who was also the MP for the old Angus constituency.
- Arbroath and Broughty Ferry -- cover parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw and Carnoustie and District from the old Dundee East constituency, and Arbroath East and Lunan, Arbroath West, Letham and Friockheim, and Monifieth and Sidlaw, and a part of Carnoustie and District from the now-abolished Angus constituency; currently represented by Stephen Gethins of the Scottish National Party.
### Scottish Parliament {#scottish_parliament}
Angus is represented by two constituency MSPs for the Scottish Parliament.
- Angus North and Mearns -- covers the north of Angus and a southern portion of Aberdeenshire, is represented by Mairi Gougeon of the Scottish National Party.
- Angus South -- covers the south of Angus, is represented by Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party.
In addition to the two constituency MSPs, Angus is also represented by seven MSPs for the North East Scotland electoral region.
## Transport
The Edinburgh-Aberdeen railway line runs along the coast, through Dundee and the towns of Monifieth, Carnoustie, Arbroath and Montrose.
There is a small airport at Dundee, which at present operates flights to London and Belfast.
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# Angus, Scotland
## Settlements
Arbroath is the largest town in the modern county, followed by Forfar, the county town and administrative centre, and Montrose.
Largest settlements by population:
Settlement Population (`{{Scottish settlement population citation|year}}`{=mediawiki})
------------ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Arbroath
Forfar
Montrose
Carnoustie
Monifieth
Brechin
Kirriemuir
Birkhill
Letham
Ferryden
## Historic parishes {#historic_parishes}
Forfarshire was divided into parishes, some of which share the name with current settlements:
## Education
Secondary schools in Angus:
- Arbroath Academy
- Arbroath High School
- Brechin High School
- Carnoustie High School
- Forfar Academy
- Monifieth High School
- Montrose Academy
- Webster\'s High School
## Places of interest {#places_of_interest}
- Aberlemno Sculptured Stones
- Arbroath Abbey
- Barry Mill
- Brechin Cathedral
- Brechin Castle
- Brechin Round Tower
- Caledonian Railway (Brechin)
- Cairngorms National Park
- Corrie Fee National Nature Reserve
- Eassie Stone
- Edzell Castle
- Glamis Castle
- Glenesk Folk Museum
- House of Dun
- Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve
- Meffan Institute
- Monboddo House
- Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre
- Montrose Basin Nature Reserve
- Montrose Museum
## Sister areas {#sister_areas}
- -- Yantai, Shandong, China.
## Surnames
Most common surnames in Angus (Forfarshire) at the time of the 1881 United Kingdom census:
1. Smith
2. Robertson
3. Anderson
4. Stewart
5. Scott
6. Mitchell
7. Brown
8. Duncan
9. Milne
10
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# Adrastea (moon)
**Adrastea** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|d|r|ə|ˈ|s|t|iː|ə}}`{=mediawiki}), also known as **`{{nowrap|Jupiter XV}}`{=mediawiki}**, is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of Jupiter. It was discovered in photographs taken by *Voyager 2* in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through a telescope. It was officially named after the mythological Adrasteia, foster mother of the Greek god Zeus---the equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter.
Adrastea is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet\'s day. It orbits at the edge of Jupiter\'s main ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the rings of Jupiter. Despite observations made in the 1990s by the *Galileo* spacecraft, very little is known about the moon\'s physical characteristics other than its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to Jupiter.
## Discovery and observations {#discovery_and_observations}
Adrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in *Voyager 2* probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation **`{{nowrap|S/1979 J 1}}`{=mediawiki}**. Although it appeared only as a dot, it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft. Soon after its discovery, two other of the inner moons of Jupiter (Thebe and Metis) were observed in the images taken a few months earlier by *Voyager 1*. The *Galileo* spacecraft was able to determine the moon\'s shape in 1998, but the images remain poor. In 1983, Adrastea was officially named after the Greek nymph Adrastea, the daughter of Zeus and his lover Ananke.
Although the *Juno* orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 2016, has a camera called JunoCam, it is almost entirely focused on observations of Jupiter itself. However, if all goes well, it should be able to capture some limited images of the moons Metis and Adrastea.
## Physical characteristics {#physical_characteristics}
Adrastea has an irregular shape and measures 20×16×14 km across. A surface area estimate would be between 840 and 1,600 (\~1,200) km^2^. This makes it the smallest of the four inner moons. The bulk, composition, and mass of Adrastea are not known, but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea, around 0.86 g/cm^3^, its mass can be estimated at 2`{{E-sp|15}}`{=mediawiki} kg. Amalthea\'s density implies that the moon is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10--15%, and Adrastea may be similar.
No surface details of Adrastea are known, due to the low resolution of available images.
## Orbit
Adrastea is the smallest and second-closest member of the inner Jovian satellite family. It orbits Jupiter at 70,200 mph at a radius of about 129,000 km (1.806 Jupiter radii) at the exterior edge of the planet\'s main ring. Its orbit has a very small eccentricity of around 0.0015 and an inclination relative to Jupiter\'s equator of 0.03°, respectively.
Due to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration.
The orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter\'s synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis\'s), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay so that it will one day impact Jupiter. If its density is similar to Amalthea\'s then its orbit would actually lie within the fluid Roche limit. However, since it is not breaking up, it must still lie outside its rigid Roche limit.
## Relationship with Jupiter\'s rings {#relationship_with_jupiters_rings}
Adrastea is the largest contributor to material in Jupiter\'s rings. This appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter\'s four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts. It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from these satellites into space. This is due to the satellites\' low density and their surfaces lying close to the edge of their Hill spheres.
It seems that Adrastea is the most copious source of this ring material, as evidenced by the densest ring (the main ring) being located at and within Adrastea\'s orbit. More precisely, the orbit of Adrastea lies near the outer edge of Jupiter\'s main ring. The exact extent of visible ring material depends on the phase angle of the images: in forward-scattered light Adrastea is firmly outside the main ring, but in back-scattered light (which reveals much bigger particles) there appears to also be a narrow ringlet outside Adrastea\'s orbit
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# Arbroath Abbey
**Arbroath Abbey**, in the Scottish town of Arbroath, was founded in 1178 by King William the Lion for a group of Tironensian Benedictine monks from Kelso Abbey. It was consecrated in 1197 with a dedication to the deceased Saint Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English court. It was William\'s only personal foundation --- he was buried before the high altar of the church in 1214.
The last Abbot was Cardinal David Beaton, who in 1522 succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of St Andrews. The Abbey is cared for by Historic Environment Scotland and is open to the public throughout the year (entrance charge). The distinctive red sandstone ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath.
## History
King William gave the Abbey independence from its founding abbey, Kelso Abbey, and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more. The Abbey\'s monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour. King John of England gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in England (except London) toll-free.
The Abbey, which was the richest in Scotland, is most famous for its association with the 1320 Declaration of Scottish Independence believed to have been drafted by Abbot Bernard, who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King Robert I.
The Abbey fell into ruin after the Reformation. From 1590 onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of Arbroath. This continued until 1815 when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins.
On Christmas Day 1950, the Stone of Destiny went missing from Westminster Abbey. On 11 April 1951 the stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey\'s altar.
Since 1947, a major historical re-enactment commemorating the Declaration\'s signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church. The celebration is run by the local Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society, and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing. This is not an annual event. However, a special event to mark the signing is held every year on the 6th of April and involves a street procession and short piece of street theatre.
In 2005 The Arbroath Abbey campaign was launched. The campaign seeks to gain World Heritage Status for the iconic Angus landmark that was the birthplace of one of Scotland\'s most significant document, The Declaration of Arbroath. Campaigners believe that the Abbey\'s historical pronouncement makes it a prime candidate to achieve World Heritage Status. MSP Alex Johnstone wrote \"Clearly, the Declaration of Arbroath is a literary work of outstanding universal significance by any stretch of the imagination\" In 2008, the Campaign Group Chairman, Councillor Jim Millar launched a public petition to reinforce the bid explaining \"We\'re simply asking people to, local people especially, to sign up to the campaign to have the Declaration of Arbroath and Arbroath Abbey recognised by the United Nations. Essentially we need local people to sign up to this campaign simply because the United Nations demand it.\"
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# Arbroath Abbey
## Architectural description {#architectural_description}
The Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly \'Early English\' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late Norman or transitional work. The triforium (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture. It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading. The cruciform church measured 276 ft long by 160 ft wide. What remains of it today are the sacristy, added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern transept, which features Scotland\'s largest lancet windows, part of the choir and presbytery, the southern half of the nave, parts of the western towers and the western doorway. The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire. These would once have been visible from many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea mark for ships. The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally. These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.
The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a beacon for mariners. It is known locally as the \'Round O\', and from this tradition inhabitants of Arbroath are colloquially known as \'Reid Lichties\' (Scots reid = red).
Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot\'s House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best preserved of its type in Scotland. In the summer of 2001, a new visitors\' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey\'s west front. This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive \'wave-shaped\' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics. The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated \'fly-through\' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins. The centre won the 2002 Angus Design Award. An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors\' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons\' yard while the Abbey was being built
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# Adversarial system
The **adversarial system** (also **adversary system**, **accusatorial system**, or **accusatory system**) is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties\' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a judge or jury, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly. It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.
The adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate, putting the prosecution against the defense.
## Basic features {#basic_features}
Adversarial systems are considered to have three basic features. The first is a neutral decision-maker such as a judge or jury. The second is presentation of evidence in support of each party\'s case, usually by lawyers. The third is a highly structured procedure.
The rules of evidence are developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence deemed to not be trustworthy, or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand. Peter Murphy in his *Practical Guide to Evidence* recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, \"Am I never to hear the truth?\" \"No, my lord, merely the evidence\", replied counsel.
### Parties
Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question---rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances. Lord Devlin in *The Judge* said: \"It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle.\"
The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners\' Counsel Act 1836), although in practice, English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century. During the second half of the 18th century, advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today. In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the United States Constitution, and in state cases at least since the end of the civil war, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases. It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See *Gideon v. Wainwright*, `{{ussc|372|335|1963}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Adversarial system
## Criminal proceedings {#criminal_proceedings}
In criminal adversarial proceedings, an accused is not compelled to give evidence. Therefore, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to be; however, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person\'s right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person\'s position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer\'s manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.
In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused\'s failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant\'s invocation of his or her right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.
By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give statements, these statements are not subject to cross-examinations by the prosecution and are not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain their side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judge who questions the defendant. The concept of \"cross\"-examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law.
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# Adversarial system
## Comparison with inquisitorial systems {#comparison_with_inquisitorial_systems}
The name \"adversarial system\" may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.
One of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains. Plea bargains are becoming more common in 27 civil law countries
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# Abated
: *See also, Abatement.*
**Abated**, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief
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# Abati
**Abati** is a surname. It was used by an ancient noble family of Florence.
Notable people with the surname include:
- Antonio Abati (died 1667), Italian poet
- Baldo Angelo Abati (sixteenth century), Italian naturalist
- Joaquín Abati (1865--1936), Spanish writer
- Joël Abati (born 1970), French handball player
- Megliore degli Abati (thirteenth century), Italian poet
- Niccolò dell\'Abbate (1509 or 1512 -- 1571), Italian painter
- Reuben Abati (born 1965), Nigerian newspaper columnist
## Other uses {#other_uses}
- The Abati people, a fictional ethnic group in H
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# Abatis
An **abatis**, **abattis**, or **abbattis** is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced or tied with wire. Abatis are used alone or in combination with wire entanglements and other obstacles.
## History
Gregory of Tours mentions the use of abatises several times in his writing about the history of the early Franks. He wrote that the Franks ambushed and destroyed a Roman army near Neuss during the reign of Magnus Maximus with the use of an abatis. He also wrote that Mummolus, a general working for Burgundy, successfully used an abatis to defeat a Lombard army near Embrun.
A classic use of an abatis was at the Battle of Carillon (1758) during the Seven Years\' War. The 3,600 French troops defeated a massive army of 16,000 British and Colonial troops by fronting their defensive positions with an extremely dense abatis. The British found the defences almost impossible to breach and were forced to withdraw with some 2,600 casualties. Other uses of an abatis can be found at the Battle of the Chateauguay, 26 October 1813, when approximately 1,300 Canadian Voltigeurs, under the command of Charles-Michel de Salaberry, defeated an American corps of approximately 4,000 men, or at the Battle of Plattsburgh.
## Construction
An important weakness of abatis, in contrast to barbed wire, is that it can be destroyed by fire. Also, if laced together with rope instead of wire, the rope can be very quickly destroyed by such fires, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by grappling hooks thrown from a safe distance.
An important advantage is that an improvised abatis can be quickly formed in forested areas. This can be done by simply cutting down a row of trees so that they fall with their tops toward the enemy. An alternative is to place explosives so as to blow the trees down.
## Modern use {#modern_use}
Abatis are rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by wire obstacles. However, it may be used as a replacement or supplement when barbed wire is in short supply. A form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an improvised anti-tank obstacle
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# Abba Mari
**Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph**, was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century. He is also known as **Yarhi** from his birthplace (Hebrew *Yerah*, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the name **Astruc**, **Don Astruc** or **En Astruc of Lunel** from the word \"astruc\" meaning lucky.
The descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the *Talmud*.
In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian rationalism, which (in his opinion) through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title *Minhat Kenaot*, i.e., \"Offering of Zealotry\") called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Aderet of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Aderet, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than twenty-five years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Aderet in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.
Upon the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.
## Defender of Law and Tradition {#defender_of_law_and_tradition}
Leader of the opposition to the rationalism of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303--1306; born at Lunel---hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune). He was a descendant of Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to science and philosophy. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim of Villefranche, near the town of Perpignan, and Jacob Anatolio) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, \"the searcher after God among the heathen,\" to be ranked with Moses.
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# Abba Mari
## Opponent of Rationalism {#opponent_of_rationalism}
Abba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of *Minḥat Ḳenaot* (*Jealousy Offering*), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret\'s aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari\'s letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon\'s leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain.
Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of Argentière and Lunel, and particularly by the support of Kalonymus ben Todros, the *nasi* of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talmudist Asheri of Toledo, Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, *Guide for the Perplexed* part one chapter 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, July 26, 1305. When this heresy-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV (\"the Fair\"), in, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in Provence, partly in Perpignan and partly in Mallorca. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to Arles, and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues.
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# Abba Mari
## *Minchat Kenaot* {#minchat_kenaot}
Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called *Minchat Kenaot*, several manuscript copies survive (at Oxford; Paris; Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library; and Turin). Some of these are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called *Sefer ha-Yarḥi,* included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of *The Guide* and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera.
As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) Recognition of God\'s existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the *Ten Commandments*; (2) the world\'s creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) special Divine providence, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of *creatio ex nihilo* and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of *Minḥat Ḳenaot.*
The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talisman, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as idolatrous. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don Vidal Shlomo (the Meiri) and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In *Sefer haYarchi*, Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old regarding the teaching of the philosophical mysteries, and recommended by men like the Hai Gaon, Maimonides, and David Kimhi. A response of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz mentions a *ḳinah* composed by Abba Mari.
*Minchat Kenaot* is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect.
At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel
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# Abbas II of Egypt
**Abbas Helmy II** (also known as *ʿAbbās Ḥilmī Pāshā*, *عباس حلمي باشا*; 14 July 1874 -- 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive of Egypt and the Sudan, ruling from 8`{{Spaces}}`{=mediawiki}January 1892 to 19 December 1914.`{{refn|group=nb|name=death|Sources give different dates for the deposition of Abbas. Some state that date as 20 or 21 December 1914.<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|pp=8–9}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} In 1914, after the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the nationalist Khedive was removed by the British, then ruling Egypt, in favour of his more pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel, marking the *de jure* end of Egypt\'s four-century era as a province of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun in 1517.
## Early life {#early_life}
Abbas II (full name: Abbas Hilmy), the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ali, was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 14 July 1874. In 1887 he was ceremonially circumcised together with his younger brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. The festivities lasted for three weeks and were carried out with great pomp. As a boy he visited the United Kingdom, and he had a number of British tutors in Cairo including a governess who taught him English. In a profile of Abbas II, the boys\' annual, *Chums*, gave a lengthy account of his education. His father established a small school near the Abdin Palace in Cairo where European, Arab and Ottoman masters taught Abbas and his brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. An American officer in the Egyptian army took charge of his military training. He attended school at Lausanne, Switzerland; then, at the age of twelve, he was sent to the Haxius School in Geneva, in preparation for his entry into the Theresianum in Vienna. In addition to Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, he had good conversational knowledge of English, French and German.
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# Abbas II of Egypt
## Reign
Abbas II succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as Khedive of Egypt and Sudan on 8 January 1892. He was still in college in Vienna when he assumed the throne of the Khedivate of Egypt upon the sudden death of his father. He was barely of age according to Egyptian law; normally eighteen in cases of succession to the throne. For some time he did not willingly cooperate with the British, whose army had occupied Egypt in 1882. As he was young and eager to exercise his new power, he resented the interference of the British Agent and Consul General in Cairo, Sir Evelyn Baring, later created the Earl of Cromer. Lord Cromer initially supported Abbas but the new Khedive\'s nationalist agenda and association with the anti-colonial nationalist movements in Egypt put him in direct conflict with British colonial officers, and Cromer later interceded on behalf of Lord Kitchener (British commander in the Sudan) in an ongoing dispute with Abbas about Egyptian sovereignty and influence in that territory.
At the outset of his reign, Khedive Abbas II surrounded himself with a coterie of European advisers who opposed the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan and encouraged the young khedive to challenge Cromer by replacing his ailing prime minister with an Egyptian nationalist. At Cromer\'s behest, Lord Rosebery, the British Foreign Secretary, sent Abbas II a letter stating that the Khedive was obliged to consult the British consul on such issues as cabinet appointments. In January 1894 Abbas II made an inspection tour of Sudanese and Egyptian frontier troops stationed near the southern border, the Mahdists being at the time still in control of the Sudan. At Wadi Halfa the Khedive made public remarks disparaging the Egyptian army units commanded by British officers. The British *Sirdar* of the Egyptian Army, the then Sir Herbert H. Kitchener, immediately threatened to resign. Kitchener further insisted on the dismissal of a nationalist under-secretary of war appointed by Abbas II and that an apology be made for the Khedive\'s criticism of the army and its officers.
By 1899 he had come to accept British counsels. Also in 1899, British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt, and in 1900 Abbas II paid a second visit to Britain, during which he said he thought the British had done good work in Egypt, and declared himself ready to cooperate with the British officials administering Egypt and Sudan. He gave his formal approval for the establishment of a sound system of justice for Egyptian nationals, a significant reduction in taxation, increased affordable and sound education, the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works such as the Aswan Low Dam and the Assiut Barrage, and the reconquest of Sudan. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in statecraft. His farm of cattle and horses at Qubbah, near Cairo, was a model for agricultural science in Egypt, and he created a similar establishment at Muntazah, just east of Alexandria. He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children. Muhammad Abdul Moneim, the heir-apparent, was born on 20 February 1899.
Although Abbas II no longer *publicly* opposed the British, he secretly created, supported and sustained the Egyptian nationalist movement, which came to be led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha. He also funded the anti-British newspaper Al-Mu\'ayyad. As Kamil\'s thrust was increasingly aimed at winning popular support for a nationalist political party, Khedive Abbas publicly distanced himself from the Nationalists and was labeled as being against Islam by said nationalists. The western world would characterize him as a revolutionary against peace, although his main goal was to gain independence for Morocco. Their demand for a constitutional government in 1906 was rebuffed by Abbas II, and the following year he formed the National Party, led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha, to counter the Ummah Party of the Egyptian moderates. However, in general, he had no real political power. When the Egyptian Army was sent to fight Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi in Sudan in 1896, he only found out about it because the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was in Egypt and told him after being informed of it by a British Army officer.
His relations with Cromer\'s successor, Sir Eldon Gorst, however, were excellent, and they co-operated in appointing the cabinets headed by Butrus Ghali in 1908 and Muhammad Sa\'id in 1910 and in checking the power of the National Party. The appointment of Kitchener to succeed Gorst in 1912 displeased Abbas II, and relations between the Khedive and the British deteriorated. Kitchener, who exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the National Party, often complained about \"that wicked little Khedive\" and wanted to depose him.
On 25 July 1914, at the onset of World War I, Abbas II was in Constantinople and was wounded in his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November 1914 when Great Britain declared war on the Ottoman Empire, he was accused of deserting Egypt by not promptly returning home. The British also believed that he was plotting against their rule, as he had attempted to appeal to Egyptians and Sudanese to support the Central Powers against the British. So when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the United Kingdom declared Egypt a Sultanate under British protection on 18 December 1914 and deposed Abbas II. During the war, Abbas II sought support from the Ottomans, including proposing to lead an attack on the Suez Canal. He was replaced by the British by his uncle Hussein Kamel from 1914 to 1917, with the title of Sultan of Egypt. Hussein Kamel issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas II of property in Egypt and Sudan and forbade contributions to him. These also barred Abbas from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts. This did not prevent his progeny, however, from exercising their rights. Abbas II finally accepted the new order on 12 May 1931 and formally abdicated. He retired to Switzerland, where he wrote *The Anglo-Egyptian Settlement* (1930). He died at Geneva on 19 December 1944, aged 70, 30 years to the day after the end of his reign as Khedive.`{{refn|group = nb|name=death}}`{=mediawiki}
## Marriages and issue {#marriages_and_issue}
His first marriage in Cairo on 19 February 1895 was to Ikbal Hanim (Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, 22 October 1876`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Istanbul, 10 February 1941). They divorced in 1910 and had six children, two sons and four daughters:
- Princess Emina (Montaza Palace, Alexandria, 12 February 1895 -- 1954), unmarried and without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *31 May 1895*;
- Princess Atiyatullah (Cairo, 9 June 1896 -- 1971), married twice and had issue, three sons, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *1 October 1904*;
- Princess Fathiya (27 November 1897 -- 30 November 1923), married without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *1 October 1904*;
- Prince Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim, Heir Apparent and Regent of Egypt and Sudan, (20 February 1899 -- 1 December 1979), married and had issue, a son and a daughter;
- Princess Lutfiya Shavkat (Cairo, 29 September 1900 -- 1975), married and had issue, two daughters, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *20 July 1907*;
- Prince Muhammad Abdul Kadir (4 February 1902 -- Montreux, 21 April 1919);
His second marriage in Çubuklu, Turkey on 28 February 1910 was to Hungarian noblewoman Javidan Hanim (born May Torok de Szendro, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S., 8 January 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}5 August 1968). They divorced in 1913 without issue
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# George Abbot (bishop)
**George Abbot** (29 October 1562`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}4 August 1633) was an English bishop who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633. He also served as the fourth chancellor of the University of Dublin, from 1612 to 1633.
*Chambers Biographical Dictionary* describes him as \"\[a\] sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist\". Among his five brothers, Robert became Bishop of Salisbury and Maurice became Lord Mayor of London. He was a translator of the King James Version of the Bible.
## Life and career {#life_and_career}
### Early years {#early_years}
Born at Guildford in Surrey, where his father Maurice Abbot (died 1606) was a cloth worker, he was taught at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford. According to an eighteenth-century biographical dictionary, when Abbot\'s mother was pregnant with him she had a dream in which she was told that if she ate a pike her child would be a son and rise to great prominence. Some time afterwards, she accidentally caught a pike while fetching water from the River Wey, and it \"being reported to some gentlemen in the neighbourhood, they offered to stand sponsors for the child, and afterwards shewed him many marks of favour\". He later studied and then taught under many eminent scholars, including Thomas Holland, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College in 1597, and appointed Dean of Winchester in 1600. He was three times Vice-Chancellor of the University and took a leading part in preparing the authorised version of the New Testament. In 1608, he went to Scotland with George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland. He so pleased King James in this affair that he was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609 and was translated to the see of London a month afterwards.
### Archbishop of Canterbury {#archbishop_of_canterbury}
On 4 March 1611, Abbot was raised to the position of Archbishop of Canterbury by King James I. As archbishop, he defended the apostolic succession of Anglican bishops and the validity of the church\'s priesthood in 1614. In consequence of the Nag\'s Head Fable, the archbishop invited certain Roman Catholics to inspect the register in the presence of six of his episcopal colleagues, the details of which inspection were preserved. It was agreed by all parties that:
Despite his defence of the catholic nature of the priesthood, his Puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, such as when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the Declaration of Sports listing the permitted Sunday recreations. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the king\'s daughter, Princess Elizabeth, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the new Prince of Wales (later Charles I) and the Spanish Infanta, Maria Anna. This policy brought upon the archbishop the hatred of William Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the king\'s court, although the king himself never forsook Abbot.
In July 1621, while hunting in Lord Zouch\'s park at Bramshill in Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholia. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting that had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that \"an angel might have miscarried after this sort\". The commission was equally divided, and the king voted in Abbot\'s favour, though also signing a formal pardon or dispensation. Gustavus Paine notes that Abbot was both the \"only translator of the 1611 Bible and the only Archbishop of Canterbury ever to kill a human being\".
After this, Abbot seldom appeared at the council, chiefly because of his infirmities. In 1625, he attended the king constantly; however, in his last illness, he performed the coronation ceremony of King Charles I as king of England. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on 22 February 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king\'s demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission. However, the need to summon parliament soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop\'s powers. His presence was unwelcome at court, and he lived from that time on retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on 4 August 1633 and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed Abbot\'s Hospital with lands valued at £300 a year.
## Legacy
Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards separatists and Roman Catholics. He wrote many works, the most interesting being his discursive *Exposition on the Prophet Jonah* (1600), which was reprinted in 1845. His *Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World* (1599) passed through numerous editions. The newest edition, edited by the current Master of the Abbot\'s Hospital, was published by Goldenford Publishers Ltd on 20 June 2011, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his enthronement as Archbishop of Canterbury.
Abbot had an extensive private library of over 8000 volumes, most of which he left to Lambeth Palace Library. Books bearing his armorial stamp can still be found in libraries today.
Guildford remembers Abbot with his hospital and a statue in the High Street. A secondary school and a pub in the High Street are named after him. His tomb can be found in Holy Trinity Church
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# Aeacus
**Aeacus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|ə|k|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; also spelled **Eacus**; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός) was a king of the island of Aegina in Greek mythology. He was a son of Zeus and the nymph Aegina, and the father of the heroes Peleus and Telamon. According to legend, he was famous for his justice, and after he died he became one of the three judges in the underworld alongside Minos and Rhadamanthus. In another story, he assisted Poseidon and Apollo in building the walls of Troy.
He had sanctuaries in Athens and Aegina, and the Aeginetan festival of the Aeacea (Αἰάκεια) was celebrated in his honour.
## Mythology
### Birth and early days {#birth_and_early_days}
Aeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where his mother Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax (aka Ajax the Greater). In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Aeacus\' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon. Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants (μύρμηκες) of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth. Ovid, on the other hand, supposed that the island was not uninhabited at the time of the birth of Aeacus, instead stating that during the reign of Aeacus, Hera, jealous of Aegina, ravaged the island bearing the name of the latter by sending a plague or a fearful dragon into it, by which nearly all its inhabitants were carried off. Afterward, Zeus restored the population by changing the ants into men.
These legends seem to be a mythical account of the colonization of Aegina, which seems to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians, and afterwards received colonists from Phthiotis, the seat of the Myrmidons, and from Phlius on the Asopus. While he reigned in Aegina, Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods themselves. He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it. Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased. Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to *Zeus Panhellenius* on Mount Panhellenion, and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.
### Later adventures {#later_adventures}
A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy. When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus\'s descendants, the Aeacidae (i.e. his sons Telamon and Peleus joined Heracles when he sieged the city during Laomedon\'s rule. Later, his great-grandson Neoptolemus was present in the wooden horse).
Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs in order to protect it against pirates. Several other incidents connected to the story of Aeacus are mentioned by Ovid. By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently fled from their native island.
### In the afterlife {#in_the_afterlife}
After his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with his Cretan half-brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos) and, according to Plato, was specifically concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld. In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades. Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina, and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island and celebrated the Aeacea in his honor.
In *The Frogs* (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles. Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons.
## Family
Aeacus was the son of Zeus by Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus, and thus, brother of Damocrateia. In some accounts, his mother was Europa and thus possible full-brother to Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax. In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Aeacus\' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon. Aeacus\' descendants are collectively known as Aeacidae (*Αἰακίδαι*). Several times in the *Iliad*, Homer refers to Achilles as Αἰακίδης (Aiakides: II.860, 874; IX.184, 191, etc.). The kings of Epirus and Olympias, mother to Alexander the Great, claimed to be members of this lineage
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# Aedui
The **Aedui** or **Haedui** (Gaulish: \**Aiduoi*, \'the Ardent\'; *Aἴδουοι*) were a Gallic tribe dwelling in what is now the region of Burgundy during the Iron Age and the Roman period.
The Aedui had an ambiguous relationship with the Roman Republic, as well as other Gallic tribes. In 121 BC, they appealed to Rome against the Arverni and Allobroges. During the Gallic Wars (58--50 BC), they gave valuable though not whole-hearted support to Caesar, before eventually giving lukewarm support to Vercingetorix in 52. Although they were involved in the revolts of Iulius Sacrovir in 21 AD and Vindex in 68 AD, their aristocracy became highly Romanized under the Empire.
## Name
They are mentioned as *Ardues* (Ἄρδυες) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), *Haedui* by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC) and Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), *Haeduos* by Livy (late 1st c. BC), *Aedui* by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), *Aidúōn* (Αἰδύων) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as *Aídouoi* (Aἴδουοι) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).
The ethnonym *Aedui* is a Latinized form of Gaulish \**Aiduoi* (sing. \**Aiduos*), which means \'the Ardent ones\'. It derives from the Celtic stem *\*aidu-* (\'fire, ardour\'; cf. Old Irish *áed* \'fire\', Welsh *aidd* \'ardour\'; also the Irish deity *Aéd* or *Aodh*), itself from *\*h₂eydʰos* (\'firewood\'; cf. Sanskrit *édhas* \'bonfire\', Latin *aedes* \'building, temple\'; cf. also Ancient Greek *Aether* \'god of the upper sky\' and *Aethra* \'bright sky\', from *aíthō* \'to ignite, to kindle\').
## Geography
### Territory
The territory of the Aedui was situated between the Saône and Loire rivers, in a strategic position regarding trade routes. It included most of the modern départements of Saône-et-Loire and Nièvre, the southwestern-part of Côte-d\'Or between Beaune and Saulieu, and the southern part of Yonne around Avallon, corresponding to the Saône plains, the Morvan granitic massif, and the low Nivernais plateau, from east to west. They dwelled between the Arverni in the west, the Segusiavi and Ambarri in the south, the Sequani in the east, and the Lingones and Senones in the north.
### Settlements
Three oppida are known from the end of the La Tène period: Vieux-Dun (Dun-les-Places), Le Fou de Verdun (Lavault-de-Frétoy), and Bibracte, which occupied a central position in the Aedian economic system.
During the Roman period, Bibracte was abandoned for Augustodunum (\'fortress of Augustus\'; modern-day Autun).
### Ancient sources {#ancient_sources}
The country of the Aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings. The upper Liger formed their western border, separating them from the Bituriges. The Arar formed their eastern border, separating them from the Sequani. The Sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the Dubis and the Arar, and of the Arar into the Rhodanus, as Caesar says that the Helvetii, traveling southward along the pass between the Jura Mountains and the Rhodanus, which belonged to the Sequani, plundered the territory of the Aedui. These circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in Strabo, who in one sentence says that the Aedui lived between the Arar and the Dubis, and in the next, that the Sequani lived across the Arar (eastward).
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# Aedui
## History
### Pre-Roman period {#pre_roman_period}
Burgundy is situated in the heartland of the early La Tène culture (see Vix Grave). By the early 3rd century BC, the emergence of settlements with diversified functions, along with the creation of sanctuaries, suggest the beginning of a civilization centered around the oppidum.
### Roman period {#roman_period}
Outside of the Roman province and prior to Roman rule, Gaul was occupied by self-governing tribes divided into cantons, and each canton was further divided into communes. The Aedui, like other powerful tribes in the region, such as the Arverni, Sequani, and Helvetii, had replaced their monarchy with a council of magistrates called grand-judges. The grand-judges were under the authority of a senate. This senate was made up of the descendants of ancient royal families. Free men in the tribes were vassals of the heads of these families, in an exchange of military, financial, and political interests.
According to Livy (v. 34), the Aedui took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the sixth century BC. Before Caesar\'s time, they had attached themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the Sequani, their traditional rivals, defeated and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga in 63 BC, with the assistance of the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus, the Aedui sent the druid Diviciacus to Rome with an appeal to the senate for help; but his mission was unsuccessful.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Aedui|volume=1|pages=244–245}}`{=mediawiki} This cites:
- A. E. Desjardins, *Géographie de la Gaule*, ii. (1876--1893)
- T. R. Holmes, *Caesar\'s Conquest of Gaul* (1899).
After his arrival in Gaul in 58 BC, Caesar restored the independence of the Aedui. In spite of this, they subsequently joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (*B. G.* vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, the Aedui gladly returned to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their capital, Bibracte, on Mont Beuvray, and constructed a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun).
In AD 21, during the reign of Tiberius, the Aedui revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but they were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus *Ann.* iii. 43--46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of *jus honorum*, thus being the first Gauls permitted to become senators.
Until Claudius (41--54 AD), the Aedui were the first northern Gallic people to send senators to Rome.
The oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native Augustodunum, suggests that the district was then neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar\'s time was called the Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, \"judgment-worker\"). He was elected annually, and possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontiers of his territory. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui.
## Religion
The Temple of Janus was located just outside the Aedian town of Augustodunum. It probably dates back to the second half of the 1st century AD.
At the end of the La Tène period, religious convergences occurred between the Aedui and the neighbouring Lingones and Sequani in the Saône-Doubs area, as evidenced by the similarity in the practices at the sanctuaries of Nuits-Saint-Georges (Aedui), Mirebeau-sur-Bèze (Lingones) and Mandeure (Sequani).
## Political organization {#political_organization}
According to Julius Caesar, the Aedui were one of the strongest Gallic tribes, in rivalry with the Helvetii, Sequani, Remi, and Arverni. Furthermore, the Aedui seemed to work in a semi-republican state, with the powerful Vergobret at least slightly being at the will of the people, similar to the senators of Rome
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# Aegadian Islands
thumb\|upright=1.2\|A map showing the Aegadian Islands The **Aegadian Islands** (*Isole Egadi*; *Ìsuli Ègadi*; *Aegates Insulae*; *Αιγάδες Νήσοι*; `{{literally|the islands of goats}}`{=mediawiki}) are a group of five small mountainous islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the northwest coast of Sicily, Italy, near the cities of Trapani and Marsala, with a total area of 37.45 km2.
The island of Favignana (*Aegusa*), the largest, lies 16 km southwest of Trapani; Levanzo (*Phorbantia*) lies 13 km west; and Marettimo, the ancient *Hiera Nesos*, 24 km west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also two minor islands, Formica (which hosts the Isolotto Formica Lighthouse) and Maraone, lying between Levanzo and Sicily. For administrative purposes the archipelago constitutes the *comune* of Favignana in the province of Trapani.
The overall population in 2017 was 4,292. Winter frost is unknown and rainfall is low. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing, and the largest tuna fishery in Sicily is there.
## History
There is evidence of Neolithic and even Paleolithic paintings in caves on Levanzo, and to a lesser extent on Favignana.
The islands were the scene of the battle of the Aegates of 241 BC, in which the Carthaginian fleet was defeated by the Roman fleet led by Lutatius Catulus; the engagement ended the First Punic War. After the end of Western Roman power in the first millennium AD, the islands, to the extent that they were governed at all, were part of territories of Goths, Vandals, Saracens, before the Normans fortified Favignana in 1081.
The islands belonged to the Pallavicini-Rusconi family of Genoa until 1874, when the Florio family of Palermo bought them.
## Island views {#island_views}
<File:Mare> Favignana.JPG\|Cala Rossa, Favignana <File:Favignana> cala azzurra.jpg\|Cala azzurra, Favignana <File:Erice-views-bjs-2.jpg%7CA> view from Erice to Favignana and Levanzo. On the horizon Marettimo is faintly visible
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# Aegeus
thumb\|upright=1.3\|*Theseus Recognized by his Father* by Hippolyte Flandrin (1832) **Aegeus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|dʒ|i|.|ə|s|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Aegeus.wav}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|dʒ|uː|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Aigeús*) was one of the kings of Athens in Greek mythology, who gave his name to the Aegean Sea, was the father of Theseus, and founded Athenian institutions.
## Family
Aegeus was the son of Pandion II, king of Athens and Pylia, daughter of King Pylas of Megara and thus, brother to Pallas, Nysus, Lykos and the wife of Sciron. But, in some accounts, he was regarded as the son of Scyrius or Phemius and was not of the stock of the Erechtheids, since he was only an adopted son of Pandion.`{{AI-generated source|date=November 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
Aegeus\' first wife was Meta, daughter of Hoples and his second wife was Chalciope, daughter of Rhexenor, neither of whom bore him any children. He was also credited to be the father of Medus by the witch Medea. In a rare account, Pallas was also said to be the son of Aegeus. The latter was also said to fathered Megareus, eponymous founder of Megara.
Aegeides (Αἰγείδης), was a patronymic from Aegeus and especially used to designate Theseus.
## Mythology
### Reign
Aegeus was born in Megara where his father Pandion had settled after being expelled from Athens by the sons of Metion who seized the throne. After the death of Pandion, now king of Megara, Aegeus in conjunction with his three brothers successfully attacked Athens, took control over the government and expelled the usurpers, the Metionids. Then, they divide the power among themselves but Aegeus obtained the sovereignty of Attica, succeeding Pandion to the throne. It has been said that Megara was at the time a part of Attica, and that Nisus received his part when he became king of that city. Lycus became king of Euboea whereas Pallas received the southern part of the territory. Aegeus, being the eldest of the brothers, received what they all regarded as the best part: Athens.
The division of the land was explained further in the following text by the geographer Strabo:
> \... when Attica was divided into four parts, Nisus obtained Megaris as his portion and founded Nisaea. Now, according to Philochorus, his rule extended from the Isthmus to the Pythium, but according to Andron, only as far as Eleusis and the Thriasian Plain. Although different writers have stated the division into four parts in different ways, it suffices to take the following from Sophocles: Aegeus says that his father ordered him to depart to the shorelands, assigning to him as the eldest the best portion of this land; then to Lycus he assigns Euboea\'s garden that lies side by side therewith; and for Nisus he selects the neighboring land of Sceiron\'s shore; and the southerly part of the land fell to this rugged Pallas, breeder of giants.
Later on, Lycus was driven from the territory by Aegeus himself, and had to seek refuge in Arene, Messenia which was ruled by King Aphareus. Pallas and his fifty sons revolted at a later time, being crushed by Aegeus\' son Theseus.
### Heirless King {#heirless_king}
Still without a male heir with his previous marriages, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. According to Pausanias, Aegeus ascribed this misfortune to the anger of Aphrodite and in order to conciliate her introduced her worship as Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly) in Athens.
The cryptic words of the oracle were \"Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.\" Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk. They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a. Calauria) and bedded Poseidon. When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Aegeus and Medea had one son named Medus.
When Theseus grew up, he found his father\'s belongings left for him and went to Athens to claim his birthright. Aegeus recognized him as his son by his sword, shield, and sandals. Medea, Aegeus\' wife perceived Theseus to be a threat for her children\'s inheritance and first tried to discredit and then to poison Theseus. When Aegeus discovered these schemes, he drove Medea out of Athens.
### Conflict with Crete {#conflict_with_crete}
While visiting in Athens, King Minos\' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos\' daughter.
After his adventures in Crete, Theseus returned by ship to Athens. His father, Aegeus previously had asked him to hang a white sail as a sign that Theseus is alive, but Theseus neglected this request. When Aegeus saw Theseus\' ships without a white sail, he assumed the worst and threw himself in his grief into the sea, named after him the Aegean Sea.
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# Aegeus
## Mythology
### Theseus and the Minotaur {#theseus_and_the_minotaur}
In Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man. He managed to move the rock and took his father\'s weapons. His mother then told him the identity of his father and that he should take the weapons back to him at Athens and be acknowledged. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way, or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.
When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeus, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Theseus killed by encouraging Aegeus to ask him to capture the Marathonian Bull, but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him, but at the last second, Aegeus recognized his son and knocked the poisoned cup out of Theseus\' hand. Father and son were thus reunited, and Medea was sent away to Asia.
Theseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height: according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea.
Sophocles\' tragedy *Aegeus* has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides\' *Medea*.
## Legacy
At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.
There was a heroon of Aigeus in Athens, called Aigeion (Αἰγεῖον)
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# Aegina
**Aegina** (`{{IPAc-en||ɪ|'|dʒ|aɪ|n|ə}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αίγινα* `{{IPA|el|ˈeɣina|pron}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αἴγῑνα*) is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, 27 km from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of the mythological hero Aeacus, who was born on the island and became its king.
## Administration
### Municipality
The municipality of Aegina consists of the island of Aegina and a few offshore islets. It is part of the Islands regional unit, Attica region. The municipality is subdivided into the following five communities (population in 2021 in parentheses):
- Aegina (6,976)
- Kypseli (2,166)
- Mesagros (1,473)
- Perdika (847)
- Vathy (1,449)
The regional capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island. Due to its proximity to Athens, it is a popular vacation place during the summer months, with quite a few Athenians owning second houses on the island. The buildings of the island are examples of Neoclassical architecture with a strong folk element, built in the 19th century.
### Province
The province of Aegina (*Επαρχία Αίγινας*) was one of the provinces of the Attica Prefecture and was created in 1833 as part of Attica and Boeotia Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Aegina and Agkistri until its abolishment in 2006.
## Geography
Aegina is roughly triangular in shape, approximately 15 km from east to west and 10 km from north to south, with an area of 87.41 km2.
An extinct volcano constitutes two-thirds of Aegina. The northern and western sides consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, olives and figs, but the most characteristic crop of Aegina today (2000s) is pistachio. Economically, the sponge fisheries are of importance. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren. Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros (531 m) in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side.
The beaches are also a popular tourist attraction. Hydrofoil ferries from Piraeus take only forty minutes to reach Aegina; the regular ferry takes about an hour. There are regular bus services from Aegina town to destinations throughout the island such as Agia Marina. Portes is a fishing village on the east coast. `{{Wide image|Aegina_island_panorama.jpg|1000px|A panorama of the island of Aegina, from the Mediterranean sea.
|alt=A panorama of the island of Aegina, from the Mediterranean sea
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Climate
Aegina island has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: *BSh*) with an average annual temperature of around 20.0 °C and an average annual precipitation of less than 340 mm.
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# Aegina
## History
Aegina, according to Herodotus, was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a site of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitants allegedly came from Asia Minor.
### Early Bronze {#early_bronze}
The most important Early Bronze Age settlement was Kolonna, stone-built fortified site. The main connections were with the Greek mainland, but there were found also influences from Cyclades and Crete.
Another important deposit of Early Bronze Age golden and silver jewellery was discovered by Austrian archaeologists.
### Middle Bronze {#middle_bronze}
Minoan ceramics have been found in contexts of c. 2000 BC. The famous Aegina Treasure, now in the British Museum is estimated to date between 1700 and 1500 BC.
Archaeological excavations at Cape Kolonna revealed a purple dye workshop dating back to the 16th century BC.
### Late Bronze {#late_bronze}
The discovery on the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the last period of Mycenaean art suggests that Mycenaean culture existed in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon.
At Mount Ellanio, a Mycenaean refuge has been found dating to the end of the Late Bronze Age.
### Iron Age {#iron_age}
It is probable that the island was not Doricised before the 9th century BC.
One of the earliest historical facts is its membership in the Amphictyony or League of Calauria, attested around the 8th century BC. This ostensibly religious league included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia, and Prasiae. It was probably an organisation of city-states that were still Mycenaean, for the purpose of suppressing piracy in the Aegean that began as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.
Aegina seems to have belonged to the Eretrian league during the Lelantine War; this, perhaps, may explain the war with Samos, a major member of the rival Chalcidian League during the reign of King Amphicrates (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century BC.
#### Coinage and sea power (7th--5th centuries BC) {#coinage_and_sea_power_7th5th_centuries_bc}
Its early history reveals that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon of Argos established a mint in Aegina, the first city-state to issue coins in Europe, the Aeginetic stater. One stamped stater (having the mark of some authority in the form of a picture or words) can be seen in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris. It is an electrum stater of a turtle, an animal sacred to Aphrodite, struck at Aegina that dates from 700 BC. Therefore, it is thought that the Aeginetes, within 30 or 40 years of the invention of coinage in Asia Minor by the Ionian Greeks or the Lydians (c. 630 BC), might have been the ones to introduce coinage to the Western world. The fact that the Aeginetic standard of weights and measures (developed during the mid-7th century) was one of the two standards in general use in the Greek world (the other being the Euboic-Attic) is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island. The Aeginetic weight standard of about 12.2 grams was widely adopted in the Greek world during the 7th century BC. The Aeginetic stater was divided into two drachmae of 6.1 grams of silver. Staters depicting a sea-turtle were struck up to the end of the 5th century BC. During the First Peloponnesian War, by 456 BC, it was replaced by the land tortoise.
During the naval expansion of Aegina during the Archaic Period, Kydonia was an ideal maritime stop for Aegina\'s fleet on its way to other Mediterranean ports controlled by the emerging sea-power Aegina. During the next century Aegina was one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Naucratis in Egypt, and it was the only Greek state near Europe that had a share in this factory. At the beginning of the 5th century BC it seems to have been an entrepôt of the Pontic grain trade, which, at a later date, became an Athenian monopoly.
Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, such as Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina did not found any colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement.
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# Aegina
## History
### Iron Age {#iron_age}
#### Rivalry with Athens (5th century BC) {#rivalry_with_athens_5th_century_bc}
The known history of Aegina is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens, which began to compete with the thalassocracy (sea power) of Aegina about the beginning of the 6th century BC. Solon passed laws limiting Aeginetan commerce in Attica. The legendary history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79--89; vi. 49--51, 73, 85--94), involves critical problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces the hostility of the two states back to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from Epidauros, their parent state.
The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was frustrated miraculously (according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees) and only a single survivor returned to Athens. There he became victim to the fury of his comrades\' widows who pierced him with their peplos brooch-pins. No date is assigned by Herodotus for this \"old feud\"; writers such as J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, c. 570 BC. It is possible that the whole episode is mythical. A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs), such as of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women\'s dress at Athens from the Dorian peplos to the Ionian style chiton.
In the early years of the 5th century BC the Thebans, after the defeat by Athens about 507 BC, appealed to Aegina for assistance. The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subsequently, however, they contracted an alliance, and ravaged the seaboard of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias.
In 491 BC Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (\"earth and water\") to Achaemenid Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I, one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.
After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetes retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engagement followed in which the Aeginetes were defeated. Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet.
All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are referred expressly by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 BC and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94).
There are difficulties with this story, of which the following are the principal elements:
- Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 BC, nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from soon after 507 BC until the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 BC
- It is only for two years (491 and 490 BC) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between the battles of Marathon and Salamis, since at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war was described as the most important one then being waged in Greece,
- It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 499 BC if at the time it was at war with Aegina.
- There is an incidental indication of time, which indicates the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens. As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 BC, the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 BC as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the beginning of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes \"for the war against Aegina\" on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the *Constitution of Athens* as 483--482 BC.
It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina (c. 507 BC) and in claiming the episode of Nicodromus occurred prior to the battle of Marathon.
Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 BC, but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was in the diplomatic guise of \"sending the Aeacidae.\" The real occasion of the beginning of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481 BC. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary.
It may be noted, in confirmation of this opinion, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490--480 BC.
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# Aegina
## History
### Decline
In the repulse of Xerxes I it is possible that the Aeginetes played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the Philo-Laconian policy of Cimon secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC, resulted in what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, during which most of the fighting was experienced by Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 BC). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.
By the terms of the Thirty Years\' Peace (445 BC) Athens promised to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained ineffective. During the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC) Athens expelled the Aeginetans and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. A force commanded by Nicias landed in 424 BC, and killed most of them. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens during the Corinthian War.
It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina\'s greatness, and her trade, which seems to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia. Aegina\'s medism in 491 is to be explained by its commercial relations with the Persian Empire. It was forced into patriotism in spite of itself, and the glory won by the Battle of Salamis was paid for by the loss of its trade and the decay of its marine. The loss of the state\'s power is explained by the conditions of the island, which was based on slave labour; Aristotle\'s estimated the population of slaves were as much as 470,000.
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# Aegina
## History
### Hellenistic period and Roman rule {#hellenistic_period_and_roman_rule}
Aegina with the rest of Greece became dominated successively by the Macedonians (322--229 BC), the Achaeans (229--211 BC), Aetolians (211--210 BC), Attalus of Pergamum (210--133 BC) and the Romans (after 133 BC). A sign at the Archaeological Museum of Aegina is reported to say that a Jewish community was established in Aegina \"at the end of the second and during the 3rd century AD\" by Jews fleeing the barbarian invasions of the time in Greece. However, the first phases of those invasions began in the 4th century. The Romaniote Jewish community erected an elaborate synagogue in rectangle form with an apse on the eastern wall with a magnificent mosaic decorated with geometric motifs, still preserved in the courtyard of the Archaeological Museum of Aegina. The synagogue dates from the 4th century AD and was in use until the 7th century AD. Local Christian tradition has it that a Christian community was established there in the 1st century. There are written records of participation by later bishops of Aegina, Gabriel and Thomas, in the Councils of Constantinople in 869 and 879. The see was at first a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Corinth, but was later given the rank of archdiocese. No longer a residential bishopric, Aegina is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
### Byzantine period {#byzantine_period}
Aegina belonged to the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the division of the Roman Empire in 395. It remained Eastern Roman during the period of crisis of the 7th--8th centuries, when most of the Balkans and the Greek mainland were overrun by Slavic invasions. Indeed, according to the *Chronicle of Monemvasia*, the island served as a refuge for the Corinthians fleeing these incursions. The island flourished during the early 9th century, as evidenced by church construction activity, but suffered greatly from Arab raids originating from Crete. Various hagiographies, such as those of Athanasia of Aegina or Theodora of Thessalonica, record a large-scale raid c. 830, that resulted in the flight of much of the population to the Greek mainland. During that time, some of the population sought refuge in the island\'s hinterland, establishing the settlement of Palaia Chora.
According to the 12th-century bishop of Athens, Michael Choniates, by his time the island had become a base for pirates. This is corroborated by Benedict of Peterborough\'s graphic account of Greece, as it was in 1191; he states that many of the islands were uninhabited for fear of pirates and that Aegina, along with Salamis and Makronisos, were their strongholds.
### Frankish rule after 1204 {#frankish_rule_after_1204}
After the dissolution and partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Aegina was accorded to the Republic of Venice. In the event, it became controlled by the Duchy of Athens. The Catalan Company seized control of Athens, and with it Aegina, in 1317, and in 1425 the island became controlled by the Venetians, when Alioto Caopena, at that time ruler of Aegina, placed himself by treaty under the Republic\'s protection to escape the danger of a Turkish raid. The island must then have been fruitful, for one of the conditions by which Venice accorded him protection was that he should supply grain to Venetian colonies. He agreed to surrender the island to Venice if his family became extinct. Antonio II Acciaioli opposed the treaty for one of his adopted daughters had married the future lord of Aegina, Antonello Caopena.
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# Aegina
## History
### Venetians in Aegina (1451--1537) {#venetians_in_aegina_14511537}
In 1451, Aegina became Venetian. The islanders welcomed Venetian rule; the claims of Antonello\'s uncle Arnà, who had lands in Argolis, were satisfied by a pension. A Venetian governor (*rettore*) was appointed, who was dependent on the authorities of Nauplia. After Arnà\'s death, his son Alioto renewed his claim to the island but was told that the republic was resolved to keep it. He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks in 1537, was captured with his family, and died in a Turkish dungeon.
In 1463 the Turco-Venetian war began, which was destined to cost the Venetians Negroponte (Euboea), the island of Lemnos, most of the Cyclades islands, Scudra and their colonies in the Morea. Peace was concluded in 1479. Venice still retained Aegina, Lepanto (Naupactus), Nauplia, Monemvasia, Modon, Navarino, Coron, and the islands Crete, Mykonos and Tinos. Aegina remained subject to Nauplia.
#### Administration {#administration_1}
Aegina obtained money for its defences by reluctantly sacrificing its cherished relic, the head of St. George, which had been carried there from Livadia by the Catalans. In 1462, the Venetian Senate ordered the relic to be removed to St. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice and on 12 November, it was transported from Aegina by Vettore Cappello, the famous Venetian commander. In return, the Senate gave the Aeginetes 100 ducats apiece towards fortifying the island.
In 1519, the government was reformed. The system of having two rectors was found to result in frequent quarrels and the republic thenceforth sent out a single official styled Bailie and Captain, assisted by two councillors, who performed the duties of camerlengo by turns. The Bailie\'s authority extended over the rector of Aegina, whereas Kastri (opposite the island Hydra) was granted to two families, the Palaiologoi and the Alberti.
Society at Nauplia was divided into three classes: nobles, citizens and plebeians, and it was customary for nobles alone to possess the much-coveted local offices, such as the judge of the inferior court and inspector of weights and measures. The populace now demanded its share and the home government ordered that at least one of the three inspectors should be a non-noble.
Aegina had always been exposed to the raids of corsairs and had oppressive governors during these last 30 years of Venetian rule. Venetian nobles were not willing to go to this island. In 1533, three rectors of Aegina were punished for their acts of injustice and there is a graphic account of the reception given by the Aeginetans to the captain of Nauplia, who came to command an enquiry into the administration of these delinquents (vid. inscription over the entrance of St. George the Catholic in Paliachora). The rectors had spurned their ancient right to elect an islander to keep one key of the money-chest. They had also threatened to leave the island en masse with the commissioner, unless the captain avenged their wrongs. To spare the economy of the community, it was ordered that appeals from the governor\'s decision should be made on Crete, instead of in Venice. The republic was to pay a bakshish to the Turkish governor of the Morea and to the voivode who was stationed at the frontier of Thermisi (opposite Hydra). The fortifications too, were allowed to become decrepit and were inadequately guarded.
#### 16th century {#th_century}
After the end of the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia, the only Latin possessions left on the mainland of Greece were the papal city of Monemvasia, the fortress of Vonitsa, the Messenian stations Coron and Modon, Lepanto, Pteleon, Navarino, and the castles of Argos and Nauplia, to which the island of Aegina was subordinate.
In 1502--03, the new peace treaty left Venice with nothing but Cephalonia, Monemvasia and Nauplia, with their appurtenances in the Morea. And against the sack of Megara, it had to endure the temporary capture of the castle of Aegina by Kemal Reis and the abduction of 2000 inhabitants. This treaty was renewed in 1513 and 1521. All supplies of grain from Nauplia and Monemvasia had to be imported from Turkish possessions, while corsairs rendered dangerous all traffic by sea.
In 1537, sultan Suleiman declared war upon Venice and his admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa devastated much of the Ionian Islands, and in October invaded the island of Aegina. On the fourth day Palaiochora was captured, but the Latin church of St George was spared. Hayreddin Barbarossa had the adult male population massacred and took away 6,000 surviving women and children as slaves. Then Barbarossa sailed to Naxos, whence he carried off an immense booty, compelling the Duke of Naxos to purchase his further independence by paying a tribute of 5000 ducats.
With the peace of 1540, Venice ceded Nauplia and Monemvasia. For nearly 150 years afterwards, Venice ruled no part of the mainland of Greece except Parga and Butrinto (subordinate politically to the Ionian Islands), but it still retained its insular dominions Cyprus, Crete, Tenos and six Ionian islands.
### First Ottoman period (1540--1687) {#first_ottoman_period_15401687}
Aegina suffered greatly after being attacked by Barbarossa in 1537. In 1579, the island was repopulated partly by Albanians. The Albanians would eventually assimilate into the Greek population.
The island was attacked and left desolate by Francesco Morosini during the Cretan War (1654).
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# Aegina
## History
### Second Venetian period (1687--1715) {#second_venetian_period_16871715}
In 1684, the beginning of the Morean War between Venice and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the temporary reconquest of a large part of the country by the Republic. In 1687 the Venetian army arrived in Piraeus and captured Attica. The number of the Athenians at that time exceeded 6,000, the Albanians from the villages of Attica excluded, whilst in 1674 the population of Aegina did not seem to exceed 3,000 inhabitants, two thirds of which were women. The Aeginetans had been reduced to poverty to pay their taxes. The most significant plague epidemic began in Attica during 1688, an occasion that caused the massive migration of Athenians toward the south; most of them settled in Aegina. In 1693 Morosini resumed command, but his only acts were to refortify the castle of Aegina, which he had demolished during the Cretan war in 1655, the cost of upkeep being paid as long as the war lasted by the Athenians, and to place it and Salamis under Malipiero as Governor. This caused the Athenians to send him a request for the renewal of Venetian protection and an offer of an annual tribute. He died in 1694 and Zeno was appointed at his place.
In 1699, thanks to English mediation, the war ended with the peace of Karlowitz by which Venice retained possession of the 7 Ionian islands as well as Butrinto and Parga, the Morea, Spinalonga and Suda, Tenos, Santa Maura and Aegina and ceased to pay a tribute for Zante, but which restored Lepanto to the Ottoman sultan. Cerigo and Aegina were united administratively since the peace with Morea, which not only paid all the expenses of administration but furnished a substantial balance for the naval defence of Venice, in which it was directly interested.
### Second Ottoman period (1715--1821) {#second_ottoman_period_17151821}
During the early part of the Ottoman--Venetian War of 1714--1718 the Ottoman Fleet commanded by Canum Hoca captured Aegina. Ottomans rule in Aegina and the Morea was resumed and confirmed by the Treaty of Passarowitz, and they retained control of the island with the exception of a brief Russian occupation Orlov Revolt (early 1770s), until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.
Throughout the 19th century, a small minority of Arvanites lived on the island, who were bilingual in Arvanitika and Greek (spoken more by men and less by women), up until the early 20th century. The Greek-speaking population spoke a particular dialect known as *Old Athenian*, which was also found in neighboring Megara and Athens.
### Greek Revolution {#greek_revolution}
During the Greek War of Independence, Aegina became an administrative centre for the Greek revolutionary authorities. Ioannis Kapodistrias was briefly established here.
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# Aegina
## Landmarks
*Main article: Temple of Aphaea*
- **Temple of Aphaea**, dating from about 490 BC, it is the oldest surviving temple in Greece. It was dedicated to its namesake, a goddess who was later associated with Athena; the temple was part of an equilateral holy triangle of temples including the Athenian Parthenon and the temple of Poseidon at Sounion.
- **Monastery of Agios Nectarios**, dedicated to Nectarios of Aegina, a recent saint of the Greek Orthodox Church.
- A statue in the principal square commemorates **Ioannis Kapodistrias** (1776--1831), the first administrator of free modern Greece.
- **The Orphanage of Kapodistrias** is a large building, known locally as *The Prison* (Οι Φυλακές, Oi Filakes), constructed in 1828--29 by Ioannis Kapodistrias as a home for children orphaned as a result of the Greek War of Independence. The building also housed schools, vocational workshops, the National Public Library, the National Archaeological Museum, a military academy, the National Printing Office and the National Conservatory for Choir and Orchestra. From about 1880 it was used as a prison, and housed political prisoners during the Greek Junta (1967--1974) - hence its local name. There are currently plans to restore the building as a museum.
- **The Tower of Markellos** was probably built during the second Venetian occupation, 1687--1714, as a watch tower in anticipation of a Turkish siege. A castle, fortified walls and numerous watchtowers were built at this time. The tower was abandoned after the Turkish occupation of 1714, until revolutionary leader Spyros Markellos bought the tower as his residence in around 1802. In 1826-28 it was the headquarters of the temporary government of the embryonic Greek state. It subsequently was used as a police headquarters and housed various government agencies until it was abandoned again in the mid 19th century. It is currently owned by the Municipality of Aegina.
- **Temple of Zeus Hellanios**, near the village of Pachia Rachi, is a 13th-century Byzantine church, built on the ruins of the ancient temple to Zeus Hellanios, built in the 4th century BC. The staircase leading up to the church, some of the original walls, and loose stones from the earlier temple remain.
- **Colona**, Located to the north of the town of Aegina. Acropolis with the sanctuary of Apollo and Byzantine settlement. The name Colona was given by the Venetian sailors, who used the columns of the pavilion of the Doric temple of Apollo (6x11 columns) as a sign of orientation. The foundations and one column from the rear building are preserved. The temple with the buildings related to the function of the sanctuary dominates the ancient acropolis on the hill. It was built at the end of the 6th century when Aegina, one of the most important commercial centers, emerged as a rival of Athens. Excavations from the 19th century onwards made it clear that the architectural remains of the archaic-Hellenistic acropolis, which are only partially preserved, are based on the impressive buildings of the prehistoric era, with at least ten successive building phases.
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# Aegina
## Economy
In 1896, the physician Nikolaos Peroglou introduced the systematic cultivation of pistachios, which soon became popular among the inhabitants of the island. By 1950, pistachio cultivation had significantly displaced the rest of the agricultural activity due to its high profitability but also due to the phylloxera that threatened the vineyards that time. As a result, in the early 60s, the first pistachio peeling factory was established in the Plakakia area by Grigorios Konidaris. The quality of \"*Fistiki Aeginis*\" (Aegina Pistachios), a name that was established as a product of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in 1996, is considered internationally excellent and superior to several foreign varieties, due to the special climatic conditions of the island (drought) as well as soil\'s volcanic characteristics. Pistachios have made Aegina famous all over the world. Today, half of the pistachio growers are members of the Agricultural Cooperative of Aegina\'s Pistachio Producers. It is estimated that pistachio cultivation covers 29,000 acres of the island while the total production reaches 2,700 tons per year. In recent years, in mid-September, the Pistachio Festival has been organized every year under the name \"*Fistiki Fest*\".
## Culture
### Mythology
In Greek mythology, Aegina was a daughter of the river god Asopus and the nymph Metope. She bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by the god Zeus. When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to Oenone, an island close to Attica. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; thenceforth, the island\'s name was Aegina.
Aegina was the gathering place of Myrmidons; in Aegina they gathered and trained. Zeus needed an elite army and at first thought that Aegina, which at the time did not have any villagers, was a good place. So he changed some ants (*Μυρμύγια*, Myrmigia) into warriors who had six hands and wore black armour. Later, the Myrmidons, commanded by Achilles, were known as the most fearsome fighting unit in Greece.
### Famous Aeginetans {#famous_aeginetans}
- Aeacus, the first king of Aegina according to mythology, in whose honour the Aeacea were celebrated
- Smilis (6th century BC), sculptor
- Sostratus of Aegina (6th century BC), merchant
- Onatas (5th century BC), sculptor
- Ptolichus (5th century BC), sculptor
- Philiscus of Aegina (4th century BC), Cynic philosopher
- Paul of Aegina (7th century), medical scholar and physician
- Saint Athanasia of Aegina (9th century), abbess and saint
- Theodora of Thessaloniki (9th century), nun and saint
- Cosmas II Atticus (12th century), Patriarch of Constantinople
- Nectarios of Aegina (1846--1920), bishop and saint
- Aristeidis Moraitinis (aviator) born 1891, died 1918
- Gustav Hasford, American military journalist and novelist, moved to Aegina and died there of heart failure on 29 January 1993, aged 45Lewis, Grover (June 4--10, 1993). \"The Killing of Gus Hasford\". *LA Weekly*. BronxBanter blog
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# Aegis
The **aegis** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|i:|dʒ|ɪ|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|EE|jis}}`{=mediawiki}; *αἰγίς* *aigís*), as stated in the *Iliad*, is a device carried by Athena and Zeus, variously interpreted as an animal skin or a shield and sometimes featuring the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, *Astronomica* 2. 13).
The modern concept of doing something \"under someone\'s *aegis*{{-\"}} means doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent source. The word *aegis* is identified with protection by a strong force with its roots in Greek mythology and adopted by the Romans; there are parallels in Norse mythology and in Egyptian mythology as well, where the Greek word *aegis* is applied by extension.
## Etymology
The Greek *αἰγίς* *aigis* has many meanings, including:
1. \"violent windstorm\", from the verb *ἀίσσω* *aïssō* (word stem *ἀιγ-* *aïg-*) = \"I rush or move violently\". Akin to *καταιγίς* *kataigis*, \"thunderstorm\".
2. The shield of a deity as described above.
3. \"goatskin coat\", from treating the word as meaning \"something grammatically feminine pertaining to goat\": Greek *αἴξ* *aix* (stem *αἰγ-* *aig-*) = \"goat\" + suffix *-ίς* *-is* (stem *-ίδ-* *-id-*).
The original meaning may have been the first, and *Ζεὺς Αἰγίοχος* *Zeus Aigiokhos* = \"Zeus who holds the aegis\" may have originally meant \"Sky/Heaven, who holds the thunderstorm\". The transition to the meaning \"shield\" or \"goatskin\" may have come by folk etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield.
## In Greek mythology {#in_greek_mythology}
The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the *Iliad*. \"It produced a sound as from myriad roaring dragons (*Iliad*, 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle \... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen.\"
Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus\'s forge, who \"busily burnished the aegis Athena wears in her angry moods---a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and the linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess\'s breast---a severed head rolling its eyes\", furnished with golden tassels and bearing the *Gorgoneion* (Medusa\'s head) in the central boss. Some of the Attic vase-painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the aegis. When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and \"re-born\" through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.
When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear.`{{tone inline|date=January 2022}}`{=mediawiki} \"Aegis-bearing Zeus\", as he is in the *Iliad*, sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena. In the *Iliad* when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton\'s *Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes*, the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was \"awful to behold\". However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.
In some versions, Zeus watched Athena and Triton\'s daughter, Pallas, compete in a friendly mock battle involving spears. Not wanting his daughter to lose, Zeus flapped his aegis to distract Pallas, whom Athena accidentally impaled. Zeus apologized to Athena by giving her the aegis; Athena then named herself Pallas Athena in tribute to her late friend.
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# Aegis
## In classical poetry and art {#in_classical_poetry_and_art}
Classical Greece interpreted the Homeric aegis usually as a cover of some kind borne by Athena. It was supposed by Euripides (*Ion*, 995) that the aegis borne by Athena was the skin of the slain Gorgon, yet the usual understanding is that the *Gorgoneion* was *added* to the aegis, a votive offering from a grateful Perseus.
In a similar interpretation, Aex, a daughter of Helios, represented as a great fire-breathing chthonic serpent similar to the Chimera, was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin, the aegis, as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70), or as a chlamys. The Douris cup shows that the aegis was represented exactly as the skin of the great serpent, with its scales clearly delineated.
John Tzetzes says that aegis was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own.
In a late rendering by Gaius Julius Hyginus (*Poetical Astronomy* ii. 13), Zeus is said to have used the skin of a pet goat owned by his nurse Amalthea (*aigis* \"goat-skin\") which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans.
The aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal\'s skin thrown over Athena\'s shoulders and arms, occasionally with a border of snakes, usually also bearing the Gorgon head, the *gorgoneion*. In some pottery it appears as a tasselled cover over Athena\'s dress. It is sometimes represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on coins, cameos and vases. A vestige of that appears in a portrait of Alexander the Great in a fresco from Pompeii dated to the first century BC, which shows the image of the head of a woman on his armor that resembles the Gorgon.
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# Aegis
## Interpretations
Herodotus thought he had identified the source of the aegis in ancient Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks. \"Athene\'s garments and aegis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents.\"
Robert Graves in *The Greek Myths* (1955) asserts that the aegis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.
One current interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (*kursas*), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H. G. Güterbock, was a source of the aegis
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# Aegisthus
**Aegisthus** (`{{IPAc-en|ᵻ|ˈ|dʒ|ɪ|s|θ|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αἴγισθος* ; also transliterated as **Aigisthos**, `{{IPA|el|ǎi̯ɡistʰos|}}`{=mediawiki}) was a figure in Greek mythology. Aegisthus is known from two primary sources: the first is Homer\'s *Odyssey*, believed to have been first written down by Homer at the end of the 8th century BC, and the second from Aeschylus\'s *Oresteia*, written in the 5th century BC. Aegisthus also features heavily in the action of Euripides\'s **Electra** (c. 420 BC), although his character remains offstage.
## Family
Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes and Thyestes\'s own daughter Pelopia, an incestuous union motivated by his father\'s rivalry with the house of Atreus for the throne of Mycenae. Aegisthus murdered Atreus in order to restore his father to power, ruling jointly with him, only to be driven from power by Atreus\'s son Agamemnon. In another version, Aegisthus was the sole surviving son of Thyestes after Atreus killed his brother\'s children and served them to Thyestes in a meal.
While Agamemnon laid siege to Troy, his estranged queen Clytemnestra took Aegisthus as a lover. The couple killed Agamemnon upon the king\'s return, making Aegisthus king of Mycenae once more. Aegisthus ruled for seven more years before his death at the hands of Agamemnon\'s son Orestes.
## Mythology
### Early life {#early_life}
Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the Mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, Atreus. The two battled back and forth several times. In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus\'s wife, Aerope. In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes\'s sons and served them to him unknowingly. After realizing he had eaten his own sons\' corpses, Thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge. The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.
Thyestes raped Pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her. When Aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name Aegisthus (from *αἴξ*, male goat). Atreus, not knowing the baby\'s origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own son.
### Death of Atreus {#death_of_atreus}
In the night in which Pelopia had been raped by her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. When she discovered that the sword belonged to her own father, she realised that her son was the product of incestuous rape. In despair, she killed herself. Atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent Aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which Aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between Thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle Atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast. Aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by Atreus.
### Power struggle over Mycenae {#power_struggle_over_mycenae}
Aegisthus and Thyestes thereafter ruled over Mycenae jointly, exiling Atreus\'s sons Agamemnon and Menelaus to Sparta, where King Tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, Clytemnestra and Helen, to take as wives. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra, and Chrysothemis.
After the death of Tyndareus, Meneleaus became king of Sparta. He used the Spartan army to drive out Aegisthus and Thyestes from Mycenae and place Agamemnon on the throne. Agamemnon extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful ruler in Greece. After Helen\'s abduction to Troy, Agamemnon was forced to sacrifice his own daughter Iphigenia in order to appease the gods before setting off for Ilium. While Agamemnon was away fighting in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra turned against her husband and took Aegisthus as a lover. Upon Agamemnon\'s return to Mycenae, Aegisthus and Clytemnestra worked together to kill Agamemnon with certain accounts recording Aegisthus committing the murder while others record Clytemnestra herself exacting revenge on Agamemnon for his murder of Iphigenia.
Following Agamemnon\'s death, Aegisthus reigned over Mycenae for seven years. He and Clytemnestra had a son, Aletes, and a daughter, Erigone (sometimes known as Helen). In the eighth year of his reign Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, returned to Mycenae and avenged the death of his father by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. The impiety of matricide was such that Orestes was forced to flee from Mycenae, pursued by the Furies. Aletes became king until Orestes returned several years later and killed him. Orestes later married Aegisthus\'s daughter Erigone.
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# Aegisthus
## In culture {#in_culture}
Homer gives no information about Aegisthus\'s antecedents. We learn from him only that, after the death of Thyestes, Aegisthus ruled as king at Mycenae and took no part in the Trojan expedition. While Agamemnon was absent on his expedition against Troy, Aegisthus seduced Clytemnestra, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned. In order not to be surprised by the return of Agamemnon, he sent out spies, and when Agamemnon came, Aegisthus invited him to a repast at which he had him treacherously murdered.
In Aeschylus\'s *Oresteia*, Aegisthus is a minor figure. In the first play, *Agamemnon*, he appears at the end to claim the throne, after Clytemnestra herself has killed Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytemnestra wields the axe she has used to quell dissent. In *The Libation Bearers* he is killed quickly by Orestes, who then struggles over having to kill his mother. Aegisthus is referred to as a \"weak lion\", plotting the murders but having his lover commit the deeds. According to Johanna Leah Braff, he \"takes the traditional female role, as one who devises but is passive and does not act.\" Christopher Collard describes him as the foil to Clytemnestra, his brief speech in *Agamemnon* revealing him to be \"cowardly, sly, weak, full of noisy threats - a typical \'tyrant figure\' in embryo.\"
Aeschylus\'s portrayal of Aegisthus as a weak, implicitly feminised figure, influenced later writers and artists who often depict him as an effeminate or decadent individual, either manipulating or dominated by the more powerful Clytemnestra. He appears in Seneca\'s *Agamemnon*, enticing her to murder. In Richard Strauss\'s and Hugo von Hofmannsthal\'s opera, *Elektra* his voice is \"a decidedly high-pitched tenor, punctuated by irrational upward leaps, that rises to high pitched squeals during his death colloquy with Elektra.\" In the first production he was depicted as \"an epicene\...with long curly locks and rouged lips, half-cringing, half-posturing seductively.\"
An ancient tomb in Mycenae is fancifully known as the \"Tomb of Aegisthus\". It dates from around 1510 BC
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# Aelianus Tacticus
**Aelianus Tacticus** (*Αἰλιανὸς ὀ Τακτικός*; fl. 2nd century AD), also known as **Aelian** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|l|i|ən}}`{=mediawiki}), was a Greek military writer who lived in Rome.
## Work
Aelian\'s military treatise in fifty-three chapters on the tactics of the Greeks, titled *On Tactical Arrays of the Greeks* (*Περὶ Στρατηγικῶν Τάξεων Ἑλληνικῶν*), is dedicated to the emperor Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the most important of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian\'s work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of war, and in the fullness of his technical details in matters of drill.
Aelian also gives a brief account of the constitution of a Roman army at that time. The work arose, he says, from a conversation he had with the emperor Nerva at Frontinus\'s house at Formiae. He promises a work on Naval Tactics also; but this, if it was written, is lost.
Critics of the 18th century --- Guichard Folard and the Prince de Ligne --- were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but Aelian exercised a great influence both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and later on the Arabs, (who translated the text for their own use). The author of the *Strategikon* ascribed to the emperor Maurice selectively used Aelian\'s work as a conceptional model, especially its preface. Emperor Leo VI the Wise incorporated much of Aelian\'s text in his own *Taktika*. The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350. It was first translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza, published at Rome in 1487. The Greek editio princeps was edited by Francesco Robortello and published at Venice in 1552.
In spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organisers of the 16th century, who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of pikemen and the squadrons of cavalry of the Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics.
The first significant reference to the influence of Aelian in the 16th century is a letter to Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange from his cousin William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg on December 8, 1594. The letter is influential in supporting the thesis of the early-modern Military Revolution. In the letter, William Louis discusses the use of ranks by soldiers of Imperial Rome as discussed in Aelian\'s Tactica. Aelian was discussing the use of the counter march in the context of the Roman sword gladius and spear pilum. William Louis in a \'crucial leap\' realised that the same technique could work for men with firearms
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# Agarose
**Agarose** is a heteropolysaccharide, generally extracted from certain red algae. It is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agarose is one of the two principal components of agar, and is purified from agar by removing agar\'s other component, agaropectin.
Agarose is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of large molecules, especially DNA, by electrophoresis. Slabs of agarose gels (usually 0.7 - 2%) for electrophoresis are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mold. A wide range of different agaroses of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose. Agarose may also be formed into beads and used in a number of chromatographic methods for protein purification.
## Structure
Agarose is a linear polymer with a molecular weight of about 120,000, consisting of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose linked by α-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds. The 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose is an L-galactose with an anhydro bridge between the 3 and 6 positions, although some L-galactose units in the polymer may not contain the bridge. Some D-galactose and L-galactose units can be methylated, and pyruvate and sulfate are also found in small quantities.
Each agarose chain contains \~800 molecules of galactose, and the agarose polymer chains form helical fibers that aggregate into supercoiled structure with a radius of 20-30 nanometer (nm). The fibers are quasi-rigid, and have a wide range of length depending on the agarose concentration. When solidified, the fibers form a three-dimensional mesh of channels of diameter ranging from 50 nm to \>200 nm depending on the concentration of agarose used - higher concentrations yield lower average pore diameters. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state.
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# Agarose
## Properties
Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from *Gelidium* has a gelling temperature of 34 - and a melting temperature of 90 -, while those derived from *Gracilaria*, due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of 40 - and melting temperature of 85 -. The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.
Natural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.
The agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the size of the pores depends on the concentration of agarose added. On standing, the agarose gels are prone to syneresis (extrusion of water through the gel surface), but the process is slow enough to not interfere with the use of the gel.
Agarose gel can have high gel strength at low concentration, making it suitable as an anti-convection medium for gel electrophoresis. Agarose gels as dilute as 0.15% can form slabs for gel electrophoresis. The agarose polymer contains charged groups, in particular pyruvate and sulfate. These negatively charged groups can slow down the movement of DNA molecules in a process called electroendosmosis (EEO).
**Low EEO (LE) agarose** is therefore generally preferred for use in agarose gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids. Zero EEO agaroses are also available but these may be undesirable for some applications as they may be made by adding positively charged groups that can affect subsequent enzyme reactions. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used preferentially over agar as agaropectin in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used.
**LE agarose** is said to be better for preparative electrophoresis, i.e. when DNA needs to be extracted from an agarose gel.
### Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses {#low_melting_and_gelling_temperature_agaroses}
The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures compared to standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at 30 - range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be carried out directly after the DNA gel electrophoresis by adding slices of melted gel containing DNA fragment of interest to a reaction mixture. The LMP agarose contains fewer of the sulphates that can affect some enzymatic reactions, and is therefore preferably used for some applications.
Hydroxyethylated agarose also has a smaller pore size (\~90 nm) than standard agaroses. Hydroxyethylation may reduce the pore size by reducing the packing density of the agarose bundles, therefore LMP gel can also have an effect on the time and separation during electrophoresis. Ultra-low melting or gelling temperature agaroses may gel only at 8 -.
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# Agarose
## Applications
Agarose is a preferred matrix for work with proteins and nucleic acids as it has a broad range of physical, chemical and thermal stability, and its lower degree of chemical complexity also makes it less likely to interact with biomolecules. Agarose is most commonly used as the medium for analytical scale electrophoretic separation in agarose gel electrophoresis. Gels made from purified agarose have a relatively large pore size, making them useful for separation of large molecules, such as proteins and protein complexes \>200 kilodaltons, as well as DNA fragments \>100 basepairs. Agarose is also used widely for a number of other applications, for example immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis, as the agarose fibers can function as anchor for immunocomplexes.
### Agarose gel electrophoresis {#agarose_gel_electrophoresis}
Agarose gel electrophoresis is the routine method for resolving DNA in the laboratory. Agarose gels have lower resolving power for DNA than acrylamide gels, but they have greater range of separation, and are therefore usually used for DNA fragments with lengths of 50--20,000 bp (base pairs), although resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large protein molecules, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm.
The pore size of the gel affects the size of the DNA that can be sieved. The lower the concentration of the gel, the larger the pore size, and the larger the DNA that can be sieved. However low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) are fragile and therefore hard to handle, and the electrophoresis of large DNA molecules can take several days. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb. This limit can be overcome by PFGE, where alternating orthogonal electric fields are applied to the gel. The DNA fragments reorientate themselves when the applied field switches direction, but larger molecules of DNA take longer to realign themselves when the electric field is altered, while for smaller ones it is quicker, and the DNA can therefore be fractionated according to size.
Agarose gels are cast in a mold, and when set, usually run horizontally submerged in a buffer solution. Tris-acetate-EDTA and Tris-Borate-EDTA buffers are commonly used, but other buffers such as Tris-phosphate, barbituric acid-sodium barbiturate or Tris-barbiturate buffers may be used in other applications. The DNA is normally visualized by staining with ethidium bromide and then viewed under a UV light, but other methods of staining are available, such as SYBR Green, GelRed, methylene blue, and crystal violet. If the separated DNA fragments are needed for further downstream experiment, they can be cut out from the gel in slices for further manipulation.
### Protein purification {#protein_purification}
Agarose gel matrix is often used for protein purification, for example, in column-based preparative scale separation as in gel filtration chromatography, affinity chromatography and ion exchange chromatography. It is however not used as a continuous gel, rather it is formed into porous beads or resins of varying fineness. The beads are highly porous so that protein may flow freely through the beads. These agarose-based beads are generally soft and easily crushed, so they should be used under gravity-flow, low-speed centrifugation, or low-pressure procedures. The strength of the resins can be improved by increased cross-linking and chemical hardening of the agarose resins, however such changes may also result in a lower binding capacity for protein in some separation procedures such as affinity chromatography.
Agarose is a useful material for chromatography because it does not absorb biomolecules to any significant extent, has good flow properties, and can tolerate extremes of pH and ionic strength as well as high concentration of denaturants such as 8M urea or 6M guanidine HCl. Examples of agarose-based matrix for gel filtration chromatography are Sepharose and WorkBeads 40 SEC (cross-linked beaded agarose), *Praesto* and Superose (highly cross-linked beaded agaroses), and Superdex (dextran covalently linked to agarose).
For affinity chromatography, beaded agarose is the most commonly used matrix resin for the attachment of the ligands that bind protein. The ligands are linked covalently through a spacer to activated hydroxyl groups of agarose bead polymer. Proteins of interest can then be selectively bound to the ligands to separate them from other proteins, after which it can be eluted. The agarose beads used are typically of 4% and 6% densities with a high binding capacity for protein.
### Solid culture media {#solid_culture_media}
Agarose plate may sometimes be used instead of agar for culturing organisms as agar may contain impurities that can affect the growth of the organism or some downstream procedures such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Agarose is also harder than agar and may therefore be preferable where greater gel strength is necessary, and its lower gelling temperature may prevent causing thermal shock to the organism when the cells are suspended in liquid before gelling. It may be used for the culture of strict autotrophic bacteria, plant protoplast, *Caenorhabditis elegans*, other organisms and various cell lines.
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# Agarose
## Applications
### Motility assays {#motility_assays}
Agarose is sometimes used instead of agar to measure microorganism motility and mobility. Motile species will be able to migrate, albeit slowly, throughout the porous gel and infiltration rates can then be visualized. The gel\'s porosity is directly related to the concentration of agar or agarose in the medium, so different concentration gels may be used to assess a cell\'s swimming, swarming, gliding and twitching motility. Under-agarose cell migration assay may be used to measure chemotaxis and chemokinesis. A layer of agarose gel is placed between a cell population and a chemoattractant. As a concentration gradient develops from the diffusion of the chemoattractant into the gel, various cell populations requiring different stimulation levels to migrate can then be visualized over time using microphotography as they tunnel upward through the gel against gravity along the gradient
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# Arthur St. Clair
Major-General **Arthur St. Clair** (`{{OldStyleDateDY|March 23,|1737<ref name="ANB" />|1736<!--OS New Year began March 25-->}}`{=mediawiki} -- August 31, 1818) was a Scottish-born American military officer and politician. Born in Thurso, Caithness, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in the Province of Pennsylvania. During the American Revolutionary War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Continental Army, but lost his command after a controversial retreat from Fort Ticonderoga.
After the war, he served as President of the Continental Congress, which during his term passed the Northwest Ordinance. He was then made governor of the Northwest Territory in 1788, which was further enlarged by the portion that would become Ohio in 1800. In 1791, he commanded an American army in St. Clair\'s Defeat, which became the greatest victory achieved by Native Americans against the United States. Politically out-of-step with the Jefferson administration, he was replaced as governor in 1802 and died in obscurity.
## Early life and career {#early_life_and_career}
St. Clair was born in Thurso, Caithness. Little is known of his early life. Early biographers estimated his year of birth as 1734, but subsequent historians uncovered a birth date of March 23, 1736, which in the modern calendar system means that he was born in 1737. His parents, unknown to early biographers, were probably William Sinclair, a merchant, and Elizabeth Balfour. He reportedly attended the University of Edinburgh before being apprenticed to the renowned physician William Hunter.
In 1757, St. Clair purchased a commission in the British Army\'s Royal American Regiment and came to North America with Admiral Edward Boscawen\'s fleet for the French and Indian War. He served under General Jeffery Amherst during the capture of Louisburg, Nova Scotia, on July 26, 1758. On April 17, 1759, he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned under the command of General James Wolfe, under whom he served at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which resulted in the capture of Quebec City.
## Settler in America {#settler_in_america}
On April 16, 1762, St. Clair resigned his commission, and by 1764 had settled in Ligonier Valley, Pennsylvania, where he purchased land and went into business as an operator of flour and grist mills. The fortune he amassed soon made him the largest landowner in Western Pennsylvania.
In 1770, St. Clair entered politics when he was elected as a justice of both the Court of Quarter Sessions and of Common Pleas. He subsequently served as a member of the proprietary council, a justice, recorder, and clerk of the orphans\' court, and prothonotary of Bedford and Westmoreland counties.
In 1774, during Lord Dunmore\'s War, the colony of Virginia illegally took claim of the area around present-day Pittsburgh. A militia was quickly raised to drive off the Virginians and St. Clair, in his capacity as a magistrate, issued an order for the arrest of the officer leading the Virginia troops. The boundary dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania wasn\'t settled until 1780, when both sides agreed to extend the Mason--Dixon line westward from Maryland to 80° 31′ west, the current western border of Pennsylvania. (see: District of West Augusta)
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# Arthur St. Clair
## Revolutionary War {#revolutionary_war}
By the mid-1770s, St. Clair considered himself more of an American than a British subject. In January 1776, he accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a colonel of the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment. He first saw service in the final days of the failed Quebec invasion, where he saw action in the Battle of Trois-Rivières. He was appointed a brigadier general in August 1776 and was tasked by George Washington to help train and equip newly arrived recruits from New Jersey. He took part in George Washington\'s crossing of the Delaware River on the night of December 25--26, 1776, before the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26. Many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy that led to Washington\'s capture of Princeton, New Jersey, on January 3, 1777. St. Clair was promoted to major general in February 1777.
In April 1777, St. Clair was given command of Fort Ticonderoga. His outnumbered garrison could not resist British General John Burgoyne\'s larger force in the Saratoga campaign; thus, St. Clair was forced to retreat at the resulting siege on July 5, 1777. He successfully evacuated his men, but choosing not to stand and fight permanently damaged his sterling reputation. In 1778, he was court-martialed for the loss of Ticonderoga. The court exonerated him and approved his return to duty, but he would never hold a command again during the Revolution. He still saw action, however, as an aide-de-camp to Washington, who retained a high opinion of him. St. Clair was at Yorktown when Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army. During his military service, St. Clair was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1780.
## President of the United States in Congress Assembled {#president_of_the_united_states_in_congress_assembled}
Following his discharge from the Army, St. Clair was elected to the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783 and served as a delegate to the Confederation Congress, serving from November 2, 1785, until November 28, 1787. Chaos ruled the day in early 1787 with Shays\'s Rebellion in full force and the states refusing to settle their disputes or contribute to the now six-year-old federal government. On February 2, 1787, the delegates finally gathered into a quorum and elected St. Clair to a one-year term as President of the Continental Congress. Congress enacted its most important piece of legislation, the Northwest Ordinance, during his tenure. Time was running out for the Confederation Congress, however; during St. Clair\'s presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was drafting a new United States Constitution, which would abolish the old Congress. St. Clair is the only foreign-born \"president\" of the United States.
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# Arthur St. Clair
## Northwest Territory {#northwest_territory}
Under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory, St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. He named Cincinnati, Ohio, to honor his membership in the Society of the Cincinnati, and it was there that he decided to relocate his home.
As governor, he formulated \"Maxwell\'s Code\" (named after its printer, William Maxwell), the first written laws of the territory. He also worked with Josiah Harmar, Senior Officer of the United States, to resolve the issue of Native American tribes refusing to leave their lands, which the federal government had seized as punishment for their support of the British during the Revolution. In 1789, the two men succeeded in getting several Native American tribal leaders to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar, but the treaty was never fully implemented and the tribes rejected it outright as illegitimate.
Supported with intelligence, supplies, and weapons funneled to them by British agents, the tribes decided to wage full-scale war against the Americans in what came to be called the \"Northwest Indian War\" (or \"Little Turtle\'s War\"). Harmar was ordered by President Washington\'s administration to crush the Indians with a force mainly composed of ill-disciplined and inexperienced state militiamen; he suffered a humiliating defeat in October 1790.
### Army commander {#army_commander}
In March 1791, St. Clair succeeded the disgraced Harmar as Senior Officer of the new United States Army and was restored to his previous rank of major general. He personally led a punitive expedition, this time with two full Army regiments and a large contingent of militia. St. Clair had far more experience commanding troops than Harmar and his force was properly supplied and organized; unfortunately, like Harmar, St. Clair was also devoid of any practical experience in frontier warfare and generally dismissive of the Indians as fighters. In October 1791, he ordered the construction of Fort Jefferson to serve as the advance post for his campaign. Located in present-day Darke County in far western Ohio, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a supply depot; accordingly, it was originally named \"Fort Deposit\".
### St. Clair\'s defeat {#st._clairs_defeat}
In November 1791, near modern-day Fort Recovery, St. Clair advanced on the main Indian settlements at the head of the Wabash River. On November 4, they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket with the support of British agents Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. More than 600 American soldiers and scores of camp followers were killed in the battle, which came to be known as \"St. Clair\'s Defeat\"; other names include the \"Battle of the Wabash\", the \"Columbia Massacre,\" or the \"Battle of a Thousand Slain\". It remains the greatest defeat of a U.S. army by Native Americans in history, with a total of 623 fallen Americans compared to just 50 fallen Native Americans. The wounded were many, including St. Clair and Capt. Robert Benham.
### Continued as Governor 1788-1802 {#continued_as_governor_1788_1802}
Although an investigation exonerated him, St. Clair surrendered his commission in March 1792 at the request of President Washington before resuming his previous office as territorial governor.
A Federalist, St. Clair refocused his energies on carving up the Northwest Territory into two states that would strength Federalist control of Congress. However, he was opposed by Ohio Democrat-Republicans for what they perceived as his shameless partisanship, high-handedness, and arrogance in office. In 1802, he declared that his constituents \"are no more bound by an act of Congress than we would be bound by an edict of the first consul of France.\" This, coupled with the gradual collapse of Federalist influence in Washington D.C., led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him as governor. He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in 1803.
The first Ohio Constitution provided for a weak governor and a strong legislature, largely as a reaction to St. Clair\'s method of governance.
## Family life {#family_life}
St. Clair met Phoebe Bayard, a member of one of the most prominent families in Boston, and they were married in 1760. Miss Bayard\'s mother\'s maiden name was Bowdoin, and she was the sister of James Bowdoin, a colonial governor of Massachusetts. His eldest daughter was Louisa St. Clair Robb, a mounted messenger and scout, and known as a beautiful huntress.
Like many of his Revolutionary-era peers, St. Clair suffered from gout due to poor diet, as noted in his correspondence with John Adams.
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# Arthur St. Clair
## Death
In retirement, St. Clair lived with his daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family on the ridge between Ligonier and Greensburg.
Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818, at the age of 81. His remains are buried under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park in downtown Greensburg. St. Clair had been a petitioner for a Charter for Nova Caesarea Lodge #10 in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1791. This Lodge exists today, as Nova Caesarea Harmony #2. His wife Phoebe died shortly after and is buried beside him.
## Legacy
A portion of the Hermitage, St. Clair\'s home in Oak Grove, Pennsylvania (north of Ligonier), was later moved to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, where it is now preserved, along with St. Clair artifacts and memorabilia at the Fort Ligonier Museum.
An American Civil War steamer was named USS *St. Clair*.
Lydia Sigourney included a poem in his honor, `{{ws|[[s:Moral Pieces, in Prose and Verse/General St. Clair|General St. Clair]]}}`{=mediawiki} in her first poetry collection of 1815.
The site of Clair\'s inauguration as Governor of the Northwest Territory is now occupied by the *National Start Westward Memorial of The United States*, commemorating the settlement of the territory.
Places named in honor of Arthur St. Clair include:
In Pennsylvania:
- Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania
- St. Clairsville, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
- East St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
- West St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
- The St. Clair neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Hospital, Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania
In Ohio:
- St. Clair Township in Butler County, Ohio
- St. Clair Township in Columbiana County, Ohio,
- St. Clairsville, Ohio
- St. Clair Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Dayton, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Toledo, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Marietta, Ohio
- Fort St. Clair in Eaton, Ohio
Other States:
- St. Clair County, Illinois
- St. Clair Street in Indianapolis, Indiana
- St. Clair County, Missouri
- St. Clair County, Alabama
- St. Clair Street in Frankfort, Kentucky, was named for the St. Clair by Gen. James Wilkinson, who laid out the town that became the state capital. The street\'s north end is at the Old Capitol, and near its south end is the Franklin County Court House; both were designed by Gideon Shryock.
In Scotland:
- The three-star St Clair Hotel in Sinclair St, Thurso, Caithness, is named after him
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# Ajaigarh
**Ajaigarh** or **Ajaygarh** is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India. Ajaygarh is the administrative headquarters of tehsil in Panna district,
Ajaigarh State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. The state was founded in 1785, and its capital was in Ajaigarh.
## History
Ajaigarh was the capital of a princely state of the same name during the British Raj. Ajaigarh was founded in 1765 by Guman Singh, a Bundela Rajput who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of Jaitpur. After Ajaigarh was captured by the British in 1809, it became a princely state in the Bundelkhand Agency of the Central India Agency. It had an area of 771 sqmi, and a population of 78,236 in 1901. The rulers bore the title of *sawai maharaja*. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-. The chief resided at the town of Nowgong, at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than 800 ft above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by malaria, and suffered severely from famine in 1868--69 and 1896--97.
The state acceded to the Government of India on 1 January 1950; the ruling chief was granted a privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of India in 1971, at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of Vindhya Pradesh, and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to Chhatarpur District. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956.
## Geography
Ajaygarh is located on 24.54 N 80.16 E. It has an average elevation of 344 metres (1128 feet).
## Demographics
As of the 2011 India census, Ajaigarh had a population of 16,656. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Ajaigarh has an average literacy rate of 59%, which is lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 61% of the males and 39% of females literate. 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.
## Ajaigarh Fort {#ajaigarh_fort}
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh Fort is among the top attractions of the region. It stands alone on a hilltop in the district of Panna and is easily accessible from Khajuraho. The fort is bordered by the Vindhya Hills and provides views of the Ken River. This fort is noted for its rich historical past and its architecture, which dates to the Chandela dynasty.
The fort is visited by both history and art lovers. This fort has two gates (earlier there were five), two temples and two rock-cut tanks, close to the northern gate. These tanks have been named as Ganga and Yamuna.
Ajaygarh Fort, also known as [Ajaypal](https://www.bundelkhand24x7.com/2025/04/ajaygarh-fort.html) Fort, is an ancient and mysterious fort located in the Panna district of Madhya Pradesh. It was built by the Chandela kings and stands atop a high hill. At the main entrance of the fort, there is an old inscription that no one has been able to decipher till today. It is believed that this inscription holds the secret path to a hidden treasure.
## Gallery
{{ wide image\|Panoramic view of Ajaygarh Palace
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# Ajmer-Merwara
**Ajmer-Merwara** (also known as **Ajmir Province**, and **Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri**) was a former province of British India in the historical Ajmer region. The territory was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia by a treaty on 25 June 1818. It was under the Bengal Presidency until 1861 when it became part of the North-Western Provinces. Finally on 1 April 1871, it became a separate province as Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri. It became a part of independent India on 15 August 1947 when the British left India.
The province consisted of the districts of Ajmer and Merwara, which were physically separated from the rest of British India forming an enclave amidst the many princely states of Rajputana. Unlike these states, which were ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British suzerainty, Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British.
In 1842, the two districts were under a single commissioner, then they were separated in 1856 and were administered by the East India Company. Finally, after 1858, by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the Governor-General of India\'s agent for the Rajputana Agency.
## Extent and geography {#extent_and_geography}
The area of the province was 2710 sqmi. The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of North India; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the Thar Desert region on the north. The Aravalli Range is the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India. The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the northwest side into the Luni River, which discharges itself into the Rann of Kutch.
The province is on the border of what may be called the arid zone; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the Narmada valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kota and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River.
The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Kutch are deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those countries (now the majority of this region is in Gujarat state within independent India), and the greater part of the remainder is deposited on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli Range, leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and still less for Ajmer. It is only when the monsoon is in considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it. The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Rajasthan, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude of Ajmer. The rainfall of the district depends on the varying strength of these two monsoons. The agriculturist of Ajmer-Merwara could never rely upon two good harvests in succession.
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# Ajmer-Merwara
## Extent and geography {#extent_and_geography}
### British rule {#british_rule}
Part of the Ajmer region, the territory of the future province was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia of Gwalior State as part of a treaty dated 25 June 1818. Then in May 1823 the Merwara (Mewar) part was ceded to Britain by Udaipur State. Thereafter Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British East India Company. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in 1858 the powers of the company were transferred to the British Crown and the Governor-General of India. His administration of Ajmer-Merwara was controlled by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the British agent for the Rajputana Agency.
#### Superintendents for Ajmer {#superintendents_for_ajmer}
- 9 Jul 1818`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}17 Jul 1818 Nixon
- 18 Jul 1818`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}15 Dec 1824 Francis Boyle Shannon Wilder (1785--1849)
- 16 Dec 1824`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Apr 1825 Richard Moore (1st time)
- 22 Apr 1825`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}23 Oct 1827 Henry Middleton
- 24 Oct 1827`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Nov 1831 Richard Cavendish
- 29 Nov 1831`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Jul 1832 Richard Moore (2nd time)
- 2 Jul 1832`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}16 Apr 1834 Alexander Speirs
- 17 Apr 1834`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}30 Jun 1836 George Frederick Edmonstone (1813--1864)
- 1 Jul 1836`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}25 Jul 1837 Charles E. Trevelyan (1807--1886)
- 26 Jul 1837`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Feb 1842 J.D. Macnaghten
#### Superintendents for Merwara (from Feb 1842, Ajmer-Merwara) {#superintendents_for_merwara_from_feb_1842_ajmer_merwara}
- 1823`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1836 Henry Hall (1789--1875)
- 1836`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1857 Charles George Dixon (died 1857)
#### Agents of the Governors-general for the Rajputana agency {#agents_of_the_governors_general_for_the_rajputana_agency}
- 1832`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}29 Nov 1833 Abraham Lockett (1781--1834)
- 29 Nov 1833`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Jun 1834 Alexander Speirs
- Jun 1834`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Feb 1839 Nathaniel Alves
- 1 Feb 1839`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1839 John Ludlow (acting) (1788--1880)
- Apr 1839`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Dec 1847 James Sutherland (died 1848)
- Jan 1844`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Oct 1846 Charles Thoresby (died 1862) (acting for Sutherland)
- Dec 1847`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Jan 1853 John Low (1788--1880)
- 25 Jun 1848`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}19 Nov 1848 Showers (acting for Low)
- 8 Sep 1851`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Dec 1851 D.A. Malcolm (acting for Low)
- 1852`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1853 George St. Patrick Lawrence (1804--1884) (1st time)
- 5 Mar 1853`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Feb 1857 Henry Montgomery Lawrence (1806--1857)
- 15 Mar 1857`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Apr 1864 George St. Patrick Lawrence (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 10 Apr 1859`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}24 Nov 1860 William Frederick Eden (1814--1867) (acting for Lawrence)
- Apr 1864`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1867 William Frederick Eden (s.a.)
- 1867`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1870 Richard Harte Keatinge (1825--1904)
- 15 Jun 1870`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1871 John Cheap Brooke (1818--1899) (acting for Keatinge)
#### Chief Commissioners {#chief_commissioners}
- 1 Apr 1871`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Jun 1873 Richard Harte Keatinge (s.a.)
- 1 Apr 1871`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Jun 1873 John Cheape Brooke (s.a.) (acting for Keatinge)
- 21 Jun 1873`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}6 Apr 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (1st time) (1825--1892) (acting to 6 Feb 1874)
- 6 Apr 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}6 Jul 1874 William H. Beynon (acting) (c. lk=no`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1903)
- 6 Jul 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}12 Nov 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (2nd time) (s.a.)
- 12 Nov 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}18 Aug 1876 Alfred Comyns Lyall (acting) (1835--1911)
- 18 Aug 1876`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}5 Mar 1877 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833--1892) (1st time)(acting)
- 5 Mar 1877`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}12 Dec 1878 Sir Lewis Pelly (3rd time) (s.a.)
- 12 Dec 1878`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (1836--1911) (1st time)
- 17 Mar 1881`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Nov 1882 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (s.a.) (2nd time) (acting)
- 28 Nov 1882`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 27 Mar 1887`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}20 Mar 1890 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833--1892) (3rd time)(acting to 1 Apr 1887)
- 20 Mar 1890`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Aug 1891 George Herbert Trevor (1st time) (1840--1927)
- 27 Aug 1891`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}2 Dec 1891 P.W. Powlett (acting)
- 2 Dec 1891`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}22 Nov 1893 George Herbert Trevor (2nd time) (s.a.)
- 22 Nov 1893`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}11 Jan 1894 William Francis Prideaux (acting) (1840--1914)
- 11 Jan 1895`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}20 Mar 1895 George Herbert Trevor (3rd time) (s.a.)
- 20 Mar 1895`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}10 Mar 1898 Robert Joseph Crosthwaite (1841--1917)
- 10 Mar 1898`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 May 1900 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (1854--1942) (1st time)
- 1 May 1900`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1901 William Hutt Curzon Wyllie (acting)(1848--1909)
- 1 Apr 1901`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}3 Feb 1902 A.P. Thornton (acting)
- 3 Feb 1902`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1905 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 1 Apr 1905`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}4 Jan 1918 Elliot Graham Colvin (1861--1940)
- 4 Jan 1918`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}22 Dec 1919 John Manners Smith (1864--1920)
- 22 Dec 1919`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}7 Aug 1925 Robert Erskine Holland (1873--1965)
- 7 Aug 1925`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}18 Mar 1927 Stewart Blakeley Agnew Patterson (1872--1942)
- 18 Mar 1927`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}14 Oct 1932 Leonard William Reynolds (1874--1946)
- 14 Oct 1932`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Oct 1937 George Drummond Ogilvie (1882--1966)
- 28 Oct 1937`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Dec 1944 Arthur Cunningham Lothian (1887--1962)
- May 1939`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Oct 1939 Conrad Corfield (1893--1980) (acting for Lothian)
- 1 Dec 1944`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}15 Aug 1947 Hiranand Rupchand Shivdasani (1904--1949)
### Post-independence {#post_independence}
From the date of partition and independence in 1947 until 1950, Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of the new Dominion of India. In 1950 it became Ajmer State, which on 1 November 1956, was merged into the state of Rajasthan.
The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmark in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan. The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly. Now the Jats are major land holders in the region
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# Abatement of debts and legacies
**Abatement of debts and legacies** is a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.
Also, in the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.
The order of abatement is usually:
1. Intestate property
2. The residuary of the estate
3. General Devises---*i.e.*, cash gifts
4. Demonstrative Devises---*i.e.*, cash gifts from a specific account, stocks, bonds, securities, etc.
5. Specific Devises---*i.e.*, specified items of personal property, real property, etc.
Non-probate property---*i.e.*, life insurance policies---do not abate.
## Definitions
A **specific devise**, is a specific gift in a will to a specific person other than an amount of money. For example, if James\'s will states that he is leaving his \$500,000 yacht to his brother Mike, the yacht would be a specific devise.
A **general devise**, is a monetary gift to a specific person to be satisfied out of the overall estate. For example, if James\'s will states that he is leaving \$500,000 to his son Sam then the money would be a general devise.
A **demonstrative devise**, is money given from a particular account. For example, \"\$10,000 to be paid from the sale of my GM stock.\"
A **residual devise** is one left to a devisee after all specific and general devices have been made. For example, James\'s will might say: \"I give all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate to my daughter Lilly.\" Lilly would be the residual devisee and entitled to James\'s residuary estate
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# Affray
`{{Wiktionary}}`{=mediawiki}
In many legal jurisdictions related to English common law, **affray** is a public order offence consisting of the fighting of one or more persons in a public place to the terror (in *à l\'effroi*) of ordinary people. Depending on their actions, and the laws of the prevailing jurisdiction, those engaged in an affray may also render themselves liable to prosecution for assault, unlawful assembly, or riot; if so, it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged.
## Australia
In New South Wales, section 93C of Crimes Act 1900 defines that a person will be guilty of affray if he or she threatens unlawful violence towards another and his or her conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his or her personal safety. A person will only be guilty of affray if the person intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his or her conduct may be violent or threaten violence. The maximum penalty for an offence of affray contrary to section 93C is a period of imprisonment of 10 years.
In Queensland, section 72 of the Criminal Code of 1899 defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Section 72 says \"Any person who takes part in a fight in a public place, or takes part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access, commits a misdemeanour. Maximum penalty---1 year's imprisonment.\"
In Victoria, Affray was a common law offence until 2017, when it was abolished and was replaced with the statutory offence that can be found under section 195H of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic). The section defines Affray as the use or threat of unlawful violence by a person in a manner that would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to be terrified. However, a person who commits this conduct may only be found guilty of Affray if the use or threat of violence was intended, or if the person was reckless as to whether the conduct involves the use or threat of violence. If found guilty, the maximum penalty that may be imposed for Affray is imprisonment for 5 years or, if at the time of committing the offence the person was wearing a face covering used primarily to conceal their identity or to protect them from the effects of crowd-controlling substances, imprisonment for 7 years.
## India
The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the old English common law definition of affray, with the substitution of \"actual disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the *lieges*\".
## New Zealand {#new_zealand}
In New Zealand affray has been codified as \"fighting in a public place\" by section 7 of the Summary Offences Act 1981.
## South Africa {#south_africa}
Under the Roman-Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of *vis publica*.
## United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
### England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
The common law offence of affray was abolished for England and Wales on 1 April 1987. Affray is now a statutory offence that is triable either way. It is created by section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 which provides:
The term \"violence\" is defined by section 8.`{{clarify|date=February 2015}}`{=mediawiki}
Section 3(6) once provided that a constable could arrest without warrant anyone he reasonably suspected to be committing affray, but that subsection was repealed by paragraph 26(2) of Schedule 7 to, and Schedule 17 to, the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, which includes more general provisions for police to make arrests without warrant.
The *mens rea* of affray is that person is guilty of affray only if he intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his conduct may be violent or threaten violence.
The offence of affray has been used by HM Government to address the problem of drunken or violent individuals who cause serious trouble on airliners.
In *R v Childs & Price* (2015), the Court of Appeal quashed a murder verdict and replaced it with affray, having dismissed an allegation of common purpose.
### Northern Ireland {#northern_ireland}
Affray is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.
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# Affray
## United States {#united_states}
In the United States, the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states
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# Abba Arikha
**Rav Abba bar Aybo** (*Aramaic\]\]*; 175--247 CE), commonly known as **Abba Arikha** (*label=none*) or simply as **Rav** (*label=none*), was a Jewish amora of the 3rd century. He was born and lived in Kafri, Asoristan, in the Sasanian Empire.
In Sura, Arikha established the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as a foundational text, led to the compilation of the Talmud. With him began the long period of ascendancy of the prestigious Talmudic academies in Babylonia around the year 220. In the Talmud, he is frequently associated with Samuel of Nehardea, a fellow amora with whom he debated many issues.
## Biography
His surname, **Arikha** (English: ***the Tall***), he owed to his height, which exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading **Arekha**, consider it an honorary title, like \"Lecturer\". In the traditional literature, he is referred to almost exclusively as **Rav**, \"the Master\" (both by contemporaries and latter generations), just as his teacher, Judah ha-Nasi, was known simply as *Rabbi*. He is called Rabbi Abba only in the *tannaitic* literature, wherein a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the *Tannaim* and the *Amoraim* and is accorded the right---rarely conceded to one who is only an *amora*---of disputing the opinion of a *tanna*.
Rav was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family that claimed to trace its origin to Shimei, brother of King David. His father, Aibo, was a brother of Hiyya the Great who lived in Palestine, and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah ha-Nasi. From his associations in his uncle\'s house and later as his uncle\'s disciple and as a member of the academy at Sepphoris, Rav acquired such knowledge of the tradition to make him its foremost exponent in Babylonia. While Judah ha-Nasi was still living, Rav, having been ordained as a teacher with certain restrictions, returned to Asoristan, referred to as \"Babylonia\" in Jewish writings, where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism.
In the annals of the Babylonian schools, the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the Seleucid era and the 219th year of the Common Era. For the scene of his activity, Rav first chose Nehardea, where the exilarch appointed him *agoranomos* (market-master), and Rav Shela made him lecturer (*amora*) of his college. Then he moved to Sura, on the Euphrates, where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples from all sections of the Jewish world, Rav lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel of Nehardea, another disciple of Judah ha-Nasi, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rav that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rav\'s activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine and gave it that predominant position it was destined to occupy for several centuries.
Little is known of Rav\'s personal life. That he was rich seems probable, for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture. He is referred to as the son of noblemen, but it is not clear if this is an affectionate term or a true description of his status. Rashi tells us that he is described as the son of great men. He was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia, as shown by the friendship that existed between him and the last Parthian, Artabanus IV. He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban in 226 and the downfall of the Parthian rulers and does not appear to have sought the friendship of Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire, although Samuel of Nehardea probably did so.
Rav became closely related to the exilarch\'s family through the marriage of one of his daughters. Her sons, Mar Ukban and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rav had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the Talmud, the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. Chiyya did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rav\'s disciple Rav Huna. Two of his grandsons occupied the office of exilarch in succession.
Rav died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism.
According to some opinions, Rav lived for 300 years. *Pesach Einayim* comments that Rav\'s prayer, as told in the Talmud, merited him long life.
## Legacy
The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rav. That method takes the Mishnah of Judah haNasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other *tannaitic* traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rav\'s name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the Babylonian Talmud. His numerous disciples---some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel---amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rav. In the Babylonian schools, Rav was rightly referred to as \"our great master.\" Rav also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of marriage and divorce, and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of ritual observance.
Rav, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in.
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# Abba Arikha
## Teachings
He gave special attention to the liturgy of the synagogue. The Aleinu prayer first appeared in the manuscript of the Rosh Hashana liturgy by Rav. He included it in the Rosh Hashana mussaf service as a prologue to the Kingship portion of the Amidah. For that reason some attribute to Rav the authorship, or at least the revising, of Aleinu. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner. He also composed the prayer recited on Shabbat before the start of a new month, Birkat ha-Hodesh.
The many homiletic and ethical sayings recorded of him show similar ability. The greatest aggadist among Babylonian *Amoraim*, he is the only one of them whose aggadic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The Jerusalem Talmud has preserved a large number of his halakhic and aggadic utterances; and the Palestinian *Midrashim* also contain many of his *aggadot*. Rav delivered homiletic discourses, both in the beit midrash and in the synagogues. He especially loved to discuss in his homilies the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the aggadah, are his creations. His *aggadah* is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another. A few of these teachings may be quoted here:
- \"The commandments of the Torah were only given to purify men\'s morals\"
- \"Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber\"
- \"In the future, a person will give a judgement and accounting over everything that his eye saw and he did not eat.\"
- \"Whoever lacks pity for his fellow man is no child of Abraham\"
- \"Better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than to publicly shame one\'s fellow man.\"
- \"One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: \'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself\'\"
- \"A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of Joseph shows what evil consequences may result.\"
- \"While the dates are still in the borders of your skirt, run off with them to the distillery!\" \[Meaning, before one wastes what he has, let him convert it into something more productive\]
- \"Receive the payment. Deliver the goods!\" \[i.e. do not sell on credit\]
- \"\[Better to come\] under the displeasure of Ishmael (i.e. the Arabs) than \[the displeasure of\] Rome; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of Rome than \[the displeasure of\] a Persian; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of a Persian than \[the displeasure of\] a disciple of the Sages; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of a disciple of the Sages than \[the displeasure of\] an orphan and widow.\"
- \"A man ought always to occupy himself in the words of the Law, and in the commandments, even if it were not for their own sake. For eventually he will do it for their own sake\"
- \"A man ought always to look about in search of a \[good\] city whose settlement is only of late, considering that since its settlement is \[relatively\] new, its iniquities are also few.\"
- \"A disciple of the Sages ought to have in him one-eighth of one-eighth of pride, \[and no more\].\"
Rav loved the *Book of Ecclesiasticus* (Sirach), and warned his disciple Hamnuna Saba against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting its advice that considering the transitoriness of human life, one should not despise the good things of this world.
To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words: `{{Blockquote|Nothing on earth compares with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in the radiance of the Divine Presence.<ref>Berakhot 17a</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Rav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations regarding Maaseh Bereshit, Maaseh Merkabah, and the Divine Name. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction
| 731 |
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# Abbreviator
An **abbreviator** (plural \"abbreviators\" in English, *abbreviatores* in Latin) or **breviator** was a writer of the Papal Chancery who adumbrated and prepared in correct form Papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees before these were written out *in extenso* by the *scriptores*.
They are first mentioned in the Papal bull *Extravagantes* of Pope John XXII and in a Papal bull of Pope Benedict XII.
After the protonotaries left the adumbration of the minutes to the Abbreviators, those *de Parco majori* of the dignity of prelate were the most important officers of the Papal Chancery. By the pontificate of Pope Martin V their signature was essential to the validity of the acts of the Chancery. Over time they obtained many important privileges.
## Roman lay origin {#roman_lay_origin}
Abbreviators make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i. e., the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the ancient Romans. Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word and the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase. The Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the *Digest* and afterward extended his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren.
| 264 |
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# Abbreviator
## Ecclesiastical *abbreviatores* {#ecclesiastical_abbreviatores}
In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the \"curial\" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs \"ae\" and \"oe\", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The *Abbreviatores* were officials of the Roman Curia.
The scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, varied over time. Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic---or Roman---Chancery was to prepare and expedite the Papal letters and writs for collation of ecclesiastical dignitaries and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Papal consistory. About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Popes, then residing in Avignon, France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, *Praelectiones Jur. Can.*, 1, 2, 287). As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of *Abbreviatores* necessarily increased. To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery. Afterwards the establishment of the *Dataria Apostolica* and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of *Abbreviatores*.
According to Ciampini (*Lib. de abbreviatorum de parco majore etc.*, Cap. 1) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs. Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII in 1316. It is certain that he uses the name \"*abbreviatores*\", but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by over-taxation of their labour, caused much complaint and protest. He (*Extravag. Joan.*, Tit. 13, \"Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae\") prescribed their work, determined how much they could charge for their labour, fixed a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words or their equivalent at 150 letters, forbade them to charge more, even though the abstract was over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacted that the basis of the tax was the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc. the bulls, and by no means the emoluments that accrued to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the bull, and declared that whoever charged more than the tax fixed by him was suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, was deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent was an abbreviator, he was excommunicated. Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the bull had to pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the Apostolic writer.
Whatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates. Pope Martin V (Constit. 3 \"In Apostolicae\", 2 and 5) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they could demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge. He also assigned to them certain remunerations. The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency. Their offices were compatible with other offices, i. e. they could hold two benefices or offices simultaneously, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice Chancellor, others by the Pope.
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# Abbreviator
## Institution of the College of Abbreviators {#institution_of_the_college_of_abbreviators}
In the pontificate of Pope Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Apostolic See. To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates denominated the \"**College of Abbreviators**\", and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain remunerations should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same. He ordained further that some should be called \"Abbreviators of the Upper Bar\" (*Abbreviatores de Parco Majori*; the name derived from a place in the Chancery that was surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the Vice Chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (*Abbreviatores de Parco Minori*); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the Apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the Apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the Upper Bar. Then one of the prelates of the Upper Bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it. Prelates of the Upper Bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the Apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the remunerations and other contingencies. Their opinion about questions concerning Chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals.
Pope Paul II suppressed the college, but Pope Sixtus IV (*Constitutio* 16, \"Divina\") re-instituted it. He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency (\"parco\"), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters. They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas. Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the remuneration of the following session of the Chancery. The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency.
Pope Pius VII suppressed many of the offices of the Chancery, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared. Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains. Bouix (*Curia Romana*, edit. 1859) chronicled the suppression of the lower presidency and put the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven. Later the college consisted of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, were clerics or laity. Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the Apostolic letters, diplomas, et cetera, using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the Apostolic letters. Prior to 1878, all Apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment in Gothic characters or round letters, also called \"Gallicum\" and commonly \"Bollatico\", but in Italy \"Teutonic\", without lines, diphthongs, or marks of punctuation. Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, were rejected as spurious. Pope Leo XIII in his *Constitutio Universae Eccles.* of 29 December 1878 ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment and that no abbreviations were to be used except those easily understood.
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# Abbreviator
## Titles and privileges {#titles_and_privileges}
Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators. By decree of Pope Leo X they were elevated as Papal nobles, ranking as *Comes palatinus* (\"Count Palatine\"), familiars and members of the Papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectatives. They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes or the Cardinal Vicar. He also empowered them to confer, later within strict limitations, the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, institute notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (later revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (*Militiae Aureae*), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility. Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of institution of such knights (*Acta Pont. Greg. XVI*, Vol. 3, 178--179--180).
Pope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the college (Const. 2, \"Romani\"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the Papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pope Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber.
They followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature *in capella*. Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and *cappa*, as also rochet *in capella*. Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Pope Sixtus IV (loc. cit.) might be even married.
These offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death occurred, were reserved to the Roman Curia. The prelates could resign their office in favour of others. Formerly these offices as well as those of the other Chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until Popes, especially Pope Benedict XIV and Pope Pius VII, gradually abolished that. Pope Leo XIII in a motu proprio of 4 July 1898 most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or collation of the said offices.
As domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Curia, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world. They were addressed as \"Reverendissimus\", \"Right Reverend\", and \"Monsignor\". As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute Papal commands. Pope Benedict XIV (Const. 3, \"Maximo\") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with a purple band, which right they held even after they ceased to be abbreviators.
## Suppression
Pope Pius X abrogated the college in 1908 and their obligations were transferred to the *protonotarii apostolici participantes*
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# Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
**ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī** (*عبداللطيف البغدادي*; 1162, Baghdad -- 1231, Baghdad), short for **Muwaffaq al-Dīn Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī** (*موفق الدين محمد عبد اللطيف بن يوسف البغدادي*), was a physician, philosopher, historian, Arabic grammarian and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of his time.
## Biography
Many details of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī\'s life are known from his autobiography as presented in Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah\'s literary history of medicine. As a young man, he studied grammar, law, tradition, medicine, alchemy and philosophy. He focused his studies on ancient authors, in particular Aristotle, after first adopting Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) as his philosophical mentor at the suggestion of a wandering scholar from the Maghreb. He travelled extensively and resided in Mosul (in 1189) where he studied the works of al-Suhrawardi before travelling on to Damascus (1190) and the camp of Saladin outside Acre (1191). It was at this last location that he met Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din al-Isfahani and acquired the Qadi al-Fadil\'s patronage. He went on to Cairo, where he met Abu\'l-Qasim al-Shari\'i, who introduced him to the works of al-Farabi, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Themistius and (according to al-Latif) turned him away from Avicenna and alchemy.
In 1192 he met Saladin in Jerusalem and enjoyed his patronage, then went to Damascus again before returning to Cairo. He journeyed to Jerusalem and to Damascus in 1207--1208, and eventually made his way via Aleppo to Erzindjan, where he remained at the court of the Mengujekid Ala'-al-Din Da'ud (Dāwūd Shāh) until the city was conquered by the Rūm Seljuk ruler Kayqubād II (Kayqubād Ibn Kaykhusraw). 'Abd al-Latif returned to Baghdad in 1229, travelling back via Erzerum, Kamakh, Divriği and Malatya. He died in Baghdad two years later.
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# Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
## *Account of Egypt* {#account_of_egypt}
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed *Account of Egypt* (in two parts), appeared to be known in Europe.
In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes. Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great flood as described in Genesis, and even briefly entertained the idea that it was a pre-Adamic construction.
### Archeology
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was well aware of the value of ancient monuments. He praised some Muslim rulers for preserving and protecting pre-Islamic artefacts and monuments, but he also criticized others for failing to do so. He noted that the preservation of antiquities presented a number of benefits for Muslims:
- \"monuments are useful historical evidence for chronologies\";
- \"they furnish evidence for Holy Scriptures, since the Qur\'an mentions them and their people\";
- \"they are reminders of human endurance and fate\";
- \"they show, to a degree, the politics and history of ancestors, the richness of their sciences, and the genius of their thought\".
While discussing the profession of treasure hunting, he notes that poorer treasure hunters were often sponsored by rich businessmen to go on archeological expeditions. In some cases, an expedition could turn out to be fraudulent, with the treasure hunter disappearing with large amounts of money extracted from sponsors.
### Egyptology
His manuscript was one of the earliest works on Egyptology. It contains a vivid description of a famine which occurred during the author\'s residence in Egypt. The famine was caused by the Nile failing to overflow its banks and according to 'Abd al-Latif\'s detailed account, the food situation became so dire that many people turned to cannibalism. He also wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.
### Autopsy
Al-Baghdādī wrote that during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH (1200 AD), he had the opportunity to observe and examine a large number of skeletons, through which he came to the view that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw \[mandible\], coccyx and sacrum.
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# Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
## *Account of Egypt* {#account_of_egypt}
### Translation
Al-Baghdādī\'s Arabic manuscript was discovered in 1665 by the English orientalist Edward Pococke and is preserved in the Bodleian Library. Pococke published the Arabic manuscript in the 1680s. His son, Edward Pococke the Younger, translated the work into Latin, although he was only able to publish less than half of his work. Thomas Hunt attempted to publish Pococke\'s complete translation in 1746, although his attempt was unsuccessful. Pococke\'s complete Latin translation was eventually published by Joseph White of Oxford in 1800. The work was then translated into French, with valuable notes, by Silvestre de Sacy in 1810.
## Philosophy
As far as philosophy is concerned, one may adduce that ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī regarded philosophers as paragons of real virtue and therefore he refused to accept as a true philosopher one lacking not only true insight, but also a truly moral personality as true philosophy was in the service of religion, verifying both belief and action. Apart from this he regarded the philosophers' ambitions as vain (Endress, in Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, xi). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf composed several philosophical works, among which is an important and original commentary on Aristotle\'s Metaphysics (*Kitāb fī ʿilm mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa*). This is a critical work in the process of the Arabic assimilation of Greek thought, demonstrating its author\'s acquaintance with the most important Greek metaphysical doctrines, as set out in the writings of al-Kindī (d. circa 185-252/801-66) and al-Fārābī (d. 339/950). The philosophical section of his Book of the Two Pieces of Advice (*Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn*) contains an interesting and challenging defence of philosophy and illustrates the vibrancy of philosophical debate in the Islamic colleges. It moreover emphasises the idea that Islamic philosophy did not decline after the twelfth century CE (Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey; Gutas). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī may therefore well be an exponent of what Gutas calls the "golden age of Arabic philosophy" (Gutas, 20).
## Alchemy
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf also penned two passionate and somewhat grotesque pamphlets against the art of alchemy in all its facets. Although he engaged in alchemy for a short while, he later abandoned the art completely by rejecting not only its practice, but also its theory. In ʿAbd al-Laṭīf\'s view alchemy could not be placed in the system of the sciences, and its false presumptions and pretensions must be distinguished from true scientific knowledge, which can be given a rational basis (Joosse, Rebellious intellectual, 29--62; Joosse, Unmasking the craft, 301--17; Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, 5-6 and 203--5; Stern, 66--7; Allemann).
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# Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
## Spiritualism
During the years following the First World War, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī\'s name reappeared within the spiritualistic movement in the United Kingdom. He was introduced to the public by the Irish medium Eileen J. Garrett, the author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the spiritualist R.H. Saunders and became known by the name Abduhl Latif, the great Arab physician. He is said to have acted as a control of mediums until the mid-1960s (Joosse, Geest, 221--9). The Bodleian Library (MS Pococke 230) and the interpretation of the Videans (Zand-Videan, 8--9) may also have prompted the whimsical short-story 'Ghost Writer', as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, in which ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī speaks in the first person
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# Abd ar-Rahman II
**Abd ar-Rahman II** (*عبد الرحمن الأوسط*; 792--852) was the fourth *Umayyad* Emir of Córdoba in al-Andalus from 822 until his death in 852. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.
Abd ar-Rahman was born in Toledo in 792. He was the son of Emir al-Hakam I. In his youth he took part in the so-called \"massacre of the ditch\", when 72 nobles and hundreds of their attendants were massacred at a banquet by order of al-Hakam.
He succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and for 20 years engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability. In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Mérida by having a large internal fortress built. In 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo with similar measures. He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.
In 839 or 840, he sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids. Another embassy was sent which may have either gone to Ireland or Denmark, likely encouraging trade in fur and slaves.
In 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.
He responded to William of Septimania\'s requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald who had claimed lands William considered to be his.
Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque--Cathedral of Córdoba. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts. He was also involved in the execution of the \"Martyrs of Córdoba\", and was a patron of the great composer Ziryab. He died in 852 in Córdoba
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# Abd al-Rahman IV
**Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik** (*translit=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik*), commonly known as **Abd al-Rahman IV**, was the Caliph of the Umayyad state of Córdoba in Al-Andalus, succeeding Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir in 1018. That same year, he was murdered at Cadiz while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power
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# Abd al-Rahman V
**Abd ar-Rahman V** (*ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān ibn Hishām al-Mustaẓhir bi-llāh*) was an Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba.
During the decline of the Umayyad dynasty in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia), two princes of the house were proclaimed Caliph of Córdoba for a very short time, Abd-ar-Rahman IV Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-Rahman V Mostadir (1023--1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at Cadiz, in flight from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Córdoba, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins
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# Abdera, Spain
\_\_NOTOC\_\_ `{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Abdera
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|map_type = Spain
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|location = {{ESP}}
|region = {{flag|Andalusia}}
|coordinates = {{coord|36|45|N|3|01|W|region:ES_type:city|display=inline,title}}
|type =
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}}`{=mediawiki} **Abdera** was an ancient Carthaginian and Roman port on a hill above the modern Adra on the southeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain. It was located between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) in the district inhabited by the Bastuli.
## Name
Abdera shares its name with a city in Thrace and another in North Africa. Its coins bore the inscription `{{sc|ʾbdrt}}`{=mediawiki} (*𐤏𐤁𐤃𐤓𐤕*). The first element in the name appears to be the Punic word for \"servant\" or \"slave\"; the second element seems shared by the Phoenician names for Gadir (now Cadiz) and Cythera but of unclear meaning.
It appears in Greek sources as *tà Ábdēra* (*τὰ Ἄβδηρα*) and *Aúdēra* (*Αὔδηρα*), *Ábdara* (*Ἄβδαρα*), and *tò Ábdēron* (*τὸ Ἄβδηρον*).
## History
Abdera was founded in the 8th century BCE as a Phoenician colony. It became a Carthaginian trading station and, after a period of decline, became one of the more important towns in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. Tiberius seems to have made the place a Roman colony.
## Coins
The most ancient coins bear its name with the head of Melqart and a tuna. Coins from the time of Tiberius show the town\'s main temple with two erect tunas as its columns. Early Roman coins were bilingual with Latin inscriptions on one side stating the name of the emperor and the town and with Punic text on the other side simply stating the name of the town
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# Abdera, Thrace
**Abdera** (*Άβδηρα*) is a municipality in the Xanthi regional unit of Thrace, Greece. In classical antiquity, it was a major Greek *polis* on the Thracian coast.
The ancient polis is to be distinguished from the municipality, which was named in its honor. The polis lay 17 km east-northeast of the mouth of the Nestos River, almost directly opposite the island of Thasos. It was a colony placed in previously unsettled Thracian territory, not then a part of Hellas, during the age of Greek colonization. The city that developed from it became of major importance in ancient Greece. After the 4th century AD it declined, contracted to its acropolis, and was abandoned, never to be reoccupied except by archaeologists.
During the Early Middle Ages, a new settlement emerged near the ancient city. It was called Polystylon (*Πολύστυλον*), and later considered as the New Abdera (*Νέα Άβδηρα*). In 2011 the modern municipality of Abdera was synoecized from three previous municipalities comprising a number of modern settlements. The ancient site remains in it as a ruin. The municipality of Abdera has 17,610 inhabitants (2021). The seat of the municipality is the town Genisea.
## Name
The name *Abdera* is of Phoenician origin and was shared in antiquity by Abdera, Spain and a town near Carthage in North Africa. It was variously Hellenized as *Ἄβδηρα* (*Ábdēra*), *Αὔδηρα* (*Aúdēra*), *Ἄβδαρα* (*Ábdara*), *Ἄβδηρον* (*Ábdēron*), and *Ἄβδηρος* (*Ábdēros*), before being Latinized as *Abdera*. Greek legend attributed the name to an eponymous Abderus who fell nearby and was memorialized by Hercules\'s founding of a city at the location.
The present-day town is written **Avdira** (*Άβδηρα*) and pronounced `{{IPA|el|ˈavðira|}}`{=mediawiki} in modern Greek.
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# Abdera, Thrace
## History
### Antiquity
The Phoenicians apparently began the settlement of Abdera at some point before the mid-7th century and the town long maintained Phoenician standards in its coinage.
The Greek settlement was begun as a failed colony from Klazomenai, traditionally dated to 654 BC. (Evidence in 7th-century-BC Greek pottery tends to support the traditional date but the exact timing remains uncertain.) Herodotus reports that the leader of the colony had been Timesios but, within his generation, the Thracians had expelled the colonists. Timesios was subsequently honored as a local protective spirit by the later Abderans from Teos. Others recount various legends about this colony. Plutarch and Aelian relate that Timesios grew insufferable to his colonists because of his desire to do everything by himself; when one of their children let him know how they all really felt, he quit the settlement in disgust; modern scholars have tried to split the difference between the two accounts of early Abdera\'s failure by giving the latter as the reason for Timesios\'s having left Klazomenai.
Strabo describes Abdera as \"a Thracian city\" at the time of Anacreon and the migration of people from Teos to that area. The successful colonisation occurred in 544 BC, when the majority of the people of Teos (including the poet Anacreon) migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian invasion of their homeland. The chief coin type, a *griffon*, is identical with that of Teos; the rich silver coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Abdera (Thrace)|display=Abdera|volume=1|page=33}}`{=mediawiki} Endnotes:
- *Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens*, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel);
- *Mém. de l\'Acad. des Inscriptions*, xxxix. 211;
- K. F. Hermann, *Ges. Abh.* 90-111, 370 ff.
In 513 and 512 BC, the Persians, under Darius conquered Abdera, by which time the city seems to have become a place of considerable importance, and is mentioned as one of the cities which had the expensive honour of entertaining the great king on his march into Greece. In 492 BC, after the Ionian Revolt, the Persians again conquered Abdera, again under Darius I but led by his general Mardonius. On his flight after the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes stopped at Abdera and acknowledged the hospitality of its inhabitants by presenting them with a tiara and scimitar of gold. Thucydides mentions Abdera as the westernmost limit of the Odrysian kingdom when at its height at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. It later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war.
Abdera was a wealthy city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace and the Odrysian kingdom. In 408 BC, Abdera was reduced under the power of Athens by Thrasybulus, then one of the Athenian generals in that quarter.
A valuable prize, the city was repeatedly sacked: by the Triballi in 376 BC, Philip II of Macedon in 350 BC; later by Lysimachos of Thrace, the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and again by the Macedonians. In 170 BC the Roman armies and those of Eumenes II of Pergamon besieged and sacked it.
The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century BC. Cicero ridicules the city as a byword for stupidity in his letters to Atticus, writing of a debate in the Senate, \"Here was Abdera, but I wasn\'t silent\" (\"Hic, Abdera non tacente me\"). The *Philogelos*, a Greek-language joke book compiled in the 4th century AD, has a chapter dedicated to jokes about Abderans, who are stereotyped as stupid, superstitious, and literal-minded. Nevertheless, the city counted among its citizens the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras and Anaxarchus, historian and philosopher Hecataeus of Abdera, and the lyric poet Anacreon. Pliny the Elder speaks of Abdera as being in his time a free city.
Abdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons: because of the large area of their territory and their highly strategic position. The city controlled two great road passages (one of Nestos river and other through the mountains north of Xanthi). Furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.
The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra (40°56\'1.02\"N 24°58\'21.81\"E); they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbor; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon (*Πολύστυλον*). Since the 9th century, Byzantine Polystylon was an episcopal see, under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan bishop of Philippi. By the end of the 14th century it fell under the Ottoman rule.
### Modern
Avdira as a modern administrative unit (community) was established in 1924, and consisted of the villages Avdira, Myrodato (Kalfalar), Pezoula, Giona, Veloni and Mandra, but Myrodato and Mandra became separate communities in 1928. The municipality Avdira was formed in 1997 by the merger of the former communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. At the 2011 local government reform it merged with the former municipalities Selero and Vistonida, and the town Genisea became its seat.
The municipality has an area of 352.047 km^2^, the municipal unit 161.958 km^2^. The municipal unit Avdira is subdivided into the communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. The community Avdira consists of the settlements Avdira, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala.
## Landmarks
Landmarks of Abdera include the Archaeological Museum of Abdera, the Kütüklü Baba Tekke, and Agios Ioannis Beach (also *Paralia Avdiron*) near the village Lefkippos
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# Apollos
**Apollos** (*Ἀπολλώς*) was a 1st-century Alexandrian Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament. A contemporary and colleague of Paul the Apostle, he played an important role in the early development of the churches of Ephesus and Corinth.
## Biblical account {#biblical_account}
### Acts of the Apostles {#acts_of_the_apostles}
Apollos is first mentioned as a Christian preacher who had come to Ephesus (probably in AD 52 or 53), where he is described as \"being fervent in spirit: he spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus, though he knew only the baptism of John\". Priscilla and Aquila, a Jewish Christian couple who had come to Ephesus with the Apostle Paul, instructed Apollos:
: \"When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the way of God more adequately.\"
The differences between the two understandings probably related to the Christian baptism, since Apollos \"knew only the baptism of John\". Later, during Apollos\' absence, the writer of the Acts of the Apostles recounts an encounter between Paul and some disciples at Ephesus: `{{blockquote|And he said to them, "Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?" And they said, "No, we have not even heard that there is a Holy Spirit." And he said, "Into what then were you baptized?" They said, "Into John's baptism." And Paul said, "John baptized with the baptism of repentance, telling the people to believe in the one who was to come after him, that is, Jesus." On hearing this, they were baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. And when Paul had laid his hands on them, the Holy Spirit came on them, and they began speaking in tongues and prophesying.<ref>{{Bibleref|Acts|19:2-6}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Before Paul\'s arrival, Apollos had moved from Ephesus to Achaia and was living in Corinth, the provincial capital of Achaia. Acts reports that Apollos arrived in Achaia with a letter of recommendation from the Ephesian Christians and \"greatly helped those who through grace had believed, for he powerfully refuted the Jews in public, showing by the Scriptures that the Christ was Jesus.
### 1 Corinthians
Paul\'s First Epistle to the Corinthians (AD 55) mentions Apollos as an important figure at Corinth. Paul describes Apollos\' role at Corinth:
: *I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth.*
Paul\'s Epistle refers to a schism between four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names (the third and fourth were Peter, identified as Cephas, and Jesus Christ himself). It is possible, though, that, as Msgr. Ronald Knox suggests, the parties were actually two, one claiming to follow Paul, the other claiming to follow Apollos. \"It is surely probable that the adherents of St. Paul \[\...\] alleged in defence of his orthodoxy the fact that he was in full agreement with, and in some sense commissioned by, the Apostolic College. Hence \'I am for Cephas\'. \[\...\] What reply was the faction of Apollos to make? It devised an expedient which has been imitated by sectaries more than once in later times; appealed behind the Apostolic College itself to him from whom the Apostolic College derived its dignity; \'I am for Christ\'.\" Paul states that the schism arose because of the Corinthians\' immaturity in faith.
Apollos was a devout Jew born in Alexandria. Apollos\' origin in Alexandria has led to speculations that he would have preached in the allegorical style of Philo. Theologian Jerome Murphy-O\'Connor, for example, commented: \"It is difficult to imagine that an Alexandrian Jew \... could have escaped the influence of Philo, the great intellectual leader \... particularly since the latter seems to have been especially concerned with education and preaching.\"
There is no indication that Apollos favored or approved an overestimation of his person. Paul urged him to go to Corinth at the time, but Apollos declined, stating that he would come later when he had an opportunity.
### Epistle to Titus {#epistle_to_titus}
Apollos is mentioned one more time in the New Testament. In the Epistle to Titus, the recipient is exhorted to \"speed Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way\".
## Extrabiblical information {#extrabiblical_information}
Jerome states that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth that he retired to Crete with Zenas; and that once the schism had been healed by Paul\'s letters to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city and became one of its elders. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.
Pope Benedict XVI suggested that the name \"Apollos\" was probably short for Apollonius or Apollodorus. He also suggested there were those in Corinth \"\...fascinated by \[Apollos'\] way of speaking\....\"
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# Apollos
## Significance
Martin Luther and some modern scholars have proposed Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, rather than Paul or Barnabas. Both Apollos and Barnabas were Jewish Christians with sufficient intellectual authority. The Pulpit Commentary treats Apollos\' authorship of Hebrews as \"generally believed\". Other than this, there are no known surviving texts attributed to Apollos.
Apollos is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches, including the Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod, which hold a commemoration for him, together with saints Aquila and Priscilla, on 13 February. Apollos is considered one of the 70 apostles and his feast day is December 8 in the Eastern Orthodox church.
Apollos is not to be confused with St. Apollo of Egypt, a monk who died in 395 and whose feast day is January 25. Apollos does not have a feast day of his own in the traditional Roman Martyrology, nor is he reputed to have ever been a monk (as most monks come after St. Anthony the Great)
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# Antidiarrheal
Antidiarrheals are a class of medication used primarily to manage and reduce the frequency of diarrhea. This class of medication predominantly works by slowing digestion, reducing fluid loss, or improving absorption. There are four main classes: opiates, 5-HT~3~ receptor antagonists, adsorbents, and bulk-forming agents. Commonly used medications include loperamide (Imodium), diphenoxylate, bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol), Cholestyramine, and Octreotide. Although not considered an antidiarrheal, oral rehydration solutions are also an important aspect of managing diarrhea.
## Medical use {#medical_use}
### Acute diarrhea {#acute_diarrhea}
Acute diarrhea is a common condition that typically resolves on its own with oral rehydration therapy. Most cases of acute diarrhea are caused by infections from contaminated food or water and usually go away on their own within a week. The most common causes of acute diarrhea in children are the viral agents norovirus and rotavirus, accounting for about 70% of cases. Travelers' diarrhea (TD) is one of the most common illnesses affecting people of all ages abroad, with up to 70% of travelers developing symptoms within two weeks. While traditional advice like avoiding uncooked or unpeeled foods was once thought to be effective, poor sanitation and food handling practices---especially in local eateries---remain major risk factors.
Anti-motility medications like loperamide and diphenoxylate can help manage the symptoms of travelers' diarrhea by reducing the frequency of bowel movements, which can be helpful when needing to travel, but are not curative. Loperamide and diphenoxylate should be avoided in people with bloody diarrhea or a fever, and loperamide is typically not recommended for children under six. Additionally, zinc supplements, particularly in children, can reduce diarrheal duration by up to 25% and reduce stool volume by up to 30%.
### Dehydration and oral replacement therapy {#dehydration_and_oral_replacement_therapy}
The primary risk from diarrhea is dehydration and electrolyte loss, making fluid and electrolyte replacement the top treatment priority. Drinking fluids orally is typically as effective as IV fluids and more cost-efficient for most patients. Thus, rehydration is essential when managing acute diarrhea, especially in vulnerable groups like young children, older adults, and those with chronic conditions. Oral rehydration solutions are made with clean water, salt, and sugar. These solutions are ideal for severe cases, while milder dehydration can be managed with safe, preferred fluids---though overly sugary drinks should be avoided.
Dehydration is categorized into three levels: **severe, some, or none**. **Severe dehydration** includes signs like lethargy, sunken eyes, little to no urine output, and confusion. **Some dehydration** may present with dry mouth, restlessness, thirst, and slightly sunken eyes. If these signs are absent or insufficient, the person is not considered dehydrated.
### Chronic diarrhea {#chronic_diarrhea}
Chronic diarrhea often persists for greater than a week and may require further work-up from a medical professional. When the underlying cause cannot be directly addressed, long-term symptom management using antidiarrheals is often necessary.
## Adverse effects {#adverse_effects}
### Opiates
Loperamide is effective and safe for treating chronic diarrhea. Diphenoxylate and difenoxin work similarly but can affect the brain at high doses, so they\'re combined with atropine to reduce misuse risks. Stronger opiates like morphine or codeine can treat severe diarrhea, but they\'re rarely prescribed due to the risk of misuse, and careful monitoring is needed. While generally safe, even when combined with antibiotics, the use of opiates may slightly increase the risk of acquiring antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
### Bismuth subsalicylate {#bismuth_subsalicylate}
Bismuth subsalicylate is commonly used for diarrhea, but long-term use raises safety concerns and should be monitored. Bismuth can cause common side effects such as nausea, a bitter taste, diarrhea, and darkened stools. Since it is a heavy metal, in may cause encephalopathy in rare cases.
### Bile acid resins {#bile_acid_resins}
Bile acid binding resins like cholestyramine, colestipol, and colesevelam are effective but can cause constipation and may interfere with the absorption of other medications, so they should be taken at least two hours apart from other drugs.
### Alpha-2 (α~2~) adrenergic agonists {#alpha_2_α2_adrenergic_agonists}
Clonidine, used for diabetic diarrhea, is often limited by its ability to lower blood pressure.
### 5-HT~3~ antagonists {#ht3_antagonists}
Alosetron, often used for IBS-related diarrhea, poses a risk of colonic ischemia and severe constipation, which makes it infrequently used
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# Áed mac Cináeda
**Áed mac Cináeda** (Modern Scottish Gaelic: *Aodh mac Choinnich*; *Ethus*; Anglicized: Hugh; died 878) was a son of Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin). He became king of the Picts in 877 when he succeeded his brother Constantín mac Cináeda. He was nicknamed **Áed of the White Flowers**, **the wing-footed** (*alipes*) or **the white-foot** (*albipes*)
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# Abdul Hamid I
**Abdulhamid I** or **Abdul Hamid I** (*عبد الحميد اول*, *\`Abdü'l-Ḥamīd-i evvel*; *I. Abdülhamid*; 20 March 1725 -- 7 April 1789) was the 27th sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1774 to 1789. A devout and pacifist sultan, he inherited a bankrupt empire and sought military reforms, including overhauling the Janissaries and navy. Despite internal efforts and quelling revolts in Syria, Egypt, and Greece, his reign saw the critical loss of Crimea and defeat by Russia and Austria. The 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca granted Russia territorial and religious influence. He died soon after the fall of Ochakov in 1788.
## Early life {#early_life}
Abdul Hamid was born on 20 March 1725, in Constantinople. He was a younger son of Sultan Ahmed III (reigned 1703--1730) and his consort Şermi Kadın. Ahmed III abdicated his power in favour of his nephew Mahmud I, who was then succeeded by his brother Osman III, and Osman by Ahmed\'s elder son Mustafa III. As a potential heir to the throne, Abdul Hamid was imprisoned in comfort by his cousins and older brother, which was customary. His imprisonment lasted until 1767. During this period, he received his early education from his mother Rabia Şermi, who taught him history and calligraphy.
## Reign
### Accession
On the day of Mustafa\'s death on 21 January 1774, Abdul Hamid ascended to the throne with a ceremony held in the palace. The next day Mustafa III\'s funeral procession was held. The new sultan sent a letter to the Grand Vizier Serdar-ı Ekrem Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha on the front and informed him to continue with the war against Russia. On 27 January 1774, he went to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque, where he was given the Sword of Osman.
### Rule
Abdul Hamid\'s long imprisonment had left him indifferent to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissary Corps. The new Sultan told the Janissaries \"There are no longer gratuities in our treasury, as all of our soldier sons should learn.\"
Abdul Hamid sought to reform the Empire\'s armed forces including the Janissary corps and the navy. He also established a new artillery corps and is credited with the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School.
Abdul Hamid tried to strengthen Ottoman rule over Syria, Egypt and Iraq. However, small successes against rebellions in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimean Peninsula, which had become nominally independent in 1774 but was in practice actually controlled by Russia.
Russia repeatedly exploited its position as protector of Eastern Christians to interfere in the Ottoman Empire. Ultimately, the Ottomans declared war against Russia in 1787. Austria soon joined Russia. Turkey initially held its own in the conflict, but on 6 December 1788, Ochakov fell to Russia (all of its inhabitants being massacred). Upon hearing this, Abdul Hamid I had a stroke, which resulted in his death.
In spite of his failures, Abdul Hamid was regarded as the most gracious Ottoman Sultan. He personally directed the fire brigade during the Constantinople fire of 1782. He was admired by the people for his religious devotion and was even called a *Veli* (\"saint\"). He also outlined a reform policy, supervised the government closely, and worked with statesmen.
Abdul Hamid I turned to internal affairs after the war with Russia ended. He tried to suppress internal revolts through Algerian Gazi Hasan Pasha, and to regulate the reform works through Silâhdar Seyyid Mehmed Pasha (Karavezir) and Halil Hamid Pasha.
In Syria, the rebellion led by Zahir al-Umar, who cooperated with the admirals of the Russian navy in the Mediterranean, benefiting from the confusion caused by the Russian expedition of 1768 Russian campaign, and suppressed the rebellion in Egypt in 1775, as well as the Kölemen who were in rebellion in Egypt, was brought to the road. On the other hand, the confusion in Peloponnese was ended, and calm was achieved. Kaptanıderyâ Gazi Hasan Pasha and Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha played an important role in suppressing all these events.
### Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca {#treaty_of_küçük_kaynarca}
Despite his pacific inclinations, the Ottoman Empire was forced to renew the ongoing war with Russia almost immediately. This led to complete Ottoman defeat at Kozludzha and the humiliating Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed on 21 July 1774. The Ottomans ceded territory to Russia, and also the right to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire.
With the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the territory left, as well as Russia\'s ambassador at the Istanbul level and an authorised representative, this ambassador\'s participation in other ceremonies at the state ceremonies, the right to pass through the Straits to Russia, as the envoys of the Russian envoy were given immunity. Marketing opportunities for all kinds of commodities in Istanbul and other ports, as well as the full commercial rights of England and France, were given. It was also in the treaty that the Russian state had a church built in Galata. Under the circumstances, this church would be open to the public, referred to as the Russo-Greek Church, and forever under the protection of Russian ambassadors in Istanbul.
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# Abdul Hamid I
## Reign
### Relations with Tipu Sultan {#relations_with_tipu_sultan}
In 1789, Tipu Sultan, ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore sent an embassy to Abdul Hamid, urgently requesting assistance against the British East India Company, and proposed an offensive and defensive alliance. Abdul Hamid informed the Mysore ambassadors that the Ottomans were still entangled and exhausted from the ongoing war with Russia and Austria.
## Architecture
Abdul Hamid I, left behind many architectural works, mostly in Istanbul. The most important of these is his mausoleum (I. Abdülhamid Türbesi) in Sirkeci erected 1776/77. He built a fountain, an imaret (soup kitchen), a madrasah, and a library next to this building. The books in the library are kept in the Süleymaniye Library today and the madrasah is used as a stock exchange building. During the construction of the Vakıf Inn, the imaret, the fountain, removed by construction and transferred to the corner of Zeynep Sultan Mosque opposite Gülhane Park.
In addition to these works, in 1778 he built the Beylerbeyi Mosque, dedicated to Râbia Şermi Kadın, and built fountains in Çamlıca Kısıklı Square. He additionally built a mosque, a fountain, a bath, and shops around Emirgi in Emirgân in 1783, and another one`{{clarify|date=July 2022}}`{=mediawiki} for Hümâşah Sultan and his son Mehmed. In addition to these, there is a fountain next to Neslişah Mosque in Istinye, and another fountain on the embankment between Dolmabahçe and Kabataş.
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# Abdul Hamid I
## Character
He wrote down the troubles he saw before, to the grand vizier or to the governor of his empire. He accepted the invitations of his grand vizier and went to his mansions, followed by the reading of the Quran. He was humble and a religious Sultan.
It is known that Abdul Hamid I was fond of his children, was interested in family life, and spent the summer months in Karaağaç, Beşiktaş with his consorts, sons and daughters. His daughter Esma Sultan\'s dressing styles, her passion for entertainment, and her journey to the objects with her journeymen and concubines have set an example for Istanbul ladies.
## Family
Abdülhamid I is famous for having concubines even during the period of confinement in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem. From these relationships at least one daughter was conceived, secretly born and raised outside the Palace until the enthronement of Abdülhamid, when she was accepted at court as the sultan\'s \"adopted daughter\".
### Consorts
Abdülhamid I had at least fourteen consorts:
- Ayşe Kadın. BaşKadin (first consort) until her death in 1775. She was buried in Yeni Cami.
- Hace Hatice Ruhşah Kadın. BaşKadin after Ayşe\'s death. She was Abdulhamid\'s most beloved consort. She was his concubine even before he became sultan. Five incredibly intense love letters that the sultan wrote to her around that time have been preserved. Mother of at least a son. After Abdülhamid\'s death she made the pilgrimage to Mecca by proxy, which earned her the name \"*Hace*\". She died in 1808 and was buried in mausoleum Abdülhamid I.
- Binnaz Kadın (c. 1743 - May/June 1823), also known as Beynaz Kadın. She had previously been the consort of Abdulhamid\'s predecessor, Mustafa III. With no children of either of them, after Abdülhamid\'s death she married Çayırzade İbrahim Ağa. She was buried in the garden of the Hamidiye Mausoleum.
- Nevres Kadın. Before she became a consort she was the treasurer of the harem. She died in 1797.
- Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. She is the mother of at least two sons, including Mustafa IV, and two daughters. She was Valide sultan for less than a year before the deposition of her son, and spent the rest of her life in her daughter\'s palace. She died on 11 December 1828.
- Mehtabe Kadın. Initially a Kalfa (servant) of the harem, she became consort through the favour of kızları agasi Beşir Ağa. She died in 1807.
- Muteber Kadın. Called also Mutebere Kadın. Mother of at least a son. Her personal seal read: "*Devletlü beşinci Muteber Kadın Hazretleri*". She died on 16 May 1837 and was buried in the Abdülhamid I mausoleum.
- Fatma Şebsefa Kadın. Also called Şebisefa, Şebsafa or Şebisafa Kadin. Mother of at least a son and three daughters. She owned farms in Thessaloniki, which she left to her daughter when she died in 1805. She was buried near the Zeyrek Mosque.
- Nakşidil Kadın. Originally Georgian or Circassian, she became famous for the disproved legend that she was actually the disappeared Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, distant cousin of the Empress Josephine Bonaparte. She is a mother of two sons and a daughter, including Mahmud II. She died on 22 August 1817 and was buried in her mausoleum inside her Fatih Mosque.
- Hümaşah Kadın. Mother of at least a son, she built a fountain near Dolmabahçe and another in Emirgân. She died in 1778 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Dilpezir Kadın. She died in 1809 and was buried in the garden of the Hamidiye Mausoleum.
- Mislinayab Kadın. She was buried in the Nakşıdil Valide Sultan mausoleum.
- Mihriban Kadın. Misidentified by Oztüna as Esma Sultan\'s mother, she died in 1812 and was buried in Edirne.
- Nükhetseza Hanım. BaşIkbal, she was the youngest consort. She died in 1851.
### Sons
Abdülhamid I had at least eleven sons:
- Şehzade Abdüllah (1 January 1776 - 1 January 1776). Born dead, he was buried in Yeni Cami.
- Şehzade Mehmed (22 August 1776 - 20 February 1781) - with Hümaşah Kadın. Died of smallpox, he was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Şehzade Ahmed (8 December 1776 - 18 November 1778) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Şehzade Abdürrahman (8 September 1777 - 8 September 1777). Born dead, he was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Şehzade Süleyman (13 March 1778 - 19 January 1786) - with Muteber Kadın. Died of smallpox, he was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Şehzade Ahmed (1779 - 1780). He was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Şehzade Abdülaziz (19 June 1779 - 19 June 1779) - with Ruhşah Kadin. Born dead, he was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Mustafa IV (8 September 1779 - 16 November 1808) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. 29th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, was executed after less than a year.
- Şehzade Mehmed Nusret (20 September 1782 - 23 October 1785) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her mother dedicated a mosque to his memory. He was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Şehzade Seyfullah Murad (22 October 1783 - 21 January 1785) - with Nakşidil Kadin. He was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Mahmud II (20 July 1785 - 1 July 1839) - with Nakşidil Kadin. 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
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# Abdul Hamid I
## Family
### Daughters
Abdülhamid I had at least sixteen daughters:
- Ayşe Athermelik Dürrüşehvar Hanım (c. 1767 - 11 May 1826). Called also Athermelek. She was conceived while her father was still Şehzade and confined in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem. Her mother was smuggled out of the palace and her birth kept secret, otherwise both would have been killed. When Abdülhamid, who adored her, ascended the throne, he returned her to court with the status of \"adopted daughter\", which gave her the rank of imperial princess as the other daughters, but he could not grant her the title of \"Sultan\", so she never came. fully equal to the stepsisters. She married once and had two daughters.
- Hatice Sultan (12 January 1776 - 8 November 1776). First daughter born after her father\'s accession to the throne, her birth was celebrated for ten days. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Ayşe Sultan (30 July 1777 - 9 September 1777). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Esma Sultan (17 July 1778 - 4 June 1848) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. She nicknamed Küçük Esma (Esma *the younger*) to distinguish her from her aunt, Esma *the eldest*. Close to her brother Mustafa IV, she attempted to put him back on the throne with the help of their half-sister Hibetullah Sultan, but eventually she became the new sultan\'s favorite sister, his half-brother Mahmud II, which gave her a degree of freedom never before granted to a princess. She married once but had no children.
- Melekşah Sultan (19 February 1779 - 1780).
- Rabia Sultan (20 March 1780 - 28 June 1780). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Aynışah Sultan (9 July 1780 - 28 July 1780). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Melekşah Sultan (28 January 1781 - 24 December 1781). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Rabia Sultan (10 August 1781 - 3 October 1782). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Fatma Sultan (12 December 1782 - 11 January 1786) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. Died of smallpox, she was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum. A fountain was dedicated to her memory.
- Hatice Sultan (6 October 1784 - 1784).
- Alemşah Sultan (11 October 1784 - 10 March 1786) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her birth was celebrated for three days. She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Saliha Sultan (27 November 1786 - 10 April 1788) - with Nakşidil Kadin. She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Emine Sultan (4 February 1788 - 9 March 1791) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her father strongly hoped she would live and showered her with gifts, including the properties of her later aunt Esma Sultan and a court of Chechen entertainers. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Zekiye Sultan (? - 20 March 1788). She died in infancy.
- Hibetullah Sultan (16 March 1789 - 19 September 1841) - with Şebsefa Kadın. She married once but had no children. She collaborated with her half-sister Esma Sultan to restore Mustafa IV, Esma\'s brother and Hibetullah\'s half-brother, to the throne, but she was discovered by Mahmud II, the new sultan and also their half-brother, and placed under house arrest for life, unable to communicate with anybody.
## Death
Abdul Hamid died on 7 April 1789, at the age of sixty-four, in Istanbul. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself.
He bred Arabian horses with great passion. One breed of Küheylan Arabians was named \"Küheylan Abdülhamid\" after him
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# Abencerrages
*Zegris* (genus)}} The **Abencerrages** or **Abencerrajes** (`{{IPA|es|aβenθeˈraxes|label=Modern Spanish:}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|osp|aβent͡s̻eˈraʒes̺|lang|link=yes}}`{=mediawiki}; from the Arabic *label=none*, `{{pl.}}`{=mediawiki} *label=none*) were a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the Kingdom of Granada in the 15th century.
The name appears to have been derived from Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Muhammed VII, Sultan of Granada (1370--1408), who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.
Little is known of the family with certainty. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary records that they arrived in Spain in the 8th century but the name is familiar from the romance by Ginés Pérez de Hita, *Guerras civiles de Granada*, which celebrates the feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Benedin (Arabic banu Edin), and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. J. P. de Florian\'s *Gonsalve de Cordoue* and Chateaubriand\'s *Le dernier des Abencerrages* are adaptations of Pérez de Hita\'s story.
The story is told that one of the Abencerrages, having fallen in love with a lady of the royal family, was caught in the act of climbing up to her window. The assassinations were ordered by Ibrahim Benedin, who had a feud with the family. He was enraged and shut up the whole family in one of the halls of the Alhambra, and gave orders to kill them all. The apartment where this is said to have taken place is one of the most beautiful courts of the Alhambra, and is still called the Hall of the Abencerrages.
Washington Irving in *Tales of the Alhambra* (1832) disagrees, saying the massacre was a fiction, but that a number of Abencerrages were killed in one of the battles at the time. Nonetheless, many poems and plays, including *Romance de la pérdida de Alhama*, the novella *The Abencerraje*, and two operas (*Les Abencérages*, by Luigi Cherubini, and *L\'esule di Granata*, by Giacomo Meyerbeer) mention the legend
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# Aberavon (UK Parliament constituency)
**Aberavon** (*Aberafan*) was a constituency in Wales in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was represented from 1922 until 2024 by the Welsh Labour Party. It included the town of Aberavon, although the largest town in the constituency was Port Talbot.
The constituency was abolished as part of the 2023 periodic review of Westminster constituencies and under the June 2023 final recommendations of the Boundary Commission for Wales for the 2024 general election. Its area was split between Aberafan Maesteg and Neath and Swansea East.
## History
The constituency was created for the 1918 general election by the dividing of the Swansea District. With the exception of the first term, it has always been held by the Labour Party. Ramsay MacDonald, who became Labour\'s first Prime Minister in 1924, held the seat from 1922 to 1929. Its final MP, Stephen Kinnock, is the son of Neil Kinnock, who was Labour leader and Leader of the Opposition from 1983 to 1992.
It was one of the most consistently safe seats for Labour; since the end of the Second World War, the Labour candidate had always won Aberavon with a majority at least 33%, and with the exception of 2015, the Labour candidate has also always won an overall majority of the vote in the seat. In 2015, Kinnock only won 48.9% of the vote in Aberavon, against a surge in the vote for the UKIP candidate; however, in 2017, Kinnock\'s vote share rose by 19.2 percentage points, the biggest increase in the Labour vote in the seat\'s history, and his majority increased to 50.4%, the highest for an Aberavon MP since 2001. The 2017 result also made Aberavon the safest Labour seat in Wales, however the seat saw a significant swing against Labour in 2019.
## Boundaries
**1918--1950**: The Borough of Aberavon, the Urban Districts of Briton Ferry, Glencorwg, Margam, and Porthcawl and part of the Rural Districts of Neath and Penybont.
**1950--1983**: The Borough of Port Talbot, the Urban Districts of Glyncorrwg and Porthcawl, and part of the Rural District of Penybont.
**1983--1997**: The Borough of Afan, and the Borough of Neath wards nos. 3 and 6.
**1997--2010**: The Borough of Port Talbot; and the Borough of Neath wards of Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, and Coedffranc West.
**2010--2024**: The Neath Port Talbot County Borough electoral divisions of Aberavon, Baglan, Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Bryn and Cwmavon, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, Coedffranc West, Cymmer, Glyncorrwg, Gwynfi, Margam, Port Talbot, Sandfields East, Sandfields West, and Tai-bach.
The constituency was in South Wales, situated on the right bank of the River Afan, near its mouth in Swansea Bay.
Commenting on the 1983 boundary changes to the constituency when moving the 2000 Loyal Address of the Blair Government in Parliament, the seat\'s then-MP Sir John Morris, who would retire at the 2001 general election, said:
## Members of Parliament {#members_of_parliament}
Election Member
---------- ------ --------------------------
1918 Jack Edwards
1922 Rt Hon. Ramsay MacDonald
1929 William Cove
1959 Sir John Morris
2001 Hywel Francis
2015 Stephen Kinnock
2024 *Constituency abolished*
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# Aberavon (UK Parliament constituency)
## Elections
### Elections in the 1910s {#elections_in_the_1910s}
- Jones withdrew in favour of Edwards on 13 December 1918.
### Elections in the 1920s {#elections_in_the_1920s}
thumb\|upright=0.55\|Ramsay MacDonald
thumb\|upright=0.55\|Henry Williams
### Elections in the 1930s {#elections_in_the_1930s}
### Elections in the 1940s {#elections_in_the_1940s}
### Elections in the 1950s {#elections_in_the_1950s}
### Elections in the 1960s {#elections_in_the_1960s}
### Elections in the 1970s {#elections_in_the_1970s}
### Elections in the 1980s {#elections_in_the_1980s}
### Elections in the 1990s {#elections_in_the_1990s}
`{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Plaid Cymru
|candidate = David W. J. Saunders
|votes = 1,919
|percentage = 4.8
|change = +2.0
}}`{=mediawiki}\
`{{Election box candidate|
|party = Real Bean
|candidate = [[Captain Beany]]
|votes = 707
|percentage = 1.8
|change = ''N/A''
}}`{=mediawiki}\
`{{Election box majority|
|votes = 21,310
|percentage = 53.2
|change = +2.4
}}`{=mediawiki}\
`{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 40,069
|percentage = 77.6
|change = −0.1
}}`{=mediawiki}
`{{Election box end}}`{=mediawiki}
### Elections in the 2000s {#elections_in_the_2000s}
### Elections in the 2010s {#elections_in_the_2010s}
Of the 44 rejected ballots:
- 29 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.
- 14 voted for more than one candidate.
- 1 had writing or mark by which the voter could be identified.
thumb\|upright=0.55\|Stephen Kinnock
Of the 57 rejected ballots:
- 37 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.
- 20 voted for more than one candidate.
Of the 57 rejected ballots:
- 41 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.
- 16 voted for more than one candidate.
Of the 82 rejected ballots:
- 61 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.
- 19 voted for more than one candidate.
- 2 had writing or mark by which the voter could be identified
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# Aberdare
**Aberdare** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|b|ər|ˈ|d|ɛər}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|ab-ər|DAIR|'}}`{=mediawiki}; *Aberdâr* `{{audio|LL-Q9309 (cym)-Jason.nlw-Aberdâr.wav|}}`{=mediawiki}) is a town in the Cynon Valley area of Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, at the confluence of the Rivers Dare (Dâr) and Cynon. Aberdare has a population of 39,550 (mid-2017 estimate). Aberdare is 4 mi south-west of Merthyr Tydfil, 20 mi north-west of Cardiff and 22 mi east-north-east of Swansea. During the 19th century it became a thriving industrial settlement, which was also notable for the vitality of its cultural life and as an important publishing centre.
## Etymology
The name *Aberdare* means \"mouth/confluence of the river Dare\", as the town is located where the Dare river (*Afon Dâr*) meets the Cynon (*Afon Cynon*). While the town\'s Welsh spelling uses formal conventions, the English spelling of the name reflects the town\'s pronunciation in the local Gwenhwyseg dialect of South East Wales.
*Dâr* is an archaic Welsh word for oaks (*derwen* is the singulative), and the valley was noted for its large and fine oaks as late as the 19th century. In ancient times, the river may have been associated with *Daron*, an ancient Celtic goddess of oak. As such, the town would share an etymology with Aberdaron and the Daron river. As with many Welsh toponyms, it is likely that the locality was known by this name long before the development of the town.
## History
### Early history {#early_history}
There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. This may have led to the mountain itself being named *Bryn-y-Beddau* (hill of graves) although other local traditions associate the name with the Battle of Hirwaun Wrgant.
### Middle Ages {#middle_ages}
Aberdare lies within the commote (cwmwd) of Meisgyn, in the cantref of Penychen. The area is traditionally given as the scene of the *battle of Hirwaun Wrgant*, where the allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and Iestyn ap Gwrgant, the last Welsh prince of Glamorgan, defeated Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Dyfed. The battle is thought to have started at Aberdare, with the areas now known as Upper and Lower *Gadlys* (The battle Court(s)), traditionally given as each armies\' headquarters.
The settlement of Aberdare dates from at least this period, with the first known reference being in a monastic chapter`{{clarify|date=September 2023}}`{=mediawiki} of 1203 concerning grazing right on Hirwaun Common. It was originally a small village in an agricultural district, centred around the Church of St John the Baptist, said to date from at least 1189. By the middle of the 15th century, Aberdare contained a water mill in addition to a number of thatched cottages, of which no evidence remains.
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# Aberdare
## History
### Industrial Aberdare {#industrial_aberdare}
Aberdare grew rapidly in the early 19th century through two major industries: first iron, then coal. A branch of the Glamorganshire Canal (1811) was opened to transport these products; then the railway became the main means of transport to the South Wales coast. From the 1870s onwards, the economy of the town was dominated by the coal mining industry, with only a small tinplate works. There were also several brickworks and breweries. During the latter half of the 19th century, considerable improvements were made to the town, which became a pleasant place to live, despite the nearby collieries. A postgraduate theological college opened in connection with the Church of England in 1892, but in 1907 it moved to Llandaff. With the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan\'s (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, Aberdare had 12 Anglican churches and one Catholic church, built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys monastery; and at one time there were over 50 Nonconformist chapels (including those in surrounding settlements such as Cwmaman and Llwydcoed). The services in the majority of the chapels were in Welsh. Most of these chapels have now closed, with many converted to other uses. The former urban district included what were once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmaman, Cwmbach, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed, Penywaun and Trecynon.
## Population growth {#population_growth}
In 1801, the population of the parish of Aberdare was just 1,486, but the early 19th century saw rapid industrial growth, first through the ironworks, and later through the iron and steam coal industries. By the 1840s the parish population was increasing by 1,000 people every year, almost exclusively migrant workers from west Wales, which was suffering from an agricultural depression. This growth was increasingly concentrated in the previously agricultural areas of Blaengwawr and Cefnpennar to the south of the town. The population of the Aberdare District (centred on the town) was 9,322 in 1841, 18,774 in 1851, and 37,487 in 1861.
Despite a small decline in the 1870s, population levels continued to increase, with the first decade of the 20th century seeing a notably sharp increase, largely as a result of the steam coal trade, reaching 53,779 in 1911. The population has since declined owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry. The Aberdare population at the 2001 census was 31,705 (ranked 13th largest in Wales). By 2011 it was 29,748, though the figure includes the surrounding populations of Aberaman, Abercwmboi, Cwmbach and Llwydcoed.
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# Aberdare
## Language
Welsh was the prominent language until the mid 20th century and Aberdare was an important centre of Welsh language publishing. A large proportion of the early migrant population were Welsh speaking, and in 1851 only ten per cent of the population had been born outside of Wales.
In his controversial evidence to the 1847 Inquiry into the State of Education in Wales (the report of which is known in Wales as the *Brad y Llyfrau Gleision*, *Treason of the Blue Books*), the Anglican vicar of Aberdare, John Griffith, stated that the English language was \"generally understood\" and referred to the arrival of people from anglicised areas such as Radnorshire and south Pembrokeshire. Griffith also made allegations about the Welsh-speaking population and what he considered to be the degraded character of the women of Aberdare, alleging sexual promiscuity was an accepted social convention, that drunkenness and improvidence amongst the miners was common and attacking what he saw as exaggerated emotion in the religious practices of the Nonconformists.
This evidence helped inform the findings of the report which would go on to stigmatise Welsh people as \"ignorant\", \"lazy\" and \"immoral\" and found the reason for this was the continued use of the Welsh language, which it described as \"evil\". The controversial reports allowed the local nonconformist minister Thomas Price of Calfaria to arrange public meetings, from which he would emerge as a leading critic of the vicar\'s evidence and, by implication, a defender of both the Welsh language and the morality of the local population. It is still contended that Griffiths was made vicar of Merthyr in the neighbouring valley to escape local anger, even though it was over ten years before he left Aberdare. The reports and subsequent defence would maintain the perceptions of Aberdare, the Cynon Valley and even the wider area as proudly nonconformist and defiantly Welsh speaking throughout its industrialised history.
By 1901, the census recorded that 71.5% of the population of Aberdare Urban District spoke Welsh, but this fell to 65.2% in 1911. The 1911 data shows that Welsh was more widely spoken among the older generation compared to the young, and amongst women compared to men. A shift in language was expedited with the loss of men during the First World War and the resulting economic turmoil. English gradually began to replace Welsh as the community language, as shown by the decline of the Welsh language press in the town. This pattern continued after the Second World War despite the advent of Welsh medium education. Ysgol Gymraeg Aberdâr, the Welsh-medium primary school, was established in the 1950s with Idwal Rees as head teacher.
According to the 2011 Census, 11.6%`{{clarify|date=July 2018}}`{=mediawiki}`{{Fix|text=Please explain what is unclear}}`{=mediawiki} of Aberdare residents aged three years and over could speak Welsh, with 24.8% of 3- to 15-year-olds stating that they could speak it.
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# Aberdare
## Industry
### Iron industry {#iron_industry}
Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847. The iron industry began to expand in a significant way around 1818 when the Crawshay family of Merthyr purchased the Hirwaun ironworks and placed them under independent management. In the following year, Rowland Fothergill took over the ironworks at Abernant and a few years later did the same at Llwydcoed. Both concerns later fell into the hands of his nephew Richard Fothergill. The Gadlys Ironworks was established in 1827 by Matthew Wayne, who had previously managed the Cyfarthfa ironworks at Merthyr. The Gadlys works, now considered an important archaeological site, originally comprised four blast furnaces, inner forges, rowing mills and puddling furnaces. The development of these works provided impetus to the growth of Aberdare as a nucleated town. The iron industry was gradually superseded by coal and all the five iron works had closed by 1875, as the local supply of iron ore was inadequate to meet the ever-increasing demand created by the invention of steel, and as a result the importing of ore proved more profitable.
### Coal industry {#coal_industry}
The iron industry had a relatively small impact upon the economy of Aberdare and in 1831 only 1.2% of the population was employed in manufacturing, as opposed to 19.8% in neighbouring Merthyr Tydfil. In the early years of Aberdare\'s development, most of the coal worked in the parish was coking coal, and was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks. Although the Gadlys works was small in comparison with the other ironworks it became significant as the Waynes also became involved in the production of sale coal. In 1836, this activity led to the exploitation of the \"Four-foot Seam\" of high-calorific value steam coal began, and pits were sunk in rapid succession.
In 1840, Thomas Powell sank a pit at Cwmbach, and during the next few years he opened another four pits. In the next few years, other local entrepreneurs now became involved in the expansion of the coal trade, including David Williams at Ynysgynon and David Davis at Blaengwawr, as well as the latter\'s son David Davis, Maesyffynnon. They were joined by newcomers such as Crawshay Bailey at Aberaman and, in due course, George Elliot in the lower part of the valley. This coal was valuable for steam railways and steam ships, and an export trade began, via the Taff Vale Railway and the port of Cardiff. The population of the parish rose from 6,471 in 1841 to 14,999 in 1851 and 32,299 in 1861 and John Davies described it as \"the most dynamic place in Wales\". In 1851, the Admiralty decided to use Welsh steam coal in ships of the Royal Navy, and this decision boosted the reputation of Aberdare\'s product and launched a huge international export market. Coal mined in Aberdare parish rose from 177000 LT in 1844 to 477000 LT in 1850, and the coal trade, which after 1875 was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions.
The growth of the coal trade inevitably led to a number of industrial disputes, some of which were local and others which affected the wider coalfield. Trade unionism began to appear in the Aberdare Valley at intervals from the 1830s onwards but the first significant manifestation occurred during the Aberdare Strike of 1857--8. The dispute was initiated by the depression in trade which followed the Crimean War and saw the local coal owners successfully impose a reduction in wages. The dispute did, however, witness an early manifestation of mass trade unionism amongst the miners of the valley and although unsuccessful the dispute saw the emergence of a stronger sense of solidarity amongst the miners.
Steam coal was subsequently found in the Rhondda and further west, but many of the great companies of the Welsh coal industry\'s Gilded Age started operation in Aberdare and the lower Cynon Valley, including those of Samuel Thomas, David Davies and Sons, Nixon\'s Navigation and Powell Duffryn.
During the early years of the twentieth century, the Aberdare valley became the focus of increased militancy among the mining workforce and an unofficial strike by 11,000 miners in the district from 20 October 1910 until 2 February 1911 attracted much attention at the time, although it was ultimately overshadowed by the Cambrian dispute in the neighbouring Rhondda valley which became synonymous with the so-called Tonypandy Riots.
In common with the rest of the South Wales coalfield, Aberdare\'s coal industry commenced a long decline after World War I, and the last two deep mines still in operation in the 1960s were the small Aberaman and Fforchaman collieries, which closed in 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On 11 May 1919, an extensive fire broke out on Cardiff Street, Aberdare.
With the decline of both iron and coal, Aberdare has become reliant on commercial businesses as a major source of employment. Its industries include cable manufacture, smokeless fuels, and tourism.
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# Aberdare
## Government
As a small village in the upland valleys of Glamorgan, Aberdare did not play any significant part in political life until its development as an industrial settlement. It was part of the lordship of Miskin, and the ancient office of High Constable continued in ceremonial form until relatively recent times.
### Parliamentary elections {#parliamentary_elections}
In 1832, Aberdare was removed from the Glamorgan county constituency and became part of the parliamentary borough (constituency) of Merthyr Tydfil. For much of the nineteenth century, the representation was initially controlled by the ironmasters of Merthyr, notably the Guest family. From 1852 until 1868 the seat was held by Henry Austen Bruce whose main industrial interests lay in the Aberdare valley. Bruce was a Liberal but was viewed with suspicion by the more radical faction which became increasingly influential within Welsh Liberalism in the 1860s. The radicals supported such policies as the disestablishment of the Church of England and were closely allied to the Liberation Society.
#### 1868 general election {#general_election}
Nonconformist ministers played a prominent role in this new politics and, at Aberdare, they found an effective spokesman in the Rev Thomas Price minister of Calfaria, Aberdare. Following the granting of a second parliamentary seat to the borough of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867, the Liberals of Aberdare sought to ensure that a candidate from their part of the constituency was returned alongside the sitting member, Henry Austen Bruce. Their choice fell upon Richard Fothergill, owner of the ironworks at Abernant, who was enthusiastically supported by the Rev Thomas Price. Shortly before the election, however, Henry Richard intervened as a radical Liberal candidate, invited by the radicals of Merthyr. To many people\'s surprise, Price was lukewarm about his candidature and continued to support Fothergill. Ultimately, Henry Richard won a celebrated victory with Fothergill in second place and Bruce losing his seat. Richard thus became one of the-first radical MPs from Wales.
#### 1874--1914
At the 1874 General Election, both Richard and Fothergill were again returned, although the former was criticised for his apparent lack of sympathy towards the miners during the industrial disputes of the early 1870s. This led to the emergence of Thomas Halliday as the first labour or working-class candidate to contest a Welsh constituency. Although he polled well, Halliday fell short of being elected. For the remainder of the nineteenth century, the constituency was represented by industrialists, most notably David Alfred Thomas. In 1900, however, Thomas was joined by Keir Hardie, the ILP candidate, who became the first labour representative to be returned for a Welsh constituency independent of the Liberal Party.
#### 20th century {#th_century}
The Aberdare constituency came into being at the 1918 election. The first representative was Charles Butt Stanton, who had been elected at a by-election following Hardie\'s death in 1915. However, in 1922, Stanton was defeated by a Labour candidate, and Labour has held the seat ever since. The only significant challenge came from Plaid Cymru at the 1970 and February 1974 General Elections, but these performances have not since been repeated. From 1984 until 2019 the parliamentary seat, now known as Cynon Valley, was held by Ann Clwyd of Labour.
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# Aberdare
## Government
### Local government {#local_government}
Aberdare was an ancient parish within Glamorgan. Until the mid-19th century the local government of Aberdare and its locality remained in the hands of traditional structures such as the parish vestry and the High Constable, who was chosen annually. However, with the rapid industrial development of the parish, these traditional bodies could not cope with the realities of an urbanised, industrial community which had developed without any planning or facilities. During the early decades of the 19th century the ironmasters gradually imposed their influence over local affairs, and this remained the case following the formation of the Merthyr Board of Guardians in 1836. During the 1850s and early 1860s, however, as coal displaced iron as the main industry in the valley, the ironmasters were displaced as the dominant group in local government and administration by an alliance between mostly indigenous coal owners, shopkeepers and tradesmen, professional men and dissenting ministers. A central figure in this development was the Rev Thomas Price. The growth of this alliance was rooted in the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports and the subsequent efforts to establish a British School at Aberdare.
In the 1840s there were no adequate sanitary facilities or water supply, and mortality rates were high. Outbreaks of cholera and typhus were commonplace. Against this background, Thomas Webster Rammell prepared a report for the General Board of Health on the sanitary condition of the parish, which recommended that a local board of health be established. The whole parish of Aberdare was formally declared a local board district on 31 July 1854, to be governed by the Aberdare Local Board of Health. Its first chairman was Richard Fothergill and the members included David Davis, Blaengwawr, David Williams (*Alaw Goch*), Rees Hopkin Rhys and the Rev. Thomas Price. It was followed by the Aberdare School Board in 1871. The Old Town Hall was erected in 1831 although it was not converted for municipal use until the second half of the century.
By 1889, the Local Board of Health had initiated a number of developments: these included the purchase of local reservoirs from the Aberdare Waterworks Company for £97,000, a sewerage scheme costing £35,000, as well as the opening of Aberdare Public Park and a local fever hospital. The lack of a Free Library, however, remained a concern.
Later, the formation of the Glamorgan County Council (upon which Aberdare had five elected members) in 1889, followed by the Aberdare Urban District Council, which replaced the Local Board in 1894, transformed the local politics of the Aberdare valley. At the 1889 Glamorgan County Council Elections most of the elected representatives were coalowners and industrialists, and the only exception in the earlier period was the miners\' agent David Morgan (Dai o\'r Nant), elected in 1892 as a labour representative. From the early 1900s, however, Labour candidates began to gain ground and dominated local government from the 1920s onwards. The same pattern was seen on the Aberdare UDC.
Aberdare Urban District was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. The area became part of the borough of Cynon Valley within the new county of Mid Glamorgan. The area of the former urban district was made a community, later being subdivided in 1982 into five communities: Aberaman, Cwmbach, Llwydcoed, Penywaun, and a smaller Aberdare community. The Aberdare community was further divided in 2017 into two communities called Aberdare East and Aberdare West. Aberdare East includes Aberdare town centre and the village of Abernant. Aberdare West includes Cwmdare, Cwm Sian and Trecynon. No community council exists for either of the Aberdare communities.
Cynon Valley Borough Council and Mid Glamorgan County Council were both abolished in 1996, since when Aberdare has been governed by Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council. The town lies mainly in the Aberdare East ward, represented by two county councillors. Nearby Cwmdare, Llwydcoed and Trecynon are represented by the Aberdare West/Llwydcoed ward. Both wards have been represented by the Labour Party since 2012.
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# Aberdare
## Culture
Aberdare, during its boom years, was considered a centre of Welsh culture: it hosted the first National Eisteddfod in 1861, with which David Williams (Alaw Goch) was closely associated. The town erected a monument in the local park to commemorate the occasion. A number of local eisteddfodau had long been held in the locality, associated with figures such as William Williams (Carw Coch) The Eisteddfod was again held in Aberdare in 1885, and also in 1956 at Aberdare Park, where the Gorsedd standing stones still exist. At the last National Eisteddfod held in Aberdare in 1956 Mathonwy Hughes won the chair. From the mid 19th century, Aberdare was an important publishing centre where a large number of books and journals were produced, the majority of which were in the Welsh language. A newspaper entitled Y Gwladgarwr (the Patriot) was published at Aberdare from 1856 until 1882 and was circulated widely throughout the South Wales valleys. From 1875 a more successful newspaper, Tarian y Gweithiwr (the Workman\'s Shield) was published at Aberdare by John Mills. *Y Darian*, as it was known, strongly supported the trade union movements among the miners and ironworkers of the valleys. The miners\' leader, William Abraham, derived support from the newspaper, which was also aligned with radical nonconformist liberalism. The rise of the political labour movement and the subsequent decline of the Welsh language in the valleys, ultimately led to its decline and closure in 1934.
The Coliseum Theatre is Aberdare\'s main arts venue, containing a 600-seat auditorium and cinema. It is situated in nearby Trecynon and was built in 1938 using miners\' subscriptions.
The Second World War poet Alun Lewis was born near Aberdare in the village of Cwmaman; there is a plaque commemorating him, including a quotation from his poem *The Mountain over Aberdare*.
The founding members of the rock band Stereophonics originated from Cwmaman. It is also the hometown of guitarist Mark Parry of Vancouver rock band The Manvils. Famed anarchist-punk band Crass played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare during the UK miners\' strike.
Griffith Rhys Jones − or Caradog as he was commonly known − was the conductor of the famous \'Côr Mawr\' (\"great choir\") of some 460 voices (the South Wales Choral Union), which twice won first prize at Crystal Palace choral competitions in London in the 1870s. He is depicted in the town\'s most prominent statue by sculptor Goscombe John, unveiled on Victoria Square in 1920.
Aberdare was culturally twinned with the German town of Ravensburg.
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# Aberdare
## Religion
### Anglican Church {#anglican_church}
The original parish church of St John the Baptist was originally built in 1189. Some of its original architecture is still intact.
With the development of Aberdare as an industrial centre in the nineteenth century it became increasingly apparent that the ancient church was far too small to service the perceived spiritual needs of an urban community, particularly in view of the rapid growth of nonconformity from the 1830s onwards. Eventually, John Griffith, the rector of Aberdare, undertook to raise funds to build a new church, leading to the rapid construction of St Elvan\'s Church in the town centre between 1851 and 1852. This Church in Wales church still stands the heart of the parish of Aberdare and has had extensive work since it was built. The church has a modern electrical, two-manual and pedal board pipe organ, that is still used in services.
John Griffith, vicar of Aberdare, who built St Elvan\'s, transformed the role of the Anglican church in the valley by building a number of other churches, including St Fagan\'s, Trecynon. Other churches in the parish are St Luke\'s (Cwmdare), St James\'s (Llwydcoed) and St Matthew\'s (1891) (Abernant).
In the parish of Aberaman and Cwmaman is St Margaret\'s Church, with a beautiful old pipe organ with two manuals and a pedal board. Also in this parish is St Joseph\'s Church, Cwmaman. St Joseph\'s has recently undergone much recreational work, almost converting the church into a community centre, surrounded by a beautiful floral garden and leading to the Cwmaman Sculpture Trail. However, regular church services still take place. Here, there is a two-manual and pedal board electric organ, with speakers at the front and sides of the church.
In 1910 there were 34 Anglican churches in the Urban District of Aberdare. A survey of the attendance at places of worship on a particular Sunday in that year recorded that 17.8% of worshippers attended church services, with the remainder attending nonconformist chapels.
### Nonconformity
The Aberdare Valley was a stronghold of Nonconformity from the mid-nineteenth century until the inter-war years. In the aftermath of the 1847 Education Reports nonconformists became increasingly active in the political and educational life of Wales and in few places was this as prevalent as at Aberdare. The leading figure was Thomas Price, minister of Calfaria, Aberdare.
Aberdare was a major centre of the 1904--05 Religious Revival, which had begun at Loughor near Swansea. The revival aroused alarm among ministers for the revolutionary, even anarchistic, impact it had upon chapel congregations and denominational organisation. In particular, it was seen as drawing attention away from pulpit preaching and the role of the minister. The local newspaper, the *Aberdare Leader*, regarded the revival with suspicion from the outset, objecting to the \'abnormal heat\' which it engendered. Trecynon was particularly affected by the revival, and the meetings held there were said to have aroused more emotion and excitement than the more restrained meetings in Aberdare itself. The impact of the revival was significant in the short term, but in the longer term was fairly transient.
Once the immediate impact of the revival had faded, it was clear from the early 20th century that there was a gradual decline in the influence of the chapels. This can be explained by several factors, including the rise of socialism and the process of linguistic change which saw the younger generation increasingly turn to the English language. There were also theological controversies such as that over the New Theology propounded by R.J. Campbell.
Of the many chapels, few are still used for their original purpose and a number have closed since the turn of the millennium. Many have been converted for housing or other purposes (including one at Robertstown which has become a mosque), and others demolished. Among the notable chapels were Calfaria, Aberdare and Seion, Cwmaman (Baptist); Saron, Aberaman and Siloa, Aberdare (Independent); and Bethania, Aberdare (Calvinistic Methodist).
#### Independents
The earliest Welsh Independent, or Congregationalist chapel in the Aberdare area was Ebenezer, Trecynon, although meetings had been held from the late 18th century in dwelling houses in the locality, for example at Hirwaun. During the 19th century, the Independents showed the biggest increases in terms of places of worship: from two in 1837 to twenty-five (four of them being English causes), in 1897. By 1910 there were 35 Independent chapels, with a total membership of 8,612. Siloa Chapel was the largest of the Independent chapels in Aberdare and is one of the few that remain open today, having been \'re-established\' as a Welsh language chapel. The Independent ministers of nineteenth-century Aberdare included some powerful personalities, but none had the kind of wider social authority which Thomas Price enjoyed amongst the Baptists.
Of the other Independent chapels in the valley, Saron, in Davis Street, Aberaman, was used for regular services by a small group of members until 2011. For many years, these were held in a small side-room, and not the chapel itself. The chapel has a large vestry comprising rows of two-way-facing wooden benches and a stage, with a side entrance onto Beddoe Street and back entrance to Lewis Street. Although the building is not in good repair, the interior, including pulpit and balcony seating area (back and sides), was in good order but the chapel eventually closed due to the very small number of members remaining. In February 1999, Saron became a Grade II Listed Building.
#### Baptists
The Baptists were the most influential of the nonconformist denominations in Aberdare and their development was led by the Rev. Thomas Price who came to Aberdare in the early 1840s as minister of Calfaria Chapel. In 1837 the Baptists had three chapels, but in 1897 there were twenty, seventeen of them being Welsh. By 1910 the number of chapels had increased to 30, with a total membership of 7,422. Most of these Baptist chapels were established under the influence of Thomas Price who encouraged members to establish branch chapels to attract migrants who flocked to the town and locality from rural Wales. The chapels came together for regular gatherings, including baptismal services which were held in the River Cynon As a result, Price exerted an influence in the religious life of the locality which was far greater than that of any other minister.
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# Aberdare
## Religion
### Nonconformity
#### Calvinistic Methodists {#calvinistic_methodists}
By 1910 there were 24 Calvinistic Methodist chapels in the Aberdare Urban District with a total membership of 4,879. The most prominent of these was Bethania, Aberdare, once the largest chapel in Aberdare. Derelict for many years, it was demolished in 2015. The Methodists were numerically powerful and while some of their ministers such as William James of Bethania served on the Aberdare School Board and other public bodies, their constitution militated against the sort of active political action which came more naturally to the Baptists and Independents.
#### Other denominations {#other_denominations}
In 1878 Mother Shepherd, a native Welsh speaker, was sent to Aberdare by the Salvation Army at the start of a period of growth for their mission. After five years she had created seven new stations before she was recalled to London. Shepherd would return to Aberdare working for the community. In 1930 she was given a public funeral.
The Wesleyan Methodists had 14 places of worship by 1910. There was also a significant Unitarian tradition in the valley and three places of worship by 1910. Highland Place Unitarian Church celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2010, with a number of lectures on its history and the history of Unitarianism in Wales taking place there. The church has a two-manual pipe organ with pedal board that is used to accompany all services. The current `{{when|date=January 2023}}`{=mediawiki} organist is Grace Jones, the sister of the former organist Jacob Jones. The connected schoolroom is used for post-service meetings and socialising.
### Judaism
Seymour Street was once home to a synagogue which opened its doors in the late 1800s but closed in 1957. The site now has a blue plaque.
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# Aberdare
## Education
The state of education in the parish was a cause for concern during the early industrial period, as is illustrated by the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports. Initially, there was an outcry, led by the Rev Thomas Price against the comments made by the vicar of Aberdare in his submission to the commissioners. However, on closer reflection, the reports related the deficiencies of educational provision, not only in Aberdare itself but also in the communities of the valleys generally. In so doing they not only criticised the ironmasters for their failure to provide schools for workers\' children but also the nonconformists for not establishing British Schools. At the ten schools in Aberdare there was accommodation for only 1,317 children, a small proportion of the population. Largely as a result of these criticisms, the main nonconformist denominations worked together to establish a British School, known locally as Ysgol y Comin, which was opened in 1848, accommodating 200 pupils. Funds were raised which largely cleared the debts and the opening of the school was marked by a public meeting addressed by Price and David Williams (*Alaw Goch*).
Much energy was expended during this period on conflicts between Anglicans and nonconformists over education. The establishment of the Aberdare School Board in 1871 brought about an extension of educational provision but also intensified religious rivalries. School Board elections were invariably fought on religious grounds. Despite these tensions the Board took over a number of existing schools and established new ones. By 1889, fourteen schools were operated by the Board but truancy and lack of attendance remained a problem, as in many industrial districts.
In common with other public bodies at the time (see \'Local Government\' above), membership of the School Board was dominated by coal owners and colliery officials, nonconformist ministers, professional men and tradesmen. Only occasionally was an Anglican clergyman elected and, with the exception of David Morgan (*Dai o\'r Nant*), no working class candidates were elected for more than one term.
### Colleges
- Coleg y Cymoedd
### Secondary schools {#secondary_schools}
- Aberdare Community School
- St. John the Baptist School (Aberdare)
- Ysgol Gyfun Rhydywaun
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# Aberdare
## Transport
The town is served by Aberdare railway station and Aberdare bus station, opposite each other in the town centre. The town has also been subject to an extensive redevelopment scheme during 2012--13.
## Sports
Aberdare was noted as \"very remarkable\" for its traditions of *Taplasau Hâf* (summer games/dances), races and *gwrolgampau* (\"manly sports\") which were said to have been a feature of the area since at least the 1640s. The town is also home to *Yr Ynys*, an historic sports ground which has the distinction of hosting the first Rugby League international, a professional Rugby League team, a football League side and an All Blacks\' tour match. Today the Ynys hosts the town\'s Rugby union and cricket teams, as well as the Sobell Leisure Centre and the Ron Jones Athletics Stadium, a 263-seat stadium with crumb rubber track and field sports facilities, home to Aberdare Valley AAC.
### Cricket
A cricket club was re-established at the Ynys in 1968 and was named Riverside Cricket Club in reference to its location near the banks of the river. The club would later be renamed Dare Valley CC, before finally changing its name to Aberdare CC. In 2008 the club was granted a 25-year lease on the land outside the boundary of the Ynys\' pitch 1, where a club house and training nets were soon constructed. This was followed by the building of a Community Hub and Café in the 2010s. Today, the club runs 3 adult teams and 4 junior sides.
### Rugby League {#rugby_league}
The Northern Union hired the Ynys on 1 January 1908 to host what would be the first ever international rugby league match. Played on a near frozen pitch, the match between Wales and the New Zealand All Golds proved to be a close and exciting game. The decisive score came from local star and former Aberdare RFC player, Dai \"Tarw\" Jones, who scored a try just minutes before the final whistle, giving Wales a 9--8 victory.
The match attracted 15,000 paying spectators, with the gate receipts of £560 highlighting the commercial potential of rugby league at the Ynys. This took place at a time when the Northern Union was looking to establish professional teams across south Wales and just months after the Welsh Rugby Union had sanctioned Aberdare RFC for professionalism (banning Jones for life). As such, discussions on the establishment of a Rugby League club in Aberdare advanced quickly and on 21 July 1908, Aberdare RLFC were admitted to the Northern Union\'s Rugby League. On 5 September 1908 the new team played their first match against Wigan in front of a crowd of 3,000 at the Ynys.
The potential for crowd support was again demonstrated on 10 November 1908, when the Ynys hosted its second international side as 5,000 spectators watched Aberdare take on the first touring Australian team. However the Aberdare club side could not replicate the heroics of the Welsh team, losing the match 10--37. Indeed, Aberdare struggled under Northern Union rules and initially high crowd numbers deteriorated with the poor results, which saw Aberdare finishing their only season in the Rugby Football League as the bottom club. Finally on 10 July 1909, Aberdare reported \'unexpected difficulties\' in its finances and resigned from the Northern Rugby League.
### Rugby Union {#rugby_union}
A rugby club representing Aberdare was recorded as early as 1876, but the modern Aberdare RFC traces its history back to a foundation of 1890. The club had great success in the early twentieth century with local star Dai \'Tarw\' Jones captaining the club from 1905 to 1907. Jones gained recognition as a player in club, representative and international games. Most notably, Jones played an important part in the \"*Match of the century*\", when Wales defeated the New Zealand All Blacks. In 1907, Jones and the Aberdare club played a pivotal role in the professionalism scandal, with the Welsh Rugby Union permanently suspending the club\'s entire committee and a number of players (including a lifetime ban for Jones). These events would quickly lead to many of the town\'s players and fans switching to rugby league, with the first ever rugby league international and the founding of Aberdare RLFC in 1908.
Despite the suspensions, rugby union continued in the town as the club (renamed Aberaman RFC) moved to Aberaman Park. The Ynys Stadium would host its first international rugby union side on 12 December 1935, when the 1935-36 All Blacks played a tour match against a Mid-Districts side. The All Blacks won the match 31--10 in front of a crowd of 6,000.
Aberaman RFC returned to the Ynys in the 1960s. In February 1971, a clubhouse was opened at the old Crown Hotel in Gloucester Street, this was followed by the construction of a grand stand at the Ynys costing £20,000. Following the advent of professionalism in rugby union, the WRU sanctions against Aberdare were no longer applicable. As such, the club took the name Aberdare RUFC once again. Aberdare is also home to Abercwmboi RFC and Hirwaun RFC.
### Association Football {#association_football}
The Ynys stadium was also home to Aberdare Athletic F.C., members of the Football League between 1921 and 1927. Aberdare finished bottom in their final season and folded in 1928 after failing to be re-elected to the league.
Aberaman Athletic F.C. continued to play until World War II, and was succeeded by Aberdare & Aberaman Athletic in 1945 and Aberdare Town F.C. in 1947. The club continue to play in the Welsh Football League. Today, Aberdare Town plays in the South Wales Alliance League and are based at Aberaman Park.
## In fiction {#in_fiction}
The town is the location for the Christianna Brand novel, The Brides of Aberdar.
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# Aberdare
## Notable people {#notable_people}
: *See also :Category:People from Aberdare*
### Arts and broadcasting {#arts_and_broadcasting}
- Ieuan Ddu ap Dafydd ab Owain -- 15th century bard
- Edward Evans - 18th century bard
- Ioan Gruffudd -- actor, born in Llwydcoed, Aberdare
- Caradog (Griffith Rhys Jones) -- conductor of the famous choirs *Côr Caradog* and *Côr Mawr* who won first prize at The Crystal Palace choral competitions in 1872 and 1873.
- Alaw Goch (David Williams) - coal-owner and bard who helped establish The National Eisteddfod of Wales
- Alun Lewis -- war poet
- Mihangel Morgan -- Welsh language writer, born in Trecynon whose works often feature Aberdare
- John Morgan -- comedian, most notably with Royal Canadian Air Farce
- Roy Noble -- writer and broadcaster who has lived much of his life in Llwydcoed, Aberdare
- Ieuan Rhys -- actor from Trecynon
- Rhian Samuel -- composer and professor of music
- Stereophonics -- all three original members, Kelly Jones, Richard Jones and Stuart Cable were brought up in Cwmaman, Aberdare
- Jo Walton -- fantasy novelist, now living in Montreal, Quebec
### Politicians
- Henry Austin Bruce -- 1st Baron Aberdare & Home Secretary (1868--1873)
- Rose Davies -- Labour politician and feminist
- Patrick Hannan -- political journalist, author and a presenter on television and radio.
- Rhys Hopkin Rhys -- 19th century industrialist and prominent local politician
- Bethan Sayed -- Member of the Senedd for South Wales West
### Religion {#religion_1}
- R
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# Arthur William à Beckett
**Arthur William à Beckett** (25 October 1844 -- 14 January 1909) was an English journalist and intellectual.
## Biography
He was a younger son of Gilbert Abbott à Beckett and Mary Anne à Beckett, brother of Gilbert Arthur à Beckett and educated at Felsted School. Besides fulfilling other journalistic engagements, Beckett founded The Tomahawk which ran from 1867 to 1870 Beckett was on the staff of *Punch* from 1874 to 1902, edited the *Sunday Times* 1891--1895, and the *Naval and Military Magazine* in 1896.
He gave an account of his father and his own reminiscences in *The à Becketts of Punch* (1903). A childhood friend (and distant relative) of W. S. Gilbert, Beckett briefly feuded with Gilbert in 1869, but the two patched up the friendship, and Gilbert even later collaborated on projects with Beckett\'s brother. He was married to Suzanne Frances Winslow, daughter of the noted psychiatrist Forbes Benignus Winslow. He is buried in the churchyard at St Mary Magdalen, Mortlake.
## Works
He published:
- *Comic Guide to the Royal Academy*, with his brother Gilbert (1863--64)
- *Fallen Amongst Thieves* (1869)
- *Our Holiday in the Highlands* (1874)
- *The Shadow Witness* and *The Doom of Saint Quirec*, with Francis Burnand (1875--76)
- *The Ghost of Greystone Grange* (1877)
- *The Mystery of Mostyn Manor* (1878)
- *Traded Out*; *Hard Luck*; *Stone Broke*; *Papers from Pump Handle Court, by a Briefless Barrister* (1884)
- *Modern Arabian Nights* (1885)
- *The Member for Wrottenborough* (1895)
- *Greenroom Recollections* (1896)
- *The Modern Adam* (1899)
- *London at the End of the Century* (1900)
- With F. C. Burnand he co-authored:
- *The Doom of St. Querec* (1875)
- *The Shadow Witness* (1876)
He wrote for the theatre two three-act comedies:
- *L.S.D.* (Royalty Theatre, 1872);
- *About Town* (Court Theatre, 1873, it ran for over 150 nights);
and
- *On Strike* (Court Theatre, 1873, a domestic drama in one act) ;
- *Faded Flowers* (The Haymarket);
- *Long Ago* (Royalty Theatre, 1882);
- *From Father to Son* (Liverpool, 1881, a dramatised version of his novel *Fallen among Thieves* written in 3 acts in cooperation with J. Palgrave Simpson)
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# Abersychan
**Abersychan** is a town and community north of Pontypool in Torfaen, Wales, and lies within the boundaries of the historic county of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent.
Abersychan lies in the narrow northern section of the Afon Lwyd valley.
The town includes two schools; Abersychan Comprehensive School and Victoria Primary School; together with various shops and other amenities including Abersychan Rugby Club.
Abersychan was the birthplace of the politicians Roy Jenkins, Don Touhig and Paul Murphy (member of parliament for Torfaen); and of the rugby footballers Wilfred Hodder, Candy Evans and Bryn Meredith.
## History
Like many of the 17th century isolated agricultural hamlets in the forested South Wales Valleys, Abersychan became a thriving industrial centre in the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly for iron production. After the discovery of iron stone locally, the principal ironworks were built by the British Iron Company in 1825, served mainly by the London and North Western Railway\'s Brynmawr and Blaenavon Railway. The ironwork\'s main office building and quadrangle were designed by architect Decimus Burton, best known for his design of London Zoo. The works passed to the New British Iron Company in 1843 and to the Ebbw Vale Company in 1852, before closing in 1889. On 6 February 1890, an underground explosion at Llanerch Colliery killed 176.
The site of the former ironworks today is a core site of 71 hectare, and a total land area of 526 hectare, includes a number of listed buildings:
- Abersychan Limestone Railway: built c. 1830 to carry limestone from Cwm Lascarn quarry to the British Ironworks.
- Air Furnace at British Ironworks
- British Colliery Pumping Engine House: a Cornish beam pumping engine house built by the British Iron Company. Built of sandstone with a slate roof, and retains several fixtures
- Cwmbyrgwm Colliery: Site of former colliery including remains of a water-balance headgear, chimney, oval shafts, water power dams, tramroad routes, and waste tips.
Various proposals have been made over the years to redevelop the site, currently under the ownership of HSBC, but none have so far passed the requirements of Torfaen county council.
## Local government {#local_government}
Abersychan constitutes a community and electoral ward of the county borough of Torfaen. The area was part of the ancient parish of Trevethin, in Monmouthshire. On 3 June 1864 Abersychan was constituted a local government district, governed by a local board. In 1894 Abersychan became an urban district and civil parish. The urban district was abolished in 1935, with most of its area passing to Pontypool urban district, and a small area going to Abercarn UD.
In 1974 the area became part of the borough of Torfaen, in the new local government county of Gwent. The community of Abersychan was formed in 1985, but no community council has yet been formed. Abersychan and Cwmavon is now a ward for the Pontypool Community Council. In 1996 Torfaen became a unitary authority.
The Abersychan community includes Abersychan, Cwmavon, Garndiffaith, Pentwyn, Talywain, Varteg, and Victoria Village.
## Local transport {#local_transport}
The nearest railway stations to Abersychan are Pontypool & New Inn (3 miles), Llanhilleth (3.5 miles) and Abergavenny (7 miles). Abersychan was served by the following (disused) stations:
- Abersychan and Talywain railway station
- Abersychan Low Level railway station
## Places nearby {#places_nearby}
### Pentwyn
*Pentwyn*, Torfaen is a small village located in the district of Abersychan. It contains a post office, several houses and a small play park. The village has a cricket team (Pontnewynydd CC) and is located right next to the old railway line. The cricket club celebrated its 100-year anniversary in 2006 with a successful tour to Cork, Ireland.
### Victoria Village {#victoria_village}
*Victoria Village* is a small hamlet located in the district of Abersychan. It comprises a small village school and a number of houses. A small group of houses on Incline Road mark the beginning of the village and the village boundary is near Cwmavon. Victoria Primary School is also in this area, housed in large grounds. Many homes are built around the school\'s boundaries. Victoria Village primary school was opened in 1903 and closed by the council in 2018. The last head of the school was Miss Joy Dando
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# Autocorrelation
**Autocorrelation**, sometimes known as **serial correlation** in the discrete time case, measures the correlation of a signal with a delayed copy of itself. Essentially, it quantifies the similarity between observations of a random variable at different points in time. The analysis of autocorrelation is a mathematical tool for identifying repeating patterns or hidden periodicities within a signal obscured by noise. Autocorrelation is widely used in signal processing, time domain and time series analysis to understand the behavior of data over time.
Different fields of study define autocorrelation differently, and not all of these definitions are equivalent. In some fields, the term is used interchangeably with autocovariance.
Various time series models incorporate autocorrelation, such as unit root processes, trend-stationary processes, autoregressive processes, and moving average processes.
## Autocorrelation of stochastic processes {#autocorrelation_of_stochastic_processes}
In statistics, the autocorrelation of a real or complex random process is the Pearson correlation between values of the process at different times, as a function of the two times or of the time lag. Let $\left\{ X_t \right\}$ be a random process, and $t$ be any point in time ($t$ may be an integer for a discrete-time process or a real number for a continuous-time process). Then $X_t$ is the value (or realization) produced by a given run of the process at time $t$. Suppose that the process has mean $\mu_t$ and variance $\sigma_t^2$ at time $t$, for each $t$. Then the definition of the **autocorrelation function** between times $t_1$ and $t_2$ is
where $\operatorname{E}$ is the expected value operator and the bar represents complex conjugation. Note that the expectation may not be well defined.
Subtracting the mean before multiplication yields the **auto-covariance function** between times $t_1$ and $t_2$:
Note that this expression is not well defined for all-time series or processes, because the mean may not exist, or the variance may be zero (for a constant process) or infinite (for processes with distribution lacking well-behaved moments, such as certain types of power law).
### Definition for wide-sense stationary stochastic process {#definition_for_wide_sense_stationary_stochastic_process}
If $\left\{ X_t \right\}$ is a wide-sense stationary process then the mean $\mu$ and the variance $\sigma^2$ are time-independent, and further the autocovariance function depends only on the lag between $t_1$ and $t_2$: the autocovariance depends only on the time-distance between the pair of values but not on their position in time. This further implies that the autocovariance and autocorrelation can be expressed as a function of the time-lag, and that this would be an even function of the lag $\tau=t_2-t_1$. This gives the more familiar forms for the **autocorrelation function**
and the **auto-covariance function**:
In particular, note that
$\operatorname{K}_{XX}(0) = \sigma^2 .$
### Normalization
It is common practice in some disciplines (e.g. statistics and time series analysis) to normalize the autocovariance function to get a time-dependent Pearson correlation coefficient. However, in other disciplines (e.g. engineering) the normalization is usually dropped and the terms \"autocorrelation\" and \"autocovariance\" are used interchangeably.
The definition of the autocorrelation coefficient of a stochastic process is
$\rho_{XX}(t_1,t_2) = \frac{\operatorname{K}_{XX}(t_1,t_2)}{\sigma_{t_1}\sigma_{t_2}} = \frac{\operatorname{E}\left[(X_{t_1} - \mu_{t_1}) \overline{(X_{t_2} - \mu_{t_2})} \right]}{\sigma_{t_1}\sigma_{t_2}} .$
If the function $\rho_{XX}$ is well defined, its value must lie in the range $[-1,1]$, with 1 indicating perfect correlation and −1 indicating perfect anti-correlation.
For a wide-sense stationary (WSS) process, the definition is
$\rho_{XX}(\tau) = \frac{\operatorname{K}_{XX}(\tau)}{\sigma^2} = \frac{\operatorname{E} \left[(X_{t+\tau} - \mu)\overline{(X_{t} - \mu)}\right]}{\sigma^2}$.
The normalization is important both because the interpretation of the autocorrelation as a correlation provides a scale-free measure of the strength of statistical dependence, and because the normalization has an effect on the statistical properties of the estimated autocorrelations.
### Properties
#### Symmetry property {#symmetry_property}
The fact that the autocorrelation function $\operatorname{R}_{XX}$ is an even function can be stated as $\operatorname{R}_{XX}(t_1,t_2) = \overline{\operatorname{R}_{XX}(t_2,t_1)}$ respectively for a WSS process: $\operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) = \overline{\operatorname{R}_{XX}(-\tau)} .$
#### Maximum at zero {#maximum_at_zero}
For a WSS process: $\left|\operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau)\right| \leq \operatorname{R}_{XX}(0)$ Notice that $\operatorname{R}_{XX}(0)$ is always real.
#### Cauchy--Schwarz inequality {#cauchyschwarz_inequality}
The Cauchy--Schwarz inequality, inequality for stochastic processes: $\left|\operatorname{R}_{XX}(t_1,t_2)\right|^2 \leq \operatorname{E}\left[ |X_{t_1}|^2\right] \operatorname{E}\left[|X_{t_2}|^2\right]$
#### Autocorrelation of white noise {#autocorrelation_of_white_noise}
The autocorrelation of a continuous-time white noise signal will have a strong peak (represented by a Dirac delta function) at $\tau=0$ and will be exactly $0$ for all other $\tau$.
#### Wiener--Khinchin theorem {#wienerkhinchin_theorem}
The Wiener--Khinchin theorem relates the autocorrelation function $\operatorname{R}_{XX}$ to the power spectral density $S_{XX}$ via the Fourier transform:
$\operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty S_{XX}(f) e^{i 2 \pi f \tau} \, {\rm d}f$
$S_{XX}(f) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) e^{- i 2 \pi f \tau} \, {\rm d}\tau .$
For real-valued functions, the symmetric autocorrelation function has a real symmetric transform, so the Wiener--Khinchin theorem can be re-expressed in terms of real cosines only:
$\operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty S_{XX}(f) \cos(2 \pi f \tau) \, {\rm d}f$
$S_{XX}(f) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) \cos(2 \pi f \tau) \, {\rm d}\tau .$
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# Autocorrelation
## Autocorrelation of random vectors`{{anchor|Matrix}}`{=mediawiki} {#autocorrelation_of_random_vectors}
The (potentially time-dependent) **autocorrelation matrix** (also called second moment) of a (potentially time-dependent) random vector $\mathbf{X} = (X_1,\ldots,X_n)^{\rm T}$ is an $n \times n$ matrix containing as elements the autocorrelations of all pairs of elements of the random vector $\mathbf{X}$. The autocorrelation matrix is used in various digital signal processing algorithms.
For a random vector $\mathbf{X} = (X_1,\ldots,X_n)^{\rm T}$ containing random elements whose expected value and variance exist, the **autocorrelation matrix** is defined by
\\triangleq\\ \\operatorname{E} \\left\[ \\mathbf{X} \\mathbf{X}\^{\\rm T} \\right\] \|cellpadding= 6 \|border \|border colour = #0073CF \|background colour=#F5FFFA}}
where ${}^{\rm T}$ denotes the transposed matrix of dimensions $n \times n$.
Written component-wise:
$\operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}} =
\begin{bmatrix}
\operatorname{E}[X_1 X_1] & \operatorname{E}[X_1 X_2] & \cdots & \operatorname{E}[X_1 X_n] \\ \\
\operatorname{E}[X_2 X_1] & \operatorname{E}[X_2 X_2] & \cdots & \operatorname{E}[X_2 X_n] \\ \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ \\
\operatorname{E}[X_n X_1] & \operatorname{E}[X_n X_2] & \cdots & \operatorname{E}[X_n X_n] \\ \\
\end{bmatrix}$
If $\mathbf{Z}$ is a complex random vector, the autocorrelation matrix is instead defined by
$\operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{Z}} \triangleq\ \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z} \mathbf{Z}^{\rm H}] .$
Here ${}^{\rm H}$ denotes Hermitian transpose.
For example, if $\mathbf{X} = \left( X_1,X_2,X_3 \right)^{\rm T}$ is a random vector, then $\operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}}$ is a $3 \times 3$ matrix whose $(i,j)$-th entry is $\operatorname{E}[X_i X_j]$.
### Properties of the autocorrelation matrix {#properties_of_the_autocorrelation_matrix}
- The autocorrelation matrix is a Hermitian matrix for complex random vectors and a symmetric matrix for real random vectors.
- The autocorrelation matrix is a positive semidefinite matrix, i.e. $\mathbf{a}^{\mathrm T} \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}} \mathbf{a} \ge 0 \quad \text{for all } \mathbf{a} \in \mathbb{R}^n$ for a real random vector, and respectively $\mathbf{a}^{\mathrm H} \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{Z}} \mathbf{a} \ge 0 \quad \text{for all } \mathbf{a} \in \mathbb{C}^n$ in case of a complex random vector.
- All eigenvalues of the autocorrelation matrix are real and non-negative.
- The *auto-covariance matrix* is related to the autocorrelation matrix as follows:\<!\--
\--\>$\operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}} = \operatorname{E}[(\mathbf{X} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{X}])(\mathbf{X} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{X}])^{\rm T}] = \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{X}] \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{X}]^{\rm T}$ Respectively for complex random vectors: $\operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{Z}} = \operatorname{E}[(\mathbf{Z} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z}])(\mathbf{Z} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z}])^{\rm H}] = \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{Z}} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z}] \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z}]^{\rm H}$
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# Autocorrelation
## Autocorrelation of deterministic signals {#autocorrelation_of_deterministic_signals}
In signal processing, the above definition is often used without the normalization, that is, without subtracting the mean and dividing by the variance. When the autocorrelation function is normalized by mean and variance, it is sometimes referred to as the **autocorrelation coefficient** or autocovariance function.
### Autocorrelation of continuous-time signal {#autocorrelation_of_continuous_time_signal}
Given a signal $f(t)$, the continuous autocorrelation $R_{ff}(\tau)$ is most often defined as the continuous cross-correlation integral of $f(t)$ with itself, at lag $\tau$.
where $\overline{f(t)}$ represents the complex conjugate of $f(t)$. Note that the parameter $t$ in the integral is a dummy variable and is only necessary to calculate the integral. It has no specific meaning.
### Autocorrelation of discrete-time signal {#autocorrelation_of_discrete_time_signal}
The discrete autocorrelation $R$ at lag $\ell$ for a discrete-time signal $y(n)$ is
The above definitions work for signals that are square integrable, or square summable, that is, of finite energy. Signals that \"last forever\" are treated instead as random processes, in which case different definitions are needed, based on expected values. For wide-sense-stationary random processes, the autocorrelations are defined as
$\begin{align}
R_{ff}(\tau) &= \operatorname{E}\left[f(t)\overline{f(t-\tau)}\right] \\
R_{yy}(\ell) &= \operatorname{E}\left[y(n)\,\overline{y(n-\ell)}\right] .
\end{align}$
For processes that are not stationary, these will also be functions of $t$, or $n$.
For processes that are also ergodic, the expectation can be replaced by the limit of a time average. The autocorrelation of an ergodic process is sometimes defined as or equated to
$\begin{align}
R_{ff}(\tau) &= \lim_{T \rightarrow \infty} \frac 1 T \int_0^T f(t+\tau)\overline{f(t)}\, {\rm d}t \\
R_{yy}(\ell) &= \lim_{N \rightarrow \infty} \frac 1 N \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} y(n)\,\overline{y(n-\ell)} .
\end{align}$
These definitions have the advantage that they give sensible well-defined single-parameter results for periodic functions, even when those functions are not the output of stationary ergodic processes.
Alternatively, signals that *last forever* can be treated by a short-time autocorrelation function analysis, using finite time integrals. (See short-time Fourier transform for a related process.)
### Definition for periodic signals {#definition_for_periodic_signals}
If $f$ is a continuous periodic function of period $T$, the integration from $-\infty$ to $\infty$ is replaced by integration over any interval $[t_0,t_0+T]$ of length $T$:
$R_{ff}(\tau) \triangleq \int_{t_0}^{t_0+T} f(t+\tau) \overline{f(t)} \,dt$
which is equivalent to
$R_{ff}(\tau) \triangleq \int_{t_0}^{t_0+T} f(t) \overline{f(t-\tau)} \,dt$
### Properties {#properties_1}
In the following, we will describe properties of one-dimensional autocorrelations only, since most properties are easily transferred from the one-dimensional case to the multi-dimensional cases. These properties hold for wide-sense stationary processes.
- A fundamental property of the autocorrelation is symmetry, $R_{ff}(\tau) = R_{ff}(-\tau)$, which is easy to prove from the definition. In the continuous case,
- the autocorrelation is an even function $R_{ff}(-\tau) = R_{ff}(\tau)$ when $f$ is a real function, and
- the autocorrelation is a Hermitian function $R_{ff}(-\tau) = R_{ff}^*(\tau)$ when $f$ is a complex function.
- The continuous autocorrelation function reaches its peak at the origin, where it takes a real value, i.e. for any delay $\tau$, $|R_{ff}(\tau)| \leq R_{ff}(0)$. This is a consequence of the rearrangement inequality. The same result holds in the discrete case.
- The autocorrelation of a periodic function is, itself, periodic with the same period.
- The autocorrelation of the sum of two completely uncorrelated functions (the cross-correlation is zero for all $\tau$) is the sum of the autocorrelations of each function separately.
- Since autocorrelation is a specific type of cross-correlation, it maintains all the properties of cross-correlation.
- By using the symbol $*$ to represent convolution and $g_{-1}$ is a function which manipulates the function $f$ and is defined as $g_{-1}(f)(t)=f(-t)$, the definition for $R_{ff}(\tau)$ may be written as:\<!\--
\--\>$R_{ff}(\tau) = (f * g_{-1}(\overline{f}))(\tau)$
## Multi-dimensional autocorrelation {#multi_dimensional_autocorrelation}
Multi-dimensional autocorrelation is defined similarly. For example, in three dimensions the autocorrelation of a square-summable discrete signal would be
$R(j,k,\ell) = \sum_{n,q,r} x_{n,q,r}\,\overline{x}_{n-j,q-k,r-\ell} .$
When mean values are subtracted from signals before computing an autocorrelation function, the resulting function is usually called an auto-covariance function.
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# Autocorrelation
## Efficient computation {#efficient_computation}
For data expressed as a discrete sequence, it is frequently necessary to compute the autocorrelation with high computational efficiency. A brute force method based on the signal processing definition $R_{xx}(j) = \sum_n x_n\,\overline{x}_{n-j}$ can be used when the signal size is small. For example, to calculate the autocorrelation of the real signal sequence $x = (2,3,-1)$ (i.e. $x_0=2, x_1=3, x_2=-1$, and $x_i = 0$ for all other values of `{{mvar|i}}`{=mediawiki}) by hand, we first recognize that the definition just given is the same as the \"usual\" multiplication, but with right shifts, where each vertical addition gives the autocorrelation for particular lag values: $\begin{array}{rrrrrr}
& 2 & 3 & -1 \\
\times & 2 & 3 & -1 \\
\hline
&-2 &-3 & 1 \\
& & 6 & 9 & -3 \\
+ & & & 4 & 6 & -2 \\
\hline
& -2 & 3 &14 & 3 & -2
\end{array}$
Thus the required autocorrelation sequence is $R_{xx}=(-2,3,14,3,-2)$, where $R_{xx}(0)=14,$ $R_{xx}(-1)= R_{xx}(1)=3,$ and $R_{xx}(-2)= R_{xx}(2) = -2,$ the autocorrelation for other lag values being zero. In this calculation we do not perform the carry-over operation during addition as is usual in normal multiplication. Note that we can halve the number of operations required by exploiting the inherent symmetry of the autocorrelation. If the signal happens to be periodic, i.e. $x=(\ldots,2,3,-1,2,3,-1,\ldots),$ then we get a circular autocorrelation (similar to circular convolution) where the left and right tails of the previous autocorrelation sequence will overlap and give $R_{xx}=(\ldots,14,1,1,14,1,1,\ldots)$ which has the same period as the signal sequence $x.$ The procedure can be regarded as an application of the convolution property of Z-transform of a discrete signal.
While the brute force algorithm is order `{{math|''n''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, several efficient algorithms exist which can compute the autocorrelation in order `{{math|''n'' log(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki}. For example, the Wiener--Khinchin theorem allows computing the autocorrelation from the raw data `{{math|''X''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} with two fast Fourier transforms (FFT):`{{page needed|date=March 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
$\begin{align}
F_R(f) &= \operatorname{FFT}[X(t)] \\
S(f) &= F_R(f) F^*_R(f) \\
R(\tau) &= \operatorname{IFFT}[S(f)]
\end{align}$
where IFFT denotes the inverse fast Fourier transform. The asterisk denotes complex conjugate.
Alternatively, a multiple `{{mvar|τ}}`{=mediawiki} correlation can be performed by using brute force calculation for low `{{mvar|τ}}`{=mediawiki} values, and then progressively binning the `{{math|''X''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} data with a logarithmic density to compute higher values, resulting in the same `{{math|''n'' log(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} efficiency, but with lower memory requirements.
## Estimation
For a discrete process with known mean and variance for which we observe $n$ observations $\{X_1,\,X_2,\,\ldots,\,X_n\}$, an estimate of the autocorrelation coefficient may be obtained as
$\hat{R}(k)=\frac{1}{(n-k) \sigma^2} \sum_{t=1}^{n-k} (X_t-\mu)(X_{t+k}-\mu)$
for any positive integer $k<n$. When the true mean $\mu$ and variance $\sigma^2$ are known, this estimate is **unbiased**. If the true mean and variance of the process are not known there are several possibilities:
- If $\mu$ and $\sigma^2$ are replaced by the standard formulae for sample mean and sample variance, then this is a **biased estimate**.
- A periodogram-based estimate replaces $n-k$ in the above formula with $n$. This estimate is always biased; however, it usually has a smaller mean squared error.
- Other possibilities derive from treating the two portions of data $\{X_1,\,X_2,\,\ldots,\,X_{n-k}\}$ and $\{X_{k+1},\,X_{k+2},\,\ldots,\,X_n\}$ separately and calculating separate sample means and/or sample variances for use in defining the estimate.
The advantage of estimates of the last type is that the set of estimated autocorrelations, as a function of $k$, then form a function which is a valid autocorrelation in the sense that it is possible to define a theoretical process having exactly that autocorrelation. Other estimates can suffer from the problem that, if they are used to calculate the variance of a linear combination of the $X$\'s, the variance calculated may turn out to be negative.
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# Autocorrelation
## Regression analysis {#regression_analysis}
In regression analysis using time series data, autocorrelation in a variable of interest is typically modeled either with an autoregressive model (AR), a moving average model (MA), their combination as an autoregressive-moving-average model (ARMA), or an extension of the latter called an autoregressive integrated moving average model (ARIMA). With multiple interrelated data series, vector autoregression (VAR) or its extensions are used.
In ordinary least squares (OLS), the adequacy of a model specification can be checked in part by establishing whether there is autocorrelation of the regression residuals. Problematic autocorrelation of the errors, which themselves are unobserved, can generally be detected because it produces autocorrelation in the observable residuals. (Errors are also known as \"error terms\" in econometrics.) Autocorrelation of the errors violates the ordinary least squares assumption that the error terms are uncorrelated, meaning that the Gauss Markov theorem does not apply, and that OLS estimators are no longer the Best Linear Unbiased Estimators (BLUE). While it does not bias the OLS coefficient estimates, the standard errors tend to be underestimated (and the t-scores overestimated) when the autocorrelations of the errors at low lags are positive.
The traditional test for the presence of first-order autocorrelation is the Durbin--Watson statistic or, if the explanatory variables include a lagged dependent variable, Durbin\'s h statistic. The Durbin-Watson can be linearly mapped however to the Pearson correlation between values and their lags. A more flexible test, covering autocorrelation of higher orders and applicable whether or not the regressors include lags of the dependent variable, is the Breusch--Godfrey test. This involves an auxiliary regression, wherein the residuals obtained from estimating the model of interest are regressed on (a) the original regressors and (b) *k* lags of the residuals, where \'k\' is the order of the test. The simplest version of the test statistic from this auxiliary regression is *TR*^2^, where *T* is the sample size and *R*^2^ is the coefficient of determination. Under the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation, this statistic is asymptotically distributed as $\chi^2$ with *k* degrees of freedom.
Responses to nonzero autocorrelation include generalized least squares and the Newey--West HAC estimator (Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent).
In the estimation of a moving average model (MA), the autocorrelation function is used to determine the appropriate number of lagged error terms to be included. This is based on the fact that for an MA process of order *q*, we have $R(\tau) \neq 0$, for $\tau = 0,1, \ldots , q$, and $R(\tau) = 0$, for $\tau >q$.
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# Autocorrelation
## Applications
Autocorrelation\'s ability to find repeating patterns in data yields many applications, including:
- Autocorrelation analysis is used heavily in fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to provide quantitative insight into molecular-level diffusion and chemical reactions.
- Another application of autocorrelation is the measurement of optical spectra and the measurement of very-short-duration light pulses produced by lasers, both using optical autocorrelators.
- Autocorrelation is used to analyze dynamic light scattering data, which notably enables determination of the particle size distributions of nanometer-sized particles or micelles suspended in a fluid. A laser shining into the mixture produces a speckle pattern that results from the motion of the particles. Autocorrelation of the signal can be analyzed in terms of the diffusion of the particles. From this, knowing the viscosity of the fluid, the sizes of the particles can be calculated.
- Utilized in the GPS system to correct for the propagation delay, or time shift, between the point of time at the transmission of the carrier signal at the satellites, and the point of time at the receiver on the ground. This is done by the receiver generating a replica signal of the 1,023-bit C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code, and generating lines of code chips \[-1,1\] in packets of ten at a time, or 10,230 chips (1,023 × 10), shifting slightly as it goes along in order to accommodate for the doppler shift in the incoming satellite signal, until the receiver replica signal and the satellite signal codes match up.
- The small-angle X-ray scattering intensity of a nanostructured system is the Fourier transform of the spatial autocorrelation function of the electron density.
- In surface science and scanning probe microscopy, autocorrelation is used to establish a link between surface morphology and functional characteristics.
- In optics, normalized autocorrelations and cross-correlations give the degree of coherence of an electromagnetic field.
- In astronomy, autocorrelation can determine the frequency of pulsars.
- In music, autocorrelation (when applied at time scales smaller than a second) is used as a pitch detection algorithm for both instrument tuners and \"Auto Tune\" (used as a distortion effect or to fix intonation). When applied at time scales larger than a second, autocorrelation can identify the musical beat, for example to determine tempo.
- Autocorrelation in space rather than time, via the Patterson function, is used by X-ray diffractionists to help recover the \"Fourier phase information\" on atom positions not available through diffraction alone.
- In statistics, spatial autocorrelation between sample locations also helps one estimate mean value uncertainties when sampling a heterogeneous population.
- The SEQUEST algorithm for analyzing mass spectra makes use of autocorrelation in conjunction with cross-correlation to score the similarity of an observed spectrum to an idealized spectrum representing a peptide.
- In astrophysics, autocorrelation is used to study and characterize the spatial distribution of galaxies in the universe and in multi-wavelength observations of low mass X-ray binaries.
- In panel data, spatial autocorrelation refers to correlation of a variable with itself through space.
- In analysis of Markov chain Monte Carlo data, autocorrelation must be taken into account for correct error determination.
- In geosciences (specifically in geophysics) it can be used to compute an autocorrelation seismic attribute, out of a 3D seismic survey of the underground.
- In medical ultrasound imaging, autocorrelation is used to visualize blood flow.
- In intertemporal portfolio choice, the presence or absence of autocorrelation in an asset\'s rate of return can affect the optimal portion of the portfolio to hold in that asset.
- In numerical relays, autocorrelation has been used to accurately measure power system frequency.
## Serial dependence {#serial_dependence}
**Serial dependence** is closely linked to the notion of autocorrelation, but represents a distinct concept (see Correlation and dependence). In particular, it is possible to have serial dependence but no (linear) correlation. In some fields however, the two terms are used as synonyms.
A time series of a random variable has serial dependence if the value at some time $t$ in the series is statistically dependent on the value at another time $s$. A series is serially independent if there is no dependence between any pair.
If a time series $\left\{ X_t \right\}$ is stationary, then statistical dependence between the pair $(X_t,X_s)$ would imply that there is statistical dependence between all pairs of values at the same lag $\tau=s-t$
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# Atlas Autocode
**Atlas Autocode** (**AA**) is a programming language developed around 1963 at the University of Manchester. A variant of the language ALGOL, it was developed by Tony Brooker and Derrick Morris for the Atlas computer. The initial AA and AB compilers were written by Jeff Rohl and Tony Brooker using the Brooker-Morris Compiler-compiler, with a later hand-coded non-CC implementation (ABC) by Jeff Rohl.
The word *Autocode* was basically an early term for *programming language*. Different autocodes could vary greatly.
## Features
AA was a block structured language that featured explicitly typed variables, subroutines, and functions. It omitted some ALGOL features such as *passing parameters by name*, which in ALGOL 60 means passing the memory address of a short subroutine (a *thunk*) to recalculate a parameter each time it is mentioned.
The AA compiler could generate range-checking for array accesses, and allowed an array to have dimensions that were determined at runtime, i.e., an array could be declared as `integer`` ``array`` Thing (i:j)`, where `i` and `j` were calculated values.
AA high-level routines could include machine code, either to make an inner loop more efficient or to effect some operation which otherwise cannot be done easily.
AA included a `complex` data type to represent complex numbers, partly because of pressure from the electrical engineering department, as complex numbers are used to represent the behavior of alternating current. The imaginary unit square root of -1 was represented by `i`, which was treated as a fixed complex constant = *i*.
The `complex` data type was dropped when Atlas Autocode later evolved into the language Edinburgh IMP. IMP was an extension of AA and was used to write the Edinburgh Multiple Access System (EMAS) operating system.
In addition to being notable as the progenitor of IMP and EMAS, AA is noted for having had many of the features of the original *Compiler Compiler*. A variant of the AA compiler included run-time support for a top-down recursive descent parser. The style of parser used in the Compiler Compiler was in use continuously at Edinburgh from the 60\'s until almost the year 2000.
Other Autocodes were developed for the Titan computer, a prototype Atlas 2 at Cambridge, and the Ferranti Mercury.
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