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# Germanicus
**Germanicus Julius Caesar** (24 May 15 BC -- 10 October AD 19) was a Roman general and politician most famously known for his campaigns against Arminius in Germania. The son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia the Younger, Germanicus was born into an influential branch of the patrician *gens Claudia*. The agnomen *Germanicus* was added to his full name in 9 BC when it was posthumously awarded to his father in honor of his victories in Germania. In AD 4 he was adopted by his paternal uncle Tiberius, himself the stepson and heir of Germanicus\' great-uncle Augustus; ten years later, Tiberius succeeded Augustus as Roman emperor. As a result of his adoption, Germanicus became an official member of the *gens Julia*, another prominent family, to which he was related on his mother\'s side. His connection to the *Julii Caesares* was further consolidated through a marriage between him and Agrippina the Elder, a granddaughter of Augustus. He was also the father of Caligula, the maternal grandfather of Nero, and the older brother of Claudius.
During the reign of Augustus, Germanicus enjoyed an accelerated political career, entering the office of quaestor five years before the legal age in AD 7. He held that office until AD 11, and was elected consul for the first time in AD 12. The year after, he was made proconsul of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior, and all of Gaul. From there he commanded eight legions, about one-third of the entire Roman army at the time, which he led against the Germanic tribes in his campaigns from AD 14 to 16. He avenged the Roman Empire\'s defeat in the Teutoburg Forest and retrieved two of the three legionary eagles that had been lost during the battle. In AD 17, he returned to Rome, where he received a triumph before leaving to reorganize the provinces of Asia Minor, whereby he incorporated the provinces of Cappadocia and Commagene in AD 18.
While in the eastern provinces, Germanicus came into conflict with the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso. During their feud, Germanicus became ill in Antioch and died on 10 October AD 19. His death has been attributed to poison by ancient sources, but that was never proven. As a famous general, he was widely popular and regarded as the ideal Roman long after his death. To the Roman people, Germanicus was the Roman equivalent of Alexander the Great due to the nature of his death at a young age, his virtuous character, his dashing physique, and his military renown.
## Name
Germanicus\'s *praenomen* (personal name) at birth is unknown, but he was probably named Nero Claudius Drusus after his father (conventionally called \"Drusus\"), or possibly Tiberius Claudius Nero after his paternal uncle. Some historians such as Iosif Constantin Drăgan believe he may have been named Decimus Claudius Nero or Decimus Claudius Drusus at his *Dies lustricus*, since his father\'s *praenomen* at birth was \"Decimus\". He took the *agnomen* (nickname) \"Germanicus\", awarded posthumously to his father in honor of his victories in Germania, at which point he nominally became head of the family in 9 BC. By AD 4 his uncle Tiberius adopted Germanicus as his son and heir. As a result, Germanicus was adopted out of the *gens Claudia* and into that of the *gens Julia*. In accordance with Roman naming conventions, he adopted the name \"Julius Caesar\" while retaining his *agnomen*, becoming Germanicus Julius Caesar. Upon Germanicus\' adoption into the *Julii*, his brother Claudius became the sole legal representative of his father, inheriting the *agnomen* \"Germanicus\" as the new head of the family.
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# Germanicus
## House and early life {#house_and_early_life}
upright=1.35\|right\|thumb\|*Ara Pacis*: processional frieze showing members of the Imperial household (south face). Germanicus is the toddler holding Antonia Minor\'s hand. Germanicus was born in Rome on 24 May 15 BC to Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor and had two younger siblings: a sister, Livilla, and a brother, Claudius. His paternal grandmother was Livia, who had divorced his grandfather Tiberius Claudius Nero around 24 years before Germanicus\' birth. Livia\'s second marriage was to the Roman emperor Augustus. His maternal grandparents were the triumvir Mark Antony and Augustus\' sister Octavia Minor. Germanicus was a key figure in the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. Tiberius, Germanicus\' uncle, became the second Roman emperor and would be succeeded by Germanicus\' son Gaius. Germanicus was also the brother of the fourth emperor, Claudius, and the grandfather of the fifth emperor, Nero.
When Augustus\' chosen successor, Gaius Caesar, died in AD 4, he briefly considered Germanicus as his heir. His wife Livia persuaded him to choose his stepson Tiberius instead. As part of the succession arrangements, Augustus adopted Tiberius on 26 June AD 4, but first required him to adopt Germanicus, thus placing him next in the line of succession after Tiberius. Germanicus married Augustus\' granddaughter, Agrippina the Elder, probably the next year, to further strengthen his ties to the imperial family. The couple had nine children: Nero Julius Caesar; Drusus Caesar; Tiberius Julius Caesar (not to be confused with emperor Tiberius); a child of unknown name (normally referred to as *Ignotus*); Gaius the Elder; Gaius the Younger (the future emperor \"Caligula\"); Agrippina the Younger (the future empress); Julia Drusilla; and Julia Livilla. Only six of his children came of age; Tiberius and the Ignotus died as infants, and Gaius the Elder in his early childhood.
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# Germanicus
## Career
### Batonian War {#batonian_war}
Germanicus became a quaestor in AD 7, four years before the legal age of 25. He was sent to Illyricum the same year to help Tiberius suppress a rebellion by the Pannonians and Dalmatians. He brought with him an army of levied citizens and former slaves to reinforce Tiberius at Siscia, his base of operations in Illyricum. Towards the end of the year, additional reinforcements arrived; three legions from Moesia commanded by Aulus Caecina Severus, and two legions with Thracian cavalry and auxiliary troops from Anatolia commanded by Silvanus.
By the time Germanicus had arrived in Pannonia, the rebels had resorted to raiding from the mountain fortresses to which they had withdrawn. Because the Roman legions were not so effective at countering this tactic, Tiberius deployed his auxiliary forces and divided his army into small detachments, allowing them to cover more ground and conduct a war of attrition against the rebels in their strong defensive positions. The Romans also began to drive the rebels out of the countryside, offering amnesty to those tribes that would lay down their arms, and implemented a scorched earth policy in an effort to starve the enemy out. During this period, Germanicus\' detachments were in action against the Mazaei, whom he defeated.
The rebel position in Pannonia collapsed in AD 8 when one of their commanders, Bato the Breucian, surrendered their leader Pinnes to the Romans and laid down his arms in return for amnesty. This was nullified when Bato the Breucian was defeated in battle and subsequently executed by his former ally Bato the Daesitiate, but this left the Pannonians divided against each other, and the Romans were able to subdue the Breuci without battle. The pacification of the Breuci, with their large population and resources, was a significant victory for the Romans, who would be reinforced by eight cohorts of Breuci auxiliaries towards the end of the war. Bato the Daesitiate withdrew from Pannonia to Dalmatia, where he occupied the mountains of Bosnia and began conducting counter-attacks, most likely against the indigenous people who sided with the Romans. Later in the year, Tiberius left Lepidus in command of Siscia and Silvanus at Sirmium.
Roman forces took the initiative in AD 9, and pushed into Dalmatia. Tiberius divided his forces into three divisions: one under Silvanus, which advanced south-east from Sirmium; another commanded by Lepidus, which advanced north-west along the Una Valley from Siscia toward Burnum; and the third led by Tiberius and Germanicus in the Dalmatian hinterland. The divisions under Lepidus and Silvanus practically exterminated the Perustae and Daesitiate in their mountain strongholds. Roman forces captured many cities, and those commanded by Germanicus took Raetinum, near Seretium (although it was destroyed in a fire set by the rebels during the siege), Splonum (in modern-day northern Montenegro) and Seretium itself (in modern-day western Bosnia). The Roman forces under Tiberius and Germanicus pursued Bato to the fortress of Andretium near Salona, to which they laid siege. When it became clear Bato would not surrender, Tiberius assaulted the fortress and captured him. While Tiberius negotiated the terms of surrender, Germanicus was sent on a punitive expedition across the surrounding territory, during which he forced the surrender of the fortified town of Arduba and surrounding towns. He then sent a deputy to subdue the remaining districts and returned to Tiberius.
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# Germanicus
## Career
### Interim
upright=0.8\|thumb\|*Battle of Teutoburg Forest*, by Otto Albert Koch (1909) After a distinguished start to his military career, Germanicus returned to Rome in late AD 9 to personally announce his victory. He was honored with a triumphal insignia (without an actual triumph) and the rank (not the actual title) of praetor. He was also given permission to be a candidate for consul before the regular time and the right to speak first in the Senate after the consuls. According to Cassius Dio, Germanicus was a popular quaestor because he acted as an advocate as much in capital jurisdiction cases before Augustus as he did before lesser judges in standard *quaestiones* (trials). He successfully defended, for example, a quaestor accused of murder in AD 10 in which the prosecutor, fearing the jurors would find in favor of the defense out of deference for Germanicus, demanded a trial before Augustus.
In AD 9, three Roman legions commanded by Varus were destroyed by a coalition of German tribes led by Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. As proconsul, Germanicus was dispatched with Tiberius to defend the empire against the Germans in AD 11. The two generals crossed the Rhine, made various excursions into enemy territory and, in the beginning of autumn, recrossed the river. The campaigns of Tiberius and Germanicus in Germania in the years AD 11--12, combined with an alliance with the Marcomannic federation of Marbod, prevented the German coalition from crossing the Rhine and invading Gaul and Italy. In winter, Germanicus returned to Rome, where he was, after five mandates as quaestor and despite never having been aedile or praetor, appointed consul for the year AD 12. He shared the consulship with Gaius Fonteius Capito. He continued to advocate for defendants in court during his consulship, a popular move reminiscent of his previous work defending the accused in front of Augustus. He also courted popularity by ministering the *Ludi Martiales* (games of Mars), as mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his *Historia Naturalis*, in which he released two hundred lions in the Circus Maximus.
On 23 October AD 12, Tiberius held a triumph for his victory over the Pannonians and Dalmatians, which he had postponed on account of the defeat of Varus at Teutoburg Forest. He was accompanied, among his other generals, by Germanicus, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia. Unlike his adoptive brother Drusus, who received no recognition beyond being the son of a triumphator, Germanicus played a distinguished part in the celebration and was given the opportunity to display his consular insignia and triumphal ornaments.
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# Germanicus
## Career
### Commander of Roman campaigns in Germania {#commander_of_roman_campaigns_in_germania}
thumb\|upright=1.35\|Campaigns of Tiberius and Germanicus in the years AD 10/11-13. In pink the anti-Roman Germanic coalition led by Arminius. In dark green, territories still directly held by the Romans, in yellow the Roman client states In AD 13, Augustus appointed him commander of the forces at the Rhine, which totaled eight legions and was about one-third of Rome\'s total military force. The next year in August, Augustus died and on 17 September the Senate met to confirm Tiberius as princeps. That day the Senate also dispatched a delegation to Germanicus\' camp to send its condolences for the death of his grandfather and to grant him proconsular *imperium*. The delegation would not arrive until October.
In Germany and Illyricum, the legions were in mutiny. In Germany, the legions in mutiny were those of the Lower Rhine under Aulus Caecina (the V Alaudae, XXI Rapax, I Germanica, and XX Valeria Victrix). The army of the Lower Rhine was stationed in summer quarters on the border of the Ubii. They had not been paid the bonuses promised them by Augustus and, when it became clear a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming, they revolted. Germanicus dealt with the troops in Germania, and Tiberius\' son Drusus dealt with Illyricum.
The army of the Lower Rhine sought an increase in pay, the reduction of their service to 16 years (down from 20) to mitigate the hardship of their military tasks, and vengeance against the centurions for their cruelty. After Germanicus arrived, the soldiers listed their complaints to him and attempted to proclaim him emperor. His open and affable manners made him popular with the soldiers, but he remained loyal to the emperor. When news of the mutiny reached the army of the Upper Rhine under Gaius Silius (the Legions II Augusta, XIII Gemina, XVI Gallica, and XIV Gemina) a meeting was held to meet their demands. Germanicus negotiated a settlement:
- After 20 years of service, a full discharge was given, but after 16 years an immunity from military tasks, except to take part in actions (*missio sub vexillo*).
- The donative left by Augustus to the troops was to be doubled and discharged.
#### First campaign against the Germanic tribes {#first_campaign_against_the_germanic_tribes}
To satisfy the requisition promised to the legions, Germanicus paid them out of his own pocket. All eight legions were given money, even if they did not demand it. Both the armies of the Lower and Upper Rhine had returned to order. It seemed prudent to satisfy the armies, but Germanicus took it a step further. In a bid to secure the loyalty of his troops, he led them on a raid against the Marsi, a Germanic people on the upper Ruhr river. Germanicus massacred the villages of the Marsi he encountered and pillaged the surrounding territory. On the way back to their winter quarters at Castra Vetera, they pushed successfully through the opposing tribes (Bructeri, Tubantes, and Usipetes) between the Marsi and the Rhine.
Back at Rome, Tiberius instituted the *Sodales Augustales*, a priesthood of the cult of Augustus, of which Germanicus became a member. When news arrived of his raid, Tiberius commemorated his services in the Senate. The Senate, in absence of Germanicus, voted that he should be given a triumph. Ovid\'s *Fasti* dates the Senate vote of Germanicus\' triumph to 1 January AD 15.
#### Second campaign against the Germanic tribes {#second_campaign_against_the_germanic_tribes}
thumb\|left\|upright=0.8\|*Hermannsdenkmal* Memorial to Arminius near Detmold, Germany For the next two years, he led his legions across the Rhine against the Germans, where they would confront the forces of Arminius and his allies. Tacitus says the purpose of those campaigns was to avenge the defeat of Varus at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, and not to expand Roman territory.
In early spring AD 15, Germanicus crossed the Rhine and struck the Chatti. He sacked their capital Mattium (modern Maden near Gudensberg), pillaged their countryside, then returned to the Rhine. Sometime this year, he received word from Segestes, who was held prisoner by Arminius\'s forces and needed help. Germanicus\'s troops rescued Segestes and took his pregnant daughter, Arminius\'s wife Thusnelda, into captivity. Again he marched back victorious and at the direction of Tiberius, accepted the title of Imperator.
Arminius called his tribe, the Cherusci, and the surrounding tribes to arms. Germanicus coordinated a land and riverine offensive, with troops marching eastward across the Rhine, and sailing from the North Sea up the Ems River in order to attack the Bructeri and Cherusci. Germanicus\' forces went through Bructeri territory, where a general, Lucius Stertinius, recovered the lost eagle of the XIX Legion from among the equipment of the Bructeri after routing them in battle.
Germanicus\'s legions met up to the north, and ravaged the countryside between the Ems and the Lippe, and penetrated to the Teutoburg Forest, a mountain forest in western Germany situated between these two rivers. There, Germanicus and some of his men visited the site of the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, and began burying the remains of the Roman soldiers that had been left in the open. After half a day of the work, he called off the burial of bones so that they could continue their war against the Germans. He made his way into the heartland of the Cherusci. At a location Tacitus calls the *pontes longi* (\"long causeways\"), in boggy lowlands somewhere near the Ems, Arminius\'s troops attacked the Romans. Arminius initially caught Germanicus\'s cavalry in a trap, inflicting minor casualties, but the Roman infantry reinforced the rout and checked them. The fighting lasted for two days, with neither side achieving a decisive victory. Germanicus\'s forces withdrew and returned to the Rhine.
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# Germanicus
## Career
### Commander of Roman campaigns in Germania {#commander_of_roman_campaigns_in_germania}
#### Third campaign against the Germanic tribes {#third_campaign_against_the_germanic_tribes}
In preparations for his next campaign, Germanicus sent Publius Vitellius and Gaius Antius to collect taxes in Gaul, and instructed Silius, Anteius, and Caecina to build a fleet. A fort on the Lippe called *Castra Aliso* was besieged, but the attackers dispersed on sight of Roman reinforcements. The Germans destroyed the nearby mound and altar dedicated to his father Drusus, but he had them both restored and celebrated funerary games with his legions in honor of his father. New barriers and earthworks were put in place, securing the area between Fort Aliso and the Rhine.
Germanicus commanded eight legions with Gallic and Germanic auxiliary units overland across the Rhine, up the Ems and Weser rivers as part of his last major campaign against Arminius in AD 16. His forces met those of Arminius on the plains of Idistaviso, by the Weser River near modern Rinteln, in an engagement called the Battle of the Weser River. Tacitus says that the battle was a Roman victory: `{{blockquote|the enemy were slaughtered from the fifth hour of daylight to nightfall, and for ten miles the ground was littered with corpses and weapons.}}`{=mediawiki}
Arminius and his uncle Inguiomer were both wounded in the battle but evaded capture. The Roman soldiers involved on the battlefield honored Tiberius as Imperator, and raised a pile of arms as a trophy with the names of the defeated tribes inscribed beneath them.
The sight of the Roman trophy constructed on the battlefield enraged the Germans who were preparing to retreat beyond the Elbe, and they launched an attack on the Roman positions at the Angrivarian Wall, thus beginning a second battle. The Romans had anticipated the attack and again routed the Germans. Germanicus stated that he did not want any prisoners, as the extermination of the Germanic tribes was the only conclusion he saw for the war. The victorious Romans then raised a mound with the inscription: \"The army of Tiberius Caesar, after thoroughly conquering the tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe, has dedicated this monument to Mars, Jupiter, and Augustus.\"
Germanicus sent some troops back to the Rhine, with some of them taking the land route, but most of them took the fast route and traveled by boat. They went down the Ems toward the North Sea, but as they reached the sea, a storm struck, sinking many of the boats and killing many men and horses.
Then Germanicus ordered Gaius Silius to march against the Chatti with a mixed force of 3,000 cavalry and 33,000 infantry and lay waste to their territory, while he himself, with a larger army, invaded the Marsi for the third time and devastated their land. He forced Mallovendus, the defeated leader of the Marsi, to reveal the location of another of the three legion\'s eagles lost in AD 9. Immediately Germanicus despatched troops to recover it. The Romans advanced into the country, defeating any foe they encountered.
Germanicus\'s successes in Germany had made him popular with the soldiers. He had dealt a significant blow to Rome\'s enemies, quelled an uprising of troops, and returned lost standards to Rome. His actions had increased his fame, and he had become very popular with the Roman people. Tiberius took notice, and had Germanicus recalled to Rome and informed him that he would be given a triumph and reassigned to a different command.
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# Germanicus
## Career
### Commander of Roman campaigns in Germania {#commander_of_roman_campaigns_in_germania}
#### Result
The effort it would have taken to conquer Germania Magna was deemed too great when compared with the low potential for profit from acquiring the new territory. Rome regarded Germany as a wild territory of forests and swamps, with little wealth compared to territories Rome already had. However, the campaign significantly healed the Roman psychological trauma from the Varus disaster, and greatly recovered Roman prestige. In addition to the recovery of two of the three lost eagles, Germanicus had fought Arminius, the leader who destroyed the three Roman legions in AD 9. In leading his troops across the Rhine without recourse to Tiberius, he contradicted the advice of Augustus to keep that river as the boundary of the empire, and opened himself to potential doubts from Tiberius about his motives in taking such independent action. This error in political judgment gave Tiberius reason to controversially recall his nephew. Tacitus attributed the recall to Tiberius\' jealousy of the glory Germanicus had acquired, and, with some bitterness, claims that Germanicus could have completed the conquest of Germania had he been given full operational independence.
### Recall
thumb\|upright=1.35\|right\|*Thusnelda at the Triumph of Germanicus*, by Karl von Piloty, 1873 At the beginning of AD 17, Germanicus returned to the capital and on 26 May he celebrated a triumph. He had captured a few important prisoners, but Arminius was still at large. And yet, Strabo, who may have been in Rome at the time, in mentioning the name of Thusnelda, the captured pregnant wife of Arminius, draws attention to the fact that her husband, the victor at Teutoburg Forest, had not been captured and the war itself had not been won. Nonetheless, this did not take away from the spectacle of his triumph: a near contemporary calendar marks 26 May as the day in \"which Germanicus Caesar was borne into the city in triumph\", while coins issued under his son Gaius (Caligula) depicted him on a triumphal chariot, with the reverse reading \"Standards Recovered. Germans Defeated.\" His triumph included a long procession of captives including the wife of Arminius, Thusnelda, and her three-year-old son, among others of the defeated German tribes. The procession displayed replicas of mountains, rivers, and battles; and the war was considered closed.
Tiberius gave money out to the people of Rome in Germanicus\' name, and Germanicus was scheduled to hold the consulship next year with the emperor. As a result, in AD 18, Germanicus was granted the eastern part of the empire, just as Agrippa and Tiberius had received before, when they were successors to the emperor.
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# Germanicus
## Career
### Command in Asia {#command_in_asia}
Following his triumph, Germanicus was sent to Asia to reorganize the provinces and kingdoms there, which were in such disarray that the attention of a *domus Augusta* was deemed necessary to settle matters. Germanicus was given *imperium maius* (extraordinary command) over the other governors and commanders of the area he was to operate; however, Tiberius had replaced the governor of Syria with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, who was meant to be his helper (*adiutor*), but turned out to be hostile. According to Tacitus, this was an attempt to separate Germanicus from his familiar troops and weaken his influence, but the historian Richard Alston says Tiberius had little reason to undermine his heir.
Germanicus had a busy year in 17. He restored a temple of Spes, and allegedly won a chariot race in the name of Tiberius at the Olympic Games that year. However, Eusebius, our main reference for this, does not name Germanicus, and Tacitus makes no reference to this occasion either, which would have required Germanicus to make two trips to Greece within a year. Also, not waiting to take up his consulship in Rome, he left after his triumph but before the end of AD 17. He sailed down the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic Sea to Greece. He arrived at Nicopolis near the site of the Battle of Actium, where he took up his second consulship on 18 January AD 18. He visited the sites associated with his adoptive grandfather Augustus and his natural grandfather Mark Antony, before crossing the sea to Lesbos and then to Asia Minor. There he visited the site of Troy and the oracle of Apollo Claros near Colophon. Piso left at the same time as Germanicus, but traveled directly to Athens and then to Rhodes where he and Germanicus met for the first time. From there Piso left for Syria where he immediately began replacing the officers with men loyal to himself in a bid to win the loyalty of his soldiers.
Next Germanicus traveled through Syria to Armenia where he installed king Artaxias as a replacement for Vonones, whom Augustus had deposed and placed under house arrest at the request of the king of Parthia, Artabanus. The king of Cappadocia died too, whereupon Germanicus sent Quintus Veranius to organize Cappadocia as a province -- a profitable endeavor as Tiberius was able to reduce the sales tax down to .5% from 1%. The revenue from the new province was enough to make up the difference lost from lowering the sales tax. The kingdom of Commagene was split on whether or not to remain free or to become a province with both sides sending deputations, so Germanicus sent Quintus Servaeus to organize the province.
Having settled these matters he traveled to Cyrrhus, a city in Syria between Antioch and the Euphrates, where he spent the rest of AD 18 in the winter quarters of the Legion X Fretensis. Evidently here Piso attended Germanicus, and quarreled because he failed to send troops to Armenia when ordered. Artabanus sent an envoy to Germanicus requesting that Vonones be moved further from Armenia as to not incite trouble there. Germanicus complied, moving Vonones to Cilicia, both to please Artabanus and to insult Piso, with whom Vonones was friendly.
#### Egypt
thumb\|upright=1.4\|Nicolas Poussin, *The Death of Germanicus* (1627), oil painting. Collection Minneapolis Institute of Arts. He then made his way to Egypt, arriving to a tumultuous reception in January AD 19. He had gone there to relieve a famine in the country vital to Rome\'s food supply. The move upset Tiberius, because it had violated an order by Augustus that no senator shall enter the province without consulting the emperor and the Senate (Egypt was an imperial province, and belonged to the emperor). Germanicus entered the province in his capacity as proconsul without first seeking permission to do so. He returned to Syria by summer, where he found that Piso had either ignored or revoked his orders to the cities and legions. Germanicus in turn ordered Piso\'s recall to Rome, although this action was probably beyond his authority.
### Illness and death {#illness_and_death}
In the midst of this feud, Germanicus became ill and despite the fact Piso had removed himself to the port of Seleucia, he was convinced that Piso was somehow poisoning him. Tacitus reports that there were signs of black magic in Piso\'s house with hidden body-parts and Germanicus\'s name inscribed on lead tablets. Germanicus sent Piso a letter formally renouncing their friendship (*amicitia*). Germanicus died soon after on 10 October of that year. His death aroused much speculation, with several sources blaming Piso, acting under orders from Emperor Tiberius. This was never proven, and Piso killed himself while facing trial. Tacitus says Tiberius was involved in a conspiracy against Germanicus, and Tiberius\'s jealousy and fear of his nephew\'s popularity and increasing power was the true motive.
The death of Germanicus in dubious circumstances greatly affected Tiberius\'s popularity in Rome, leading to the creation of a climate of fear in Rome itself. Also suspected of connivance in his death was Tiberius\'s chief advisor, Sejanus, who would, in the 20s, create an atmosphere of fear in Roman noble and administrative circles by the use of treason trials and the role of *delatores,* or informers.
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# Germanicus
## Post-mortem {#post_mortem}
\[\[<File:Benjamin> West 001.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright=1.35\|Benjamin West, *Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus* (1768), oil on canvas.
`Yale University`` Art Gallery, ``New Haven``]]`
When Rome had received word of Germanicus\' death, the people began observing a *iustitium* before the Senate had officially declared it. Tacitus says this shows the true grief that the people of Rome felt, and this also shows that by this time the people already knew the proper way to commemorate dead princes without an edict from a magistrate. At his funeral, there were no procession statues of Germanicus. There were abundant eulogies and reminders of his fine character and a particular eulogy was given by Tiberius himself in the Senate.
The historians Tacitus and Suetonius record the funeral and posthumous honors of Germanicus. His name was placed into the Carmen Saliare, and onto the curule seats that were placed with oaken garlands over them as honorary seats for the Augustan priesthood. His ivory statue was at the head of the procession during the Circus Games; his posts as priest of Augustus and Augur were to be filled by members of the imperial family; knights of Rome gave his name to a block of seats at a theatre in Rome, and rode behind his effigy on 15 July AD 20.
After consulting with his family, Tiberius made his wishes known whereupon the Senate collected the honors into a commemorative decree, the *Senatus Consultum de memoria honoranda Germanini Caesaris*, and ordered the consuls of AD 20 to issue a public law honoring the death of Germanicus, the *Lex Valeria Aurelia*. Although Tacitus stressed the honors paid to him, the funeral and processions were carefully modeled after those of Gaius and Lucius, Agrippa\'s sons. This served to emphasize the continuation of the *domus Augusta* across the transition from Augustus to Tiberius. Commemorative arches were built in his honor and not just in Rome, but at the frontier on the Rhine and in Asia where he had governed in life. The arch of the Rhine was placed alongside that of his father, where the soldiers had built a funerary monument honoring him. Portraits of him and his natural father were placed in the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine in Rome. Several cities in Asia Minor were named Germanicopolis in honor of the general (among them Gangra and Germanicia).
On the day of Germanicus\' death his sister Livilla gave birth to twins by Drusus. The oldest was named Germanicus and died young. In 37, Germanicus\' only remaining son, Caligula, became emperor and renamed September *Germanicus* in honor of his father. Many Romans, in the account of Tacitus, considered Germanicus to be their equivalent to Alexander the Great, and believed that he would have easily surpassed the achievements of Alexander had he become emperor. In book eight of his *Natural History*, Pliny connects Germanicus, Augustus, and Alexander as fellow equestrians: when Alexander\'s horse Bucephalus died he named a city, Bucephalia, in his honor. Less monumental, Augustus\' horse received a funeral mound, which Germanicus wrote a poem about.
### Trial of Piso {#trial_of_piso}
Piso was rumored to have been responsible for Germanicus\' death. As accusations accumulated, it was not long before the well known accuser, Lucius Fulcinius Trio, brought charges against him. The continued support of the Pisones and his own friendship with Piso made Tiberius hesitant to hear the case himself. After briefly hearing both sides, Tiberius referred the case to the Senate, making no effort to hide his deep anger toward Piso. Tiberius made allowances for Piso to summon witnesses of all social orders, including slaves, and he was given more time to plead than the prosecutors, but it made no difference: before the trial was over Piso died; ostensibly by suicide, but Tacitus supposes Tiberius may have had him murdered before he could implicate the emperor in Germanicus\' death.
The accusations brought against Piso are numerous, including: `{{div col|colwidth=27em}}`{=mediawiki}
- Insubordination
- Corruption
- Abandoning and reentering a province
- Summary justice
- Destroying military discipline
- Misusing the *fiscus principis* (emperor\'s money)
- Fomenting civil war
- Violating the divinity of *Divus Augustus* (sacrilege).
He was found guilty and punished posthumously for treason. The Senate had his property proscribed, forbade mourning on his account, removed images of his likeness, such as statues and portraits, and his name was erased from the base of one statue in particular as part of his *damnatio memoriae*. Yet, in a show of clemency not unlike that of the emperor, the Senate had Piso\'s property returned and divided equally between his two sons, on condition that his daughter Calpurnia be given 1,000,000 sesterces as dowry and a further 4,000,000 as personal property. His wife Plancina was absolved.
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# Germanicus
## Literary activity {#literary_activity}
In AD 4, Germanicus wrote a Latin version of Aratus\'s *Phainomena*, which survives, wherein he rewrites the contents of the original. For example, he replaces the opening hymn to Zeus with a passage in honor of the Roman emperor. He avoided writing in the poetic style of Cicero, who had translated his own version of the *Phainomena*, and he wrote in a new style to meet the expectations of a Roman audience whose tastes were shaped by \"modern\" authors like Ovid and Virgil. For his work, Germanicus is ranked among Roman writers on astronomy, and his work was popular enough for scholia to be written on it well into the Medieval era.
## Historiography
Germanicus and Tiberius are often contrasted by ancient historians and poets who wrote using themes found in drama, with Germanicus playing the tragic hero and Tiberius the tyrant. The endurance of the Principate is challenged in these narratives, by the emperor\'s jealous trepidation toward competent commanders such as Germanicus. Attention is paid particularly to their leadership styles, i.e., in their relationship with the masses. Germanicus is painted as a competent leader able to handle the masses whereas Tiberius is indecisive and envious.
Despite the poetics attached to Germanicus by ancient authors, it is accepted by historians such as Anthony A. Barrett that Germanicus was an able general. He fought against the Pannonians under Tiberius, quelled the mutiny in the Rhine, and led three successful campaigns into Germania. As for his popularity, he was popular enough that the mutinous legions of the Rhine attempted to proclaim him emperor in AD 14; however, he remained loyal and led them against the German tribes instead. Tacitus and Suetonius claim that Tiberius was jealous of Germanicus\' popularity, but Barrett suggests their claim might be contradicted by the fact that, following his campaigns in Germany, Germanicus was given command of the eastern provinces -- a sure sign he was intended to rule. In accordance with the precedent set by Augustus, Agrippa had been given command of those same provinces in the east when Agrippa was the intended successor to the empire.
### Publius Cornelius Tacitus {#publius_cornelius_tacitus}
thumb\|upright=0.8\|Bronze statue of Germanicus on display at Museo civico di Amelia, *Amelia, Umbria*, Italy *Main article: Annals (Tacitus)* The *Annals* by Tacitus is one of the most detailed accounts of Germanicus\' campaigns against the Germans. He wrote his account in the early years of the second century. Tacitus described Germanicus as a fine general who was kind and temperate, saying that his early death had taken a great ruler from Rome.
Book 1 of *Annals* extensively focuses on the mutinies of the legions in Pannonia and Germany (AD 14). The riotous army figures into the unpredictable wrath of the Roman people giving Tiberius the chance to reflect on what it means to lead. It serves to contrast the \"old-fashioned\" Republican values assigned to Germanicus, and the imperial values possessed by Tiberius. The mood of the masses is a recurring theme, with their reactions to the fortunes of Germanicus being a prominent feature of the relationship between him and Tiberius well into the *Annals* (as far as *Annals* 3.19).
### Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus {#gaius_suetonius_tranquillus}
Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. *The Twelve Caesars* details a biographical history of the Principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as well as histories by Aufidius Bassus, Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Augustus\' own letters.
The attitude of Suetonius toward Germanicus\' personality and moral temperament is that of adoration. He dedicates a good portion of his *Life of Caligula* to Germanicus, claiming Germanicus\' physical and moral excellence surpassed that of his contemporaries. Suetonius also says that Germanicus was a gifted writer, and that despite all these talents, he remained humble and kind.
## Legacy
Due to his prominence as heir to the imperial succession, he is depicted in many works of art. He often appears in literature as the archetypal ideal Roman. His life and character have been portrayed in many works of art, the most notable of which include:
- *Germanico in Germania* (1732), an Italian opera by Nicola Porpora. He was played by Domenico Annibali.
- *Death of Germanicus* (1773--1774), a marble sculpture by British sculptor Thomas Banks.
- *Thusnelda im Triumphzug des Germanicus* (1873), a painting by German painter Karl von Piloty.
- *I, Claudius* (1934), a historical fiction novel by classicist Robert Graves.
- *The Caesars* (1968), a British television series by Philip Mackie. He was played by Eric Flynn.
- *I, Claudius* (1976), a British television series by Jack Pulman. He was played by David Robb
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# Giulio Alberoni
**Giulio Alberoni** (21 May 1664 OS -- 26 June NS 1752) was an Italian cardinal and statesman in the service of Philip V of Spain.
## Early years {#early_years}
He was born near Piacenza on May 21, 1664, probably at the village of Fiorenzuola d\'Arda in the Duchy of Parma.
His father, who was a gardener, died when Alberoni was only ten years old. He himself became first connected with the church in the humble position of a bellringer and verger in the Duomo of Piacenza; he was twenty-one when the judge Ignazio Gardini, of Ravenna, was banished, and he followed Gardini to Ravenna, where he met the vice-legate Giorgio Barni, who was made bishop of Piacenza in 1688 and appointed Alberoni chamberlain of his household. Alberoni took priest\'s orders, having been ordained in the Cathedral of Parma, and afterwards accompanied the nephew of the Bishop of Parma to Rome but returned to Parma two years later to be a canon of the cathedral chapter.
During the War of the Spanish Succession, Alberoni laid the foundation of his political success by the services he rendered to Louis-Joseph, duc de Vendôme, commander of the French forces in Italy, to whom the duke of Parma had sent him. When the French forces were recalled in 1706, he accompanied the duke to Paris, where he was favourably received by Louis XIV.
## Middle years {#middle_years}
When Vendôme was defeated by Marlborough at the Battle of Oudenarde in 1708, Alberoni was able to convince the Duke of Alba---the Spanish ambassador to the French court---to place Vendôme in charge of Spanish forces by 1710. Alberoni accompanied Vendôme to Spain as his secretary and became very active in promoting the cause of the French candidate Philip V. Following Vendôme\'s death, in 1713 he was made a Count and appointed Consular agent for Parma at Philip\'s court where he was a Royal favourite.
Under the terms of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, Philip became King of Spain but the Spanish Empire was effectively partitioned. The Southern Netherlands and their Italian possessions were ceded to the Austrian Habsburgs and Savoy, Menorca and Gibraltar went to Britain while British merchants gained trading rights in the previously closed market of the Spanish Americas.
At this time, the key powerbroker at the Spanish court was Marie-Anne de la Trémoille, princesse des Ursins who dominated Phillip and his wife Maria Luisa of Savoy. Alberoni worked with her and when Maria Luisa died in 1714 they arranged for Philip to marry Elisabetta Farnese, daughter of the Duke of Parma.
Elisabetta was a strong personality herself and formed an alliance with Alberoni, their first action being to banish the Princesse des Ursins. By the end of 1715, Alberoni had been made a Duke and Grandee of Spain, a member of the King\'s council, Bishop of Málaga and Chief Minister of the Hispanic Monarchy. In July 1717, Pope Clement XI appointed him a Cardinal Deacon, allegedly because of his assistance in resolving several ecclesiastical disputes between Rome and Madrid in favour of Rome.
One outcome of the war was to reduce the powers of Castile and Aragon and create a Spanish state similar to the centralised French system. This allowed Alberoni to copy the economic reforms of Colbert and he passed a series of decrees aimed at restoring the Spanish economy. These abolished internal custom-houses, promoted trade with the Americas, instituted a regular mail service to the colonies and reorganised state finances along lines established by the French economist Jean Orry. Some attempts were made to satisfy Spanish conservatives e.g. a new School of Navigation was reserved for the sons of the nobility.
These reforms made Spain confident enough to attempt the recovery of territories in Italy ceded to Savoy and Charles VI of Austria. In 1717, a Spanish force occupied Sardinia unopposed; neither Austria or Savoy had significant naval forces and Austria was engaged in the Austro-Turkish War of 1716--18. This assumed the British would not intervene but when 38,000 Spanish troops landed on Sicily in 1718, Britain declared it a violation of Utrecht. On 2 August 1718, Britain, France, the Netherlands and the Austrians formed the Quadruple Alliance and on 11 August the Royal Navy destroyed a Spanish fleet off Sicily at the Battle of Cape Passaro.
Alberoni now attempted to offset British in the Mediterranean by sponsoring a Jacobite landing to divert their naval resources; he also sought to end the 1716 Anglo-French Alliance by using the Cellamare conspiracy to replace the current French Regent the Duke of Orleans with Phillip of Spain. However, he failed to appreciate that Britain was now powerful enough to maintain naval superiority in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic while France declared war on Spain in December 1718 on the discovery of the Conspiracy.
France invaded eastern Spain and in October 1719 a British naval expedition captured the Spanish port of Vigo; they landed 6,000 troops, held Vigo for ten days, destroyed vast quantities of stores and equipment and then re-embarked unopposed. The nearby city of Santiago de Compostela even paid £40,000 in return for being left alone. As intended, this was a crushing demonstration of British naval power and showed the Spanish Britain could land anywhere along their coastline and leave when they wanted to. The failure of his policy meant Alberoni was dismissed on 5 December 1719 and ordered to leave Spain, with the Treaty of The Hague in 1720 confirming the outcome of Utrecht. In an effort to persuade the Pope to depose Alberoni, charges were laid against him: failures in chastity, not wearing appropriate clerical dress, and not having said Mass for years.
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# Giulio Alberoni
## Later years {#later_years}
Alberoni followed the order and left Spain for Italy. At Lleida, his belongings were searched to ensure that no state papers were in his possession. After leaving Barcelona, he was plundered by bandits. His baggage was again searched at Narbonne, by Customs officers under orders from the Chevalier de Marcieu, who had been ordered by the Regent of France to accompany Alberoni and extract whatever information he could from the Cardinal. Sailing for Italy, he was met at Sestri Levante in Genoese territory by a papal official, who forbade his entry into the Papal States, on penalty of imprisonment. When Alberoni retreated to Genoa, the Emperor and the Pope each tried to have him detained. On 19 March 1720, Clement XI appointed a Commission of Cardinals to try Alberoni: Albani, Astalli, Barberini, Bentivoglio, Conti, Corradini, Corsini, Fabroni, Paracciani, Paolucci, Scotti, Tanara, Tolomei, Vallemani, and Zondadari; they were joined by three other prelates: Alamanni, Marefoschi and Riviera. He escaped from arrest at Genoa, as the Genoese allowed him to go on his way, and found refuge at Castelnuovo Scrivia, in Austrian territory in Lombardy. On the death of Clement in 1721, Alberoni boldly appeared at the conclave, and took part in the election of Innocent XIII (The cardinals voted to allow Alberoni to participate, but many of them refused to have anything to do with him personally), after which he was for a short time imprisoned in a monastery by the new pontiff on the demand of Spain on charges including sodomy (Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatine noted in her diaries that he was a pederast). He was ultimately cleared by a commission of his fellow Cardinals. At the conclave that would elect Pope Benedict XIII (1724), Alberoni had been himself proposed for the papal chair and secured ten votes. Alberoni received the titular church Sant\'Adriano al Foro (a cardinal-deaconry) in 1724, and then was made Cardinal Priest of San Crisogono in 1728.
Benedict\'s successor, Clement XII (elected 1730), named him legate of Ravenna, where he erected the Porta Alberoni (1739), a magnificent gateway that formerly provided access to the city\'s dockyards, and has since been moved to the entrance of the Teatro Rasi. That same year, the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted to subject the grand republic of San Marino to the papal states incurred the pope\'s displeasure and left a historical scar in that place\'s memory. He was soon replaced by another legate in 1740, the same year he was made Cardinal Protector of San Lorenzo in Lucina. He retired to Piacenza, where in 1730 Clement XII appointed him administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro, an institute founded in the medieval era for the benefit of lepers. Since leprosy had nearly disappeared in Italy, Alberoni obtained the consent of the pope to suppress the hospital, which had fallen into great disorder, and replaced it with a seminary for the priestly education of seventy poor boys, under the name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it still bears. Collegio Alberoni\'s graduates include remarkable prelates such as Agostino Casaroli, Silvio Oddi, and Antonio Samorè.
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# Giulio Alberoni
## Death and legacy {#death_and_legacy}
He died on 26 June 1752, leaving a sum of 600,000 ducats to endow the seminary he had founded. He left the rest of the immense wealth he had acquired in Spain to his nephew. Alberoni produced many manuscripts. The genuineness of the Political Testament, published in his name at Lausanne in 1753, has been questioned.
The Cardinal\'s collections of art gathered in Rome and Piacenza, housed in his richly appointed private apartments, have been augmented by the Collegio. There are remarkable suites of Flemish tapestries, and paintings, among which the most famous is the *Ecce Homo* by Antonello da Messina (1473), but which also include panels by Jan Provoost and other Flemish artists, oil paintings by Domenico Maria Viani and Francesco Solimena.
Alberoni was a gourmand. Interspersed in his official correspondence with Parma are requests for local delicacies *triffole* (truffles), salame, robiola cheeses, and *agnolini* (kind of pasta). The pork dish *\"Coppa del Cardinale\"*, a specialty of Piacenza, is named for him. A *\"timballo Alberoni\"* combines maccaroni, shrimp sauce, mushrooms, butter and cheese
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# Girolamo Aleandro
**Girolamo Aleandro** (also **Hieronymus Aleander**; 13 February 1480 -- 1 February 1542) was an Italian humanist, linguist, and cardinal.
## Life
Aleandro was born on 13 February 1480 in Motta di Livenza, in the province of Treviso, part of the Republic of Venice. The son of a doctor, he studied medicine, philology, and theology in Padua. In Venice he became acquainted with Erasmus and Aldus Manutius, and at an early age was reputed one of the most learned men of the time, with a knowledge of Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Chaldaean. In 1508 he went to Paris on the invitation of Louis XII as professor of *belles lettres,* and from 1513 to 1516 held the position of Rector of the University of Paris at the Sorbonne. Entering the service of Érard de La Marck, prince-bishop of Liège, he was sent by that prelate on a mission to Rome, where Pope Leo X retained him, giving him (1519) the office of librarian of the Vatican.
In the following year he went to Germany to be present as papal nuncio at the coronation of Emperor Charles V, and was also present at the Diet of Worms, where he headed the opposition to Martin Luther, advocating the most extreme measures to repress the doctrines of the reformer. His conduct evoked the fiercest denunciations of Luther, but it also displeased more moderate men, especially Erasmus. The edict against the reformer, which was finally adopted by the emperor and the diet, was drawn up and proposed by Aleandro. After the close of the Diet, the papal nuncio went to the Netherlands, where he instigated the executions of two monks of Antwerp due to their embrace of the Reformation, resulting in their being burnt in Brussels.
In August 1524 Pope Clement VII appointed Aleandro the Archbishop of Brindisi, for which office he was ordained to the priesthood two months later. The pope then sent him as nuncio to the court of King Francis I of France. He was taken prisoner along with that monarch at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, and was released only on payment of a heavy ransom. He was subsequently employed on various papal missions, especially to Germany, but was unsuccessful in preventing the German princes from making a truce with the reformers, or in checking to any extent the progress of the reformers\' doctrines.
Aleandro was eventually consecrated a bishop on 28 February 1528 to fulfill the duties of his office. He was created a cardinal *in pectore* on 22 December 1536 by Pope Paul III (at the same time as Reginald Pole), which was published (i.e., publicly announced) only on 13 March 1538, at which time he was able to assume that office. He was given the rank of Cardinal Priest, with his titular church in Rome as San Ciriaco alle Terme Diocleziane, which was changed a week later to the Church of San Crisogono.
Aleandro resigned as Archbishop of Brindisi on 30 January 1541. He died at Rome on 1 February 1542. His remains were initially buried in his titular church, but later were transferred to his hometown and re-buried there in the Church of San Niccolò.
## Writings
Aleandro compiled a *Lexicon Graeco-Latinum* (1512) and an introductory Greek grammar, the *Elementale introductorium in nominum et verborum declinationes Graecas* (1509), and edited Greek texts by Isocrates, Plutarch, and Lucian (1509--1510). Some of his Latin verses were included in the *Carmina Illustrium Poetarum Italiorum* of Joannes Matthaeus Toscanus. The Vatican Library contains manuscript letters and other documents written by him in connection with his various missions against Luther, which are important sources for the Reformation and Counter-Reformation; they were used by (among others) the church historian Francesco Sforza Pallavicino in his history of the council of Trent
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# Galeazzo Alessi
**Galeazzo Alessi** (1512 -- 30 December 1572) was an Italian architect from Perugia, known throughout Europe for his distinctive style based on his enthusiasm for ancient architecture. He studied drawing for civil and military architecture under the direction of Giovanni Battista Caporali.
For a number of years he lived in Genoa. He was involved in the lay-out of the streets and the restoration of the city walls, as well as being responsible for many of its impressive palazzi, now a part of the World Heritage List. Alessi displayed particular aptitude for organizing compositions on sloping sites.
- Saint-Georges Church, Périgueux, France His work can be found in many other Italian cities, including in Ferrara, Bologna, Naples and Milan, where he designed the facade of Santa Maria presso San Celso. With Vignola, he designed the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Assisi, the seventh largest Christian church at the time. Elsewhere in Europe, he designed churches and palaces in France, Germany and Flanders. He produced designs for El Escorial in Spain, but age and health prevented him from carrying them out.
## Selected works {#selected_works}
### Perugia
- Rocca Paolina, remodelling
- Loggia at the Oratorio di S. Angelo della Pace
- S. Maria del Popolo (Camera di Commercio)
- Loggia for the Palazzo dei Priori, remodelling
- Convent of Santa Giuliana (S. Caterina)
- Portale of the Villa del Leone
- Doorway in the southern flank of the Duomo
- Works for San Pietro
### Assisi
- Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli
- Tabernacle of San Francesco ([original design in the Metropolitan Museum of Art](http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/341916))
- Works in the Cathedral of San Rufino
### Genoa
- Villa Giustiniani-Cambiaso, Albaro
- Basilica of S. Maria Assunta, Carignano
- Porta del Molo (Porta Siberia), inserted in the city walls
- Cupola of St. Lawrence Cathedral
- Villa delle Peschiere
- Villa Grimaldi-Sauli in Bisagno
- Proposals for the palazzi in the Strada Nuova
### Milan
- Palazzo Marino (Municipio di Milano), for the Genoese Tommaso Marino.
- San Barnaba
- Auditorium of the Scuole Canobiane
- Santa Maria presso San Celso
- San Raffaele
- Various projects in the Duomo di Milano, including the monument of the Arcimboldi
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# Giulio Alenio
**Giulio Aleni** (*Julius Alenius*; 1582 -- 10 June 1649), in Chinese `{{nowrap|'''Ai Rulüe'''}}`{=mediawiki}, was an Italian Jesuit missionary and scholar. He was born in Leno near Brescia in Italy, at the time part of the Republic of Venice, and died at Yanping in China. He became a member of the Society of Jesus in 1600 and distinguished himself in his knowledge of mathematics and theology. He is known for helping publish the Zhifang Waiji, an atlas in Chinese. Giulio Aleni also wrote a treatise criticizing the Ming dynasty, the Ming emperors and their elites, and their mistakes and errors. Near the end of his life, the Ming dynasty eventually got destroyed and replaced by the Qing dynasty founded by the House of Aisin-Gioro.
## Life
In 1610, he was sent as a missionary to China. While waiting at Macau for a favorable opportunity to enter the country, he taught mathematics to local scholars and published his \"Observation sur l\'éclipse de lune du 8 Novembre 1612, faite a Macao\" (*Mémoires de l\'Acad. des Sciences*, VII, 706).
He adopted the dress and manners of the country, was the first Christian missionary in Jiangxi, and built several churches in Fujian. One of his converts, Li Jiubiao, recorded the responses of Aleni and Andrius Rudamina, one of his fellow Jesuits, to the questions and speculations of his parishioners and compiled them into a journal.
## Works
He published works in Chinese on a variety of topics. His cosmography, *[Wanwu Zhenyuan](https://web.archive.org/web/20140224173441/http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/bibliography/view.aspx?bibliographyID=1242)* (萬物真原; The True Origin of the Ten-thousand Things), was translated into Manchu during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (Wanwu Zhenyuan translated in Manchu script: `{{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᡨᡠᠮᡝᠨ<br>ᠵᠠᡴᠠᡳ<br>ᡠᠨᡝᠩᡴᡳ<br>ᠰᡝᡴᡳᠶᡝᠨ}}`{=mediawiki} Wylie: Tumen chakai unengki sekiyen, Möllendorff: Tumen jakai unengki sekiyen). A copy was sent from Beijing to Paris in 1789. He completed the work of earlier Jesuit scholars to produce the *Zhifang waiji*, a global atlas written in Chinese and one of the first to include the Americas.
Among his most important religious works are a controversial treatise on the Catholic Faith, in which are refuted what he saw as the principal errors of the Ming dynasty; and *The Life of God, the Saviour, from the Four Gospels* (Peking, 1635--1637, 8 vols.; often reprinted, e.g. in 1887 in 3 vols) and used even by Protestant missionaries.
## Legacy
The life and works of Giulio Aleni are the subject of several conferences in 1994 and 2010. Two of his books, *Life of Matteo Ricci, Xitai of the West* and *Holy images of the Heavenly Lord* have been presented to the public by *Fondazione Civiltà Bresciana* in two separate occasions, on 13 and 25 October 2010
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# Gregorio Allegri
**Gregorio Allegri** (c. 14 January 1582`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}17 February 1652) was an Italian Catholic priest and composer of the Roman School and brother of Domenico Allegri; he was also a singer. He was born and died in Rome. He is chiefly known for his *Miserere* for two choirs.
## Life
He studied music as a *puer* (boy chorister) at San Luigi dei Francesi, under the *maestro di cappella* Giovanni Bernardino Nanino, brother of Giovanni Maria Nanino. Being intended for the Church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of Fermo. Here he composed a large number of motets and other sacred music, which, being brought to the notice of Pope Urban VIII, obtained for him an appointment in the choir of the Sistine Chapel at Rome as a contralto. He held this from 6 December 1629 until his death. Allegri is said to have been a virtuous man, as well as good-natured and generous to the poor and to prisoners.
Among Allegri\'s musical compositions were two volumes of concerti for five voices published in 1618 and 1619; two volumes of motets for six voices published in 1621; an edition of a four-part sinfonia; five masses; two settings of the *Lamentations of Jeremiah*; and numerous motets which were not published in his lifetime. He was one of the earliest composers for stringed instruments, and Athanasius Kircher has given one specimen of this class of his works in his *Musurgia Universalis*. Most of Allegri\'s published music, especially the instrumental music, is in the progressive early Baroque concertato style. However, his work for the Sistine Chapel is descended from the Palestrina style, and in some cases strips even this refined, simple style of almost all localised ornamentation. He is credited with the earliest string quartet.
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# Gregorio Allegri
## The *Miserere* {#the_miserere}
By far the best-known and regarded piece of music composed by Allegri is the *Miserere mei, Deus*, a setting of Vulgate Psalm 50 (= Psalm 51). It is written for two choirs, the one of five and the other of four voices, and has obtained considerable celebrity. One of the choirs sings a simple *fauxbourdon* based on the original plainsong chant for the *Tonus peregrinus*; the other choir sings a similar *fauxbourdon* with pre-existing elaborations and the use of cadenzas. The *Miserere* has for many years been sung annually during Holy Week in the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. Many have cited this work as an example of the *stile antico* (old style) or *prima pratica* (first practice). However, its emphasis on polychoral techniques certainly put it out of the range of *prima pratica.* A more accurate comparison would be to the works of Giovanni Gabrieli.
The *Miserere* is one of the most often-recorded examples of late Renaissance music, although it was actually written during the chronological confines of the Baroque era; in this regard it is representative of the music of the Roman School of composers, who were stylistically conservative. The work acquired a considerable reputation for mystery and inaccessibility between the time of its composition and the era of modern recording; the Vatican, wanting to preserve its aura of mystery, forbade copies, threatening any publication or attempted copy with excommunication. They were not prepared, however, for a special visit in 1770 from a 14-year-old named Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who, on a trip to Rome with his father, heard it but twice and transcribed it faithfully from memory, thus creating the first known unauthorised copy. However, there is evidence that copies of the work that pre-date Mozart\'s visit to Rome in 1770 had already been circulating in Europe, and Mozart may have heard the piece performed in London in 1764 or 1765 as well.
In 1771 Mozart\'s copy was procured and published in England by the famous traveller and music historian Dr Charles Burney. However, Burney\'s edition does not show the ornamentation for which the work was famous.
The music as it is performed today includes a strange error by a copyist in the 1880s. The curious \"trucker\'s gear change\" from G minor to C minor is because the second half of the verse is the same as the first half, but transposed up a fourth. The original never had a Top C.
The entire music performed at Rome in Holy Week, Allegri\'s *Miserere* included, has been issued at Leipzig by Breitkopf and Härtel. Interesting accounts of the impression produced by the performance at Rome may be found in the first volume of Felix Mendelssohn\'s letters and in Miss Taylor\'s *Letters from Italy*
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# Goodness (band)
**Goodness** was an American rock band from Seattle, Washington, led by Carrie Akre, formerly of Hammerbox and now primarily a solo artist. Goodness featured Akre (vocals), Danny Newcomb (lead guitar), Garth Reeves (guitar), Fiia McGann (bass), and Chris Friel (drums). Akre, Friel, and Newcomb later joined Mike McCready of Pearl Jam and Rick Friel to form the rock band The Rockfords.
Goodness recorded a version of \"Electricity, Electricity\" with Mike McCready using the pseudonym \"Petster\" on electric guitar for the *Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks* tribute disc on Lava/Atlantic. They released their self-titled debut album in 1995 on Y Records, followed in 1998 by Anthem on Immortal/Epic and later These Days on Good Ink. Two live albums were released via Kufala Recordings in 2004. Goodness toured extensively all over the world, supporting such acts as Pearl Jam, Cheap Trick, and Oasis. They co-headlined a tour with Candlebox
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# Giovanni d'Andrea
**Giovanni d\'Andrea** or **Johannes Andreæ** (1270 `{{abbr|×|sometime between}}`{=mediawiki} 1275 -- 1348) was an Italian expert in canon law. His contemporaries referred to him as *iuris canonici fons et tuba* (\"the fount and trumpet of canon law\"). Most important among his works were extensive commentaries on all of the official collections of papal decretals, papal judgments in the form of letters to delegated judges that were at the core of canon law.
## Life
Giovanni d\'Andrea was born at Rifredo, near Florence, and studied Roman law and canon law at the University of Bologna, the great law school of the age, where he distinguished himself in this subject so much that he was made professor at Padua, and then at Pisa before returning to Bologna, where he remained from the season of 1301--02 until his death, save for brief seasons at Padua 1307--09 and 1319. He wrote the statutes by which the university was governed, in 1317.
The 1911 *Encyclopædia Britannica* related curious stories of him: that by way of self-mortification he lay every night for twenty years on the bare ground with only a bear\'s skin for a covering (yet it is known that he remained a layman, was married and had children); that in an audience he had with Pope Boniface VIII his extraordinary shortness of stature led the pope to believe he was kneeling, and to ask him three times to rise, to the immense merriment of the cardinals; and that he had a daughter, Novella, so accomplished in law as to be able to read her father\'s lectures in his absence, and so beautiful that she had to read behind a curtain lest her face should distract the attention of the students. He was also the father of Bettina d\'Andrea.
He is reported to have died at Bologna of the Black Death in 1348, and an epitaph in the church of the Dominicans in which he was buried (calling him *Rabbi Doctorum, Lux, Censor, Normaque Morum*) testifies to the public estimation of his character. Johannes Calderinus (1300--1365) was his student and later his adoptive son. Paulus de Liazariis and Johannes de Sancto Georgio were among his students, and he counted the humanists Cino da Pistoia and Petrarch among his friends.
## Works
Giovanni d\'Andrea\'s output was voluminous:
- a gloss called (*Novella sive commentarius in decretales epistolas Gregorii IX*) on the *Liber Extra* (1234), compiled under the direction of Pope Gregory IX (see Decretals)
- an encomium of Saint Jerome, the *Hierominianum*
- glosses on the *Constitutiones Clementinae* or Clementines of 1317 which became the standard gloss (the *Glossa ordinaria*) for this text
- a commentary called the *Mercuriales* on the *Regula iuris* in the *Liber Sextus* (1298) of Boniface VIII.
Among lesser works, his additions to the *Speculum* of Durandus are simply an adaptation from the *Consilia* of Oldradus de Ponte, as is also his *De Sponsalibus et Matrimonio*, from Johannes Anguisciola
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# Gloria Gaynor
**Gloria Fowles** (born September 7, 1943), known professionally as **Gloria Gaynor**, is an American singer, best known for the disco era hits \"I Will Survive\" (1978), \"Let Me Know (I Have a Right)\" (1979), \"I Am What I Am\" (1983), and her version of \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" (1974).
## Early life {#early_life}
Gloria Fowles was born in Newark, New Jersey, to Daniel Fowles and Queenie Mae Proctor. Her grandmother lived nearby and was involved in her upbringing. \"There was always music in our house\", Gaynor wrote in her autobiography *I Will Survive*. She enjoyed listening to the radio, and to records by Nat King Cole and Sarah Vaughan. Her father played the ukulele and guitar and sang professionally in nightclubs with a group called Step \'n\' Fetchit. Gloria grew up as a tomboy; she had five brothers and one sister. Her brothers sang gospel and formed a quartet with a friend.
Gaynor was not allowed to sing with the all-male group, nor was her younger brother Arthur, as Gloria was a girl and Arthur was too young. Arthur later acted as a tour manager for Gaynor. The family was relatively poor, but Gaynor recalls the house being filled with laughter and happiness, and the dinner table being open to neighborhood friends. They moved to a housing project in 1960, where Gaynor attended South Side High School; she graduated in 1961.
\"All through my young life I wanted to sing, although nobody in my family knew it\", Gaynor wrote in her autobiography. Gaynor began singing in a nightclub in Newark, where she was recommended to a local band by a neighbor. After several years of performing in local clubs and along the East Coast, Gaynor began her recording career in 1971 at Columbia Records.
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# Gloria Gaynor
## Music career {#music_career}
### Early years {#early_years}
Gaynor was a singer with The Soul Satisfiers, a jazz and R&B music band of the 1960s. She recorded \"She\'ll Be Sorry\" as Gloria Gaynor in 1965, for Johnny Nash\'s \"Jocida\" label. Her first real success came in 1973 when she was signed to Columbia Records by Clive Davis. The fruit of that was the release of the single \"Honey Bee\".
Moving on to MGM Records she finally hit with the album *Never Can Say Goodbye*, released in 1975. The first side of the album consisted of three songs (\"Honey Bee\", \"Never Can Say Goodbye\", and \"Reach Out, I\'ll Be There\"), with no break between the songs. This 19-minute dance marathon proved to be enormously popular, especially at dance clubs. All three songs were released as singles via radio edits and all of them became hits. The album was instrumental in introducing disco music to the public, \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" becoming the first song to top *Billboard* magazine\'s dance chart. It was also a hit on the mainstream Pop Charts, peaking at No. 9, and on the R&B Charts, reaching No. 34 (the original version by The Jackson 5 had been a No. 2 hit on the Hot 100 in 1971). It also marked her first significant chart success internationally, making it into the Top 5 in Australia, Canada, Germany and the UK. The song would go on to be certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry, and subsequently gold in the US.
Gaynor released her next album, *Experience Gloria Gaynor*, in September 1975. The singles \"Honey Bee\" (1974), \"Casanova Brown\" (1975), and \"Let\'s Make a Deal\" (1976), as well as her cover of the Four Tops\' \"Reach Out, I\'ll Be There\", became hits in nightclubs `{{fact|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} and reached the Top 5 on *Billboard*{{\'}}s disco charts.`{{fact|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} \"(If You Want It) Do It Yourself\" was a No. 1 disco hit---peaking at No. 98 on the Pop Charts and No. 24 on the R&B Charts.`{{fact|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Gaynor\'s cover of \"How High the Moon\" topped the US Dance Charts, and made the lower parts of both the pop and R&B charts, as well as achieving some international chart success.`{{fact|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} She has recorded some 16 albums since her 1976 album *I\'ve Got You*, including one in England, one in Germany, and two in Italy.`{{Failed verification|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
### Major mainstream breakthrough {#major_mainstream_breakthrough}
During the next few years, Gaynor released two albums *Glorious* and *Gloria Gaynor\'s Park Avenue Sound*, but would only enjoy a few more moderate hits. However, in late 1978, with the release of her album *Love Tracks*, she climbed the pop charts again with her smash hit single \"I Will Survive\". The lyrics of this song were written from the point of view of a woman, recently dumped, telling her former lover that she can cope without him and does not want anything more to do with him. The song has become something of an anthem of female Emancipation. Originally, \"I Will Survive\" was a B-side when Polydor Records released it in late 1978. The A-side, a song called \"Substitute\", then a recent worldwide hit for South African girl-group Clout, was considered more \"radio friendly\". Gaynor won a Grammy for "I Will Survive\" at the 22nd Annual Grammy Awards, and also received nominations for Grammy Award for Record of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. \"I Will Survive\" is ranked No. 492 on *Rolling Stone*{{\'}}s list of \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time\", and ranked at No. 97 on Billboard magazine\'s \"All-Time Hot 100\".
As a disco number, the song was unique for its time by virtue of Gaynor\'s having no background singers or lush production. And, unlike her first disco hits, the track was not pitched up to make it faster and to render Gaynor\'s recorded voice in a higher register than that in which she actually sang. In late 1979, she released the album *I Have a Right* which contained her next disco hit, \"Let Me Know (I Have a Right)\", which featured Doc Severinsen of *The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson* fame, playing a trumpet solo. Gaynor also recorded a disco song called \"Love Is Just a Heartbeat Away\" in 1979 for the cult vampire film *Nocturna: Granddaughter of Dracula*, which featured a number of disco songs.
### Stateside career {#stateside_career}
In 1980 and again in 1981, Gaynor released two disco albums which were virtually ignored in the United States due to the backlash against disco, which began late in 1979. The album\'s singles barely registered on urban contemporary radio, where disco music remained popular. In 1982, having looked into a wide variety of faiths and religious movements, she became a Christian and began to distance herself from a past she considered to be sinful. That same year, she released an album of mid-tempo R&B and pop-style songs entitled *Gloria Gaynor*.
Gaynor would achieve her final success in the 1980s with the release of her album *I Am Gloria Gaynor* in 1984. This was mainly due to the song \"I Am What I Am\", which became a hit at dance clubs, and then on the Club Play chart in late 1983/early 1984. \"I Am What I Am\" became a gay anthem and made Gaynor a gay icon. Her 1986 album, *The Power of Gloria Gaynor*, was almost entirely composed of cover versions of other songs that were popular at the time.
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# Gloria Gaynor
## Music career {#music_career}
### Career revival {#career_revival}
Gaynor\'s career received a revitalizing spark in the early- and mid-1990s with the worldwide disco revival movement. During the late 1990s, she dabbled in acting for a while, guest-starring on *The Wayans Bros*, *That \'70s Show* (singing \"I Will Survive\"), and *Ally McBeal,* before doing a limited engagement performance in Broadway\'s *Smokey Joe\'s Cafe*. In 2001, Gaynor performed \"I Will Survive\" at the 30th Anniversary concert for Michael Jackson.
Gaynor returned to the recording studio in 2002, releasing her first album in over 15 years, *I Wish You Love*. The two singles released from the album, \"Just Keep Thinking About You\" and \"I Never Knew\", both topped *Billboard*\'s Hot Dance Music/Club Play. Both singles also secured moderate to heavy dance format radio airplay. The latter song also charted No. 30 on *Billboard*\'s Adult Contemporary chart. In 2004, Gaynor re-released her 1997 album *The Answer* (also released under the title *What a Life*) as a follow-up to her successful album *I Wish You Love*. The album includes her club hit \"Oh, What a Life\".
In late 2002, Gaynor appeared with R&B stars on the \"Rhythm, Love, and Soul\" edition of the PBS series *American Soundtrack*. Her performance of the disco hit \"I Will Survive\" and new single \"I Never Knew\" was included on the accompanying live album that was released in 2004.
On September 19, 2005, Gaynor was honored twice when she and her music were inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame, in the \"Artist\" category, along with fellow disco artists Chic and Sylvester. Her classic anthem \"I Will Survive\" was inducted under the \"Records\" category. In January 2008, the American Diabetes Association named Gaynor the Honorary Spokesperson of the 2008 \"NYC Step Out to Fight Diabetes Walk\".
More television appearances followed in the late 2000s with 2009 appearances on *The John Kerwin Show*, *The Wendy Williams Show*, and *The View* to promote the 30th anniversary of \"I Will Survive\". In 2010, she appeared on *Last Comic Standing* and *The Tonight Show with Jay Leno*. Gaynor released a contemporary Christian album in late 2013.
Forty years after its release, Gaynor continues to ride the success of \"I Will Survive\", touring the country and the world over and performing her signature song on dozens of TV shows. A few successful remixes of the song during the 1990s and 2000s along with new versions of the song by Lonnie Gordon, Diana Ross, Chantay Savage, rock group Cake and others, as well as constant recurrent airplay on nearly all soft AC and rhythmic format radio stations have helped to keep the song in the mainstream. Gaynor said of her biggest hit in a 2012 interview: \"It feels great to have such a song like that because I get kids five and six years old telling me they like the song, and then people seventy-five and eighty. It\'s quite an honor.\" The song was revived yet again in 2015 for the film *The Martian*, where it is used at the end as the credits roll.
thumb\|Gaynor performing in 2012 On May 16, 2015, Gaynor was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Music by Dowling College. In 2017, she made a cameo appearance as a flight attendant in a Capital One commercial, while Samuel L. Jackson, Charles Barkley, and Spike Lee sang \"I Will Survive\".
In 2016, \"I Will Survive\" was selected for induction into the Library of Congress\' National Recording Registry.
On May 6, 2017, Gaynor performed with her band at the Library of Congress\' celebration of disco music at Bibliodiscotheque, a disco dance party in the Great Hall of the Thomas Jefferson Building.
Due to the devastation wreaked by Hurricane Harvey on the state of Texas in August 2017, Gaynor rewrote the lyrics to \"I Will Survive\", changing the title to \"Texas Will Survive\", and posted a video of herself singing the song on Twitter on August 30, 2017.
In December 2019, \"I Will Survive\" trended on TikTok and Gaynor performed the dance at the LifeMinute TV studios in Times Square, NY.
In January 2020, she won her second Grammy Award in her career, 40 years after her first, for her roots gospel album *Testimony*, winning Best Roots Gospel Album at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards.
In 2021, Gaynor returned to disco music when she recorded \"Can\'t Stop Writing Songs About You\" with Australian singer Kylie Minogue for the reissue of Minogue\'s fifteenth studio album *Disco* entitled *Disco: Guest List Edition*. The collaboration occurred following Gaynor praising Minogue for keeping disco alive with her album of the same name.
In April 2021, Gaynor recorded \"Brand New\" with the veteran Contemporary Christian band MercyMe.
In 2022, Gaynor competed in season eight of *The Masked Singer* as \"Mermaid\" who rode around on a giant clam-like vehicle that the Men in Black had to push around. After being eliminated on \"Andrew Lloyd Webber Night\" alongside Mario Cantone as \"Maize\", Gaynor did her encore performance of \"I Will Survive\".
On February 7, 2025, Gaynor released \"Fida Known\", the lead single to her EP \"Happy Tears\" and her first solo release since 2019. This was then followed up by the EP\'s second single, \"When I See You\", on May 9, 2025. The EP was released on June 6, 2025.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Gaynor married her manager Linwood Simon in 1979. The couple divorced in 2005. She has no children. According to Gaynor, while she always wanted children, her ex-husband never desired any.
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# Gloria Gaynor
## Discography
Albums: `{{Div col}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Never Can Say Goodbye* (1975)
- *Experience Gloria Gaynor* (1975)
- *I\'ve Got You* (1976)
- *Glorious* (1977)
- *Gloria Gaynor\'s Park Avenue Sound* (1978)
- *Love Tracks* (1978)
- *I Have a Right* (1979)
- *Stories* (1980)
- *I Kinda Like Me* (1981)
- *Gloria Gaynor* (1982)
- *I Am Gloria Gaynor* (1984)
- *The Power of Gloria Gaynor* (1986)
- *Gloria Gaynor \'90* (1990)
- *Love Affair* (1992)
- *I\'ll Be There* (1994)
- *The Answer* (1997)
- *I Wish You Love* (2003)
- *Christmas Presence* (2007)
- *I Will Survive* (2013)
- *Testimony* (2019)
Extended Plays: `{{Div col}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Happy Tears* (2025)
## Filmography
### Film
Year Title Role Notes
------ --------------------------- ------------- -------
1979 *Pinay, American Style* Herself
2006 *Gray Matters*
2022 *The Thursday Night Club* Dr. Poitier
### Television
Year Title Role Notes
------ ----------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------
1979 *The Second City Comedy Show* Herself TV special
*Sha Na Na* Episode: \"3.6\"
1997 *The Wayans Bros.* Episode: \"Pops\' Last Hurrah\"
1998 *Starye Pesni O Glavnom 3* TV movie
1999 *That 70\'s Show* Mrs
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# Grímnismál
***Grímnismál*** (Old Norse: `{{IPA|non|ˈɡriːmnesˌmɔːl|}}`{=mediawiki}; \'The Lay of Grímnir\') is one of the mythological poems of the *Poetic Edda*. It is preserved in the Codex Regius manuscript and the AM 748 I 4to fragment. It is spoken through the voice of *Grímnir*, one of the many guises of the god Odin. The very name suggests guise, or mask or hood. Through an error, King Geirröth tortured Odin-as-Grímnir, a fatal mistake, since Odin caused him to fall upon his own sword. The poem is written mostly in the ljóðaháttr metre, typical for wisdom verse.
## Structure and history {#structure_and_history}
The work starts out with a lengthy prose section describing the circumstances leading up to Grímnir\'s monologue. The monologue itself comprises 54 stanzas of poetic verse describing the worlds and Odin\'s many guises. The third and last part of the poem is also prose, a brief description of Geirröth\'s demise, his son\'s ascension, and Odin\'s disappearance.
The prose sections were most likely not part of the original oral versions of Grímnismál. Henry Adams Bellows suggests that they were added in the 12th or 13th century and based on some sort of narrative tradition regarding the poem. This is not entirely certain. The poem itself was likely composed in the first half of the 10th century.
## Synopsis
Odin and his wife, Frigg, were sitting in Hlidskjalf, looking out on the worlds. They turned their eyes towards King Geirröth, who was reigning in the stead of his late father, King Hrauthung. Geirröth and his older brother Agnarr had been raised by Odin and Frigg, respectively. The god and goddess had disguised themselves as a peasant and his wife, and had taught the children wisdom. Geirröth returned to his father\'s kingdom where he became king upon his father\'s death, while Agnarr dwelt with a giantess in a cave.
In Hliðskjálf, Odin remarked to Frigg that his foster-child Geirröth seemed to be prospering more so than her Agnarr. Frigg retorted that Geirröth was so parsimonious and inhospitable that he would torture his guests if he thought there were too many of them. Odin disputed this, and the couple entered into a wager in this respect. Frigg then sent her maid Fulla to Geirröth, advising him that a magician would soon enter his court to bewitch him, and saying that he could be recognised by the fact that no dog was fierce enough to attack him.
Geirröth heeded Fulla\'s false warning. He ordered his men to capture the man the dogs wouldn\'t attack, which they did. Odin-as-Grímnir, dressed in a dark blue cloak, allowed himself to be captured. He stated that his name was Grímnir, but he would say nothing further of himself.
Geirröth then had him tortured to force him to speak, putting him between two fires for eight nights. After this time, Geirröth\'s son, named Agnarr after the king\'s brother, came to Grímnir and gave him a full horn from which to drink, saying that his father, the king, was not right to torture him.
Grímnir then spoke, saying that he had suffered eight days and nights, without succour from any save Agnarr, Geirröth\'s son, whom Grímnir prophesied would be Lord of the Goths. He then revealed himself for who he was, as the Highest One, promising Agnarr reward for the drink which he brought him.
Shifting from prose to poetry for Odin-as-Grímnir\'s monologue, Grímnir describes at great length the cosmogony of the worlds, the dwelling places of its inhabitants, and himself and his many guises.
Eventually, Grímnir turns to Geirröth and promises him misfortune, revealing his true identity. Geirröth then realized the magnitude of his mistake. Having learned that he is undone, he rose quickly to pull Odin from the fires, but the sword which he had lain upon his knee slipped and fell hilt down, so that when the king stumbled he impaled himself upon it. Odin then vanished, and Agnarr, son of the dead King Geirröth, ruled in his father\'s stead.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
The 12th album of the comic Valhalla is loosely based on the poem.
In the 2017 Starz television adaptation of Neil Gaiman\'s *American Gods*, the character Mad Sweeney refers to Mr. Wednesday as Grimnir. Mr. Wednesday later emulates Odin\'s reveal of his identity through his various names when revealing his own true nature
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# Geographical mile
The **geographical mile** is an international unit of length determined by 1 minute of arc (`{{sfrac|1|60}}`{=mediawiki} degree) along the Earth\'s equator. For the international ellipsoid 1924 this equalled 1855.4 metres. *The American Practical Navigator* 2017 defines the geographical mile as 6087.08 ft. Greater precision depends more on the choice of the Earth\'s radius of the used ellipsoid than on more careful measurement, since the radius of the geoid varies more than 100 m along the equator. In any ellipsoid, the length of a degree of longitude at the equator is exactly 60 geographical miles. The Earth\'s radius at the equator in the GRS80 ellipsoid is `{{val|6378137.0000|u=m|fmt=commas}}`{=mediawiki}, which makes the geographical mile 1,855.3248 m. The rounding of the Earth\'s radius to metres in GRS80 has an effect of 0.0001 m.
The shape of the Earth is a slightly flattened sphere, which results in the Earth\'s circumference being 0.168% larger when measured around the equator as compared to through the poles. The geographical mile is slightly larger than the nautical mile (which was historically linked to the circumference measured through both poles); one geographic mile is equivalent to approximately 1855.3 m.
## Historical units {#historical_units}
Historically, certain nations used slightly different divisions to create their geographical miles.
The Portuguese system derived their miles (*milha geográfica*) as one third of their league of three separate values. When each equatorial degree was divided into 18 leagues, the geographical mile was equal to `{{sfrac|1|54}}`{=mediawiki} degree or about 2.06 km; when divided into 20 leagues, the geographical mile was equal to `{{sfrac|1|60}}`{=mediawiki} degree, approximating the values provided above; and when divided into 25 leagues, the geographical mile was equal to `{{sfrac|1|75}}`{=mediawiki} degree or about 1.48 km.
The geographical miles of the traditional Dutch (*geografische mijl*), German (*geographische Meile* or *Landmeile*), and Danish systems (*geografisk mil*) all approximated their much longer miles`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}equivalent to English leagues`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}by using a larger division of the equatorial degree. Instead of using one minute of arc, they all used four`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}`{{sfrac|1|15}}`{=mediawiki} degree`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}to produce a distance now notionally equal to 7408 m but actually differing slightly depending on official measurements and computations. (For example, the Danish unit was computed as equivalent to about 7421.5 m by the astronomer Ole Rømer.)
## Relationship with the nautical mile {#relationship_with_the_nautical_mile}
The geographical mile is closely related to the nautical mile, which was originally determined as 1 minute of arc along a great circle of the Earth but is nowadays defined by treaty as exactly 1,852 m. The US National Institute of Standards and Technology notes that \"The international nautical mile of 1,852 meters (6,076.115 49\... feet) was adopted effective July 1, 1954, for use in the United States. The value formerly used in the United States was 6,080.20 feet = 1 nautical (geographical or sea) mile.\" This deprecated value of 6,080.2 feet is equivalent to 6,080.2 ft. A separate reference identifies the geographic mile as being identical to the international nautical mile of 1,852 m and slightly shorter than the British nautical mile of 6,080 ft.
Scandinavians used their own version of the geographical mile as their nautical mile up to the beginning of the 20th century, causing it to be more well known as the **sea mile** in Danish (*sømil*), Norwegian (*sjømil*), and Swedish (*sjömil*).
## Use
The unit is not used much in English-speaking countries but is cited in some United States laws. For example, Section 1301(a) of the Submerged Lands Act defines state seaward boundaries in terms of geographic miles. While debating what became the Land Ordinance of 1785, Thomas Jefferson\'s committee wanted to divide the public lands in the west into \"hundreds of ten geographical miles square, each mile containing 6,086 and 4-10ths of a foot\" and \"sub-divided into lots of one mile square each, or 850 and 4-10ths of an acre\"
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# Genitive case
In grammar, the **genitive case** (abbreviated `{{smallcaps|'''gen'''}}`{=mediawiki}) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun---thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can also serve purposes indicating other relationships. For example, some verbs may feature arguments in the genitive case; and the genitive case may also have adverbial uses (see adverbial genitive).
The genitive construction includes the genitive case, but is a broader category. Placing a modifying noun in the genitive case is one way of indicating that it is related to a head noun, in a genitive construction. However, there are other ways to indicate a genitive construction. For example, many Afroasiatic languages place the head noun (rather than the modifying noun) in the construct state.
Possessive grammatical constructions, including the possessive case, may be regarded as subsets of the genitive construction. For example, the genitive construction \"pack of dogs" is similar, but not identical in meaning to the possessive case \"dogs\' pack\" (and neither of these is entirely interchangeable with \"dog pack\", which is neither genitive nor possessive). Modern English is an example of a language that has a possessive case rather than a *conventional* genitive case. That is, Modern English indicates a genitive construction with either the possessive clitic suffix \"-{{\'s}}\", or a prepositional genitive construction such as \"x of y\". However, some irregular English pronouns do have possessive forms which may more commonly be described as genitive (see English possessive). The names of the astronomical constellations have genitive forms which are used in star names, for example the star Mintaka in the constellation Orion (genitive Orionis) is also known as Delta Orionis or 34 Orionis.
Many languages have a genitive case, including Albanian, Arabic, Armenian, Basque, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, Georgian, German, Greek, Gothic, Hungarian, Icelandic, Irish, Kannada, Latin, Latvian, Lithuanian, Malayalam, Nepali, Romanian, Sanskrit, Scottish Gaelic, Swedish, Tamil, Telugu, all Slavic languages except Macedonian, and most of the Turkic languages.
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# Genitive case
## Functions
Depending on the language, specific varieties of genitive-noun--main-noun relationships may include:
- possession (*see* possessive case, possessed case):
- inalienable possession (\"*Janet\'s* height\", \"*Janet\'s* existence\", \"*Janet\'s* long fingers\")
- alienable possession (\"*Janet\'s* jacket\", \"*Janet\'s* drink\")
- relationship indicated by the noun being modified (\"*Janet\'s* husband\")
- composition (*see* Partitive):
- substance (\"a wheel *of cheese*\")
- elements (\"a group *of men*\")
- source (\"a portion *of the food*\")
- participation in an action:
- as an agent (\"She benefited from *her father\'s* love\") -- this is called the *subjective genitive* (Compare \"Her father loved her\", where *Her father* is the *subject*.)
- as a patient (\"the love *of music*\") -- this is called the *objective genitive* (Compare \"She loves music\", where *music* is the *object*.)
- origin (\"men *of Rome*\")
- reference (\"the capital *of the Republic*\" **or** \"*the Republic\'s* capital\")
- description (\"man *of honour*\", \"day *of reckoning*\")
- compounds (\"*dooms*day\" (\"doom\'s day\"), Scottish Gaelic \"*ball coise*\" = \"football\", where \"*coise*\" = gen. of \"*cas*\", \"foot\")
- apposition (the city of Rome)
Depending on the language, some of the relationships mentioned above have their own distinct cases different from the genitive.
Possessive pronouns are distinct pronouns, found in Indo-European languages such as English, that function like pronouns inflected in the genitive. They are considered separate pronouns if contrasting to languages where pronouns are regularly inflected in the genitive. For example, English *my* is either a separate possessive adjective or an irregular genitive of *I*, while in Finnish, for example, *minun* is regularly agglutinated from *minu-* \"I\" and *-n* (genitive).
In some languages, nouns in the genitive case also agree in case with the nouns they modify (that is, it is marked for two cases). This phenomenon is called suffixaufnahme.
In some languages, nouns in the genitive case may be found in inclusio -- that is, between the main noun\'s article and the noun itself.
## English
Old English had a genitive case, which has left its mark in modern English in the form of the possessive ending *\'s* (now sometimes referred to as the \"Saxon genitive\"), as well as possessive adjective forms such as *his*, *their*, etc., and in certain words derived from adverbial genitives such as *once* and *afterwards*. (Other Old English case markers have generally disappeared completely.) The modern English possessive forms are not normally considered to represent a grammatical case, although they are sometimes referred to as genitives or as belonging to a possessive case. One of the reasons that the status of *{{\'}}s* as a case ending is often rejected is that it does not behave as such, but rather as a clitic marking that indicates that a dependency relationship exists between phrases. One can say *the King\'s war*, but also *the King of France\'s war*, where the genitive marker is attached to the full noun phrase *the King of France*, whereas case markers are normally attached to the head of a phrase. In languages having a true genitive case, such as Old English, this example may be expressed as *þes cynges wyrre of France*, literally \"the King\'s war of France\", with the *{{\'}}s* attaching to *the King*.
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# Genitive case
## Finnic genitives and accusatives {#finnic_genitives_and_accusatives}
Finnic languages (Finnish, Estonian, etc.) have genitive cases.
In Finnish, prototypically the genitive is marked with *-n*, e.g. *maa -- maan* \"country -- of the country\". The stem may change, however, with consonant gradation and other reasons. For example, in certain words ending in consonants, *-e-* is added, e.g. *mies -- miehen* \"man -- of the man\", and in some, but not all words ending in *-i*, the *-i* is changed to an *-e-*, to give *-en*, e.g. *lumi -- lumen* \"snow -- of the snow\". The genitive is used extensively, with animate and inanimate possessors. In addition to the genitive, there is also a partitive case (marked *-ta/-tä* or *-a/-ä*) used for expressing that something is a part of a larger mass, e.g. *joukko miehiä* \"a group of men\".
In Estonian, the genitive marker *-n* has elided with respect to Finnish. Thus, the genitive always ends with a vowel, and the singular genitive is sometimes (in a subset of words ending with a vocal in nominative) identical in form to nominative. However, there are multiple strategies to form genitives from nominative forms ending in consonants, including addition of an unpredictable vowel, syncope, or even disfixation.
In Finnish, in addition to the uses mentioned above, there is a construct where the genitive is used to mark a surname. For example, *Juhani Virtanen* can be also expressed *Virtasen Juhani* (\"Juhani of the Virtanens\").
A complication in Finnic languages is that the accusative case *-(e)n* is homophonic to the genitive case. This case does not indicate possession, but is a syntactic marker for the object, additionally indicating that the action is telic (completed). In Estonian, it is often said that only a \"genitive\" exists. However, the cases have completely different functions, and the form of the accusative has developed from \**-(e)m*. (The same sound change has developed into a synchronic mutation of a final *m* into *n* in Finnish, e.g. genitive *sydämen* vs. nominative *sydän*.) This homophony has exceptions in Finnish, where a separate accusative *-(e)t* is found in pronouns, e.g. *kenet* \"who (telic object)\", vs. *kenen* \"whose\".
A difference is also observed in some of the related Sámi languages, where the pronouns and the plural of nouns in the genitive and accusative are easily distinguishable from each other, e.g., *kuä\'cǩǩmi* \"eagles\' (genitive plural)\" and *kuä\'cǩǩmid* \"eagles (accusative plural)\" in Skolt Sami.
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# Genitive case
## German
### Formation
#### Articles
The genitive singular definite article for masculine and neuter nouns is *des*, while the feminine and plural definite article is *der*. The indefinite articles are *eines* for masculine and neuter nouns, and *einer* for feminine and plural nouns (although the bare form cannot be used in the plural, it manifests in *keiner*, *meiner*, etc.)
#### Nouns
Singular masculine and neuter nouns of the strong declension in the genitive case are marked with *-(e)s*. Generally, one-syllable nouns favour the *-es* ending, and it is obligatory with nouns ending with a sibilant such as *s* or *z*. Otherwise, a simple *-s* ending is usual. Feminine and plural nouns remain uninflected:
- (of the contribution) -- masculine
- (of the flower) -- feminine
- (of the country) -- neuter
- (of the trees) -- plural
Singular masculine nouns (and one neuter noun) of the weak declension are marked with an *-(e)n* (or rarely *-(e)ns*) ending in the genitive case:
- (of the raven) -- masculine
- (of the heart) -- neuter
#### Adjectives
The declension of adjectives in the genitive case is as follows:
Masculine & Neuter Feminine & Plural
----------------- -------------------- -------------------
With article
With no article
#### Personal pronouns {#personal_pronouns}
The genitive personal pronouns are quite rare and either very formal, literary or outdated. They are as follows (with comparison to the nominative pronouns):
Nominative Genitive
---------------------- ----------
\(I\)
(you sg.)
(he)
(it)
(we)
(you pl.)
(you formal sg./pl.)
(she/they)
Some examples:
- (Would you go instead *of me*?)
- (We are not worthy *of her/them*)
- (I will commemorate *you*)
#### Relative pronouns {#relative_pronouns}
Unlike the personal ones, the genitive relative pronouns are in regular use and are as follows (with comparison to the nominative relative pronouns):
Nominative Genitive
------------------- ------------ ----------
Masculine
Neuter
Feminine & Plural
Some examples:
- (Do you know the student *whose* mother is a witch?) -- masculine
- (She is the woman *whose* husband is a racer) -- feminine
### Usage
#### Nouns {#nouns_1}
The genitive case is often used to show possession or the relation between nouns:
- *des* *Himmels* (the colour *of the* *sky*)
- *Europas* (Germany lies in the heart *of Europe*)
- *seiner Frau* (the death *of his wife*)
- *dieser Länder* (the development *of these countries*)
A simple *s* is added to the end of a name:
- *italic=no* (*Claudia\'s* book)
#### Prepositions
The genitive case is also commonly found after certain prepositions:
- *eines Tages* (within *a day*)
- *des* *Hemdes* (instead *of the shirt*)
- *unserer* *Abwesenheit* (during *our absence*)
- *der Berge* (beyond *the mountains*)
#### Adjectives {#adjectives_1}
The genitive case can sometimes be found in connection with certain adjectives:
- *dessen* *italic=no* (We are aware *of that*)
- *des Diebstahls* *italic=no* (He is guilty *of theft*)
- *der Ruhe* *italic=no* (The child is in need *of calmness*)
- *dieses Lebens* *italic=no* (I am growing weary *of this life*)
#### Verbs
The genitive case is occasionally found in connection with certain verbs (some of which require an accusative before the genitive); they are mostly either formal or legal:
- *eines günstigen Klimas* (The city enjoys *a favourable climate*)
- *der Toten* *italic=no* (Remember *those who died* in (the) war)
- *des Mordes* *italic=no* (Who accused him *of murder*?)
- *des Betrugs* (Someone suspects you *of (committing) fraud*)
## Greek
The ablative case of Indo-European was absorbed into the genitive in Classical Greek. This added to the usages of the \"genitive proper\", the usages of the \"ablatival genitive\". The genitive occurs with verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions. See also Genitive absolute.
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# Genitive case
## Hungarian
The Hungarian genitive is constructed using the suffix *-é*.
- *madár* (\'bird\'); *madáré* (\'bird\'s\')
The genitive *-é* suffix is only used with the predicate of a sentence: it serves the role of mine, yours, hers, etc. The possessed object is left in the nominative case. For example:
- *A csőr a madáré* (\'The beak is the bird\'s\').
If the possessor is not the predicate of the sentence, the genitive is not used. Instead, the possessive suffixes (*-(j)e* or *-(j)a* in the third person singular, depending on vowel harmony) mark the possessed object. The possessor is left in the nominative if it directly precedes the possessed object (otherwise it takes a dative *-nak/-nek* suffix). For example:
- *csőr* (\'beak\'); *csőre* (\'its beak\')
- *a madár csőre*/*csőre a madárnak* (\'the bird\'s beak\')
In addition, the suffix *-i* (\'of\') is also used. For example:
- *madár* (\'bird\'); *madári* (\'avian\', \'of bird(s)\')
## Japanese
Japanese construes the genitive by using the grammatical particle *no* の. It can be used to show a number of relationships to the head noun. For example:
: 猫の手 *neko-no te* (\"cat\'s paw\")
: 学生の一人 *gakusei-no hitori* (\"one of the students\")
: 金の指輪 *kin-no yubiwa* (\"a ring of gold\")
: 京都のどこ *Kyouto-no doko* (\"where of (in) Kyoto\")
: 富士の山 *Fuji-no yama* (\"the mountain of Fuji\" \[Mt. Fuji\])
The archaic genitive case particle *-ga* ～が is still retained in certain expressions, place names, and dialects. Possessive *ga* can also be written as a small ke (*ヶ*), for example in `{{nihongo||霞ヶ丘|Kasumigaoka}}`{=mediawiki}.
Typically, languages have nominative case nouns converting into genitive case. It has been found, however, that the Kansai dialect of Japanese will in rare cases allow accusative case to convert to genitive, if specific conditions are met in the clause in which the conversion appears. This is referred to as \"Accusative-Genitive conversion.\"
## Latin
The genitive is one of the cases of nouns and pronouns in Latin. Latin genitives still have certain modern scientific uses:
- Scientific names of living things sometimes contain genitives, as in the plant name *Buddleja davidii*, meaning \"David\'s buddleia\". Here *davidii* is the genitive of *Davidius*, a Latinized version of the Hebrew name. It is not capitalized because it is the second part of a binomial name.
- Names of astronomical constellations are Latin, and the genitives of their names are used in naming objects in those constellations, as in the Bayer designation of stars. For example, the brightest star in the constellation Virgo is called *Alpha Virginis*, which is to say \"Alpha of Virgo\", as *virginis* is the genitive of *virgō*. Plural forms and adjectives also decline accordingly: plural *Alpha Piscium* (Pisces) and *Alpha Canum Venaticorum* (Canes Venatici) versus singular *Alpha Piscis Austrini* (Piscis Austrinus) and *Alpha Canis Majoris* (Canis Major). Astronomy manuals often list the genitive forms, as some are easy to get wrong even with a basic knowledge of Latin, e.g. Vela, which is a neuter plural not a feminine singular: *Delta Velorum* not \**Delta Velae*.
- *Modus operandi*, which can be translated to English as \"mode of operation\", in which *operandi* is a singular genitive gerund (i.e. \"of operation\"), not a plural of *operandus* as is sometimes mistakenly assumed.
## Irish
The Irish language also uses a genitive case (*tuiseal ginideach*). For example, in the phrase *bean an tí* (woman of the house), *tí* is the genitive case of *teach*, meaning \"house\". Another example is *barr an chnoic*, \"top of the hill\", where *cnoc* means \"hill\", but is changed to *chnoic*, which also incorporates lenition.
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# Genitive case
## Mandarin
In Mandarin Chinese, the genitive case is made by use of the particle 的 (de).
However, about persons in relation to oneself, 的 is often dropped when the context allows for it to be easily understood.
## Persian
Old Persian had a true genitive case inherited from Proto-Indo-European. By the time of Middle Persian, the genitive case had been lost and replaced by an analytical construction which is now called Ezāfe. This construction was inherited by New Persian, and was also later borrowed into numerous other Iranic, Turkic and Indo-Aryan languages of Western and South Asia.
## Semitic languages {#semitic_languages}
Genitive case marking existed in Proto-Semitic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic. It indicated possession, and it is preserved today only in Arabic.
### Akkadian
: Nominative: *šarrum* (king)
: Genitive: *aššat šarrim* (wife of king = king\'s wife)
### Arabic
Called المجرور *al-majrūr* (meaning \"dragged\") or المخفوض *al-makhfūḍ* (meaning \"lowered\") in Arabic, the genitive case functions both as an indication of ownership (ex. the door **of the house**) and for nouns following a preposition.
: Nominative: ٌبيت *baytun* (a house)
: Genitive: ٍبابُ بيت *bābu baytin* (door of a house) ِبابُ البيت *bābu l-bayti* (door of the house)
The Arabic genitive marking also appears after prepositions.
: e.g. ٍبابٌ لبيت *bābun li-baytin* (a door **for** a house)
The Semitic genitive should not be confused with the pronominal possessive suffixes that exist in all the Semitic languages
: e.g. Arabic بيتي *bayt-ī* (my house) َكتابُك *kitābu-ka* (your \[masc.\] book).
## Slavic languages {#slavic_languages}
With the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, all Slavic languages decline the nouns and adjectives in accordance with the genitive case using a variety of endings depending on the word\'s lexical category, its gender, number (singular or plural) and in some cases meaning. For instance, in Russian Broutona (lit. Broughton\'s) island name, its genitive/possessive case is created by adding *a* affix to the explorer\'s name.
### Possessives
To indicate possession the ending of the noun indicating the possessor changes depending on the word\'s ending in the nominative case. For example, to *a, u, i*, or *y* in Polish, *а, я, ы*, or *и* in Russian, *а, я, y, ю, і, и* or *ей* in Ukrainian, and similar cases in other Slavic languages.
: Nominative: (pol.) \"Oto Anton\" / (rus.) \"Вот Антон\" / (ukr.) \"Ось Антон\" (\"Here is Anton\").
: Genitive: (pol.) \"Oto obiad Anton**а**\" / (rus.) \"Вот обед Антон**а**\" / (ukr.) \"Ось oбід Антон**а**\" (\"Here is Anton\'s lunch\").
Possessives can also be formed by the construction (pol.) \"u \[subject\] jest \[object\]\" / (rus.) \"У \[subject\] есть \[object\]\"/ (ukr.) \"у(в) \[subject\] є \[object\]\"
: Nominative: (pol.) \"Oto Anton\" / (rus.) \"Вот Антон\" / (ukr.) \"Ось Антон\" (\"Here is Anton\").
: Genitive: (pol.) \"u Anton**а** jest obiad / (rus.) \"У Антон**а** есть обед\" / (ukr.) \"У(В) Антон**а** є обід\" (\"Anton has a lunch\", literally: \"(There) is a lunch at Anton\'s\").
In sentences where the possessor includes an associated pronoun, the pronoun also changes:
: Nominative: (pol.) Oto mój brat / (rus.) \"Вот мой брат\"/ (ukr.) \"От мій брат\" (\"Here is my brother\").
: Genitive: (pol.) \"u moj**ego** brat**а** jest obiad / (rus.) \"У мо**его** брат**а** есть обед\" / (ukr.) \"У мо**го** брат**а** є обід\" (\"My brother has a lunch\", literally: \"(There) is a lunch at my_brother\'s\").
And in sentences denoting negative possession, the ending of the object noun also changes:
: Nominative: (pol.) \"Oto Irena/Kornelia\" / (rus.) \"Вот Ирена/Корнелия\" / (ukr.) \"От Ірена/Корнелія\" (\"Here is Irene/Kornelia\").
: Genitive: (pol.) \"Irena/Kornelia nie ma obiad**u** (\"Irene/Kornelia does not have a lunch\") or (pol.) \"u Iren**y**/Korneli**i** nie ma obiad**u** (\"(There) is no lunch at Irene\'s/Kornelia\'s\")
The Polish phrase \"nie ma \[object\]\" can work both as a negation of having \[object\] or a negation of an existence of \[object\], but the meaning of the two sentences and its structure is different. (In the first case \[subject\] is Irene, and in the second case \[subject\] is virtual, it is \"the space\" at Irene\'s place, not Irene herself)
: Genitive: (rus.) \"У Ирен**ы**/Корнели**и** нет обед**а**\" (\"Irene/Kornelia does not have a lunch\", literally: \"(There) is no lunch at Irene\'s/Kornelia\'s\").
The Russian word \"нет\" is a contraction of \"не\" + \"есть\". In Russian there is no distinction between \[subject\] not having an \[object\] and \[object\] not being present at \[subject\]\'s.
: Genitive: (ukr.) \"Ірена/Корнелія не має обід**у** (\"Irene does not have a lunch\") or (ukr.) \"y Ірен**и**/Корнелі**ї** нема(є) обід**у** (\"At Irene\'s does not have a lunch\")
Note the difference between the spelling \"не має \[object\]\" and \"нема(є) \[object\]\" in both cases.
### To express negation {#to_express_negation}
The genitive case is also used in sentences expressing negation, even when no possessive relationship is involved. The ending of the subject noun changes just as it does in possessive sentences. The genitive, in this sense, can only be used to negate nominative, accusative and genitive sentences, and not other cases.
: Nominative: (pol.) \"(Czy) Maria jest w domu?\" / (rus.) \"Мария дома?\" / (Чи) Марія (є) вдома? (\"Is Maria at home?\").
: Genitive: (pol.) \"Mari**i** nie ma w domu\" (\"Maria is not at home\", literally: \"\[virtual subject\] has no Maria at home\")
: Genitive: (rus.) \"Мари**и** нет дома\" (\"Maria is not at home\", literally: \"Of Maria there is none at home.\").
: Genitive: (ukr.) \"Марі**ї** нема(є) вдома\" (\"Maria is not at home\", literally: \"\[virtual subject\] has no Maria at home.\")
```{=html}
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```
: Accusative: (pol.) \"Mogę rozczytać twoje pismo\" / (rus.) Могу (про)читать твой почерк / (ukr.) Можу (про)читати твій почерк (\"I can read your handwriting\")
: Genitive: (pol.) \"Nie mogę rozczytać twoj**ego** pism**a**\" / (rus.) \"Не могу (про)читать тво**его** почерк**а**\" / (ukr.) \"Не можу (про)читати тво**го** почерк**у**\" (\"I can\'t read your handwriting\")
Use of genitive for negation is obligatory in Slovene, Polish and Old Church Slavonic. Some East Slavic languages ( e.g. Russian and Belarusian) employ either the accusative or genitive for negation, although the genitive is more commonly used. In Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Croatian, negating with the genitive case is perceived as rather archaic and the accusative is preferred, but genitive negation in these languages is still not uncommon, especially in music and literature.
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# Genitive case
## Slavic languages {#slavic_languages}
### Partial direct object {#partial_direct_object}
The genitive case is used with some verbs and mass nouns to indicate that the action covers only a part of the direct object (having a function of non-existing partitive case), whereas similar constructions using the Accusative case denote full coverage. Compare the sentences:
: Genitive: (pol.) \"Napiłem się wod**y**\" / (rus.) \"Я напился вод**ы**\" / (ukr.) \"Я напився вод**и**\" (\"I drank water,\" i.e. \"I drank some water, part of the water available\")
: Accusative: (pol.) \"Wypiłem wod**ę**\" / (rus.) \"Я выпил вод**у** / (ukr.) \"Я випив вод**у** (\"I drank **the** water,\" i.e. \"I drank all the water, all the water in question\")
In Russian, special partitive case or sub-case is observed for some uncountable nouns which in some contexts have preferred alternative form on -у/ю instead of standard genitive on -а/я: выпил ча**ю** (\'drank some tea\'), but сорта ча**я** (\'sorts of tea\').
### Prepositional constructions {#prepositional_constructions}
The genitive case is also used in many prepositional constructions. (Usually when some movement or change of state is involved, and when describing the source / destination of the movement. Sometimes also when describing the manner of acting.)
- Czech prepositions using genitive case: od (from), z, ze (from), do (into), bez (without), kromě (excepting), místo (instead of), podle (after, according to), podél (along), okolo (around), u (near, by), vedle (beside), během (during), pomocí (using, by the help of), stran (as regards) etc.
- Polish prepositions using genitive case: od (from), z, ze (from), do, w (into), na (onto), bez (without), zamiast (instead of), wedle (after, according to), wzdłuż (along), około (around), u (near, by), koło (beside), podczas (during), etc.
- Russian prepositions using genitive case: от (from), с, со (from), до (before, up to), без (without), кроме (excepting), вместо (instead of), после (after), вдоль (along), около (around), у (near, by), во время (during), насчёт (regarding), etc.
## Turkish
The Turkish genitive, formed with a genitive suffix for the possessor, is used in combination with a possessive for the possessed entity, formed with a possessive suffix. For example, in \"my mother\'s mother\", the possessor is \"my mother\", and the possessed entity is \"\[her\] mother\". In Turkish:
: Nominative: *anne* (\"mother\");
: First-person possessive: *annem* (\"my mother\");
: Third-person possessive: *annesi* (\"\[someone\]\'s mother\");
: Genitive of *annem*: *annemin* (\"my mother\'s\");
: Genitive and possessive combined: *annemin annesi* (\"my mother\'s mother\", i.e., \"my maternal grandmother\").
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# Genitive case
## Albanian
The genitive in Albanian is formed with the help of clitics. For example:
: Nominative: *libër* (\'book\'); *vajzë* (\'girl\');
: Genitive: *libri i vajzës* (the girl\'s book)
If the possessed object is masculine, the clitic is *i*. If the possessed object is feminine, the clitic is *e*. If the possessed object is plural, the clitic is *e* regardless of the gender.
The genitive is used with some prepositions: *me anë* (\'by means of\'), *nga ana* (\'on behalf of\', \'from the side of\'), *për arsye* (\'due to\'), *për shkak* (\'because of\'), *me përjashtim* (\'with the exception of\'), *në vend* (\'instead of\').
## Armenian
The genitive in Armenian is generally formed by adding \"-ի\":
Nominative: աղջիկ (\'girl\'); գիրք (\'book\');
Genitive: աղջիկի գիրքը (\"the girl\'s book\").
However, there are certain words that are not formed this way. For example, words with ուն change to ան:
Nominative: տուն (\'house\'), Genitive: տան (\"house\'s\").
## Dravidian languages {#dravidian_languages}
### Kannada
In Kannada, the genitive case-endings are:
for masculine or feminine nouns ending in \"ಅ\" (a): ನ (na)
- Examples: *sūrya-na* (\'of the sun\')
for neuter nouns ending in \"ಅ\" (a): ದ (da)
- Examples: *mara-da* (\'of the tree\')
for all nouns ending in \"ಇ\" (i), \"ಈ\" (ī), \"ಎ\" (e), or \"ಏ\" (ē): ಅ (a)
- Examples: *mane-y-a* (\'of the house\'; a linking \"y\" is added between the stem and the suffix)
for all nouns ending in \"ಉ\" (u), \"ಊ\" (ū), \"ಋ\" (r̥), or \"ೠ\" (r̥̄): ಇನ (ina)
- Examples; *guru-v-ina* (\'of the teacher\'; a linking \"v\" is added between the stem and the suffix)
Most postpositions in Kannada take the genitive case.
### Tamil
In Tamil, the genitive case ending is the word உடைய or இன், which signifies possession. Depending on the last letter of the noun, the genitive case endings may vary.
If the last letter is a consonant (மெய் எழுத்து), like க், ங், ச், ஞ், ட், ண், த், ந், ப், ம், ய், ர், ல், வ், ழ், then the suffix உடைய/இன் gets added
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# Groupoid
In mathematics, especially in category theory and homotopy theory, a **groupoid** (less often **Brandt groupoid** or **virtual group**) generalises the notion of group in several equivalent ways. A groupoid can be seen as a:
- *Group* with a partial function replacing the binary operation;
- *Category* in which every morphism is invertible. A category of this sort can be viewed as augmented with a unary operation on the morphisms, called *inverse* by analogy with group theory. A groupoid where there is only one object is a usual group.
In the presence of dependent typing, a category in general can be viewed as a typed monoid, and similarly, a groupoid can be viewed as simply a typed group. The morphisms take one from one object to another, and form a dependent family of types, thus morphisms might be typed `{{tmath|1= g:A \rightarrow B }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= h:B \rightarrow C }}`{=mediawiki}, say. Composition is then a total function: `{{tmath|1= \circ : (B \rightarrow C) \rightarrow (A \rightarrow B) \rightarrow (A \rightarrow C) }}`{=mediawiki}, so that `{{tmath|1= h \circ g : A \rightarrow C }}`{=mediawiki}.
Special cases include:
- *Setoids*: sets that come with an equivalence relation,
- *G-sets*: sets equipped with an action of a group `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}.
Groupoids are often used to reason about geometrical objects such as manifolds. `{{harvs|txt|first=Heinrich |last=Brandt|authorlink=Heinrich Brandt|year=1927}}`{=mediawiki} introduced groupoids implicitly via Brandt semigroups.
## Definitions
### Algebraic
A groupoid can be viewed as an algebraic structure consisting of a set with a binary partial function . Precisely, it is a non-empty set $G$ with a unary operation `{{tmath|1= {}^{-1} : G\to G }}`{=mediawiki}, and a partial function `{{tmath|1= *:G\times G \rightharpoonup G }}`{=mediawiki}. Here $*$ is not a binary operation because it is not necessarily defined for all pairs of elements of `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}. The precise conditions under which $*$ is defined are not articulated here and vary by situation.
The operations $\ast$ and ^−1^ have the following axiomatic properties: For all `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= b }}`{=mediawiki}, and $c$ in `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki},
1. *Associativity*: If $a*b$ and $b*c$ are defined, then $(a * b) * c$ and $a * (b * c)$ are defined and are equal. Conversely, if one of $(a * b) * c$ or $a * (b * c)$ is defined, then they are both defined (and they are equal to each other), and $a*b$ and $b * c$ are also defined.
2. *Inverse*: $a^{-1} * a$ and $a*{a^{-1}}$ are always defined.
3. *Identity*: If $a * b$ is defined, then `{{tmath|1= a * b * {b^{-1} } = a }}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{tmath|1= {a^{-1} } * a * b = b }}`{=mediawiki}. (The previous two axioms already show that these expressions are defined and unambiguous.)
Two easy and convenient properties follow from these axioms:
- ,
- If $a * b$ is defined, then `{{tmath|1= (a * b)^{-1} = b^{-1} * a^{-1} }}`{=mediawiki}.
Proof of first property: from 2. and 3. we obtain *a*^−1^ = *a*^−1^ \* *a* \* *a*^−1^ and (*a*^−1^)^−1^ = (*a*^−1^)^−1^ \* *a*^−1^ \* (*a*^−1^)^−1^. Substituting the first into the second and applying 3. two more times yields (*a*^−1^)^−1^ = (*a*^−1^)^−1^ \* *a*^−1^ \* *a* \* *a*^−1^ \* (*a*^−1^)^−1^ = (*a*^−1^)^−1^ \* *a*^−1^ \* *a* = *a*. ✓\
Proof of second property: since *a* \* *b* is defined, so is (*a* \* *b*)^−1^ \* *a* \* *b*. Therefore (*a* \* *b*)^−1^ \* *a* \* *b* \* *b*^−1^ = (*a* \* *b*)^−1^ \* *a* is also defined. Moreover since *a* \* *b* is defined, so is *a* \* *b* \* *b*^−1^ = *a*. Therefore *a* \* *b* \* *b*^−1^ \* *a*^−1^ is also defined. From 3. we obtain (*a* \* *b*)^−1^ = (*a* \* *b*)^−1^ \* *a* \* *a*^−1^ = (*a* \* *b*)^−1^ \* *a* \* *b* \* *b*^−1^ \* *a*^−1^ = *b*^−1^ \* *a*^−1^. ✓
### Category-theoretic {#category_theoretic}
A groupoid is a small category in which every morphism is an isomorphism, i.e., invertible. More explicitly, a groupoid $G$ is a set $G_0$ of *objects* with
- for each pair of objects *x* and *y*, a (possibly empty) set *G*(*x*,*y*) of *morphisms* (or *arrows*) from *x* to *y*; we write *f* : *x* → *y* to indicate that *f* is an element of *G*(*x*,*y*);
- for every object *x*, a designated element $\mathrm{id}_x$ of *G*(*x*, *x*);
- for each triple of objects *x*, *y*, and *z*, a function `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{comp}_{x,y,z} : G(y, z)\times G(x, y) \rightarrow G(x, z): (g, f) \mapsto gf }}`{=mediawiki};
- for each pair of objects *x*, *y*, a function $\mathrm{inv}: G(x, y) \rightarrow G(y, x): f \mapsto f^{-1}$ satisfying, for any *f* : *x* → *y*, *g* : *y* → *z*, and *h* : *z* → *w*:
- and `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{id}_y\ f = f }}`{=mediawiki};
- ;
- $f f^{-1} = \mathrm{id}_y$ and `{{tmath|1= f^{-1} f = \mathrm{id}_x }}`{=mediawiki}.
If *f* is an element of *G*(*x*,*y*), then *x* is called the **source** of *f*, written *s*(*f*), and *y* is called the **target** of *f*, written *t*(*f*).
A groupoid *G* is sometimes denoted as `{{tmath|1= G_1 \rightrightarrows G_0 }}`{=mediawiki}, where $G_1$ is the set of all morphisms, and the two arrows $G_1 \to G_0$ represent the source and the target.
More generally, one can consider a groupoid object in an arbitrary category admitting finite fiber products.
### Comparing the definitions {#comparing_the_definitions}
The algebraic and category-theoretic definitions are equivalent, as we now show. Given a groupoid in the category-theoretic sense, let *G* be the disjoint union of all of the sets *G*(*x*,*y*) (i.e. the sets of morphisms from *x* to *y*). Then $\mathrm{comp}$ and $\mathrm{inv}$ become partial operations on *G*, and $\mathrm{inv}$ will in fact be defined everywhere. We define ∗ to be $\mathrm{comp}$ and ^−1^ to be `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{inv} }}`{=mediawiki}, which gives a groupoid in the algebraic sense. Explicit reference to *G*~0~ (and hence to `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{id} }}`{=mediawiki}) can be dropped.
Conversely, given a groupoid *G* in the algebraic sense, define an equivalence relation $\sim$ on its elements by $a \sim b$ iff *a* ∗ *a*^−1^ = *b* ∗ *b*^−1^. Let *G*~0~ be the set of equivalence classes of `{{tmath|1= \sim }}`{=mediawiki}, i.e. `{{tmath|1= G_0:=G/\!\!\sim }}`{=mediawiki}. Denote *a* ∗ *a*^−1^ by $1_x$ if $a\in G$ with `{{tmath|1= x\in G_0 }}`{=mediawiki}.
Now define $G(x, y)$ as the set of all elements *f* such that $1_x*f*1_y$ exists. Given $f \in G(x,y)$ and `{{tmath|1= g \in G(y, z) }}`{=mediawiki}, their composite is defined as `{{tmath|1= gf:=f*g \in G(x,z) }}`{=mediawiki}. To see that this is well defined, observe that since $(1_x*f)*1_y$ and $1_y*(g*1_z)$ exist, so does `{{tmath|1= (1_x*f*1_y)*(g*1_z)=f*g }}`{=mediawiki}. The identity morphism on *x* is then `{{tmath|1= 1_x }}`{=mediawiki}, and the category-theoretic inverse of *f* is *f*^−1^.
Sets in the definitions above may be replaced with classes, as is generally the case in category theory.
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# Groupoid
## Definitions
### Vertex groups and orbits {#vertex_groups_and_orbits}
Given a groupoid *G*, the **vertex groups** or **isotropy groups** or **object groups** in *G* are the subsets of the form *G*(*x*,*x*), where *x* is any object of *G*. It follows easily from the axioms above that these are indeed groups, as every pair of elements is composable and inverses are in the same vertex group.
The **orbit** of a groupoid *G* at a point $x \in X$ is given by the set $s(t^{-1}(x)) \subseteq X$ containing every point that can be joined to x by a morphism in G. If two points $x$ and $y$ are in the same orbits, their vertex groups $G(x)$ and $G(y)$ are isomorphic: if $f$ is any morphism from $x$ to `{{tmath|1= y }}`{=mediawiki}, then the isomorphism is given by the mapping `{{tmath|1= g\to fgf^{-1} }}`{=mediawiki}.
Orbits form a partition of the set X, and a groupoid is called **transitive** if it has only one orbit (equivalently, if it is connected as a category). In that case, all the vertex groups are isomorphic (on the other hand, this is not a sufficient condition for transitivity; see the section below for counterexamples).
### Subgroupoids and morphisms {#subgroupoids_and_morphisms}
A **subgroupoid** of $G \rightrightarrows X$ is a subcategory $H \rightrightarrows Y$ that is itself a groupoid. It is called **wide** or **full** if it is wide or full as a subcategory, i.e., respectively, if $X = Y$ or $G(x,y)=H(x,y)$ for every `{{tmath|1= x,y \in Y }}`{=mediawiki}.
A **groupoid morphism** is simply a functor between two (category-theoretic) groupoids.
Particular kinds of morphisms of groupoids are of interest. A morphism $p: E \to B$ of groupoids is called a fibration if for each object $x$ of $E$ and each morphism $b$ of $B$ starting at $p(x)$ there is a morphism $e$ of $E$ starting at $x$ such that `{{tmath|1= p(e)=b }}`{=mediawiki}. A fibration is called a covering morphism or covering of groupoids if further such an $e$ is unique. The covering morphisms of groupoids are especially useful because they can be used to model covering maps of spaces.
It is also true that the category of covering morphisms of a given groupoid $B$ is equivalent to the category of actions of the groupoid $B$ on sets.
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# Groupoid
## Examples
### Fundamental groupoid {#fundamental_groupoid}
Given a topological space `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, let $G_0$ be the set `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}. The morphisms from the point $p$ to the point $q$ are equivalence classes of continuous paths from $p$ to `{{tmath|1= q }}`{=mediawiki}, with two paths being equivalent if they are homotopic. Two such morphisms are composed by first following the first path, then the second; the homotopy equivalence guarantees that this composition is associative. This groupoid is called the fundamental groupoid of `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, denoted $\pi_1(X)$ (or sometimes, `{{tmath|1= \Pi_1(X) }}`{=mediawiki}). The usual fundamental group $\pi_1(X,x)$ is then the vertex group for the point `{{tmath|1= x }}`{=mediawiki}.
The orbits of the fundamental groupoid $\pi_1(X)$ are the path-connected components of `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}. Accordingly, the fundamental groupoid of a path-connected space is transitive, and we recover the known fact that the fundamental groups at any base point are isomorphic. Moreover, in this case, the fundamental groupoid and the fundamental groups are equivalent as categories (see the section below for the general theory).
An important extension of this idea is to consider the fundamental groupoid $\pi_1(X,A)$ where $A\subset X$ is a chosen set of \"base points\". Here $\pi_1(X,A)$ is a (full) subgroupoid of `{{tmath|1= \pi_1(X) }}`{=mediawiki}, where one considers only paths whose endpoints belong to `{{tmath|1= A }}`{=mediawiki}. The set $A$ may be chosen according to the geometry of the situation at hand.
### Equivalence relation {#equivalence_relation}
If $X$ is a setoid, i.e. a set with an equivalence relation `{{tmath|1= \sim }}`{=mediawiki}, then a groupoid \"representing\" this equivalence relation can be formed as follows:
- The objects of the groupoid are the elements of `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki};
- For any two elements $x$ and $y$ in `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, there is a single morphism from $x$ to $y$ (denote by `{{tmath|1= (y,x) }}`{=mediawiki}) if and only if `{{tmath|1= x\sim y }}`{=mediawiki};
- The composition of $(z,y)$ and $(y,x)$ is `{{tmath|1= (z,x) }}`{=mediawiki}.
The vertex groups of this groupoid are always trivial; moreover, this groupoid is in general not transitive and its orbits are precisely the equivalence classes. There are two extreme examples:
- If every element of $X$ is in relation with every other element of `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, we obtain the **pair groupoid** of `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, which has the entire $X \times X$ as set of arrows, and which is transitive.
- If every element of $X$ is only in relation with itself, one obtains the **unit groupoid**, which has $X$ as set of arrows, `{{tmath|1= s = t = \mathrm{id}_X }}`{=mediawiki}, and which is completely intransitive (every singleton $\{x\}$ is an orbit).
#### Examples {#examples_1}
- If $f: X_0 \to Y$ is a smooth surjective submersion of smooth manifolds, then $X_0\times_YX_0 \subset X_0\times X_0$ is an equivalence relation since $Y$ has a topology isomorphic to the quotient topology of $X_0$ under the surjective map of topological spaces. If we write, $X_1 = X_0\times_YX_0$ then we get a groupoid $X_1 \rightrightarrows X_0,$ which is sometimes called the **banal groupoid** of a surjective submersion of smooth manifolds.
- If we relax the reflexivity requirement and consider *partial equivalence relations*, then it becomes possible to consider semidecidable notions of equivalence on computable realisers for sets. This allows groupoids to be used as a computable approximation to set theory, called *PER models*. Considered as a category, PER models are a cartesian closed category with natural numbers object and subobject classifier, giving rise to the effective topos introduced by Martin Hyland.
### Čech groupoid {#čech_groupoid}
A Čech groupoid^p. 5^ is a special kind of groupoid associated to an equivalence relation given by an open cover $\mathcal{U} = \{U_i\}_{i\in I}$ of some manifold `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}. Its objects are given by the disjoint union $\mathcal{G}_0 = \coprod U_i ,$ and its arrows are the intersections $\mathcal{G}_1 = \coprod U_{ij} .$ The source and target maps are then given by the induced maps
> $\begin{align}
> s = \phi_j: U_{ij} \to U_j\\
> t = \phi_i: U_{ij} \to U_i
> \end{align}$
and the inclusion map
> $\varepsilon: U_i \to U_{ii}$
giving the structure of a groupoid. In fact, this can be further extended by setting
> $\mathcal{G}_n = \mathcal{G}_1\times_{\mathcal{G}_0} \cdots \times_{\mathcal{G}_0}\mathcal{G}_1$
as the $n$-iterated fiber product where the $\mathcal{G}_n$ represents $n$-tuples of composable arrows. The structure map of the fiber product is implicitly the target map, since
> $\begin{matrix}
> U_{ijk} & \to & U_{ij} \\
> \downarrow & & \downarrow \\
> U_{ik} & \to & U_{i}
> \end{matrix}$
is a cartesian diagram where the maps to $U_i$ are the target maps. This construction can be seen as a model for some ∞-groupoids. Also, another artifact of this construction is k-cocycles
> $[\sigma] \in \check{H}^k(\mathcal{U},\underline{A})$
for some constant sheaf of abelian groups can be represented as a function
> $\sigma:\coprod U_{i_1\cdots i_k} \to A$
giving an explicit representation of cohomology classes.
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# Groupoid
## Examples
### Group action {#group_action}
If the group $G$ acts on the set `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, then we can form the **action groupoid** (or **transformation groupoid**) representing this group action as follows:
- The objects are the elements of `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki};
- For any two elements $x$ and $y$ in `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, the morphisms from $x$ to $y$ correspond to the elements $g$ of $G$ such that `{{tmath|1= gx = y }}`{=mediawiki};
- Composition of morphisms interprets the binary operation of `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}.
More explicitly, the *action groupoid* is a small category with $\mathrm{ob}(C)=X$ and $\mathrm{hom}(C)=G\times X$ and with source and target maps $s(g,x) = x$ and `{{tmath|1= t(g,x) = gx }}`{=mediawiki}. It is often denoted $G \ltimes X$ (or $X\rtimes G$ for a right action). Multiplication (or composition) in the groupoid is then `{{tmath|1= (h,y)(g,x) = (hg,x) }}`{=mediawiki}, which is defined provided `{{tmath|1= y=gx }}`{=mediawiki}.
For $x$ in `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, the vertex group consists of those $(g,x)$ with `{{tmath|1= gx=x }}`{=mediawiki}, which is just the isotropy subgroup at $x$ for the given action (which is why vertex groups are also called isotropy groups). Similarly, the orbits of the action groupoid are the orbit of the group action, and the groupoid is transitive if and only if the group action is transitive.
Another way to describe $G$-sets is the functor category `{{tmath|1= [\mathrm{Gr},\mathrm{Set}] }}`{=mediawiki}, where $\mathrm{Gr}$ is the groupoid (category) with one element and isomorphic to the group `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}. Indeed, every functor $F$ of this category defines a set $X=F(\mathrm{Gr})$ and for every $g$ in $G$ (i.e. for every morphism in `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{Gr} }}`{=mediawiki}) induces a bijection $F_g$ : `{{tmath|1= X\to X }}`{=mediawiki}. The categorical structure of the functor $F$ assures us that $F$ defines a $G$-action on the set `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}. The (unique) representable functor $F : \mathrm{Gr} \to \mathrm{Set}$ is the Cayley representation of `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}. In fact, this functor is isomorphic to $\mathrm{Hom}(\mathrm{Gr},-)$ and so sends $\mathrm{ob}(\mathrm{Gr})$ to the set $\mathrm{Hom}(\mathrm{Gr},\mathrm{Gr})$ which is by definition the \"set\" $G$ and the morphism $g$ of $\mathrm{Gr}$ (i.e. the element $g$ of `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}) to the permutation $F_g$ of the set `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}. We deduce from the Yoneda embedding that the group $G$ is isomorphic to the group `{{tmath|1= \{F_g\mid g\in G\} }}`{=mediawiki}, a subgroup of the group of permutations of `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}.
#### Finite set {#finite_set}
Consider the group action of $\mathbb{Z}/2$ on the finite set $X = \{-2, -1, 0, 1, 2\}$ where 1 acts by taking each number to its negative, so $-2 \mapsto 2$ and `{{tmath|1= 1 \mapsto -1 }}`{=mediawiki}. The quotient groupoid $[X/G]$ is the set of equivalence classes from this group action `{{tmath|1= \{[0],[1],[2]\} }}`{=mediawiki}, and $[0]$ has a group action of $\mathbb{Z}/2$ on it.`{{fact|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Quotient variety {#quotient_variety}
Any finite group $G$ that maps to $GL(n)$ gives a group action on the affine space $\mathbb{A}^n$ (since this is the group of automorphisms). Then, a quotient groupoid can be of the form `{{tmath|1= [\mathbb{A}^n/G] }}`{=mediawiki}, which has one point with stabilizer $G$ at the origin. Examples like these form the basis for the theory of orbifolds. Another commonly studied family of orbifolds are weighted projective spaces $\mathbb{P}(n_1,\ldots, n_k)$ and subspaces of them, such as Calabi--Yau orbifolds.
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# Groupoid
## Examples
### Inertia groupoid {#inertia_groupoid}
The inertia groupoid of a groupoid is roughly a groupoid of loops in the given groupoid.
### Fiber product of groupoids {#fiber_product_of_groupoids}
Given a diagram of groupoids with groupoid morphisms
:
\\begin{align}
`& & X \\`\
`& & \downarrow \\`
Y &\\rightarrow & Z \\end{align} where $f:X\to Z$ and `{{tmath|1= g:Y\to Z }}`{=mediawiki}, we can form the groupoid $X\times_ZY$ whose objects are triples `{{tmath|1= (x,\phi,y) }}`{=mediawiki}, where `{{tmath|1= x \in \text{Ob}(X) }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= y \in \text{Ob}(Y) }}`{=mediawiki}, and $\phi: f(x) \to g(y)$ in `{{tmath|1= Z }}`{=mediawiki}. Morphisms can be defined as a pair of morphisms $(\alpha,\beta)$ where $\alpha: x \to x'$ and $\beta: y \to y'$ such that for triples `{{tmath|1= (x,\phi,y), (x',\phi',y') }}`{=mediawiki}, there is a commutative diagram in $Z$ of `{{tmath|1= f(\alpha):f(x) \to f(x') }}`{=mediawiki}, $g(\beta):g(y) \to g(y')$ and the `{{tmath|1= \phi,\phi' }}`{=mediawiki}.
### Homological algebra {#homological_algebra}
A two term complex
: $C_1 ~\overset{d}{\rightarrow}~ C_0$
of objects in a concrete Abelian category can be used to form a groupoid. It has as objects the set $C_0$ and as arrows the set `{{tmath|1= C_1\oplus C_0 }}`{=mediawiki}; the source morphism is just the projection onto $C_0$ while the target morphism is the addition of projection onto $C_1$ composed with $d$ and projection onto `{{tmath|1= C_0 }}`{=mediawiki}. That is, given `{{tmath|1= c_1 + c_0 \in C_1\oplus C_0 }}`{=mediawiki}, we have
: $t(c_1 + c_0) = d(c_1) + c_0.$
Of course, if the abelian category is the category of coherent sheaves on a scheme, then this construction can be used to form a presheaf of groupoids.
### Puzzles
While puzzles such as the Rubik\'s Cube can be modeled using group theory (see Rubik\'s Cube group), certain puzzles are better modeled as groupoids.
The transformations of the fifteen puzzle form a groupoid (not a group, as not all moves can be composed). This groupoid acts on configurations.
### Mathieu groupoid {#mathieu_groupoid}
The Mathieu groupoid is a groupoid introduced by John Horton Conway acting on 13 points such that the elements fixing a point form a copy of the Mathieu group M~12~.
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# Groupoid
## Relation to groups {#relation_to_groups}
If a groupoid has only one object, then the set of its morphisms forms a group. Using the algebraic definition, such a groupoid is literally just a group. Many concepts of group theory generalize to groupoids, with the notion of functor replacing that of group homomorphism.
Every transitive/connected groupoid - that is, as explained above, one in which any two objects are connected by at least one morphism - is isomorphic to an action groupoid (as defined above) `{{tmath|1= (G, X) }}`{=mediawiki}. By transitivity, there will only be one orbit under the action.
Note that the isomorphism just mentioned is not unique, and there is no natural choice. Choosing such an isomorphism for a transitive groupoid essentially amounts to picking one object `{{tmath|1= x_0 }}`{=mediawiki}, a group isomorphism $h$ from $G(x_0)$ to `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, and for each $x$ other than `{{tmath|1= x_0 }}`{=mediawiki}, a morphism in $G$ from $x_0$ to `{{tmath|1= x }}`{=mediawiki}.
If a groupoid is not transitive, then it is isomorphic to a disjoint union of groupoids of the above type, also called its **connected components** (possibly with different groups $G$ and sets $X$ for each connected component).
In category-theoretic terms, each connected component of a groupoid is equivalent (but not isomorphic) to a groupoid with a single object, that is, a single group. Thus any groupoid is equivalent to a multiset of unrelated groups. In other words, for equivalence instead of isomorphism, one does not need to specify the sets `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, but only the groups `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}. For example,
- The fundamental groupoid of $X$ is equivalent to the collection of the fundamental groups of each path-connected component of `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}, but an isomorphism requires specifying the set of points in each component;
- The set $X$ with the equivalence relation $\sim$ is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of the trivial group for each equivalence class, but an isomorphism requires specifying what each equivalence class is;
- The set $X$ equipped with an action of the group $G$ is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of $G$ for each orbit of the action, but an isomorphism requires specifying what set each orbit is.
The collapse of a groupoid into a mere collection of groups loses some information, even from a category-theoretic point of view, because it is not natural. Thus when groupoids arise in terms of other structures, as in the above examples, it can be helpful to maintain the entire groupoid. Otherwise, one must choose a way to view each $G(x)$ in terms of a single group, and this choice can be arbitrary. In the example from topology, one would have to make a coherent choice of paths (or equivalence classes of paths) from each point $p$ to each point $q$ in the same path-connected component.
As a more illuminating example, the classification of groupoids with one endomorphism does not reduce to purely group theoretic considerations. This is analogous to the fact that the classification of vector spaces with one endomorphism is nontrivial.
Morphisms of groupoids come in more kinds than those of groups: we have, for example, fibrations, covering morphisms, universal morphisms, and quotient morphisms. Thus a subgroup $H$ of a group $G$ yields an action of $G$ on the set of cosets of $H$ in $G$ and hence a covering morphism $p$ from, say, $K$ to `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, where $K$ is a groupoid with vertex groups isomorphic to `{{tmath|1= H }}`{=mediawiki}. In this way, presentations of the group $G$ can be \"lifted\" to presentations of the groupoid `{{tmath|1= K }}`{=mediawiki}, and this is a useful way of obtaining information about presentations of the subgroup `{{tmath|1= H }}`{=mediawiki}. For further information, see the books by Higgins and by Brown in the References.
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# Groupoid
## Category of groupoids {#category_of_groupoids}
The category whose objects are groupoids and whose morphisms are groupoid morphisms is called the **groupoid category**, or the **category of groupoids**, and is denoted by **Grpd**.
The category **Grpd** is, like the category of small categories, Cartesian closed: for any groupoids $H,K$ we can construct a groupoid $\operatorname{GPD}(H,K)$ whose objects are the morphisms $H \to K$ and whose arrows are the natural equivalences of morphisms. Thus if $H,K$ are just groups, then such arrows are the conjugacies of morphisms. The main result is that for any groupoids $G,H,K$ there is a natural bijection
: $\operatorname{Grpd}(G \times H, K) \cong \operatorname{Grpd}(G, \operatorname{GPD}(H,K)).$
This result is of interest even if all the groupoids $G,H,K$ are just groups.
Another important property of **Grpd** is that it is both complete and cocomplete.
### Relation to Cat {#relation_to_cat}
The inclusion $i : \mathbf{Grpd} \to \mathbf{Cat}$ has both a left and a right adjoint:
: $\hom_{\mathbf{Grpd}}(C[C^{-1}], G) \cong \hom_{\mathbf{Cat}}(C, i(G))$
: $\hom_{\mathbf{Cat}}(i(G), C) \cong \hom_{\mathbf{Grpd}}(G, \mathrm{Core}(C))$
Here, $C[C^{-1}]$ denotes the localization of a category that inverts every morphism, and $\mathrm{Core}(C)$ denotes the subcategory of all isomorphisms.
### Relation to sSet {#relation_to_sset}
The nerve functor $N : \mathbf{Grpd} \to \mathbf{sSet}$ embeds **Grpd** as a full subcategory of the category of simplicial sets. The nerve of a groupoid is always a Kan complex.
The nerve has a left adjoint
: $\hom_{\mathbf{Grpd}}(\pi_1(X), G) \cong \hom_{\mathbf{sSet}}(X, N(G))$
Here, $\pi_1(X)$ denotes the fundamental groupoid of the simplicial set `{{tmath|1= X }}`{=mediawiki}.
### Groupoids in Grpd {#groupoids_in_grpd}
There is an additional structure which can be derived from groupoids internal to the category of groupoids, **double-groupoids**. Because **Grpd** is a 2-category, these objects form a 2-category instead of a 1-category since there is extra structure. Essentially, these are groupoids $\mathcal{G}_1,\mathcal{G}_0$ with functors
> $s,t: \mathcal{G}_1 \to \mathcal{G}_0$
and an embedding given by an identity functor
> $i:\mathcal{G}_0 \to\mathcal{G}_1$
One way to think about these 2-groupoids is they contain objects, morphisms, and squares which can compose together vertically and horizontally. For example, given squares
> $\begin{matrix}
> \bullet & \to & \bullet \\
> \downarrow & & \downarrow \\
> \bullet & \xrightarrow{a} & \bullet
> \end{matrix}$ and $\begin{matrix}
> \bullet & \xrightarrow{a} & \bullet \\
> \downarrow & & \downarrow \\
> \bullet & \to & \bullet
> \end{matrix}$
with $a$ the same morphism, they can be vertically conjoined giving a diagram
> $\begin{matrix}
> \bullet & \to & \bullet \\
> \downarrow & & \downarrow \\
> \bullet & \xrightarrow{a} & \bullet \\
> \downarrow & & \downarrow \\
> \bullet & \to & \bullet
> \end{matrix}$
which can be converted into another square by composing the vertical arrows. There is a similar composition law for horizontal attachments of squares.
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# Groupoid
## Groupoids with geometric structures {#groupoids_with_geometric_structures}
When studying geometrical objects, the arising groupoids often carry a topology, turning them into topological groupoids, or even some differentiable structure, turning them into Lie groupoids. These last objects can be also studied in terms of their associated Lie algebroids, in analogy to the relation between Lie groups and Lie algebras.
Groupoids arising from geometry often possess further structures which interact with the groupoid multiplication. For instance, in Poisson geometry one has the notion of a symplectic groupoid, which is a Lie groupoid endowed with a compatible symplectic form. Similarly, one can have groupoids with a compatible Riemannian metric, or complex structure, etc
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# Galliard
The ***galliard*** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|æ|l|j|ər|d}}`{=mediawiki}; *gaillarde*; *gagliarda*) was a form of Renaissance dance and music popular all over Europe in the 16th century. It is mentioned in dance manuals from England, Portugal, France, Spain, Germany, and Italy.
## Dance form {#dance_form}
The *galliard* is not an improvised dance, but rather, it consists of choreographed patterns of steps, which occupy one or more measures of music. In one measure, a galliard typically has five steps; in French such a basic step is called a *cinq pas* and in Italy, *cinque passi*. This is sometimes written in English sources as *sinkapace*. These steps are: right, left, right, left, cadence.
The galliard is an athletic dance, characterised by leaps, jumps, hops and other similar figures. The main feature that defines a galliard step is a large jump, after which the dancer lands with one leg ahead of the other. This jump is called a *cadence,* and the final landing is called the *posture.* The cadence is typically preceded by three quick hops with alternating feet. The sources generally describe movement patterns starting on the left foot, then repeating it starting with the right foot. A galliard pattern may also last twice as long, or more, which would involve 11 steps, or 17 steps.
The galliard was a favourite dance of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and although it is a relatively vigorous dance, in 1589 when the Queen was aged in her mid-fifties, John Stanhope of the Privy Chamber reported, \"the Queen is so well as I assure you, six or seven galliards in a morning, besides music and singing, is her ordinary exercise.\"
While most commonly being an entire dance, the galliard\'s steps are used within many other forms of dance. For example, 16th-century Italian dances in Fabritio Caroso\'s (1581) and Cesare Negri\'s (1602) dance manuals often have a galliard section.
One special step used during a galliard is lavolta, a step which involves an intimate, close hold between a couple, with the woman being lifted into the air and the couple turning 270 degrees, within one six-beat measure. Lavolta was considered by some dancing masters as an inappropriate dance.
Another special step used during a galliard is the tassel kick (\"salto del fiocco\"). These steps are found in Negri\'s manual and involve a galliard step usually (though not always) ending with a spin. The easier steps involve single spins of 180 or 360 degrees; later, more difficult steps involve multiple sequential spins and spins of up to at least 540 degrees. During the spin, the dancer kicks out to touch a tassel suspended between knee and waist height.
## Musical form {#musical_form}
Musical compositions in the galliard form appear to have been written and performed after the dance fell out of popular use. In musical compositions, the galliard often filled the role of an *after dance* written in 6, which followed and mimicked another piece (sometimes a pavane) written in 4. The distinctive 6 beats to the phrase can still be heard today in songs such as \"God Save the King\"
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# General surgery
`{{Infobox Occupation
| name= General surgeon
| image=
| caption=
| official_names=
* Physician
* Surgeon
| type= [[Specialty (medicine)|Specialty]]
| activity_sector= [[Medicine]], [[Surgery]]
| competencies=
| formation=
* [[Master of Surgery]] (M.S.)
* [[Doctor of Medicine]] (M.D.)
* [[Doctor of Osteopathic medicine]] (D.O.)
* [[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]] (M.B.B.S.)
* [[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]] (MBChB)
| employment_field= [[Hospital]]s, [[Clinic]]s
| related_occupation=
}}`{=mediawiki}
**General surgery** is a surgical specialty that focuses on alimentary canal and abdominal contents including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, appendix and bile ducts, and often the thyroid gland. General surgeons also deal with diseases involving the skin, breast, soft tissue, trauma, peripheral artery disease and hernias and perform endoscopic as such as gastroscopy, colonoscopy and laparoscopic procedures.
## Scope
General surgeons may sub-specialise into one or more of the following disciplines:
### Trauma surgery {#trauma_surgery}
In many parts of the world including North America, Australia and the United Kingdom, the overall responsibility for trauma care falls under the auspices of general surgery. Some general surgeons obtain advanced training in this field (most commonly surgical critical care) and specialty certification surgical critical care. General surgeons must be able to deal initially with almost any surgical emergency. Often, they are the first port of call to critically ill or gravely injured patients, and must perform a variety of procedures to stabilize such patients, such as thoracostomy, cricothyroidotomy, compartment fasciotomies and emergency laparotomy or thoracotomy to stanch bleeding. They are also called upon to staff surgical intensive care units or trauma intensive care units.
All general surgeons are trained in emergency surgery. Bleeding, infections, bowel obstructions and organ perforations are the main problems they deal with. Cholecystectomy, the surgical removal of the gallbladder, is one of the most common surgical procedures done worldwide. This is most often done electively, but the gallbladder can become acutely inflamed and require an emergency operation. Infections and rupture of the appendix and small bowel obstructions are other common emergencies.
### Laparoscopic surgery {#laparoscopic_surgery}
This is a relatively new specialty dealing with minimal access techniques using cameras and small instruments inserted through 3- to 15-mm incisions. Robotic surgery is now evolving from this concept (see below). Gallbladders, appendices, and colons can all be removed with this technique. Hernias are also able to be repaired laparoscopically. Bariatric surgery can be performed laparoscopically and there are benefits of doing so to reduce wound complications in obese patients. General surgeons that are trained today are expected to be proficient in laparoscopic procedures.
### Colorectal surgery {#colorectal_surgery}
General surgeons treat a wide variety of major and minor colon and rectal diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases (such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn\'s disease), diverticulitis, colon and rectal cancer, gastrointestinal bleeding and hemorrhoids.
### Upper Gastrointestinal Surgery {#upper_gastrointestinal_surgery}
General surgeons can specialise in Upper Gastro-intestinal (or foregut) surgery, which includes the surgical treatment of diseases of the stomach and oesophagus, liver, pancreas and gallbladder. In the UK, Upper GI surgeons can subspecialise further as benign surgeons, dealing with hiatus hernias and gallbladder diseases, bariatric surgeons, providing surgical care for weight management and metabolic diseases, or oesophago-gastric surgeons, dealing with complex problems related to the upper gastrointestinal tract (the foregut), including cancer. Surgical care of complex liver and pancreatic problems (including liver cancer and pancreatic cancer) is undertaken by Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery sub-specialists.
### Breast surgery {#breast_surgery}
General surgeons perform a majority of all non-cosmetic breast surgery from lumpectomy to mastectomy, especially pertaining to the evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer.
### Vascular surgery {#vascular_surgery}
General surgeons can perform vascular surgery if they receive special training and certification in vascular surgery. Otherwise, these procedures are typically performed by vascular surgery specialists. However, general surgeons are capable of treating minor vascular disorders.
### Endocrine surgery {#endocrine_surgery}
General surgeons are trained to remove all or part of the thyroid and parathyroid glands in the neck and the adrenal glands just above each kidney in the abdomen. In many communities, they are the only surgeon trained to do this. In communities that have a number of subspecialists, other subspecialty surgeons may assume responsibility for these procedures.
### Transplant surgery {#transplant_surgery}
Responsible for all aspects of pre-operative, operative, and post-operative care of abdominal organ transplant patients. Transplanted organs include liver, kidney, pancreas, and more rarely small bowel.
### Surgical oncology {#surgical_oncology}
Surgical oncologist refers to a general surgical oncologist (a specialty of a general surgeon), but thoracic surgical oncologists, gynecologist and so forth can all be considered surgeons who specialize in treating cancer patients. The importance of training surgeons who sub-specialize in cancer surgery lies in evidence, supported by a number of clinical trials, that outcomes in surgical cancer care are positively associated to surgeon volume (i.e., the more cancer cases a surgeon treats, the more proficient he or she becomes, and his or her patients experience improved survival rates as a result). This is another controversial point, but it is generally accepted, even as common sense, that a surgeon who performs a given operation more often, will achieve superior results when compared with a surgeon who rarely performs the same procedure. This is particularly true of complex cancer resections such as pancreaticoduodenectomy for pancreatic cancer, and gastrectomy with extended (D2) lymphadenectomy for gastric cancer. Surgical oncology is generally a 2-year fellowship following completion of a general surgery residency (5--7 years).
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# General surgery
## Scope
### Cardiothoracic surgery {#cardiothoracic_surgery}
Most cardiothoracic surgeons in the U.S. (D.O. or M.D.) first complete a general surgery residency (typically 5--7 years), followed by a cardiothoracic surgery fellowship (typically 2--3 years). However, new programmes are currently offering cardiothoracic surgery as a residency (6--8 years).
### Pediatric surgery {#pediatric_surgery}
Pediatric surgery is a subspecialty of general surgery. Pediatric surgeons do surgery on patients under age 18. Pediatric surgery is 5--7 years of residency and a 2--3 year fellowship.
## Trends
In the 2000s, minimally invasive surgery became more prevalent. Considerable enthusiasm has been built around robot-assisted surgery (also known as *robotic surgery*), despite a lack of data suggesting it has significant benefits that justify its cost.
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# General surgery
## Training
In Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States general surgery is a five to seven year residency and follows completion of medical school, either MD, MBBS, MBChB, or DO degrees. In Australia and New Zealand, a residency leads to eligibility for Fellowship of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons. In Canada, residency leads to eligibility for certification by and Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, while in the United States, completion of a residency in general surgery leads to eligibility for board certification by the American Board of Surgery or the American Osteopathic Board of Surgery which is also required upon completion of training for a general surgeon to have operating privileges at most hospitals in the United States.
In the United Kingdom, surgical trainees may apply to enter training after five years of medical school and two years of the Foundation Programme. During the two year core surgical training programme (\"phase 1\"), doctors are required to sit the Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons (MRCS) examination. On award of the MRCS by one of the four surgical colleges, surgeons may hold the title \'Mister\' or \'Miss/Ms./Mrs\' rather than doctor. This tradition dates back hundreds of years in the United Kingdom from when only physicians attended medical school and surgeons did not, but were rather associated with barbers in the Barber Surgeon\'s Guild. The tradition is also present in many Commonwealth countries including New Zealand and some states of Australia. After completion of phase 1 training, trainees may apply for a nationally awarded Higher Surgical Training (HST) programme, which lasts six years and is now divided into two further phases (phases 2 and 3). Trainees are expected to declare a sub-specialty before the end of phase 2, and training during phase 3 focuses on that sub-specialty. Before the end of HST, the examination for Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons (FRCS) must be taken in general surgery plus the subspeciality. Upon completion of training, the surgeon will be eligible for entry on the GMC Specialist Register. They may then apply to work both in the NHS and independent sector as a consultant surgeon, although many trainees complete further fellowships. The implementation of the European Working Time Directive limited UK surgical residents to an average 48-hour working week
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# GURPS Supers
***GURPS Supers*** is a superhero roleplaying game written by Loyd Blankenship and published by Steve Jackson Games. The first edition was published in 1989.
## Contents
*GURPS Supers* is a supplement of rules for comic-book superhero characters and campaigns for *GURPS*. The first edition book includes new combat rules, 24 superpowers, bionic superlimbs, gadgets and equipment, and rules for creating new powers, sample heroes and villains, and a briefly described campaign world. The second edition book is revised and corrected.
*GURPS Supers* deals with super-powered characters in a modern-day setting, and contains all the necessary rules to create superheroes for the *GURPS* basic system. The book also contains suggestions for running a superhero campaign, and a detailed background setting with the UN controlling most superheroes.
## Setting
The official \"house setting\" for *GURPS Supers* is the \"IST World\", described briefly in chapter 7 of *GURPS Supers* and later appearing in its own full-length supplement, *GURPS International Super Teams*.
## System
*GURPS Supers* is a supplement for the GURPS roleplaying game and uses that basic rule system. The supplement offers additional rules and options for characters with superpowers.
Players can choose from several different basic types of superhero characters that influence how the character\'s powers are selected. Players can select from a wide variety of powers and their modifications given in *GURPS Supers*, augmented by those in the *GURPS Basic*, plus any other GURPS book included by the campaign. The rules book included advice on creating superhero campaigns, and ways for the game master to customize the style of the campaign.
As part of the GURPS system, *GURPS Supers* allows the exchange of a player\'s characters between any of the numerous other genres supported by GURPS. *GURPS Supers* favors lower-powered heroes over higher-powered ones. Many of the superpowers unique to *GURPS Supers* appear as Advantages and Disadvantages in the GURPS 4e Basic Set.
## History
*GURPS Supers* was written by Loyd Blankenship, with a cover by Alan Gutierrez and Charlie Weidman, and was first published by Steve Jackson Games in 1988 as a 112-page book. *GURPS Space* was one of the broad genre books that was published after the *GURPS Basic Set*.
The 2nd edition of *GURPS Supers* was published in 1990 and featured a cover by John Zeleznik.
### Earlier editions and supplements {#earlier_editions_and_supplements}
The first edition of *GURPS Supers* was printed in 1989, and the second edition was published in 1990. The first edition had groupings of character powers that were not used in the second edition. Both were based on the Third Edition of *GURPS Basic*.
There were various aids, supplements and ready-made adventures available, including:
- *GURPS Supers Adventures*
- *GURPS Supers: Death Wish*
- *GURPS Supers: Mixed Doubles*
- *GURPS Supers: School of Hard Knocks*
- *GURPS Supers: Superscum*
- *GURPS Supers: Supertemps*
- *Hellboy Sourcebook and Roleplaying Game* (based on the *Hellboy* series)
- *GURPS Wild Cards* (based on *Wild Cards* series)
- *GURPS Wild Cards: Aces Abroad*
### 4th Edition {#th_edition}
*GURPS Supers* for 4e was published in 2007, one of several genre books published by Steve Jackson Games for the new edition.
For the 4th edition of GURPS, the majority of rules governing the creation of superhero characters are covered in the more generic *GURPS Powers*. A PDF release by William H. Stoddard covers the genre specific information in a similar style to *GURPS Fantasy* and *GURPS Space* books for the fourth edition of GURPS.
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# GURPS Supers
## Reception
In the August 1989 edition of *Games International* (Issue #8), James Wallis liked the design and layout of the book, but pointed out that \"the rewriting of a large number of rules \[\...\] shows that *GURPS* is not a truly generic rolegame and makes *GURPS Supers* substantially harder to learn\". He disliked the additional complexities around character generation, and was disturbed that the book did not spend much time on the creation of character background, saying this was a failure of the system to properly engage with the nature of comic books. He also commented that *GURPS* combat was frequently deadly, whereas in comic books combat is not usually lethal. Wallis concluded by giving this book a below average rating of only 2 out of 5: \"For my money, *GURPS Supers* is flawed \[\...\] There is too much emphasis on rules changes; it fails as a superhero rolegame because of the overrealism of the *GURPS* rules, and it fails as a generic sourcebook because it is not generic\".
In the September 1996 edition of *Dragon* (Issue #233), Rick Swan compared the second edition of *GURPS Supers* to *Champions*, and commented that \"*GURPS Super* takes a more realistic route, stressing personality over punch-outs. That\'s not to say it\'s stodgy; a typical chapter is titled \'Unnatural Multiple Limbs from Another World\'. The Second Edition streamlines the occasionally awkward mechanics of the First Edition and adds some nifty new powers\".
In the May 1996 edition of *Arcane* (issue #6), Steve Faragher gave the second edition of *GURPS Supers* a below-average rating of only 6 out of 10, and called the background setting \"rather dull\", saying it is \"fine if you want to recreate a Saturday afternoon TV show, but not so great for a more fantastic, underground campaign of the *Watchmen* variety\". Faragher concluded that \"it\'s a competent enough set of rules - and one that\'s well presented - but *GURPS Supers* is not exactly compulsive playing material\".
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# GURPS Supers
## Other reviews {#other_reviews}
- *Games Review*, vol
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# Great auk
The **great auk** (***Pinguinus impennis**\'\'), also known as the**penguin**or**garefowl**, is an extinct species of flightless alcid that first appeared around 400,000 years ago and became extinct in the mid-19th century. It was the only modern species in the genus***Pinguinus**\'\'. It was not closely related to the penguins of the Southern Hemisphere, which were named for their resemblance to this species.
It bred on rocky, remote islands with easy access to the ocean and a plentiful food supply, a rarity in nature that provided only a few breeding sites for the great auks. During the non-breeding season, the auk foraged in the waters of the North Atlantic, ranging as far south as northern Spain and along the coastlines of Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Norway, Ireland, and Great Britain.
The bird was 75 to tall and weighed about 5 kg, making it the largest alcid to survive into the modern era, and the second-largest member of the alcid family overall (the prehistoric *Miomancalla* was larger). It had a black back and a white belly. The black beak was heavy and hooked, with grooves on its surface. During summer, great auk plumage showed a white patch over each eye. During winter, the great auk lost these patches, instead developing a white band stretching between the eyes. The wings were only 15 cm long, rendering the bird flightless. Instead, the great auk was a powerful swimmer, a trait that it used in hunting. Its favourite prey were fish, including Atlantic menhaden and capelin, and crustaceans. Although agile in the water, it was clumsy on land. Great auk pairs mated for life. They nested in extremely dense and social colonies, laying one egg on bare rock. The egg was white with variable brown marbling. Both parents participated in the incubation of the egg for around six weeks before the young hatched. The young left the nest site after two to three weeks, although the parents continued to care for it.
The great auk was an important part of many Native American cultures, both as a food source and as a symbolic item. Many Maritime Archaic people were buried with great auk bones. One burial discovered included someone covered by more than 200 great auk beaks, which are presumed to be the remnants of a cloak made of great auks\' skins. Early European explorers to the Americas used the great auk as a convenient food source or as fishing bait, reducing its numbers. The bird\'s down was in high demand in Europe, a factor that largely eliminated the European populations by the mid-16th century. Around the same time, nations such as Great Britain began to realize that the great auk was disappearing and it became the beneficiary of many early environmental laws, but despite that the great auk were still hunted.
Its growing rarity increased interest from European museums and private collectors in obtaining skins and eggs of the bird. On 3 June 1844, the last two confirmed specimens were killed on Eldey, off the coast of Iceland, ending the last known breeding attempt. Later reports of roaming individuals being seen or caught are unconfirmed. A report of one great auk in 1852 is considered by some to be the last sighting of a member of the species. The great auk is mentioned in several novels, and the scientific journal of the American Ornithological Society was named *The Auk* (now *Ornithology*) in honour of the bird until 2021.
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# Great auk
## Taxonomy and evolution {#taxonomy_and_evolution}
Analysis of mtDNA sequences has confirmed morphological and biogeographical studies suggesting that the razorbill is the closest living relative of the great auk. The great auk also was related closely to the little auk or dovekie, which underwent a radically different evolution compared to *Pinguinus*. Due to its outward similarity to the razorbill (apart from flightlessness and size), the great auk often was placed in the genus *Alca*, following Linnaeus.
The oldest known fossil records of the modern great auk are from the Boxgrove Palaeolithic site of England and Lower Town Hill Formation of Bermuda, both of which are dated to the Middle Pleistocene at least 400,000 years BP. The Pliocene sister species, *Pinguinus alfrednewtoni*, and molecular evidence show that the three closely related genera diverged soon after their common ancestor, a bird probably similar to a stout Xantus\'s murrelet, had spread to the coasts of the Atlantic. Apparently, by that time, the murres, or Atlantic guillemots, already had split from the other Atlantic alcids. Razorbill-like birds were common in the Atlantic during the Pliocene, but the evolution of the little auk is sparsely documented. The molecular data are compatible with either possibility, but the weight of evidence suggests placing the great auk in a distinct genus. Some ornithologists still believe it is more appropriate to retain the species in the genus *Alca*.`{{refn|name=Fuller2003|{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=Errol |author-link=Errol Fuller |title=The Great Auk: The Extinction of the Original Penguin |publisher=Bunker Hill Publishing |year=2003 |page=34 |orig-year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35rGM50pAoAC |isbn=978-1-59373-003-1}} see also Fuller (1999).<ref name=Fuller_1999>{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=Errol |author-link=Errol Fuller |title=The Great Auk |place=Southborough, Kent, UK |publisher=Privately Published |year=1999 |isbn=0-9533553-0-6}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} It is the only recorded British bird made extinct in historic times. upright\|thumbtime=0:00\|thumb\|alt=A large, stuffed bird with a black back, white belly, heavy bill, and white eye patch.\|Turnaround video of Specimen No. 57 and a razorbill, Naturalis Biodiversity Center The following cladogram shows the placement of the great auk among its closest relatives, based on a 2004 genetic study: `{{clade| style=font-size:100%; line-height:100%
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Alle alle]]'' (little auk)
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Uria aalge]]'' (common murre)
|2=''[[Uria lomvia]]'' (thick-billed murre)}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Alca torda]]'' (razorbill)
|2='''''Pinguinus impennis''''' ('''great auk''') }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Brachyramphus marmoratus]]'' (marbled murrelet)
|2=''[[Brachyramphus brevirostris]]'' (Kittlitz's murrelet)}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Cepphus grylle]]'' (black guillemot)
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Cepphus columba]]'' (pigeon guillemot)
|2=''[[Cepphus carbo]]'' (spectacled guillemot)}} }} }} }} }}`{=mediawiki} *Pinguinus alfrednewtoni* was a larger, and also flightless, member of the genus *Pinguinus* that lived during the Early Pliocene. Known from bones found in the Yorktown Formation of the Lee Creek Mine in North Carolina, it is believed to have split, along with the great auk, from a common ancestor. *Pinguinus alfrednewtoni* lived in the western Atlantic, while the great auk lived in the eastern Atlantic. After the former died out following the Pliocene, the great auk took over its territory. The great auk was not related closely to the other extinct genera of flightless alcids, *Mancalla*, *Praemancalla*, and *Alcodes*.
### Etymology
The great auk was one of the 4,400 animal species formally described by Carl Linnaeus in his eighteenth-century work *Systema Naturae*, in which it was given the binomial *Alca impennis*. The name *Alca* is a Latin derivative of the Scandinavian word for razorbills and their relatives. The bird was known in literature even before this and was described by Charles d\'Ecluse in 1605 as *Mergus Americanus.* This also included a woodcut which represents the oldest unambiguous visual depictions of the bird.
The species was not placed in its own scientific genus, *Pinguinus*, until 1791. The generic name is derived from the Spanish, Portuguese and French name for the species, in turn from Latin *pinguis* meaning \"plump\", and the specific name, *impennis*, is from Latin and refers to the lack of flight feathers, or *pennae*.
The Irish name for the great auk is *falcóg mhór*, meaning \"big seabird/auk\". The Basque name is **arponaz**, meaning \"spearbill\". Its early French name was *apponatz*, while modern French uses **grand pingouin**. The Norse called the great auk *geirfugl*, which means \"spearbird\". This has led to an alternative English common name for the bird, *garefowl* or *gairfowl*. The Inuit name for the great auk was *isarukitsok*, which meant \"little wing\".
The word \"penguin\" first appears in the sixteenth century as a synonym for \"great auk\". Although the etymology is debated, the generic name \"penguin\" may be derived from the Welsh *pen gwyn* \"white head\", either because the birds lived in New Brunswick on White Head Island (Pen Gwyn in Welsh) or because the great auk had such large white circles on its head. When European explorers discovered what today are known as penguins in the Southern Hemisphere, they noticed their similar appearance to the great auk and named them after this bird, although biologically, they are not closely related. Whalers also lumped the northern and southern birds together under the common name \"woggins\".
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# Great auk
## Description
Standing about 75 to tall and weighing approximately 5 kg as adult birds, the flightless great auk was the second-largest member of both its family and the order Charadriiformes overall, surpassed only by the mancalline *Miomancalla*. It is, however, the largest species to survive into modern times. The great auks that lived farther north averaged larger in size than the more southerly members of the species. Males and females were similar in plumage, although there is evidence for differences in size, particularly in the bill and femur length. The back was primarily a glossy black, and the belly was white. The neck and legs were short, and the head and wings small. During summer, it developed a wide white eye patch over each eye, which had a hazel or chestnut iris. Auks are known for their close resemblance to penguins, their webbed feet and countershading are a result of convergent evolution in the water. During winter the great auk moulted and lost this eye patch, which was replaced with a wide white band and a grey line of feathers that stretched from the eye to the ear. During the summer, its chin and throat were blackish-brown and the inside of the mouth was yellow. In winter, the throat became white. Some individuals reportedly had grey plumage on their flanks, but the purpose, seasonal duration, and frequency of this variation is unknown. The bill was large at 11 cm long and curved downward at the top; the bill also had deep white grooves in both the upper and lower mandibles, up to seven on the upper mandible and twelve on the lower mandible in summer, although there were fewer in winter. The wings were only 15 cm in length and the longest wing feathers were only 10 cm long. Its feet and short claws were black, while the webbed skin between the toes was brownish black. The legs were far back on the bird\'s body, which gave it powerful swimming and diving abilities. Hatchlings were described as grey and downy, but their exact appearance is unknown, since no skins exist today. Juvenile birds had fewer prominent grooves in their beaks than adults and they had mottled white and black necks, while the eye spot found in adults was not present; instead, a grey line ran through the eyes (which still had white eye rings) to just below the ears.
Great Auk calls included low croaking and a hoarse scream. A captive great auk was observed making a gurgling noise when anxious. It is not known what its other vocalizations were, but it is believed that they were similar to those of the razorbill, only louder and deeper.
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# Great auk
## Distribution and habitat {#distribution_and_habitat}
The great auk was found in the cold North Atlantic coastal waters along the coasts of Canada, the northeastern United States, Norway, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Ireland, Great Britain, France, and the Iberian Peninsula. Pleistocene fossils indicate the great auk also inhabited Southern France, Italy, and other coasts of the Mediterranean basin. It was common on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. In recorded history, the great auk typically did not go farther south than Massachusetts Bay in the winter. Great auk bones have been found as far south as Florida, where it may have been present during four periods: approximately 1000 BC and 1000 AD, as well as during the fifteenth century and the seventeenth century. It has been suggested that some of the bones discovered in Florida may be the result of aboriginal trading. In the eastern Atlantic, the southernmost records of this species are two isolated bones, one from Madeira and another from the Neolithic site of El Harhoura 2 in Morocco.
The great auk left the North Atlantic waters for land only to breed, even roosting at sea when not breeding. The rookeries of the great auk were found from Baffin Bay to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, across the far northern Atlantic, including Iceland, and in Norway and the British Isles in Europe. For their nesting colonies the great auks required rocky islands with sloping shorelines that provided access to the sea. These were very limiting requirements and it is believed that the great auk never had more than 20 breeding colonies. The nesting sites also needed to be close to rich feeding areas and to be far enough from the mainland to discourage visitation by predators such as humans and polar bears. The localities of only seven former breeding colonies are known: Papa Westray in the Orkney Islands, St. Kilda off Scotland, Grimsey Island, Eldey Island, Geirfuglasker near Iceland, Funk Island near Newfoundland, and the Bird Rocks (Rochers-aux-Oiseaux) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Records suggest that this species may have bred on Cape Cod in Massachusetts. By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the breeding range of the great auk was restricted to Funk Island, Grimsey Island, Eldey Island, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the St. Kilda islands. Funk Island was the largest known breeding colony. After the chicks fledged, the great auk migrated north and south away from the breeding colonies and they tended to go southward during late autumn and winter.
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# Great auk
## Ecology and behaviour {#ecology_and_behaviour}
The great auk was never observed and described by modern scientists during its existence and is only known from the accounts of laymen, such as sailors, so its behaviour is not well known and difficult to reconstruct. Much may be inferred from its close, living relative, the razorbill, as well as from remaining soft tissue.
Great auks walked slowly and sometimes used their wings to help them traverse rough terrain. When they did run, it was awkwardly and with short steps in a straight line. They had few natural predators, mainly large marine mammals, such as the orca, and white-tailed eagles. Polar bears preyed on nesting colonies of the great auk. Based on observations by the Naturalist Otto Fabricius (the only scientist to make primary observations on the great auk), some auks were \"stupid and tame\" whilst others were difficult to approach which he suggested was related to the bird\'s age. Humans preyed upon them as food, for feathers, and as specimens for museums and private collections. Great auks reacted to noises, but were rarely frightened by the sight of something. They used their bills aggressively both in the dense nesting sites and when threatened or captured by humans. These birds are believed to have had a life span of approximately 20 to 25 years. During the winter, the great auk migrated south, either in pairs or in small groups, but never with the entire nesting colony.
The great auk was generally an excellent swimmer, using its wings to propel itself underwater. While swimming, the head was held up but the neck was drawn in. This species was capable of banking, veering, and turning underwater. The great auk was known to dive to depths of 75 m and it has been claimed that the species was able to dive to depths of 1 km. To conserve energy, most dives were shallow. It also could hold its breath for 15 minutes, longer than a seal. Its ability to dive so deeply reduced competition with other alcid species. The great auk was capable of accelerating underwater, then shooting out of the water to land on a rocky ledge above the ocean\'s surface.
### Diet
This alcid typically fed in shoaling waters that were shallower than those frequented by other alcids, although after the breeding season, they had been sighted as far as 500 km from land. They are believed to have fed cooperatively in flocks. Their main food was fish, usually 12 to in length and weighing 40 to, but occasionally their prey was up to half the bird\'s own length. Based on remains associated with great auk bones found on Funk Island and on ecological and morphological considerations, it seems that Atlantic menhaden and capelin were their favoured prey. Other fish suggested as potential prey include lumpsuckers, shorthorn sculpins, cod, sand lance, as well as crustaceans. The young of the great auk are believed to have eaten plankton and, possibly, fish and crustaceans regurgitated by adults.
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# Great auk
## Ecology and behaviour {#ecology_and_behaviour}
### Reproduction
Historical descriptions of the great auk breeding behaviour are somewhat unreliable. Great Auks began pairing in early and mid-May. They are believed to have mated for life (although some theorize that great auks could have mated outside their pair, a trait seen in the razorbill). Once paired, they nested at the base of cliffs in colonies, likely where they copulated. Mated pairs had a social display in which they bobbed their heads and displayed their white eye patch, bill markings, and yellow mouth. These colonies were extremely crowded and dense, with some estimates stating that there was a nesting great auk for every 1 m2 of land. These colonies were very social. When the colonies included other species of alcid, the great auks were dominant due to their size.
Female great auks would lay only one egg each year, between late May and early June, although they could lay a replacement egg if the first one was lost. In years when there was a shortage of food, the great auks did not breed. A single egg was laid on bare ground up to 100 m from shore. The egg was ovate and elongate in shape, and it averaged 12.4 cm in length and 7.6 cm across at the widest point. The egg was yellowish white to light ochre with a varying pattern of black, brown, or greyish spots and lines that often were congregated on the large end. It is believed that the variation in the egg streaks enabled the parents to recognize their egg among those in the vast colony. The pair took turns incubating the egg in an upright position for the 39 to 44 days before the egg hatched, typically in June, although eggs could be present at the colonies as late as August.
The parents also took turns feeding their chick. According to one account, the chick was covered with grey down. The young bird took only two or three weeks to mature enough to abandon the nest and land for the water, typically around the middle of July. The parents cared for their young after they fledged, and adults would be seen swimming with their young perched on their backs. Great auks matured sexually when they were four to seven years old.
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# Great auk
## Relationship with humans {#relationship_with_humans}
The great auk was a food source for Neanderthals more than 100,000 years ago, as evidenced by well-cleaned bones found by their campfires. Images believed to depict the great auk also were carved into the walls of the El Pendo Cave in Camargo, Spain, and Paglicci, Italy, more than 35,000 years ago, and cave paintings 20,000 years old have been found in France\'s Grotte Cosquer.
Native Americans valued the great auk as a food source during the winter and as an important cultural symbol. Images of the great auk have been found in bone necklaces. A person buried at the Maritime Archaic site at Port au Choix, Newfoundland, dating to about 2000 BC, was found surrounded by more than 200 great auk beaks, which are believed to have been part of a suit made from their skins, with the heads left attached as decoration. Nearly half of the bird bones found in graves at this site were of the great auk, suggesting that it had great cultural significance for the Maritime Archaic people. The extinct Beothuks of Newfoundland made pudding out of the eggs of the great auk. The Dorset Eskimos also hunted it. The Saqqaq in Greenland overhunted the species, causing a local reduction in range.
Later, European sailors used the great auks as a navigational beacon, as the presence of these birds signalled that the Grand Banks of Newfoundland were near.
This species is estimated to have had a maximum population in the millions. The great auk was hunted on a significant scale for food, eggs, and its down feathers from at least the eighth century. Prior to that, hunting by local natives may be documented from Late Stone Age Scandinavia and eastern North America, as well as from early fifth century Labrador, where the bird seems to have occurred only as stragglers. Early explorers, including Jacques Cartier, and numerous ships attempting to find gold on Baffin Island were not provisioned with food for the journey home, and therefore, used great auks as both a convenient food source and bait for fishing. Reportedly, some of the later vessels anchored next to a colony and ran out planks to the land. The sailors then herded hundreds of great auks onto the ships, where they were slaughtered. Some authors have questioned the reports of this hunting method and whether it was successful. Great auk eggs were also a valued food source, as the eggs were three times the size of a murre\'s and had a large yolk. These sailors also introduced rats onto the islands which preyed upon nests.
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# Great auk
## Relationship with humans {#relationship_with_humans}
### Extinction
The Little Ice Age may have reduced the population of the great auk by exposing more of their breeding islands to predation by polar bears, but massive exploitation by humans for their down drastically reduced the population, with recent evidence indicating the latter alone is likely the primary driver of its extinction. By the mid-sixteenth century, the nesting colonies along the European side of the Atlantic were nearly all eliminated by humans killing this bird for its down, which was used to make pillows. In 1553, the great auk received its first official protection. In 1794, Great Britain banned the killing of this species for its feathers. In St. John\'s, those violating a 1775 law banning hunting the great auk for its feathers or eggs were publicly flogged, though hunting for use as fishing bait was still permitted. On the North American side, eider down initially was preferred, but once the eiders were nearly driven to extinction in the 1770s, down collectors switched to the great auk at the same time that hunting for food, fishing bait, and oil decreased.
The great auk had disappeared from Funk Island by 1800. An account by Aaron Thomas of HMS *Boston* from 1794 described how the bird had been slaughtered systematically until then:
With its increasing rarity, specimens of the great auk and its eggs became collectible and highly prized by rich Europeans, and the loss of a large number of its eggs to collection contributed to the demise of the species. Eggers, individuals who visited the nesting sites of the great auk to collect their eggs, quickly realized that the birds did not all lay their eggs on the same day, so they could make return visits to the same breeding colony. Eggers only collected the eggs without embryos and typically, discarded the eggs with embryos growing inside them.
On the islet of Stac an Armin, St. Kilda, Scotland, in July 1840, the last great auk seen in Britain was caught and killed. Three men from St. Kilda caught a single \"garefowl\", noticing its little wings and the large white spot on its head. They tied it up and kept it alive for three days, until a large storm arose. Believing that the bird was a witch and was causing the storm, they then killed it by beating it with a stick.
The last colony of great auks lived on Geirfuglasker (the \"Great Auk Rock\") off Iceland. This islet was a volcanic rock surrounded by cliffs that made it inaccessible to humans, but in 1830, the islet submerged after a volcanic eruption, and the birds moved to the nearby island of Eldey, which was accessible from a single side. When the colony was discovered in 1835, nearly fifty birds were present. Museums, desiring the skins of the great auk for preservation and display, quickly began collecting birds from the colony. The last pair, found incubating an egg, was killed there on 3 June 1844, on request from a merchant who wanted specimens.
Jón Brandsson and Sigurður Ísleifsson, the men who had killed the last birds, were interviewed by great auk specialist John Wolley, and Sigurður described the act as follows:
A later claim of a live individual sighted in 1852 on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland has been accepted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Alleged sightings of the auk continued for decades after it was believed extinct. The last alleged sighting occurred in the Lofotens in 1927. Errol Fuller noted that several of the later sightings were hoaxes or misidentifications of penguins that had been released near Norway.
There is an ongoing discussion about the possibilities for reviving the great auk using its DNA from specimens collected. This possibility is controversial.
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# Great auk
## Relationship with humans {#relationship_with_humans}
### Preserved specimens {#preserved_specimens}
Today, 78 skins of the great auk remain, mostly in museum collections, along with approximately 75 eggs and 24 complete skeletons. All but four of the surviving skins are in summer plumage, and only two of these are immature. No hatchling specimens exist. Each egg and skin has been assigned a number by specialists. Although thousands of isolated bones were collected from nineteenth century Funk Island to Neolithic middens, only a few complete skeletons exist. Natural mummies also are known from Funk Island, and the eyes and internal organs of the last two birds from 1844 are stored in the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen. The whereabouts of the skins from the last two individuals has been unknown for more than a hundred years, but that mystery has been partly resolved using DNA extracted from the organs of the last individuals and the skins of the candidate specimens suggested by Errol Fuller (those in Übersee-Museum Bremen, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Zoological Museum of Kiel University, Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, and Landesmuseum Natur und Mensch Oldenburg). A positive match was found between the organs from the male individual and the skin now in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels. No match was found between the female organs and a specimen from Fuller\'s list, but authors speculate that the skin in Cincinnati Museum of Natural History and Science may be a potential candidate due to a common history with the Los Angeles specimen.
Following the bird\'s extinction, remains of the great auk increased dramatically in value, and auctions of specimens created intense interest in Victorian Britain, where 15 specimens are now located, the largest number of any country. A specimen was bought in 1971 by the Icelandic Museum of National History for £9000, which placed it in the Guinness Book of Records as the most expensive stuffed bird ever sold. The price of its eggs sometimes reached up to 11 times the amount earned by a skilled worker in a year. The present whereabouts of six of the eggs are unknown. Several other eggs have been destroyed accidentally. Two mounted skins were destroyed in the twentieth century, one in the Mainz Museum during the Second World War, and one in the Museu Bocage, Lisbon that was destroyed by a fire in 1978.
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# Great auk
## Relationship with humans {#relationship_with_humans}
### Cultural depictions {#cultural_depictions}
#### Children\'s books {#childrens_books}
Charles Kingsley\'s *The Water-Babies: A Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby* (1863) features the last great auk (referred to in the book as a *gairfowl*) telling the tale of the demise of her species. Different illustrations of the auk are included in the original 1863 version, the 1889 version illustrated by Linley Sambourne,`{{page needed|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki} 1916 by Frank A. Nankivell,`{{page needed|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki} and 1916 by Jessie Willcox Smith. Kingsley\'s auk implicates the \"nasty fellows\" who \"shot us so, and knocked us on the head, and took our eggs.\" While Kingsley portrays the extinction as sad, he provides his opinion that \"there are better things come in her place,\" namely human colonization of the islands for the cod fishing industry, which would serve to feed the poor. He concludes the discussion with a quote from Tennyson: \"The old order changeth, giving place to the new; And God fulfils Himself in many ways.\"
Enid Blyton\'s *The Island of Adventure* (1944) sends one of the protagonists on a failed search for what he believes is a lost colony of the species.`{{page needed|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Literature and journalism {#literature_and_journalism}
The great auk is also present in a wide variety of other works of fiction.
In the short story *The Harbor-Master* by Robert W. Chambers, the discovery and attempted recovery of the last known pair of great auks is central to the plot (which also involves a proto-Lovecraftian element of suspense). The story first appeared in *Ainslee\'s Magazine* (August 1898) and was slightly revised to become the first five chapters of Chambers\' episodic novel *In Search of the Unknown*, (Harper and Brothers Publishers, New York, 1904).
*Penguin Island*, a 1908 French satirical novel by the Nobel Prize winning author Anatole France, narrates the fictional history of a great auk population that is mistakenly baptized by a nearsighted missionary.`{{page needed|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
In his novel *Ulysses* (1922), James Joyce mentions the bird while the novel\'s main character is drifting into sleep. He associates the great auk with the mythical roc as a method of formally returning the main character to a sleepy land of fantasy and memory.
W. S. Merwin mentions the great auk in a short litany of extinct animals in his poem \"For a Coming Extinction\", one of the poems from his 1967 collection, \"The Lice\".
*Night of the Auk*, a 1956 Broadway drama by Arch Oboler, depicts a group of astronauts returning from the Moon to discover that a full-blown nuclear war has broken out. Obeler draws a parallel between the anthropogenic extinction of the great auk and of the story\'s nuclear extinction of humankind.
A great auk is collected by fictional naturalist Stephen Maturin in the Patrick O\'Brian historical novel *The Surgeon\'s Mate* (1980). This work also details the harvesting of a colony of auks.
Farley Mowat devotes the first section, \"Spearbill\", of his book *Sea of Slaughter* (1984) to the history of the great auk.
Elizabeth Kolbert\'s Pulitzer Prize-winning book, *The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History* (2014), includes a chapter on the great auk.
<File:Geirfugl> (great auk) monument.jpg\|Monument on Reykjanes Peninsula, Iceland <File:Awk> Walk (42820792915).jpg\|Monument on Fogo Island, Canada <File:Great> Auk monument.jpg\|Monument to the last British great auk at Fowl Craig, Orkney
#### Performing arts {#performing_arts}
The great auk is the subject of a ballet, *Still Life at the Penguin Café* (1988), and a song, \"A Dream Too Far\", in the ecological musical *Rockford\'s Rock Opera* (2010).
#### Mascots
The great auk is the mascot of the Archmere Academy in Claymont, Delaware, and the Adelaide University Choral Society (AUCS) in Australia.
The great auk was formerly the mascot of the Lindsay Frost campus of Sir Sandford Fleming College in Ontario. In 2012, the two separate sports programs of Fleming College were combined and the great auk mascot went extinct. The Lindsay Frost campus student owned bar, student centre, and lounge is still known as the Auk\'s Lodge.
It was also the mascot of the now ended Knowledge Masters educational competition.
#### Names
The scientific journal of the American Ornithologists\' Union, *Ornithology *, was named *The Auk* until 2021 in honour of this bird.
According to Homer Hickam\'s memoir, *Rocket Boys*, and its film production, *October Sky*, the early rockets he and his friends built, were named \"Auk\".
A cigarette company, the British Great Auk Cigarettes, was named after this bird.
#### Fine arts {#fine_arts}
Walton Ford, the American painter, has featured great auks in two paintings: *The Witch of St. Kilda* and *Funk Island*. Replica skins and eggs were made and sold in the 1920s for collectors.
The English painter and writer Errol Fuller produced *Last Stand* for his monograph on the species.
The great auk also appeared on one stamp in a set of five depicting extinct birds issued by Cuba in 1974
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# Grappling
**Grappling** is a fighting technique based on throws, trips, sweeps, clinch fighting, ground fighting and submission holds.
Grappling contests often involve takedowns and ground control, and may end when a contestant concedes defeat. Should there be no winner after the match time-limit has lapsed, competition judges will determine the winner based on who exerted more control.
Grappling most commonly does not include striking or the use of weapons. However, some fighting styles or martial arts known especially for their grappling techniques teach tactics that include strikes and weapons either alongside grappling or combined with it.
## History
Grappling appears in the earliest combat systems. In Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, depictions of wrestlers in grappling poses appear on tombs and artifacts dating back to 2000 BCE.
The Greeks formalized grappling in the sport of pále, a key part of the Olympic pentathlon, and developed a hybrid striking-grappling art called pankration. The Romans adopted and adapted these techniques into their own wrestling styles.
In India, kushti (traditional wrestling) dates back thousands of years. In East Asia, shuai jiao, jujutsu, and later judo (developed in the 1880s) emphasized leverage, throws and submissions.
During the Middle Ages, grappling was part of European knightly combat and included in manuals of historical European martial arts. It was used in both armored and unarmored fighting.
Grappling evolved into competitive sports, such as freestyle wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling, and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Today, grappling is a core skill in mixed martial arts and law enforcement training.
## Types of technique {#types_of_technique}
Grappling techniques can be broadly subdivided into clinch fighting; takedowns and throws; submission holds and pinning or controlling techniques; and sweeps, reversals, turnovers, and escapes.
- **Clinching**: or clinch work, takes place with both competitors on their feet using various clinch holds applied to the upper body of the opponent. Clinch work is generally used to set up or defend against throws or takedowns.
- **Takedowns** : A takedown is used by one grappler to manipulate their opponent from a standing position to a position on the ground. The grappler completing the takedown aims to end in a dominant position.
- **Throws**: A throw is a technique in which one grappler lifts or off-balances their opponent and maneuvers them forcefully through the air or to the ground. The purpose of throws varies among the different disciplines of grappling with some emphasizing throws with the potential to incapacitate the opponent, while leaving the thrower standing, or to gain a takedown or controlling position.
- **Sprawling** : A sprawl is a defensive technique usually used when the opponent attempts a takedown. It is performed by shifting the legs backwards and spread out in one fast motion. If done correctly one will land on their opponent\'s back and gain control.
- **Submission holds**: There are generally two types of submission holds: those that would potentially strangle or suffocate an opponent (chokes), and those that would potentially cause injury to a joint or other body part (locks). In sport grappling, a competitor is expected to submit, either verbally or by tapping the opponent, to admit defeat when they are caught in a submission hold they cannot escape. Competitors who refuse to \"tap out\" risk unconsciousness or serious injury.
- **Securing or controlling techniques**: A pin involves holding an opponent on their back in a position where they are unable to attack. In some styles of competitive grappling a pin is an instant victory, and in other styles it is considered a dominant position that is awarded with points. Other controlling techniques are used to hold an opponent face down on the ground or on all fours in order to prevent an escape or attack. Either of these types of technique may also be used as a prelude to a submission hold.
- **Escapes**: In a general sense, an escape is accomplished by maneuvering out of danger or from an inferior position; for example when a grappler who is underneath side control moves to guard or gets back to a neutral standing position, or when a grappler is able to maneuver out of a submission attempt and back to a position where they are no longer in immediate danger of being submitted.
- **Turnovers**: used to maneuver an opponent who is on all fours or flat on their stomach to their back, in order to score points, prepare for a pin or in order to gain a more dominant position.
- **Reversals or sweeps**: These occur when a grappler who was underneath their opponent on the ground is able to maneuver so that they gain a top position over their opponent.
## Use
The degree to which grappling is utilized in different fighting systems varies. Some systems, such as amateur wrestling, pehlwani, judo and Brazilian jiu-jitsu are exclusively grappling arts and do not allow striking. Some other grappling arts allow some limited forms of striking, for example in sumo and in combat jiu jitsu it is possible to strike with open hands (slapping). Many combat sports, such as shooto and mixed martial arts competitions, use both grappling and striking extensively as part of the sport. Grappling is not allowed in some martial arts and combat sports, usually for the sake of focusing on other aspects of combat such as punching, kicking or mêlée weapons. Opponents in these types of matches, however, still grapple with each other occasionally when fatigued or in pain; when either occurs, the referee will step in and restart the match, sometimes giving a warning to one or both of the fighters. Examples of these include boxing, kickboxing, taekwondo, karate, and fencing. While prolonged grappling in Muay Thai will result in a separation of the competitors, the art extensively uses the clinch hold known as a double collar tie.
Grappling techniques and defenses to grappling techniques are also considered important in self-defense applications and in law enforcement. The most common grappling techniques taught for self-defense are escapes from holds and application of pain compliance techniques.
Grappling can be trained for self-defense, sport, and mixed martial arts (MMA) competition.
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# Grappling
## Stand-up grappling {#stand_up_grappling}
**Stand-up grappling** is arguably an integral part of all grappling and clinch fighting arts, considering that two combatants generally start fighting from a stand-up position. The aim of stand-up grappling varies according to the martial arts or combat sports in question. Defensive stand-up grappling concerns itself with pain-compliance holds and escapes from possible grappling holds applied by an opponent, while offensive grappling techniques include submission holds, trapping, takedowns and throws, all of which can be used to inflict serious damage, or to move the fight to the ground. Stand-up grappling can also be used both offensively and defensively simultaneously with striking, either to trap an opponent\'s arms while striking, prevent the opponent from obtaining sufficient distance to strike effectively, or to bring the opponent close to apply, for instance, knee strikes.
In combat sports, stand-up grappling usually revolves around successful takedowns and throws. Grappling is a major part of combat glima and Løse-tak sport glima, and the fight continues on the ground if both combatants end up there. In other martial sports such as MMA, the fight may continue on the ground.
## Ground grappling {#ground_grappling}
**Ground grappling** refers to all the grappling techniques that are applied while the grapplers are no longer in a standing position. A large part of most martial arts and combat sports which feature ground grappling is positioning and obtaining a dominant position. A dominant position (usually on top) allows the dominant grappler a variety of options, including: attempting to escape by standing up, obtaining a pin or hold-down to control and exhaust the opponent, executing a submission hold, or striking the opponent. The bottom grappler is, on the other hand, concerned with escaping the situation and improving their position, typically by using a sweep or reversal. In some disciplines, especially those where the guard is used, the bottom grappler may also be able to finish the fight from the bottom by a submission hold. Some people feel more confident on the bottom because of the large number of submissions that can be accomplished from having the opponent in full-guard.
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# Grappling
## Applications
When unskilled fighters get embroiled in combat, a common reaction is to grab the opponent in an attempt to slow the situation down by holding them still, resulting in an unsystematic struggle that relies on brute force. A skilled fighter, in contrast, can perform takedowns as a way of progressing to a superior position such as a Mount (grappling) or side control, or using clinch holds and ground positions to set up strikes, choke holds, and joint locks. A grappler who has been taken down to the ground can use defensive positions such as the Guard (grappling), which protects against being mounted or attacked. If a grappler is strong and can utilize leverage well, a takedown or throw itself can be a fight-ending maneuver; the impact can render an opponent unconscious. On the other hand, grappling also offers the possibility of controlling an opponent without injuring them. For this reason, most police staff receive some training in grappling. Likewise, grappling sports have been devised so that their participants can compete using full physical effort without injuring their opponents.
Grappling is called *dumog* in Eskrima. The term *chin na* in Chinese martial arts deals with the use of grappling to achieve submission or incapacitation of the opponent (these may involve the use of acupressure points). Some Chinese martial arts, aikido, some eskrima systems, the Viking martial art of glima, as well as medieval and Renaissance European martial arts, practice grappling while one or both participants is armed. Their practice is significantly more dangerous than unarmed grappling and generally requires a great deal of training.
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# Grappling
## Types of grappling {#types_of_grappling}
There are many different regional styles of grappling around the world that are practiced within a limited geographic area or country. Several martial arts and fighting disciplines employ grappling techniques, such as judo, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Cornish wrestling, catch wrestling, shoot wrestling, submission grappling, sambo, hapkido and several types of wrestling including freestyle and Greco-Roman have gained global popularity. Judo, Freestyle Wrestling, and Greco-Roman Wrestling are Olympic Sports while Grappling, Brazilian Jiu-jitsu and Sambo have their own World Championship Competitions. Other known grappling-oriented systems are sumo, shuai jiao, malla-yuddha and aikido.
In these arts, the object is either to take down and pin the opponent, or to catch the adversary in a specialized chokehold or joint lock which forces them to submit and admit defeat or be rendered helpless (unconscious or broken limbs). There are two forms of dress for grappling that dictate pace and style of action: with a jacket, such as a *gi* or kurtka, and without (No-Gi). The jacket, or \"gi\", form most often utilizes grips on the cloth to control the opponent\'s body, while the \"no-*gi*\" form emphasizes body control of the torso and head using only the natural holds provided by the body. The use of a jacket is compulsory in judo competition, sambo competition, and most Brazilian jiu-jitsu competition, as well as a variety of folk wrestling styles around the world. Jackets are not used in many forms of wrestling, such as Olympic Freestyle, Greco-Roman wrestling and Grappling.
Grappling techniques are also used in mixed martial arts along with striking techniques. Strikes can be used to set up grappling techniques and vice versa.
### ADCC
The ADCC Submission Fighting World Championship is the most prestigious submission grappling tournament in the world and is held biannually.
### Mundials
The World Jiu-Jitsu Championship, also commonly called the Mundials (Portuguese for \"Worlds\"), is the most prestigious jacketed full range (takedown, position, and submission inclusive) grappling tournament in the world. The event also hosts a non-jacketed division (no gi), but that sub-event is not as prestigious as ADCC in terms of pure non-jacketed competition.
### United World Wrestling {#united_world_wrestling}
United World Wrestling (UWW) is the international governing body for the sport of wrestling. It presides over international competitions for various forms of wrestling, including Grappling for men and women. The flagship Grappling\'s event of UWW is the Grappling World Championships. See more FILA grappling
### NAGA
**The North American Grappling Association (NAGA)** is an organization started in 1995 that holds submission grappling and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu tournaments throughout North America and Europe. NAGA is the largest submission grappling association in the world with over 175,000 participants worldwide, including some of the top submission grapplers and MMA fighters in the world. NAGA grappling tournaments consist of gi and no-gi divisions. No-Gi competitors compete under rules drafted by NAGA. Gi competitors compete under standardized Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu rules. Notable Champions Frank Mir, Joe Fiorentino, Jon Jones, Khabib Nurmagomedov, Anthony Porcelli and Antonio Bustorff.
### GRiND
**GRiND** is the first Indian Pro Grappling tournament series started in May 2017 conducting grappling championships (position and submission included). There is a first time no \"Gi\" event series in India.
### IGF
International Grappling Federation
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# Grammar
In linguistics, **grammar** is the set of rules for how a natural language is structured, as demonstrated by its speakers or writers. Grammar rules may concern the use of clauses, phrases, and words. The term may also refer to the study of such rules, a subject that includes phonology, morphology, and syntax, together with phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. There are, broadly speaking, two different ways to study grammar: traditional grammar and theoretical grammar.
Fluency in a particular language variety involves a speaker internalizing these rules, many or most of which are acquired by observing other speakers, as opposed to intentional study or instruction. Much of this internalization occurs during early childhood; learning a language later in life usually involves more direct instruction. The term *grammar* can also describe the linguistic behaviour of groups of speakers and writers rather than individuals. Differences in scale are important to this meaning: for example, English grammar could describe those rules followed by every one of the language\'s speakers. At smaller scales, it may refer to rules shared by smaller groups of speakers.
A description, study, or analysis of such rules may also be known as a grammar, or as a grammar book. A reference work describing the grammar of a language is called a *reference grammar* or simply a *grammar*. A fully revealed grammar, which describes the grammatical constructions of a particular speech type in great detail is called descriptive grammar. This kind of linguistic description contrasts with linguistic prescription, a plan to marginalize some constructions while codifying others, either absolutely or in the framework of a standard language. The word *grammar* often has divergent meanings when used in contexts outside linguistics. It may be used more broadly to include orthographic conventions of written language, such as spelling and punctuation, which are not typically considered part of grammar by linguists; that is, the conventions used for writing a language. It may also be used more narrowly to refer to a set of prescriptive norms only, excluding the aspects of a language\'s grammar which do not change or are clearly acceptable (or not) without the need for discussions.
## Etymology
The word *grammar* is derived from Greek *γραμματικὴ τέχνη* (*grammatikḕ téchnē*), which means \"art of letters\", from *γράμμα* (*grámma*), \"letter\", itself from *γράφειν* (*gráphein*), \"to draw, to write\". The same Greek root also appears in the words *graphics*, *grapheme*, and *photograph*.
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# Grammar
## History
The first systematic grammar of Sanskrit originated in Iron Age India, with Yaska (6th century BC), Pāṇini (6th--5th century BC) and his commentators Pingala (c. 200 BC), Katyayana, and Patanjali (2nd century BC). Tolkāppiyam, the earliest Tamil grammar, is mostly dated to before the 5th century AD. The Babylonians also made some early attempts at language description.
Grammar appeared as a discipline in Hellenism from the 3rd century BC forward with authors such as Rhyanus and Aristarchus of Samothrace. The oldest known grammar handbook is the *Art of Grammar* (*Τέχνη Γραμματική*), a succinct guide to speaking and writing clearly and effectively, written by the ancient Greek scholar Dionysius Thrax (c. 170), a student of Aristarchus of Samothrace who founded a school on the Greek island of Rhodes. Dionysius Thrax\'s grammar book remained the primary grammar textbook for Greek schoolboys until as late as the twelfth century AD. The Romans based their grammatical writings on it and its basic format remains the basis for grammar guides in many languages even today. Latin grammar developed by following Greek models from the 1st century BC, due to the work of authors such as Orbilius Pupillus, Remmius Palaemon, Marcus Valerius Probus, Verrius Flaccus, and Aemilius Asper.
The grammar of Irish originated in the 7th century with Auraicept na n-Éces. Arabic grammar emerged with Abu al-Aswad al-Du\'ali in the 7th century. The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appeared in the High Middle Ages, in the context of Midrash (exegesis of the Hebrew Bible). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad. The *Diqduq* (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Ibn Barun in the 12th century, compares the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition.
Belonging to the *trivium* of the seven liberal arts, grammar was taught as a core discipline throughout the Middle Ages, following the influence of authors from Late Antiquity, such as Priscian. Treatment of vernaculars began gradually during the High Middle Ages, with isolated works such as the First Grammatical Treatise, but became influential only in the Renaissance and Baroque periods. In 1486, Antonio de Nebrija published *Las introduciones Latinas contrapuesto el romance al Latin*, and the first Spanish grammar, *Gramática de la lengua castellana*, in 1492. During the 16th-century Italian Renaissance, the *Questione della lingua* was the discussion on the status and ideal form of the Italian language, initiated by Dante\'s *de vulgari eloquentia* (Pietro Bembo, *Prose della volgar lingua* Venice 1525). The first grammar of Slovene was written in 1583 by Adam Bohorič, and *Grammatica Germanicae Linguae*, the first grammar of German, was published in 1578.
Grammars of some languages began to be compiled for the purposes of evangelism and Bible translation from the 16th century onward, such as *Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de Los Indios de Los Reynos del Perú* (1560), a Quechua grammar by Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás.
From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern linguistics. The *Deutsche Grammatik* of Jacob Grimm was first published in the 1810s. The *Comparative Grammar* of Franz Bopp, the starting point of modern comparative linguistics, came out in 1833.
## `{{anchor|Frameworks}}`{=mediawiki} Theoretical frameworks {#theoretical_frameworks}
Frameworks of grammar which seek to give a precise scientific theory of the syntactic rules of grammar and their function have been developed in theoretical linguistics. `{{Incomplete list|date=March 2018}}`{=mediawiki}
- Dependency grammar: dependency relation (Lucien Tesnière 1959)
- Link grammar
- Functional grammar (structural--functional analysis):
- Danish Functionalism
- Functional Discourse Grammar
- Role and reference grammar
- Systemic functional grammar
- Montague grammar
Other frameworks are based on an innate \"universal grammar\", an idea developed by Noam Chomsky. In such models, the object is placed into the verb phrase. The most prominent biologically oriented theories are:
- Cognitive grammar / Cognitive linguistics
- Construction grammar
- Fluid Construction Grammar
- Word grammar
- Generative grammar:
- Transformational grammar (1960s)
- Generative semantics (1970s) and Semantic Syntax (1990s)
- Phrase structure grammar (late 1970s)
- Generalized phrase structure grammar (late 1970s)
- Head-driven phrase structure grammar (1985)
- Principles and parameters grammar (Government and binding theory) (1980s)
- Lexical functional grammar
- Categorial grammar (lambda calculus)
- Minimalist program-based grammar (1993)
- Stochastic grammar: probabilistic
- Operator grammar
Parse trees are commonly used by such frameworks to depict their rules. There are various alternative schemes for some grammar:
- Affix grammar over a finite lattice
- Backus--Naur form
- Constraint grammar
- Lambda calculus
- Tree-adjoining grammar
- X-bar theory
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# Grammar
## Development
Grammars evolve through usage. Historically, with the advent of written representations, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also, although such rules tend to describe writing conventions more accurately than conventions of speech. Formal grammars are codifications of usage which are developed by repeated documentation and observation over time. As rules are established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise. This often produces a discrepancy between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted, over time, as being standard or \"correct\". Linguists tend to view prescriptive grammar as having little justification beyond their authors\' aesthetic tastes, although style guides may give useful advice about *standard language employment* based on descriptions of usage in contemporary writings of the same language. Linguistic prescriptions also form part of the explanation for variation in speech, particularly variation in the speech of an individual speaker (for example, why some speakers say \"I didn\'t do nothing\", some say \"I didn\'t do anything\", and some say one or the other depending on social context).
The formal study of grammar is an important part of children\'s schooling from a young age through advanced learning, though the rules taught in schools are not a \"grammar\" in the sense that most linguists use, particularly as they are prescriptive in intent rather than descriptive.
Constructed languages (also called *planned languages* or *conlangs*) are more common in the modern day, although still extremely uncommon compared to natural languages. Many have been designed to aid human communication (for example, naturalistic Interlingua, schematic Esperanto, and the highly logical Lojban). Each of these languages has its own grammar.
Syntax refers to the linguistic structure above the word level (for example, how sentences are formed)`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}though without taking into account intonation, which is the domain of phonology. Morphology, by contrast, refers to the structure at and below the word level (for example, how compound words are formed), but above the level of individual sounds, which, like intonation, are in the domain of phonology. However, no clear line can be drawn between syntax and morphology. Analytic languages use syntax to convey information that is encoded by inflection in synthetic languages. In other words, word order is not significant, and morphology is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language. For example, Chinese and Afrikaans are highly analytic, thus meaning is very context-dependent. (Both have some inflections, and both have had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more \"purely\" analytic over time.) Latin, which is highly synthetic, uses affixes and inflections to convey the same information that Chinese does with syntax. Because Latin words are quite (though not totally) self-contained, an intelligible Latin sentence can be made from elements that are arranged almost arbitrarily. Latin has a complex affixation and simple syntax, whereas Chinese has the opposite.
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# Grammar
## Education
Prescriptive grammar is taught in primary and secondary school. The term \"grammar school\" historically referred to a school (attached to a cathedral or monastery) that teaches Latin grammar to future priests and monks. It originally referred to a school that taught students how to read, scan, interpret, and declaim Greek and Latin poets (including Homer, Virgil, Euripides, and others). These should not be mistaken for the related, albeit distinct, modern British grammar schools.
A standard language is a dialect that is promoted above other dialects in writing, education, and, broadly speaking, in the public sphere; it contrasts with vernacular dialects, which may be the objects of study in academic, descriptive linguistics but which are rarely taught prescriptively. The standardized \"first language\" taught in primary education may be subject to political controversy because it may sometimes establish a standard defining nationality or ethnicity.
Recently, efforts have begun to update grammar instruction in primary and secondary education. The main focus has been to prevent the use of outdated prescriptive rules in favor of setting norms based on earlier descriptive research and to change perceptions about the relative \"correctness\" of prescribed standard forms in comparison to non-standard dialects. A series of metastudies have found that the explicit teaching of grammatical parts of speech and syntax has little or no effect on the improvement of student writing quality in elementary school, middle school or high school; other methods of writing instruction had far greater positive effect, including strategy instruction, collaborative writing, summary writing, process instruction, sentence combining and inquiry projects.
The preeminence of Parisian French has reigned largely unchallenged throughout the history of modern French literature. Standard Italian is based on the speech of Florence rather than the capital because of its influence on early literature. Likewise, standard Spanish is not based on the speech of Madrid but on that of educated speakers from more northern areas such as Castile and León (see *Gramática de la lengua castellana*). In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo (Rioplatense Spanish). Portuguese has, for now, two official standards, Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese.
The Serbian variant of Serbo-Croatian is likewise divided; Serbia and the Republika Srpska of Bosnia and Herzegovina use their own distinct normative subvarieties, with differences in yat reflexes. The existence and codification of a distinct Montenegrin standard is a matter of controversy, some treat Montenegrin as a separate standard lect, and some think that it should be considered another form of Serbian.
Norwegian has two standards, *Bokmål* and *Nynorsk*, the choice between which is subject to controversy: Each Norwegian municipality can either declare one as its official language or it can remain \"language neutral\". Nynorsk is backed by 27 percent of municipalities. The main language used in primary schools, chosen by referendum within the local school district, normally follows the official language of its municipality. Standard German emerged from the standardized chancellery use of High German in the 16th and 17th centuries. Until about 1800, it was almost exclusively a written language, but now it is so widely spoken that most of the former German dialects are nearly extinct.
Standard Chinese has official status as the standard spoken form of the Chinese language in the People\'s Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of China (ROC), and the Republic of Singapore. Pronunciation of Standard Chinese is based on the local accent of Mandarin Chinese from Luanping, Chengde in Hebei Province near Beijing, while grammar and syntax are based on modern vernacular written Chinese.
Modern Standard Arabic is directly based on Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur\'an. The Hindustani language has two standards, Hindi and Urdu.
In the United States, the Society for the Promotion of Good Grammar designated 4 March as National Grammar Day in 2008.
Grammar instructions also differs between first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) learners, especially in academic writing. First-language (L1) are those composing in their native language, while second-language (L2) writers are writing in language they learned after childhood. Research shows that L2 learners face additional challenges when revising grammar, as they must manage both language acquisition and writing development at the same time. According to Ester Odilia Breuer, revision in L2 writing is cognitively demanding and occurs not only after writing, but also during the planning and drafting stages. She argues that L2 writers often reorganize ideas and revise structure while composing, unlike L1 writers who may rely more on intuition and automatic grammar use
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# Gigabyte
`{{Quantities of bytes}}`{=mediawiki}
The **gigabyte** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ɪ|ɡ|ə|b|aɪ|t|,_|ˈ|dʒ|ɪ|ɡ|ə|b|aɪ|t}}`{=mediawiki})The prefix *giga-* may be pronounced two ways.
-
- is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix *giga* means 10^9^ in the International System of Units (SI). Therefore, one gigabyte is one billion bytes. The unit symbol for the gigabyte is **GB**.
This definition is used in all contexts of science (especially data science), engineering, business, and many areas of computing, including storage capacities of hard drives, solid-state drives, and tapes, as well as data transmission speeds. The term is also used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote `{{gaps|1|073|741|824}}`{=mediawiki} (1024^3^ or 2^30^) bytes, however, particularly for sizes of RAM. Thus, some usage of *gigabyte* has been ambiguous. To resolve this difficulty, IEC 80000-13 clarifies that a *gigabyte* (GB) is 10^9^ bytes and specifies the term *gibibyte* (GiB) to denote 2^30^ bytes. These differences are still readily seen, for example, when a 400 GB drive\'s capacity is displayed by Microsoft Windows as 372 GB instead of 372 GiB. Analogously, a memory module that is labeled as having the size \"`{{gaps|1|GB}}`{=mediawiki}\" has one gibibyte (`{{gaps|1|GiB}}`{=mediawiki}) of storage capacity.
In response to litigation over whether the makers of electronic storage devices must conform to Microsoft Windows\' use of a binary definition of \"GB\" instead of the metric/decimal definition, the United States District Court for the Northern District of California rejected that argument, ruling that \"the U.S. Congress has deemed the decimal definition of gigabyte to be the \'preferred\' one for the purposes of \'U.S. trade and commerce.{{\'\"}}
## Definition
The term *gigabyte* has a standard definition of 1000^3^ bytes, as well as a discouraged meaning of 1024^3^ bytes. The latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 (2^10^) is approximately 1000 (10^3^), roughly corresponding to SI multiples, it was used for binary multiples as well.
In 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote 1000^3^ bytes and gibibyte denote 1024^3^ bytes. By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, and NIST, and in 2009 it was incorporated in the International System of Quantities. Nevertheless, the term gigabyte continues to be widely used with the following two different meanings:
### Base 10 (decimal) {#base_10_decimal}
- 1 GB = `{{gaps|1|000|000|000}}`{=mediawiki} bytes (= 1000^3^ B = 10^9^ B)
Based on powers of 10, this definition uses the prefix giga- as defined in the International System of Units (SI). This is the recommended definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). This definition is used in networking contexts and most storage media, particularly hard drives, flash-based storage, and DVDs, and is also consistent with the other uses of the SI prefix in computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance. The file manager of Mac OS X version 10.6 and later versions are a notable example of this usage in software, which report files sizes in decimal units.
### Base 2 (binary) {#base_2_binary}
- 1 GiB = `{{gaps|1|073|741|824}}`{=mediawiki} bytes (= 1024^3^ B = 2^30^ B).
The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as does the architectural principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory (e.g., RAM). This definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte.
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# Gigabyte
## Consumer confusion {#consumer_confusion}
Since the first disk drive, the IBM 350, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes. With the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers labelled many consumer hard drive, solid-state drive and USB flash drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as \"500 GB\". The exact capacity of a given drive model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of hard disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as `{{gaps|1|000|000|000|bytes}}`{=mediawiki}, which is displayed on the packaging. Some operating systems such as Mac OS X, iOS, Android, Ubuntu, and Debian express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers, while others such as Microsoft Windows (including Windows Phone) report file size using binary multipliers. This discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, `{{nowrap|400 GB}}`{=mediawiki} (meaning `{{gaps|400|000|000|000|bytes}}`{=mediawiki}, equal to 372 GiB) might be reported by the operating system as \"`{{nowrap|372 GB}}`{=mediawiki}\".
For RAM, the JEDEC memory standards use *IEEE 100* nomenclature which quote the gigabyte as `{{gaps|1|073|741|824|bytes}}`{=mediawiki} (2^30^ bytes).
The difference between units based on decimal and binary prefixes increases as a semi-logarithmic (linear-log) function---for example, the decimal kilobyte value is nearly 98% of the kibibyte, a megabyte is under 96% of a mebibyte, and a gigabyte is just over 93% of a gibibyte value. This means that a 300 GB (279 GiB) hard disk might be indicated variously as \"300 GB\", \"279 GB\" or \"279 GiB\", depending on the operating system. As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences become more pronounced.
### US lawsuits {#us_lawsuits}
A lawsuit decided in 2019 that arose from alleged breach of contract and other claims over the binary and decimal definitions used for \"gigabyte\" have ended in favour of the manufacturers, with courts holding that the legal definition of gigabyte or GB is 1 GB = 1,000,000,000 (10^9^) bytes (the decimal definition). Specifically, the courts held that \"the U.S. Congress has deemed the decimal definition of gigabyte to be the \'preferred\' one for the purposes of \'U.S. trade and commerce\' \.... The California Legislature has likewise adopted the decimal system for all \'transactions in this state\'.\"
Earlier lawsuits had ended in settlement with no court ruling on the question, such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital. Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity. Seagate was sued on similar grounds and also settled.
### Other contexts {#other_contexts}
Because of their physical design, the capacity of modern computer random-access memory devices, such as DIMM modules, is always a multiple of a power of 1024. It is thus convenient to use prefixes denoting powers of 1024, known as binary prefixes, in describing them. For example, a memory capacity of `{{gaps|1|073|741|824|bytes}}`{=mediawiki} (1024^3^ B) is conveniently expressed as 1 GiB rather than as 1.074 GB. The former specification is, however, often quoted as \"1 GB\" when applied to random-access memory.
Software allocates memory in varying degrees of granularity as needed to fulfill data structure requirements and binary multiples are usually not required. Other computer capacities and rates, like storage hardware size, data transfer rates, clock speeds, operations per second, etc. are usually presented in decimal units. For example, the manufacturer of a \"300 GB\" hard drive is claiming a capacity of `{{gaps|300|000|000|000|bytes}}`{=mediawiki}, not 300 × 1024^3^ (which would be `{{gaps|322|122|547|200}}`{=mediawiki}) bytes.
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# Gigabyte
## Examples of gigabyte-sized storage {#examples_of_gigabyte_sized_storage}
- One hour of SDTV video at 2.2 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB.
- Seven minutes of HDTV video at 19.39 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB.
- 114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB.
- A single-layer DVD+R disc can hold about 4.7 GB.
- A dual-layered DVD+R disc can hold about 8.5 GB.
- A single-layer Blu-ray can hold about 25 GB.
- The largest Nintendo Switch cartridge available on the market holds about 32 GB.
- A dual-layered Blu-ray can hold about 50 GB.
- A triple-layered Ultra HD Blu-ray can hold about 100 GB.
## Unicode character {#unicode_character}
The \"gigabyte\" symbol is encoded by Unicode at code point `{{unichar|3387|Square GB}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Galaxy groups and clusters
**Galaxy groups and clusters** are the largest known gravitationally bound objects to have arisen thus far in the process of cosmic structure formation. They form the densest part of the large-scale structure of the Universe. In models for the gravitational formation of structure with cold dark matter, the smallest structures collapse first and eventually build the largest structures, clusters of galaxies. Clusters are then formed relatively recently between 10 billion years ago and now. Groups and clusters may contain ten to thousands of individual galaxies. The clusters themselves are often associated with larger, non-gravitationally bound, groups called superclusters.
## Groups of galaxies {#groups_of_galaxies}
Groups of galaxies are the smallest aggregates of galaxies. They typically contain no more than 50 galaxies in a diameter of 1 to 2 megaparsecs (Mpc)(see 10^22^ m for distance comparisons). Their mass is approximately 10^13^ solar masses. The spread of velocities for the individual galaxies is about 150 km/s. However, this definition should be used as a guide only, as larger and more massive galaxy systems are sometimes classified as galaxy groups. Groups are the most common structures of galaxies in the universe, comprising at least 50% of the galaxies in the local universe. Groups have a mass range between those of the very large elliptical galaxies and clusters of galaxies.
Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is contained in the Local Group of more than 54 galaxies.
In July 2017 S. Paul, R. S. John et al. defined clear distinguishing parameters for classifying galaxy aggregations as 'galaxy groups' and 'clusters' on the basis of scaling laws that they followed. According to this paper, galaxy aggregations less massive than 8 × 10^13^ solar masses are classified as galaxy groups.
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# Galaxy groups and clusters
## Clusters of galaxies {#clusters_of_galaxies}
Clusters are larger than groups, although there is no sharp dividing line between the two. When observed visually, clusters appear to be collections of galaxies held together by mutual gravitational attraction. However, their velocities are too large for them to remain gravitationally bound by their mutual attractions, implying the presence of either an additional invisible mass component, or an additional attractive force besides gravity. X-ray studies have revealed the presence of large amounts of intergalactic gas known as the intracluster medium. This gas is very hot, between 10^7^K and 10^8^K, and hence emits X-rays in the form of bremsstrahlung and atomic line emission.
The total mass of the gas is greater than that of the galaxies by roughly a factor of two. However, this is still not enough mass to keep the galaxies in the cluster. Since this gas is in approximate hydrostatic equilibrium with the overall cluster gravitational field, the total mass distribution can be determined. It turns out the total mass deduced from this measurement is approximately six times larger than the mass of the galaxies or the hot gas. The missing component is known as dark matter and its nature is unknown. In a typical cluster perhaps only 5% of the total mass is in the form of galaxies, maybe 10% in the form of hot X-ray emitting gas and the remainder is dark matter. Brownstein and Moffat use a theory of modified gravity to explain X-ray cluster masses without dark matter. Observations of the Bullet Cluster are the strongest evidence for the existence of dark matter; however, Brownstein and Moffat have shown that their modified gravity theory can also account for the properties of the cluster.
## Observational methods {#observational_methods}
Clusters of galaxies have been found in surveys by a number of observational techniques and have been studied in detail using many methods:
- Optical or infrared: The individual galaxies of clusters can be studied through optical or infrared imaging and spectroscopy. Galaxy clusters are found by optical or infrared telescopes by searching for overdensities, and then confirmed by finding several galaxies at a similar redshift. Infrared searches are more useful for finding more distant (higher redshift) clusters.
- X-ray: The hot plasma emits X-rays that can be detected by X-ray telescopes. The cluster gas can be studied using both X-ray imaging and X-ray spectroscopy. Clusters are quite prominent in X-ray surveys and along with AGN are the brightest X-ray emitting extragalactic objects.
- Radio: A number of diffuse structures emitting at radio frequencies have been found in clusters. Groups of radio sources (that may include diffuse structures or AGN) have been used as tracers of cluster location. At high redshift imaging around individual radio sources (in this case AGN) has been used to detect proto-clusters (clusters in the process of forming).
- Sunyaev-Zel\'dovich effect: The hot electrons in the intracluster medium scatter radiation from the cosmic microwave background through inverse Compton scattering. This produces a \"shadow\" in the observed cosmic microwave background at some radio frequencies.
- Gravitational lensing: Clusters of galaxies contain enough matter to distort the observed orientations of galaxies behind them. The observed distortions can be used to model the distribution of dark matter in the cluster.
## Temperature and density {#temperature_and_density}
Clusters of galaxies are the most recent and most massive objects to have arisen in the hierarchical structure formation of the Universe and the study of clusters tells one about the way galaxies form and evolve. Clusters have two important properties: their masses are large enough to retain any energetic gas ejected from member galaxies and the thermal energy of the gas within the cluster is observable within the X-Ray bandpass. The observed state of gas within a cluster is determined by a combination of shock heating during accretion, radiative cooling, and thermal feedback triggered by that cooling. The density, temperature, and substructure of the intracluster X-Ray gas therefore represents the entire thermal history of cluster formation. To better understand this thermal history one needs to study the entropy of the gas because entropy is the quantity most directly changed by increasing or decreasing the thermal energy of intracluster gas
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# Golgi apparatus
`{{Organelle diagram}}`{=mediawiki}
The **Golgi apparatus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ɒ|l|dʒ|i}}`{=mediawiki}), also known as the **Golgi complex**, **Golgi body**, or simply the **Golgi**, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, it packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. It resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic pathways. It is of particular importance in processing proteins for secretion, containing a set of glycosylation enzymes that attach various sugar monomers to proteins as the proteins move through the apparatus.
The Golgi apparatus was identified in 1898 by the Italian biologist and pathologist Camillo Golgi. The organelle was later named after him in the 1910s.
## Discovery
Because of its large size and distinctive structure, the Golgi apparatus was one of the first organelles to be discovered and observed in detail. It was discovered in 1898 by Italian physician Camillo Golgi during an investigation of the nervous system. After first observing it under his microscope, he termed the structure as *apparato reticolare interno* (\"internal reticular apparatus\"). Some doubted the discovery at first, arguing that the appearance of the structure was merely an optical illusion created by Golgi\'s observation technique. With the development of modern microscopes in the twentieth century, the discovery was confirmed. Early references to the Golgi apparatus referred to it by various names, including the Golgi--Holmgren apparatus, Golgi--Holmgren ducts, and Golgi--Kopsch apparatus. The term Golgi apparatus was used in 1910 and first appeared in scientific literature in 1913, while \"Golgi complex\" was introduced in 1956.
## Subcellular localization {#subcellular_localization}
The subcellular localization of the Golgi apparatus varies among eukaryotes. In mammals, a single Golgi apparatus is usually located near the cell nucleus, close to the centrosome. Tubular connections are responsible for linking the stacks together. Localization and tubular connections of the Golgi apparatus are dependent on microtubules. In experiments, it is seen that as microtubules are depolymerized, the Golgi apparatuses lose mutual connections and become individual stacks throughout the cytoplasm. In yeast, multiple Golgi apparatuses are scattered throughout the cytoplasm (as observed in *Saccharomyces cerevisiae*). In plants, Golgi stacks are not concentrated at the centrosomal region and do not form Golgi ribbons. Organization of the plant Golgi depends on actin cables and not microtubules. The common feature among Golgi is that they are adjacent to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit sites.
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# Golgi apparatus
## Structure
In most eukaryotes, the Golgi apparatus is made up of a series of compartments and is a collection of fused, flattened membrane-enclosed disks known as cisternae (singular: *cisterna*, also called \"dictyosomes\"), originating from vesicular clusters that bud off the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). A mammalian cell typically contains 40 to 100 stacks of cisternae. Between four and eight cisternae are usually present in a stack; however, in some protists, as many as sixty cisternae have been observed. This collection of cisternae is broken down into *cis*, medial, and *trans* compartments, making up two main networks: the **cis Golgi network** (CGN) and the **trans Golgi network** (TGN). The CGN is the first cisternal structure, and the TGN is the final, from which proteins are packaged into vesicles destined to lysosomes, secretory vesicles, or the cell surface. The TGN is usually positioned adjacent to the stack, but can also be separate from it. The TGN may act as an early endosome in yeast and plants.
There are structural and organizational differences in the Golgi apparatus among eukaryotes. In some yeasts, Golgi stacking is not observed. *Pichia pastoris* does have stacked Golgi, while *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* does not. In plants, the individual stacks of the Golgi apparatus seem to operate independently.
The Golgi apparatus tends to be larger and more numerous in cells that synthesize and secrete large amounts of substances; for example, the antibody-secreting plasma B cells of the immune system have prominent Golgi complexes.
In all eukaryotes, each cisternal stack has a *cis* entry face and a *trans* exit face. These faces are characterized by unique morphology and biochemistry. Within individual stacks are assortments of enzymes responsible for selectively modifying protein cargo. These modifications influence the fate of the protein. The compartmentalization of the Golgi apparatus is advantageous for separating enzymes, thereby maintaining consecutive and selective processing steps: enzymes catalyzing early modifications are gathered in the *cis* face cisternae, and enzymes catalyzing later modifications are found in *trans* face cisternae of the Golgi stacks.
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# Golgi apparatus
## Function
The Golgi apparatus is a major collection and dispatch station of protein products received from the endoplasmic reticulum. Proteins synthesized in the ER are packaged into vesicles, which then fuse with the Golgi apparatus. These cargo proteins are modified and destined for secretion via exocytosis or for use in the cell. In this respect, the Golgi can be thought of as similar to a post office: it packages and labels items which it then sends to different parts of the cell or to the extracellular space. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in lipid transport and lysosome formation.
The structure and function of the Golgi apparatus are intimately linked. Individual stacks have different assortments of enzymes, allowing for progressive processing of cargo proteins as they travel from the cisternae to the trans Golgi face. Enzymatic reactions within the Golgi stacks occur exclusively near its membrane surfaces, where enzymes are anchored. This feature is in contrast to the ER, which has soluble proteins and enzymes in its lumen. Much of the enzymatic processing is post-translational modification of proteins. For example, phosphorylation of oligosaccharides on lysosomal proteins occurs in the early CGN. *Cis* cisterna are associated with the removal of mannose residues. Removal of mannose residues and addition of N-acetylglucosamine occur in medial cisternae. Addition of galactose and sialic acid occurs in the *trans* cisternae. Sulfation of tyrosines and carbohydrates occurs within the TGN. Other general post-translational modifications of proteins include the addition of carbohydrates (glycosylation) and phosphates (phosphorylation). Protein modifications may form a signal sequence that determines the final destination of the protein. For example, the Golgi apparatus adds a mannose-6-phosphate label to proteins destined for lysosomes. Another important function of the Golgi apparatus is in the formation of proteoglycans. Enzymes in the Golgi append proteins to glycosaminoglycans, thus creating proteoglycans. Glycosaminoglycans are long unbranched polysaccharide molecules present in the extracellular matrix of animals.
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# Golgi apparatus
## Vesicular transport {#vesicular_transport}
The vesicles that leave the rough endoplasmic reticulum are transported to the *cis* face of the Golgi apparatus, where they fuse with the Golgi membrane and empty their contents into the lumen. Once inside the lumen, the molecules are modified, then sorted for transport to their next destinations.
Those proteins destined for areas of the cell other than either the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi apparatus are moved through the Golgi cisternae towards the *trans* face, to a complex network of membranes and associated vesicles known as the *trans-Golgi network* (TGN). This area of the Golgi is the point at which proteins are sorted and shipped to their intended destinations by their placement into one of at least three different types of vesicles, depending upon the signal sequence they carry.
Types Description Example
-------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
Exocytotic vesicles *(constitutive)* Vesicle contains proteins destined for extracellular release. After packaging, the vesicles bud off and immediately move towards the plasma membrane, where they fuse and release the contents into the extracellular space in a process known as *constitutive secretion*. Antibody release by activated plasma B cells
Secretory vesicles *(regulated)* Vesicles contain proteins destined for extracellular release. After packaging, the vesicles bud off and are stored in the cell until a signal is given for their release. When the appropriate signal is received they move toward the membrane and fuse to release their contents. This process is known as *regulated secretion*. Neurotransmitter release from neurons
Lysosomal vesicles Vesicles contain proteins and ribosomes destined for the lysosome, a degradative organelle containing many acid hydrolases, or to lysosome-like storage organelles. These proteins include both digestive enzymes and membrane proteins. The vesicle first fuses with the late endosome, and the contents are then transferred to the lysosome via unknown mechanisms. Digestive proteases destined for the lysosome
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# Golgi apparatus
## Current models of vesicular transport and trafficking {#current_models_of_vesicular_transport_and_trafficking}
### Model 1: Anterograde vesicular transport between stable compartments {#model_1_anterograde_vesicular_transport_between_stable_compartments}
- In this model, the Golgi is viewed as a set of stable compartments that work together. Each compartment has a unique collection of enzymes that work to modify protein cargo. Proteins are delivered from the ER to the *cis* face using COPII-coated vesicles. Cargo then progress toward the *trans* face in COPI-coated vesicles. This model proposes that COPI vesicles move in two directions: anterograde vesicles carry secretory proteins, while retrograde vesicles recycle Golgi-specific trafficking proteins.
- **Strengths:** The model explains observations of compartments, polarized distribution of enzymes, and waves of moving vesicles. It also attempts to explain how Golgi-specific enzymes are recycled.
- **Weaknesses:** Since the amount of COPI vesicles varies drastically among types of cells, this model cannot easily explain high trafficking activity within the Golgi for both small and large cargoes. Additionally, there is no convincing evidence that COPI vesicles move in both the anterograde and retrograde directions.
- This model was widely accepted from the early 1980s until the late 1990s.
### Model 2: Cisternal progression/maturation {#model_2_cisternal_progressionmaturation}
- In this model, the fusion of COPII vesicles from the ER begins the formation of the first *cis*-cisterna of the Golgi stack, which progresses later to become mature TGN cisternae. Once matured, the TGN cisternae dissolve to become secretory vesicles. While this progression occurs, COPI vesicles continually recycle Golgi-specific proteins by delivery from older to younger cisternae. Different recycling patterns may account for the differing biochemistry throughout the Golgi stack. Thus, the compartments within the Golgi are seen as discrete kinetic stages of the maturing Golgi apparatus.
- **Strengths:** The model addresses the existence of Golgi compartments, as well as differing biochemistry within the cisternae, transport of large proteins, transient formation and disintegration of the cisternae, and retrograde mobility of native Golgi proteins, and it can account for the variability seen in the structures of the Golgi.
- **Weaknesses:** This model cannot easily explain the observation of fused Golgi networks, tubular connections among cisternae, and differing kinetics of secretory cargo exit.
### Model 3: Cisternal progression/maturation with heterotypic tubular transport {#model_3_cisternal_progressionmaturation_with_heterotypic_tubular_transport}
- This model is an extension of the cisternal progression/maturation model. It incorporates the existence of tubular connections among the cisternae that form the Golgi ribbon, in which cisternae within a stack are linked. This model posits that the tubules are important for bidirectional traffic in the ER-Golgi system: they allow for fast anterograde traffic of small cargo and/or the retrograde traffic of native Golgi proteins.
- **Strengths:** This model encompasses the strengths of the cisternal progression/maturation model that also explains rapid trafficking of cargo, and how native Golgi proteins can recycle independently of COPI vesicles.
- **Weaknesses:** This model cannot explain the transport kinetics of large protein cargo, such as collagen. Additionally, tubular connections are not prevalent in plant cells. The roles that these connections have can be attributed to a cell-specific specialization rather than a universal trait. If the membranes are continuous, that suggests the existence of mechanisms that preserve the unique biochemical gradients observed throughout the Golgi apparatus.
### Model 4: Rapid partitioning in a mixed Golgi {#model_4_rapid_partitioning_in_a_mixed_golgi}
- This rapid partitioning model is the most drastic alteration of the traditional vesicular trafficking point of view. Proponents of this model hypothesize that the Golgi works as a single unit, containing domains that function separately in the processing and export of protein cargo. Cargo from the ER move between these two domains, and randomly exit from any level of the Golgi to their final location. This model is supported by the observation that cargo exits the Golgi in a pattern best described by exponential kinetics. The existence of domains is supported by fluorescence microscopy data.
- **Strengths:** Notably, this model explains the exponential kinetics of cargo exit of both large and small proteins, whereas other models cannot.
- **Weaknesses:** This model cannot explain the transport kinetics of large protein cargo, such as collagen. This model falls short on explaining the observation of discrete compartments and polarized biochemistry of the Golgi cisternae. It also does not explain formation and disintegration of the Golgi network, nor the role of COPI vesicles.
### Model 5: Stable compartments as cisternal model progenitors {#model_5_stable_compartments_as_cisternal_model_progenitors}
- This is the most recent model. In this model, the Golgi is seen as a collection of stable compartments defined by Rab (G-protein) GTPases.
- **Strengths:** This model is consistent with numerous observations and encompasses some of the strengths of the cisternal progression/maturation model. Additionally, what is known of the Rab GTPase roles in mammalian endosomes can help predict putative roles within the Golgi. This model is unique in that it can explain the observation of \"megavesicle\" transport intermediates.
- **Weaknesses:** This model does not explain morphological variations in the Golgi apparatus, nor define a role for COPI vesicles. This model does not apply well for plants, algae, and fungi in which individual Golgi stacks are observed (transfer of domains between stacks is not likely). Additionally, megavesicles are not established to be intra-Golgi transporters.
Though there are multiple models that attempt to explain vesicular traffic throughout the Golgi, no individual model can independently explain all observations of the Golgi apparatus. Currently, the cisternal progression/maturation model is the most accepted among scientists, accommodating many observations across eukaryotes. The other models are still important in framing questions and guiding future experimentation. Among the fundamental unanswered questions are the directionality of COPI vesicles and role of Rab GTPases in modulating protein cargo traffic.
## Brefeldin A {#brefeldin_a}
Brefeldin A (BFA) is a fungal metabolite used experimentally to disrupt the secretion pathway as a method of testing Golgi function. BFA blocks the activation of some ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs). ARFs are small GTPases which regulate vesicular trafficking through the binding of COPs to endosomes and the Golgi. BFA inhibits the function of several guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) that mediate GTP-binding of ARFs. Treatment of cells with BFA thus disrupts the secretion pathway, promoting disassembly of the Golgi apparatus and distributing Golgi proteins to the endosomes and ER.
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# Golgi apparatus
## Gallery
<File:YeastGolgiMovieeLifec.ogg%7CYeast> Golgi dynamics. Green labels early Golgi, red labels late Golgi. <File:GolgiRibbonc.jpg%7CTwo> Golgi stacks connected as a ribbon in a mouse cell. Taken from [the movie](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Urothelial-Plaque-Formation-in-Post-Golgi-Compartments-pone.0023636.s002.ogv). <File:GolgiScyl1c.jpg%7CThree-dimensional> projection of a mammalian Golgi stack imaged by confocal microscopy and volume surface rendered using Imaris software. Taken from the movie
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# GNU Manifesto
\_\_NOTOC\_\_ The ***GNU Manifesto*** is a call-to-action by Richard Stallman encouraging participation and support of the GNU Project\'s goal in developing the GNU free computer operating system. The GNU Manifesto was published in March 1985 in *Dr. Dobb\'s Journal of Software Tools*. It is held in high regard within the free software movement as a fundamental philosophical source.
The full text is included with GNU software such as Emacs, and is publicly available.
## Background
Some parts of the *GNU Manifesto* began as an announcement of the GNU Project posted by Richard Stallman on September 27, 1983, in form of an email on Usenet newsgroups. The project\'s aim was to give computer users freedom and control over their computers by collaboratively developing and providing software that is based on Stallman\'s idea of software freedom (although the written definition had not existed until February 1986). The manifesto was written as a way to familiarize more people with these concepts, and to find more support in form of work, money, programs and hardware.
The *GNU Manifesto* possessed its name and full written form in 1985 but was updated in minor ways in 1987.
## Summary
The *GNU Manifesto* opens with an explanation of what the GNU Project is, and what is the current, at the time, progress in creation of the GNU operating system. The system, although based on, and compatible with Unix, is meant by the author to have many improvements over it, which are listed in detail in the manifesto.
One of the major driving points behind the GNU project, according to Stallman, was the rapid (at the time) trend toward Unix and its various components becoming proprietary (i.e. closed-source and non-libre) software.
The manifesto lays a philosophical basis for launching the project, and importance of bringing it to fruition --- proprietary software is a way to divide users, who are no longer able to help each other. Stallman refuses to write proprietary software as a sign of solidarity with them.
The author provides many reasons for why the project and software freedom is beneficial to users, although he agrees that its wide adoption will make the work of programmers less profitable.
A large part of the *GNU Manifesto* is focused on rebutting possible objections to GNU Project\'s goals. They include the programmer\'s need to make a living, the issue of advertising and distributing free software, and the perceived need of a profit incentive.
## Inspired by GNU Manifesto {#inspired_by_gnu_manifesto}
Throughout history, the *GNU Manifesto* has inspired various other UNIX-related manifestos. Based on it, 10 years later, a popular magazine Linux Focus released its manifesto. 20 years later, a popular illustrations publisher has published their Linux developer manifesto.`{{Failed verification|date=April 2023|reason=The current sources do not state that those manifestos where inspired by GNU Manifesto
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# Grid network
A **grid network** is a computer network consisting of a number of computer systems connected in a grid topology.
In a regular grid topology, each node in the network is connected with two neighbors along one or more dimensions. If the network is one-dimensional, and the chain of nodes is connected to form a circular loop, the resulting topology is known as a ring. Network systems such as FDDI use two counter-rotating token-passing rings to achieve high reliability and performance. In general, when an *n*-dimensional grid network is connected circularly in more than one dimension, the resulting network topology is a torus, and the network is called \"toroidal\". When the number of nodes along each dimension of a toroidal network is 2, the resulting network is called a hypercube.
A parallel computing cluster or multi-core processor is often connected in regular interconnection network such as a de Bruijn graph, a hypercube graph, a hypertree network, a fat tree network, a torus, or cube-connected cycles.
A grid network is not the same as a grid computer or a computational grid, although the nodes in a grid network are usually computers, and grid computing requires some kind of computer network or \"universal coding\" to interconnect the computers
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# GTE
**GTE Corporation**, formerly **General Telephone & Electronics Corporation** (1955--1982), was the largest independent telephone company in the United States during the days of the Bell System. The company operated from 1926, with roots tracing further back than that, until 2000, when it was acquired by Bell Atlantic, which changed its name to Verizon.
The Wisconsin-based Associated Telephone Utilities Company was founded in 1926; it went bankrupt in 1933 during the Great Depression, and was reorganized as General Telephone in 1934. In 1991, it acquired the third largest independent, Continental Telephone (ConTel). It owned Automatic Electric, a telephone equipment supplier similar in many ways to Western Electric, and Sylvania Lighting, the only non-communications-oriented company under GTE ownership. GTE provided local telephone service to many areas of the U.S. through operating companies, much as American Telephone & Telegraph provided local telephone service through its 22 Bell Operating Companies.
The company acquired BBN Planet, one of the earliest Internet service providers, in 1997. That division became known as GTE Internetworking, and was later spun off into the independent company Genuity (a name recycled from another Internet company GTE acquired in 1997) to satisfy Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requirements regarding the GTE--Bell Atlantic merger that created Verizon.
GTE operated in Canada via large interests in subsidiary companies such as BC Tel and Quebec-Téléphone. When foreign ownership restrictions on telecommunications companies were introduced, GTE\'s ownership was grandfathered. When BC Tel merged with Telus (the name given to the privatized Alberta Government Telephones (AGT)) to create BCT.Telus, GTE\'s Canadian subsidiaries were merged into the new parent, making it the second-largest telecommunications carrier in Canada. As such, GTE\'s successor, Verizon Communications, was the only foreign telecommunications company with a greater than 20% interest in a Canadian carrier, until Verizon completely divested itself of its shares in 2004.
In the Caribbean, CONTEL purchased several major stakes in the newly independent countries of the British West Indies (namely in Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago).
Prior to GTE\'s merger with Bell Atlantic, GTE also maintained an interactive television service joint-venture called GTE mainStreet (sometimes also called mainStreet USA) as well as an interactive entertainment and video game publishing operation, GTE Interactive Media.
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# GTE
## History
### General Telephone {#general_telephone}
In 1934, General Telephone Corporation was established with John Winn as president. The following year, the company created General Telephone Directory Company as a division. During World War II, General Telephone helped install phone service for military facilities. From 1946 to 1950, General Telephone obtained over 100,000 telephone lines and bought out Leich Electric Company.
General Telephone\'s holdings included 15 telephone companies across 20 states by 1951, when Donald C. Power was named president of the company under chairman and long-time GT executive Morris F. LaCroix, replacing the retiring Harold Bozell (president 1940 -- 1951). Power proceeded to expand the company through the 1950s principally through two acquisitions.
In 1955, Theodore Gary & Company became a part of General Telephone and allowed the company to hold over 2 million telephone lines after the companies merged. It also had a subsidiary, named the General Telephone and Electric Corporation, formed in 1930 with the Transamerica Corporation and British investors to compete against ITT.
In 1959, Sylvania Electric Products merged into General Telephone and was renamed to General Telephone & Electronics Corporation (GT&E). Power also obtained the purchases of multiple companies. such as Lenkurt Electric Company, Inc and Peninsular Telephone Company. In 1960, GT&E International Incorporated was created as a branch company. Power was named C.E.O. and chairman in 1961, making way for Leslie H. Warner, formerly of Theodore Gary, to become president. Simultaneously, GT&E went on to buy Community Antenna Television providers.
In 1964, Western Utilities Corporation became part of GT&E. Additional purchases during the 1960s included Hawaiian Telephone Company and Northern Ohio Telephone Company. At the end of the decade, ten million GT&E phones were active.
In the late 1960s, GT&E joined in the search for a railroad car Automatic Car Identification system. It designed the KarTrak optical system, which won over other manufacturer\'s systems in field trials, but ultimately proved to need too much maintenance. In the late 1970s the system was abandoned.
After a 1970 bomb attack to the company\'s headquarters in New York City, the company relocated to Stamford, Connecticut for their new headquarters. In 1971 GT&E undertook an identity change and became simply GTE, while Sylvania Electric Products became GTE Sylvania. The same year, Donald C. Power retired and Leslie H. Warner became chairman of the board. Theodore F. Brophy was brought in as president.
In 1974, GTE worked with American Telephone & Telegraph in a project to create satellite stations. A few years later, the company\'s international branch was replaced by a GTE products company in 1976. Their products company remained until 1979. In 1979, GTE purchased Telenet to establish a presence in the growing packet switching data communications business. GTE Telenet was later included in the US Telecom joint venture.
### 1980s
In December 1983 Vanderslice stepped down as the company\'s president and chief operating officer.
In April 1988, after the retirement of Theodore F. Brophy, James L. \"Rocky\" Johnson was promoted from his position as president and chief operating officer to CEO of GTE; he was appointed chairman in 1991.
Under Johnson\'s leadership, GTE divested its 50% ownership of US Sprint, the nation\'s third largest long-distance company. He also orchestrated the sale of Sylvania and the merger with Contel, creating the 2nd largest telephone company in the United States. In 1989, GTE reorganized into six operating groups, focusing on its core businesses of telephone operations, information services, and publishing of telephone directories. With previous job cuts and announced future job cuts, Johnson was able to return GTE to profitability. Other new services provided under his leadership were GTE Mobilenet cellular telephone operations, Airfone air-to-ground telephone services, and the first voice, video, and data services community in Cerritos, California to test home banking, at-home shopping, home security, and pay-per-view television in 16,000 homes and 2,000 businesses.
### 1990s {#s_1}
In April 1992, James L. \"Rocky\" Johnson retired after 43 years at GTE, remaining on the GTE board of directors as chairman emeritus. Charles \"Chuck\" Lee was named to succeed Johnson. In 1994, Lee sold the company\'s satellite provider, Spacenet, to General Electric and Contel of Maine to Oxford Networks, which placed the company into a newly created subsidiary, Oxford West Telephone.
## Merger with Bell Atlantic {#merger_with_bell_atlantic}
Bell Atlantic merged with GTE on June 30, 2000, and named the new entity Verizon Communications. The GTE operating companies retained by Verizon became collectively known as **Verizon West** division of Verizon (including east coast service territories). The remaining smaller operating companies were sold off or transferred into the remaining ones. Additional properties were sold off within a few years after the merger to CenturyTel, Alltel, and Hawaiian Telcom.
On July 1, 2010, Verizon sold many former GTE properties to Frontier Communications. Additional ex-GTE territories in California, Florida, and Texas were sold to Frontier in 2015 and transferred in 2016, ending Verizon\'s landline operations outside of the historic Bell Atlantic footprint.
Verizon still operates phone service in non-Bell System areas in Pennsylvania under Verizon North, and in non-Bell System areas in Virginia and Knotts Island, North Carolina under Verizon South.
In September 2024, Verizon announced a deal to acquire Frontier, which will return much of the former GTE network to Verizon ownership.
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# GTE
## Operating companies {#operating_companies}
Prior to the merger with Bell Atlantic, GTE owned the following operating companies in the US:
- Contel of Minnesota, Inc.
- Contel of the South, Inc. (Alabama, Indiana, Michigan)
- GTE Alaska Incorporated
- GTE Arkansas Incorporated
- GTE California Incorporated (Arizona, California, Nevada)
- GTE Florida Incorporated
- GTE Hawaiian Telephone Company, Inc.
- GTE Midwest Incorporated (Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska)
- GTE North Incorporated (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin)
- GTE Northwest Incorporated (Idaho, Oregon, Washington)
- GTE South Incorporated (Illinois, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Wisconsin)
- GTE Southwest Incorporated (Arkansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas)
- GTE West Coast Incorporated (California)
Following the merger of GTE and Bell Atlantic, some of these companies and/or access lines have been sold off to other companies, such as Alltel, ATEAC, The Carlyle Group, CenturyTel, Citizens/Frontier Communications, and Valor Telecom
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# General aviation
thumb\|upright=1.2\|General aviation aircraft at Cheb Airfield in Czech Republic **General aviation** (**GA**) is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as all civil aviation aircraft operations except for commercial air transport or aerial work, which is defined as specialized aviation services for other purposes. However, for statistical purposes, ICAO uses a definition of general aviation which includes aerial work.
General aviation thus represents the \"private transport\" and recreational components of aviation, most of which is accomplished with light aircraft.
## Definition
thumb\|upright=1.1\|Cessna CitationJet/M2, part of the Citation family of business jets thumb\|upright=1.1\|Sailplane, a Rolladen-Schneider LS4 thumb\|upright=1.1\|Robinson R22, a light piston-engine helicopter `{{multiple image
| total_width = 375
| image1 = Paraglider at Cochrane Hill, AB, Canada.jpg
| caption1 = [[Paraglider]] in flight
| image2 = 2006 Ojiya balloon festival 011.jpg
| caption2 = [[Hot air balloon]] in flight
}}`{=mediawiki}
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines civil aviation aircraft operations in three categories: General Aviation (GA), Aerial Work (AW) and Commercial Air Transport (CAT). Aerial work operations are separated from general aviation by ICAO by this definition. Aerial work is when an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, and aerial advertisement. However, for statistical purposes ICAO includes aerial work within general aviation, and has proposed officially extending the definition of general aviation to include aerial work, to reflect common usage. The proposed ICAO classification includes instructional flying as part of general aviation (non-aerial-work).
The International Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot Associations (IAOPA) refers to the category as general aviation/aerial work (GA/AW) to avoid ambiguity. Their definition of general aviation includes:
- Corporate aviation: company own-use flight operations
- Fractional ownership operations: aircraft operated by a specialized company on behalf of two or more co-owners
- Business aviation (or travel): self-flown for business purposes
- Personal/private travel: travel for personal reasons/personal transport
- Air tourism: self-flown incoming/outgoing tourism
- Recreational flying: powered/powerless leisure flying activities
- Air sports: aerobatics, air races, competitions, rallies, etc.
General aviation thus includes both commercial and non-commercial activities.
IAOPA\'s definition of aerial work includes, but is not limited to:
- Agricultural flights, including crop dusting
- Banner towing
- Aerial firefighting
- Medical evacuation
- Pilot training
- Search and rescue
- Sight seeing flights
- Skydiving flights
- Organ transplant transport flights
Commercial air transport includes:
- Scheduled air services
- Non-scheduled air transport
- Air cargo services
- Air taxi operations
However, in some countries, air taxi is regarded as being part of GA/AW.
Private flights are made in a wide variety of aircraft: light and ultra-light aircraft, sport aircraft, homebuilt aircraft, business aircraft (like private jets), gliders and helicopters. Flights can be carried out under both visual flight and instrument flight rules, and can use controlled airspace with permission.
The majority of the world\'s air traffic falls into the category of general aviation, and most of the world\'s airports serve GA exclusively. Flying clubs are considered a part of general aviation.
## Geography
### Europe
In 2003, the European Aviation Safety Agency was established as the central EU regulator, taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities.
#### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the United Kingdom, 96 percent are engaged in GA operations, and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1.25 and 1.35 million hours flown. There are 28,000 private pilot licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities. GA operates from more than 1,800 airports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips.
GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority. The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing, and the objective is to promote high standards of safety.
### North America {#north_america}
General aviation is particularly popular in North America, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft (around 5,200 airports in the U.S. and over 1,000 in Canada). In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 560 airports in the U.S. According to the U.S. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States\' GDP, accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing.
## Regulation
Most countries have a civil aviation authority that oversees all civil aviation, including general aviation, adhering to the standardized codes of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
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# General aviation
## Safety
Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. According to the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, general aviation in the United States (excluding charter) suffered 1.31 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours of flying in 2005, compared to 0.016 for scheduled airline flights. In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours. More experienced GA pilots appear generally safer, although the relationship between flight hours, accident frequency, and accident rates are complex and often difficult to assess.
A small number of commercial aviation accidents in the United States have involved collisions with general aviation flights, notably TWA Flight 553, Piedmont Airlines Flight 22, Allegheny Airlines Flight 853, PSA Flight 182 and Aeroméxico Flight 498
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# Guitarist
*Guitarist* (magazine)\|the American magazine\|Guitar Player{{!}}*Guitar Player*}} `{{pp-move-indef}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use British English|date=May 2022}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}`{=mediawiki} A **guitarist** (or a **guitar player**) is a person who plays the guitar. Guitarists may play a variety of guitar family instruments such as classical guitars, acoustic guitars, electric guitars, and bass guitars. Some guitarists accompany themselves on the guitar by singing or playing the harmonica, or both.
## Techniques
The guitarist may employ any of several methods for sounding the guitar, including finger-picking, depending on the type of strings used (either nylon or steel), and including strumming with the fingers, or a guitar pick made of bone, horn, plastic, metal, felt, leather, or paper, and melodic flatpicking and finger-picking.
The guitarist may also employ various methods for selecting notes and chords, including fingering, thumbing, the barre (a finger lying across many or all strings at a particular fret), and guitar slides, usually made of glass or metal. These left- and right-hand techniques may be intermixed in performance.
## Notable guitarists {#notable_guitarists}
### Rock, metal, jazz, country and blues {#rock_metal_jazz_country_and_blues}
Several magazines and websites have compiled what they intend as lists of the greatest guitarists---for example *The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time* by *Rolling Stone* magazine, or *100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time* by *Guitar World* magazine.
#### Rolling Stone {#rolling_stone}
The first in this list is the American guitarist Jimi Hendrix, introduced by Pete Townshend, guitarist for the Who, who was, in his turn, ranked at #10 in the list.
In describing the list to readers, Paul MacInnes from British newspaper *The Guardian* wrote, \"Surprisingly enough for an American magazine, the top 10 is fair jam-packed with Yanks\", though he also noted three exceptions in the top 10. The online magazine *Blogcritics* criticized the list for introducing some allegedly undeserving guitarists while forgetting some artists the writer considered perhaps more worthy, such as Johnny Marr, Al Di Meola, Phil Keaggy or John Petrucci.
In 2011, *Rolling Stone* updated the list, which this time was chosen by a panel of guitarists and other experts with the top 100 consisting of Eric Clapton, Eddie Van Halen, Keith Richards and Tony Iommi. Artists who had not been included in the previous list were added. Rory Gallagher, for example, was ranked in 57th place.
*The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time* is mentioned in many biographies about artists who appear in the list.
#### *Guitar World* {#guitar_world}
*Guitar World*, a monthly music magazine devoted to the guitar, also published their list of 100 greatest guitarists in the book *Guitar World Presents the 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time from the Pages of Guitar World Magazine*. Different from the *Rolling Stone* list, which listed guitarists in descending order, *Guitar World* divided guitarists by music genre---such as \"Lords of Hard Rock\" for hard rock artists or \"Jazzmen\" for jazz players. Despite the appearance in other magazines like *Billboard*, this publication by *Guitar World* was criticized for including no female musicians within its selection. However, *Guitar World* recently published a list of \"Eight Amazing Female Acoustic Players\", including Kaki King, Muriel Anderson and Sharon Isbin.
#### *Time* and others {#time_and_others}
Following the death of Les Paul, *Time* website presented their list of 10 greatest artists in electric guitar. As in *Rolling Stone* magazine\'s list, Jimi Hendrix was chosen as the greatest guitarist followed by Slash from Guns N\' Roses, B.B. King, Keith Richards, Jimmy Page, and Eric Clapton. *Gigwise.com*, an online music magazine, also ranks Jimi Hendrix as the greatest guitarist ever, followed by Jimmy Page, B.B. King, Keith Richards and Kirk Hammett.
### Other genres {#other_genres}
The classical guitar is traditionally strung with gut or nylon strings for the treble notes, and wound strings for the bass. Often adorned with mother-of-pearl inlays, the instrument was once primarily played using the fingertips alone. Over time, however, guitarists began to use a combination of fingernail and flesh to achieve a clearer, more expressive sound, and allowing for many different changes in sound quality (or timbre). This guitar tradition dates back at least to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when a four course instrument was popular among aristocrats. In the early nineteenth century there the guitar enjoyed a surge of popularity when composer/performers such as Fernando Sor, Napoléon Coste, Mauro Giuliani, and many others published thousands of pieces for the concert hall and home gatherings. The classical guitar enjoyed another period of popularity in the twentieth century when recordings amplified the relatively quiet instrument. There are many classical guitarists listed as \"notable\" in their respective epochs.
One of the most renowned flamenco guitarists in recent decades was Paco de Lucía. Flamenco music is a popular traditional music associated with the Andalucia region of southern Spain. It is characterized by intricate syncopated rhythms intimately informed by a gypsy dance style. Flamenco guitarists also often accompany flamenco singers performing \"cante jondo\" (deep song). De Lucía was also one of the first to have successfully crossed over into other genres of music such as classical and jazz.
The **cuatro** guitar is a family of Latin American string instruments played in Puerto Rico, Venezuela and other Latin American countries. It is derived from the Spanish guitar. Although some have viola-like shapes, most cuatros resemble a small to mid-sized classical guitar. In Puerto Rico and Venezuela, the cuatro is an ensemble instrument for secular and religious music, and is played at parties and traditional gatherings. Christian Nieves is a Puerto Rican cuatro player and is recognized by the Institute of Puerto Rican culture as the most talented young of their national instrument, the Puerto Rican cuatro
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# Global illumination
**Global illumination** (**GI**), or **indirect illumination**, is a group of algorithms used in 3D computer graphics that are meant to add more realistic lighting to 3D scenes. Such algorithms take into account not only the light that comes directly from a light source (*direct illumination*), but also subsequent cases in which light rays from the same source are reflected by other surfaces in the scene, whether reflective or not (*indirect illumination*).
Theoretically, reflections, refractions, and shadows are all examples of global illumination, because when simulating them, one object affects the rendering of another (as opposed to an object being affected only by a direct source of light). In practice, however, only the simulation of diffuse inter-reflection or caustics is called global illumination.
## Algorithms
Images rendered using global illumination algorithms often appear more photorealistic than those using only direct illumination algorithms. However, such images are computationally more expensive and consequently much slower to generate. One common approach is to compute the global illumination of a scene and store that information with the geometry (e.g., radiosity). The stored data can then be used to generate images from different viewpoints for generating walkthroughs of a scene without having to go through expensive lighting calculations repeatedly.
Radiosity, ray tracing, beam tracing, cone tracing, path tracing, volumetric path tracing, Metropolis light transport, ambient occlusion, photon mapping, signed distance field and image-based lighting are all examples of algorithms used in global illumination, some of which may be used together to yield results that are not fast, but accurate.
These algorithms model diffuse inter-reflection which is a very important part of global illumination; however most of these (excluding radiosity) also model specular reflection, which makes them more accurate algorithms to solve the lighting equation and provide a more realistically illuminated scene. The algorithms used to calculate the distribution of light energy between surfaces of a scene are closely related to heat transfer simulations performed using finite-element methods in engineering design.
## Photorealism
Achieving accurate computation of global illumination in real-time remains difficult. In real-time 3D graphics, the diffuse inter-reflection component of global illumination is sometimes approximated by an \"ambient\" term in the lighting equation, which is also called \"ambient lighting\" or \"ambient color\" in 3D software packages. Though this method of approximation (also known as a \"cheat\" because it\'s not really a global illumination method) is easy to perform computationally, when used alone it does not provide an adequately realistic effect. Ambient lighting is known to \"flatten\" shadows in 3D scenes, making the overall visual effect more bland. However, used properly, ambient lighting can be an efficient way to make up for a lack of processing power.
## Procedure
More and more specialized algorithms are used in 3D programs that can effectively simulate the global illumination. These algorithms are numerical approximations of the rendering equation. Well known algorithms for computing global illumination include path tracing, photon mapping and radiosity. The following approaches can be distinguished here:
- Inversion: $L = (1-T)^{-1} L^e\,$
- is not applied in practice
- Expansion: $L = \sum_{i=0}^\infty T^iL^e$
- bi-directional approach: Photon mapping + Distributed ray tracing, Bi-directional path tracing, Metropolis light transport
- Iteration: $L_n tl_ e + = L ^{(n-1)}$
- Radiosity
In Light-path notation global lighting the paths of the type L (D \| S) corresponds \* E.
A full treatment can be found in
## Image-based lighting {#image_based_lighting}
Another way to simulate real global illumination is the use of high-dynamic-range images (HDRIs), also known as environment maps, which encircle and illuminate the scene. This process is known as image-based lighting.
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# Global illumination
## List of methods {#list_of_methods}
Method Description/Notes
------------------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ray tracing Several enhanced variants exist for solving problems related to sampling, aliasing, and soft shadows: Distributed ray tracing, cone tracing, and beam tracing.
Path tracing Unbiased, variant: Bi-directional path tracing and energy redistribution path tracing
Photon mapping Consistent, biased; enhanced variants: Progressive photon mapping, stochastic progressive photon mapping ()
Lightcuts Enhanced variants: Multidimensional lightcuts and bidirectional lightcuts
Point based global illumination Extensively used in movie animations
Radiosity Finite element method, very good for precomputations. Improved versions are instant radiosity and bidirectional instant radiosity
Metropolis light transport Builds upon bi-directional path tracing, unbiased, and multiplexed
Spherical harmonic lighting Encodes global illumination results for real-time rendering of static scenes
Ambient occlusion \-
Voxel-based global illumination Several variants exist, including voxel cone tracing global illumination, sparse voxel octree global illumination, and voxel global illumination (VXGI)
Light propagation volumes global illumination Light propagation volumes is a technique to approximately achieve global illumination (GI) in real-time. It uses lattices and spherical harmonics (SH) to represent the spatial and angular distribution of light in the scene. Variant cascaded light propagation volumes
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# God Emperor of Dune
***God Emperor of Dune*** is a science fiction novel by American writer Frank Herbert, published in 1981. The fourth in his *Dune* series of six novels, it was ranked as the No. 11 hardcover fiction best seller of 1981 by *Publishers Weekly*.
## Plot
Leto II Atreides, the God Emperor, has ruled the universe as a tyrant for 3,500 years after becoming a hybrid of human and sandworm. The death of all other sandworms as a result of the terraforming of Arrakis, and his control of the remaining supply of the all-important spice, has allowed him to keep civilization under his complete command. Leto has been physically transformed into a worm, retaining only his human face and arms, and though he is now seemingly immortal and invulnerable to harm, he is prone to instinct-driven bouts of violence when provoked to anger. As a result, his rule is one of religious awe and despotic fear.
Leto has disbanded the Landsraad to all but a few Great Houses; the remaining powers defer to his authority, although they individually conspire against him in secret. The Fremen have long since lost their military power and have been replaced by the Fish Speakers, an all-female army who obey Leto without question. He has rendered the human population into a state of trans-galactic stagnation; space travel is non-existent to most people in his empire, which he has deliberately kept to a near-medieval level of technological sophistication. All of this he has done in accordance with a prophecy divined through precognition that will establish an enforced peace preventing humanity from destroying itself through aggressive behavior.
Arrakis has been transformed via terraforming from a desert planet to a lush forested biosphere with the exception of \"The Sareer\", a single section of desert retained by Leto for his Citadel. A string of Duncan Idaho gholas have served Leto over the millennia, and, during that time, Leto has also fostered the bloodline of his twin sister Ghanima. Her descendant, Moneo Atreides, is Leto\'s majordomo and closest confidant, while Moneo\'s daughter, Siona, has become the leader of an Arrakis-based rebellion against Leto. She steals a set of Leto\'s secret journals from his archives, not realizing that he has allowed it. Leto intends to breed Siona with the latest Duncan ghola, but is aware that the ghola, moved by his own morality, may try to assassinate him before this can occur.
The Ixians send a new ambassador named Hwi Noree to serve Leto, and though he realizes that she has been specifically designed and trained to ensnare him, he cannot resist falling in love with her. She agrees to marry him. Leto tests Siona by taking her out to the middle of the desert. After improperly using her stillsuit to preserve moisture, dehydration forces her to accept Leto\'s offer of spice essence from his body to replenish her. Awakened to Leto\'s prophecy, which he calls the Golden Path, Siona is convinced of the importance of it. She remains dedicated to Leto\'s destruction, and an errant rainstorm demonstrates to her his mortal vulnerability to water.
When Duncan falls in love and copulates with Hwi, Moneo sends him and Siona out to Tuono Village, an outcropping along the Royal Procession road, to keep them safe from Leto\'s wrath. Leto changes the venue of his wedding from Tabur Village to Tuono Village. Siona and Duncan overcome a mutual hatred of each other to plan an assassination. As Leto\'s wedding procession moves across a high bridge over a river, Siona\'s Fish Speaker bodyguard Nayla, ordered by Leto to do whatever Siona says, destroys the support beams with a lasgun. The bridge collapses and Leto and his entourage, including Hwi, fall to their deaths into the river below. Leto\'s body rends apart in the water; the sandtrout which are part of his body encyst the water and scurry off, while the worm portion burns and disintegrates on the shore. Enraged by Hwi\'s death, Duncan kills Nayla.
With his dying breaths, Leto reveals a secret portion of the Golden Path: the production of a human who is invisible to prescient vision. Having begun millennia before with the union of Leto\'s twin sister Ghanima and Farad\'n of House Corrino, Siona is the finished result, and she and her descendants will retain this ability. He explains that humanity is now free from the domination of oracles, free to scatter throughout the universe, never again to face complete domination or complete destruction. After revealing the location of his secret spice hoard, Leto dies, leaving Duncan and Siona to face the task of managing the empire.
The Ixians have also begun the construction of navigation computers that will render the Spacing Guild\'s Navigators obsolete. Leto\'s death causes the Scattering, a great forced exodus of the former Imperium citizens to other galaxies and planets.
## Analysis
In *God Emperor of Dune*, Frank Herbert analyzes the cyclical patterns of human society, as well as humanity\'s evolutionary drives. Using his ancestral memories, Leto II has knowledge of the entirety of human history and is able to recall the effects and patterns of tyrannical institutions, from the Babylonian empire through to the Jesuits on ancient Earth, and thus builds an empire existing as a complete nexus encompassing all these methods. This galactic empire differs from the historical tyrants in that it is deliberately designed to end in destruction, and is only instituted in the first place as part of a plan to rescue humanity from an absolute destruction which Leto II has foreseen through his prescient visions. Leto II personally explores the emergent effects of civilization, noting that most hierarchical structures are remnants of evolutionary urges toward safety. Thus, by forming a perfectly safe and stable empire, Leto II delivers a message to be felt throughout history.
Stylistically, the novel is permeated by quotations from, and speeches by its main character, Leto, to a degree unseen in any of the other *Dune* novels. The quotations are from Leto\'s own dictated records, made for future humanity. In part, this stylistic shift is an artifact of how Herbert wrote it: the first draft was written almost entirely in the first-person narrative voice, only being revised in later drafts to insert more third-person narration of events.
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# God Emperor of Dune
## Critical reception {#critical_reception}
*God Emperor of Dune* was ranked as the No. 11 hardcover fiction best seller of 1981 by *Publishers Weekly*. The *Los Angeles Times* wrote that the novel was \"Rich fare \... heady stuff\", and *Time* called it \"a fourth visit to distant Arrakis that is every bit as fascinating as the other three---every bit as timely.\" Critic John Leonard of *The New York Times* was less charitable, stating the original *Dune* novel \"was just about a perfect science fiction\" that had not been improved on: \"not in *Dune Messiah,* in *Children of Dune* or in *God Emperor of Dune.*\"
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
The book is parodied in the animated television show *The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy* in the 2003--04 season episode \"Mandy, the Merciless\", with Mandy as the emperor Leto II, and Billy as Duncan Idaho
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# Gluon
A **gluon** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|l|uː|ɒ|n}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Respell|GLOO|on}}`{=mediawiki}) is a type of massless elementary particle that mediates the strong interaction between quarks, acting as the exchange particle for the interaction. Gluons are massless vector bosons, thereby having a spin of 1. Through the strong interaction, gluons bind quarks into groups according to quantum chromodynamics (QCD), forming hadrons such as protons and neutrons.
Gluons carry the color charge of the strong interaction, thereby participating in the strong interaction as well as mediating it. Because gluons carry the color charge, QCD is more difficult to analyze compared to quantum electrodynamics (QED) where the photon carries no electric charge.
The term was coined by Murray Gell-Mann in 1962 for being similar to an adhesive or glue that keeps the nucleus together. Together with the quarks, these particles were referred to as partons by Richard Feynman.
## Properties
The gluon is a vector boson, which means it has a spin of 1 *ħ*. While massive spin-1 particles have three polarization states, massless gauge bosons like the gluon have only two polarization states because gauge invariance requires the field polarization to be transverse to the direction that the gluon is traveling. In quantum field theory, unbroken gauge invariance requires that gauge bosons have zero mass. Experiments limit the gluon\'s rest mass (if any) to less than a few MeV/*c*^2^. The gluon has negative intrinsic parity.
## Counting gluons {#counting_gluons}
There are eight independent types of gluons in QCD. This is unlike the photon of QED or the three W and Z bosons of the weak interaction.
Additionally, gluons are subject to the color charge phenomena. Quarks carry three types of color charge; antiquarks carry three types of anticolor. Gluons carry both color and anticolor. This gives nine *possible* combinations of color and anticolor in gluons. The following is a list of those combinations (and their schematic names):
- red--antired (*r*`{{overline|''r''}}`{=mediawiki}), red--antigreen (*r*`{{overline|''g''}}`{=mediawiki}), red--antiblue (*r*`{{overline|''b''}}`{=mediawiki})
- green--antired (*g*`{{overline|''r''}}`{=mediawiki}), green--antigreen (*g*`{{overline|''g''}}`{=mediawiki}), green--antiblue (*g*`{{overline|''b''}}`{=mediawiki})
- blue--antired (*b*`{{overline|''r''}}`{=mediawiki}), blue--antigreen (*b*`{{overline|''g''}}`{=mediawiki}), blue--antiblue (*b*`{{overline|''b''}}`{=mediawiki})
These *possible* combinations are only *effective* states, not the *actual* observed color states of gluons. To understand how they are combined, it is necessary to consider the mathematics of color charge in more detail.
### Color singlet states {#color_singlet_states}
The stable strongly interacting particles, including hadrons like the proton or the neutron, are observed to be \"colorless\". More precisely, they are in a \"color singlet\" state, and mathematically analogous to a *spin* singlet state. The states allow interaction with other color singlets, but not other color states; because long-range gluon interactions do not exist, this illustrates that gluons in the singlet state do not exist either.
The color singlet state is:
: $(r\bar{r}+b\bar{b}+g\bar{g})/\sqrt{3}.$
If one could measure the color of the state, there would be equal probabilities of it being red--antired, blue--antiblue, or green--antigreen.
### Eight color states {#eight_color_states}
There are eight remaining independent color states corresponding to the \"eight types\" or \"eight colors\" of gluons. Since the states can be mixed together, there are multiple ways of presenting these states. These are known as the \"color octet\", and a commonly used list for each is:
: {\|
\|- \|$(r\bar{b}+b\bar{r})/\sqrt{2}$ \| \|$-i(r\bar{b}-b\bar{r})/\sqrt{2}$ \|- \|$(r\bar{g}+g\bar{r})/\sqrt{2}$ \| \|$-i(r\bar{g}-g\bar{r})/\sqrt{2}$ \|- \|$(b\bar{g}+g\bar{b})/\sqrt{2}$ \| \|$-i(b\bar{g}-g\bar{b})/\sqrt{2}$ \|- \|$(r\bar{r}-b\bar{b})/\sqrt{2}$ \| \|$(r\bar{r}+b\bar{b}-2g\bar{g})/\sqrt{6}$ \|}
These are equivalent to the Gell-Mann matrices. The critical feature of these particular eight states is that they are linearly independent, and also independent of the singlet state, hence 3^2^ − 1 or 2^3^. There is no way to add any combination of these states to produce any others. It is also impossible to add them to make *r*`{{overline|''r''}}`{=mediawiki}, *g*`{{overline|''g''}}`{=mediawiki}, or *b*`{{overline|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} the forbidden singlet state. There are many other possible choices, but all are mathematically equivalent, at least equally complicated, and give the same physical results.
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# Gluon
## Counting gluons {#counting_gluons}
### Group theory details {#group_theory_details}
Formally, QCD is a gauge theory with SU(3) gauge symmetry. Quarks are introduced as spinors in *N*~f~ flavors, each in the fundamental representation (triplet, denoted **3**) of the color gauge group, SU(3). The gluons are vectors in the adjoint representation (octets, denoted **8**) of color SU(3). For a general gauge group, the number of force-carriers, like photons or gluons, is always equal to the dimension of the adjoint representation. For the simple case of SU(*n*), the dimension of this representation is `{{nowrap|{{itco|''n''}}<sup>2</sup> − 1}}`{=mediawiki}.
In group theory, there are no color singlet gluons because quantum chromodynamics has an SU(3) rather than a U(3) symmetry. There is no known *a priori* reason for one group to be preferred over the other, but as discussed above, the experimental evidence supports SU(3). If the group were U(3), the ninth (colorless singlet) gluon would behave like a \"second photon\" and not like the other eight gluons.
## Confinement
Since gluons themselves carry color charge, they participate in strong interactions. These gluon--gluon interactions constrain color fields to string-like objects called \"flux tubes\", which exert constant force when stretched. Due to this force, quarks are confined within composite particles called hadrons. This effectively limits the range of the strong interaction to `{{val|e=-15|u=m}}`{=mediawiki}, roughly the size of a nucleon. Beyond a certain distance, the energy of the flux tube binding two quarks increases linearly. At a large enough distance, it becomes energetically more favorable to pull a quark--antiquark pair out of the vacuum rather than increase the length of the flux tube.
One consequence of the hadron-confinement property of gluons is that they are not directly involved in the nuclear forces between hadrons. The force mediators for these are other hadrons called mesons.
Although in the normal phase of QCD single gluons may not travel freely, it is predicted that there exist hadrons that are formed entirely of gluons --- called glueballs. There are also conjectures about other exotic hadrons in which real gluons (as opposed to virtual ones found in ordinary hadrons) would be primary constituents. Beyond the normal phase of QCD (at extreme temperatures and pressures), quark--gluon plasma forms. In such a plasma there are no hadrons; quarks and gluons become free particles.
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# Gluon
## Experimental observations {#experimental_observations}
Quarks and gluons (colored) manifest themselves by fragmenting into more quarks and gluons, which in turn hadronize into normal (colorless) particles, correlated in jets. As revealed in 1978 summer conferences, the PLUTO detector at the electron-positron collider DORIS (DESY) produced the first evidence that the hadronic decays of the very narrow resonance Υ(9.46) could be interpreted as three-jet event topologies produced by three gluons. Later, published analyses by the same experiment confirmed this interpretation and also the spin = 1 nature of the gluon (see also the recollection and PLUTO experiments).
In summer 1979, at higher energies at the electron-positron collider PETRA (DESY), again three-jet topologies were observed, now clearly visible and interpreted as q`{{overline|q}}`{=mediawiki} gluon bremsstrahlung, by TASSO, MARK-J and PLUTO experiments (later in 1980 also by JADE). The spin = 1 property of the gluon was confirmed in 1980 by TASSO and PLUTO experiments (see also the review). In 1991 a subsequent experiment at the LEP storage ring at CERN again confirmed this result.
The gluons play an important role in the elementary strong interactions between quarks and gluons, described by QCD and studied particularly at the electron-proton collider HERA at DESY. The number and momentum distribution of the gluons in the proton (gluon density) have been measured by two experiments, H1 and ZEUS, in the years 1996--2007. The gluon contribution to the proton spin has been studied by the HERMES experiment at HERA. The gluon density in the proton (when behaving hadronically) also has been measured.
Color confinement is verified by the failure of free quark searches (searches of fractional charges). Quarks are normally produced in pairs (quark + antiquark) to compensate the quantum color and flavor numbers; however at Fermilab single production of top quarks has been shown. No glueball has been demonstrated.
Deconfinement was claimed in 2000 at CERN SPS in heavy-ion collisions, and it implies a new state of matter: quark--gluon plasma, less interactive than in the nucleus, almost as in a liquid. It was found at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven in the years 2004--2010 by four contemporaneous experiments. A quark--gluon plasma state has been confirmed at the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) by the three experiments ALICE, ATLAS and CMS in 2010.
Jefferson Lab\'s Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility, in Newport News, Virginia, is one of 10 Department of Energy facilities doing research on gluons. The Virginia lab was competing with another facility -- Brookhaven National Laboratory, on Long Island, New York -- for funds to build a new electron-ion collider. In December 2019, the US Department of Energy selected the Brookhaven National Laboratory to host the electron-ion collider
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# Gambeson
A **gambeson** (also known as, or similar to where historic or modern distinctions are made, the **acton**, **aketon**, **padded jack**, **pourpoint**, **paltock**, **haustement**, or **arming doublet**) is a padded defensive jacket, worn as armour separately, or combined with mail or plate armour. Gambesons were produced with a sewing technique called quilting or **pourpointing** that produced a padded cloth. They were usually constructed of linen or wool; the stuffing varied, and could be, for example, scrap cloth or horse hair.
An **arming doublet** worn under armour, particularly plate armour of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe, contains arming points for attaching plates. Fifteenth-century examples may include mail goussets sewn into the elbows and armpits, to protect the wearer in locations not covered by plate. German gothic armour arming doublets were generally shorter than Italian white armour doublets, which could extend to the upper thigh. In late fifteenth-century Italy, this also became a civilian fashion. Men who were not knights wore arming doublets, probably because the garment suggested status and chivalry.
## Etymology
The term *gambeson* is a loan from the Old French *gambeson*, *gambaison*, originally *wambais*, formed after the Middle High German term *wambeis*, \'doublet\', in turn from Old High German *wamba*, \'stomach\' (cognate to *womb*).
The term *aketon*, originally the medieval French *alcottonem*, might be a loan from Arabic `{{transliteration|ar|al-qutn}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \'cotton\' (definite article -- \"`{{em|the}}`{=mediawiki} cotton\").
In medieval Norse, the garment was known as *vápntreyja*, literally \'weapon shirt\', or *panzari/panzer*. *Treyja* is a loan from (Middle) Low German. *Panzari/panzer* is probably also a loan from Middle Low German, though the word has its likely origin in Italian, and is related to the Latin *pantex*, meaning \'abdomen\', cognate with English *paunch*.
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# Gambeson
## History
alt=Morgan_bible_gambeson\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|13th-century gambeson worn by a soldier in the Morgan Bible Open, quilted leather jackets and trousers were worn by Scythian horsemen before the 4th century BC, as can be seen on Scythian gold ornaments crafted by Greek goldsmiths. As stand-alone cloth armour, the European gambeson can be traced at least to the late tenth century, but it is likely to have been used in various forms for longer. In the Middle Ages, its use became widespread in the thirteenth century and resembled a tunic. Eventually, it made way for the pourpoint (jack or paltock) in the 14th century and had surplanted the gambeson in Henry III\'s Assize of Arms (1242).
The gambeson was used both as a complete armour unto itself and underneath mail and plate to cushion the body and prevent chafing. Evidence for its use under armour does not appear in iconography until the mid-twelfth century.
Although they are thought to have been used in Europe much earlier, gambesons underwent a revolution from their first proven use (in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries) as an independent item of armour to one that facilitated the wearing of mail. They remained popular amongst infantry as cloth armour. Although quilted armour survived into the English Civil War in England as a \"poor man\'s cuirass\" and as an item to be worn beneath the few remaining suits of full plate, it was increasingly replaced by the buff coat--a leather jacket of rough suede.
There are two distinctive designs of gambeson: those designed to be worn beneath armour, and those designed to be worn as independent armour. The latter tend to be thicker and higher in the collar and faced with other materials, such as leather or heavy canvas. This variant is usually referred to as \"padded jack\" and made of several (some say around 18, some even 30) layers of cotton, linen or wool. These jacks were known to stop even heavy arrows, and their design of multiple layers bears a striking resemblance to modern-day body armour, which used at first silk, then ballistic nylon, and later, Kevlar as its fabric.
For common soldiers who could not afford mail or plate armour, the gambeson, combined with a helmet as the only additional protection, remained a common sight on European battlefields during the entire Middle Ages. Its decline---paralleling that of plate armour---came only with the Renaissance, as the use of firearms became more widespread. By the eighteenth century, it was no longer in military use.
While the use of linen in these jackets has been proven by archaeological evidence, the use of cotton -- and cotton-based canvas -- is disputed since large amounts of cotton cloth were not widely available in Northern Europe. It is probable that Egypt (and Asia Minor generally) still produced cotton well after the 7th and 8th centuries, and knowledge (and samples) of this cloth was brought to Europe by the returning Crusaders; however, the logistics and expense of equipping a town militia or army with large numbers of cotton-based garments make its usage doubtful when flax-based textiles (linen) were in widespread use.
Linothorax was a type of armour similar to gambeson, used by ancient Greeks. Meanwhile, the Mesoamericans were known to have used a kind of quilted textile armour called ichcahuipilli before the arrival of the conquistadors, who loaned this word as *escaupil*. Another example is the bullet-resistant Myeonje baegab created during Joseon Korea to confront the effects of Western rifles
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# Geography of Albania
**Albania** is a country in southeastern Europe that lies along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, with a coastline spanning approximately 476 km. Situated on the Balkan Peninsula, it is one of the most mountainous countries in Europe. It is bounded by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, North Macedonia to the east and Greece to the southeast and south.
Most of Albania rises into mountains and hills, tending to run the length of the country from north to south, as for instance the Albanian Alps in the north, the Sharr Mountains in the northeast, the Skanderbeg Mountains in the center, the Korab Mountains in the east, the Pindus Mountains in the southeast, and the Ceraunian Mountains in the southwest. Plains and plateaus extend in the west along the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coast.
Some of the most considerable and oldest bodies of freshwater of Europe can be found in Albania. The second largest lake of Southern Europe, the Lake of Shkodër, is located in the northwest surrounded by the Albanian Alps and the Adriatic Sea. And one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world, the Lake of Ohrid, lies in the southeast, while the highest tectonic lakes of the Balkan Peninsula, the Large and Small Lake of Prespa, are well hidden among high mountains in the southeast.
Rivers originate in the east of Albania and loop towards the west into the sea. They are encompassed by the drainage basins of the Adriatic, Aegean and Black Sea. The longest river in the country, measured from its mouth to its source, is the Drin that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, the Black and White Drin, though also notable is the Vjosë, one of the last intact large river systems in Europe.
For a small country, Albania is characterized for its biological diversity and abundance of contrasting ecosystems and habitats, defined in an area of 28,748 km2. This great diversity derives from Albania\'s geographic location on the Mediterranean Sea, with typical climatic conditions, varied topography, as well as the wealth of terrestrial and marine ecosystems providing a variety of habitats, each with its own typical flora and fauna.
There are 799 Albanian protected areas covering a surface of 5,216.96 km2. These include two strict nature reserves, 14 national parks, one marine park, eight archaeological parks, 750 natural monuments, 22 habitat/species management areas, five protected landscapes, four protected landscapes, four managed resources areas, and four ramsar wetlands. The national parks cover a surface area of 210668.48 hectare or roughly 13.65% of the overall territory.
## Borders
A total surface area of 28.748 square kilometres (11,100 sq mi), the country is located in the southeastern part of the Adriatic and the northeastern part of the Ionian Sea, both located within the Mediterranean Sea. It has a length of borders of about 1094 km, 657 km of which are taken by terrestrial borders, 316 km of shore borders, 48 km river borders and 73 km of lake borders. Inland water surface is 1350 km², composed by natural lakes 325 km², coastal lagoons 130 km², artificial lakes 174 km² and rivers 721 km.
The countries of Montenegro (173 km) and Kosovo (114 km) border the country in the north and northeast, respectively. A significant portion of this border connects high points and follows mountain ridges through the largely inaccessible Albanian Alps. The eastern border is shared with North Macedonia, which stretches 151 km. This border is located at the tripoint between Albania, Kosovo, and North Macedonia passing through the Sharr and Korab Mountains and continues until it reaches Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa. The southern and southeastern border with Greece is 282 km long. The border is located at the tripoint border between Albania, North Macedonia, and Greece running across the Large and Small Lake Prespa until it reaches the Ionian Sea at the Strait of Corfu.
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# Geography of Albania
## Physical geography {#physical_geography}
### Topography
The most significant feature of Albania is possibly its relief, with numerous successive mountain ranges and its average altitude, more than 700 metres above sea level. Much of the mountains lie to the north, east and south of the western lowlands in the northern, eastern and southern mountain ranges.
The Albanian Alps extend over 90 kilometres through the north of Albania, traversing an area of 2,000 square kilometres. These mountains represent an extension of the Dinaric Alps and no wider than 40 kilometres. They are deeply fragmented and often inaccessible. It holds the Maja Jezercë, which is the highest point of the Dinarides and simultaneously the second highest point of Albania.
The Korab Mountains dominate the east of the country and expand 40 kilometres along the eastern border of the country, where peaks can clearly reach 2,500 metres. The mountains offer the country\'s most prominent peak at Mount Korab, which is fragmented by many deep structural depressions. Another distinguishing feature remains the evidence of the last ice age in form of glacial lakes at relatively low altitudes.
One of the most remarkable features about the south of Albania is the presence of the Ceraunian Mountains that cut across the landscape for nearly 100 kilometres. Thousand meter high mountains fall vertically into the Mediterranean Sea constituting at least the first barrier to communication between the sea and the country\'s southern inland.
### Hydrography
The country has a dense network of rivers and streams characterized by a high flow rate. They belong to the drainage basins of the Adriatic, Aegean and Black Sea. They mostly rise in the mountainous eastern half of the country and have their mouths in the west along the coasts. They are sustained from snowmelt of the snow-capped mountains or from the abundant precipitation that falls at loftier elevations.
Eight notable rivers, along with their numerous tributaries, make up the river system of the country. The longest river is the Drin, which flows for 285 km within the country. Its catchment area is one of the most biodiverse places in Europe and encompasses the lakes of Shkodër, Ohrid and Prespa. Of particular concern represent the river of Vjosa as it is considered as the last remaining wild river in Europe. The country\'s other rivers are Fan, Ishëm, Erzen, Mat, Seman and Shkumbin.
With more than 250 lakes, the country is home to two of the largest lakes in Southern Europe and one of the oldest in the World. The lakes of the country are predominantly of karstic or glacial origin. The largest lake in Southern Europe is the Lake of Shkodër geographically located in the north, shared with Montenegro. One of the ancientest lakes in the world is the Lake of Ohrid located in the southeast, shared with North Macedonia. The highest positioned lakes in Southern Europe are the Large and Small Lake of Prespa in the southeast, shared with North Macedonia and Greece.
The country is also home to many lagoons of varied shape, size and structure. They are primarily positioned along the coast in the west of the country and also in the southeast. They contribute to the overall productivity of the coastal waters by supporting a variety of habitats and ecosystems. The largest lagoon in the country is the Lagoon of Karavasta located between the mouth of Shkumbin and Seman. Another significant lagoons are the lagoons of Patoku, Narta, Kunë-Vain and Butrint.
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# Geography of Albania
## Biodiversity
The proximity to the Mediterranean Sea and the convergence of exceptional climatic, geological and hydrological conditions, have contributed for the development of a diverse biodiversity, making Albania one of the biodiversity hotspots of Europe.
In terms of phytogeography, the land area of Albania extends within the Boreal Kingdom, specifically within the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic realm -- the Illyrian, Balkan, Pindus and Dinaric forests.
In Albania forest cover is around 29.% of the total land area, equivalent to 788,900 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 788,800 hectares (ha) in 1990. Of the naturally regenerating forest 11% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 97% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership, 3% private ownership and 0% with ownership listed as other or unknown.
The northern edge of the country has an affinity for those of Continental Europe, while those of the southern edge refer to the affinity with that of the Mediterranean Basin. They are substantial because they provide shelter for a vast array of rare and endangered species of animals, among others the brown bear, Balkan lynx, grey wolf, golden jackal, Egyptian vulture and golden eagle. Albania had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.77/10, ranking it 64th globally out of 172 countries.
The Mediterranean monk seal, short-beaked common dolphin and common bottlenose dolphin can frequently be seen in the coastal waters of the country. Outstanding is the presence of the Dalmatian pelican, the rarest pelican in the world. The biodiversity of Albania is conserved in its protected areas, which provide protection to hundreds of threatened and endangered species.
### Protected areas {#protected_areas}
Numerous parts of Albania are protected in accordance with a number of national and international designations due to their natural, historical or cultural value. Protected areas belong to the most principal instruments of conservation which in turn contributes effectively to the maintenance of species, habitats and ecosystems.
The country has currently fifteen designated national parks, whereby one is specified as a marine park. Ranging from the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea to the Albanian Alps and the Ceraunian Mountains, they possess outstanding landscapes constituting habitats to thousands of plant and animal species. Butrint, Divjakë-Karavasta, Karaburun-Sazan, Llogara, Prespa, Shebenik-Jabllanicë, Theth and Valbonë are among the most spectacular national parks of the country.
## Climate
Albania has a combination of a mediterranean climate and a continental climate, with four distinct seasons. The climatic conditions are highly variable and modified locally by altitude and latitude. Its climate is strongly influenced by the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and the mountains that raise in every corner around the country.
Its diverse regions have a remarkable range of microclimates, with the weather system on the coasts contrasting with that prevailing in the interior. Moreover, the weather varies from the north and towards the south and the west to the east. Albania occupies the climate ranges from temperate climate on the coasts to continental climate in the interior. The warmest areas of the country are at the coasts, which are characterized by a Mediterranean climate (Csa, Csb and Cfa) as defined by the Köppen climate classification. The highlands experiences an Oceanic climate. Winters in Albania are characteristically mild and wet while summers are warm and dry. The northern areas of country such as the Albanian Alps experiences a subarctic climate with frequently very cold winters, and short, mild summers.
The lowlands of Albania have mild winters, averaging about 7 °C. The summer temperatures average 32 °C, however, humidity is low. In the southern lowlands, specifically the areas on the Ionian sea, temperatures average about 5 °C in the winter and 30 °C during the summer.
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# Geography of Albania
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
The country is divided into four physiographic regions, the Northern Mountain Range, Central Mountain Range, Southern Mountain Range and Western Lowlands with two subdivisions corresponding roughly to the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coast.
### Western Lowlands {#western_lowlands}
Except for its sea coast in the west, the western lowlands are ringed by a great arc-shaped line of mountains spreading in the north, east and south. The predominantly flat and regular landscape is morphologically characterized by the sea and rivers, in terms of topography and soil, and also in its climate and biodiversity. The region experiences mild and short winters, with low rainfalls, and long hot and dry summers. It is mostly dominated by the extensive Myzeqe plain, a large alluvial plain traversed by three main rivers, the Shkumbin, Seman and Vjosë.
The Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast stretches from the mouth of the river Buna near the Lake of Shkodër in the north, across the Gulf of Drin, to the Bay of Vlorë in the south. The two largest coastal cities Durrës and Vlorë are located in the northern and the southern part of the region, respectively. The total length of the coastline is approximately 274 km, mostly of which are taken up by sandy beaches, wetlands and alluvial deposits, occurred by quaternary sediments of the main rivers of the country.
The coastline is lined with different habitats and ecosystems, providing optimal conditions for a rich biodiversity. Of particular importance is the presence of numerous lagoons and ponds, representing one of the wealthiest scenery of the country, in terms of biology. Likely, the lagoons of Karavasta and Narta, in the immediate proximity to the sea, are among the most important ones in the Mediterranean Sea.
While the Adriatic coast is relatively low, the Ionian coast is, with few exceptions, rugged and mountainous. The Albanian Ionian Sea Coast stretches from the Peninsula of Karaburun in the north, through the Albanian Riviera, to the Straits of Corfu in the south. The largest coastal city Sarandë is located in the southern part of the region, while smaller villages include Borsh, Dhermi, Himara, Qeparo, Piqeras, and Lukovë. The total length of the coastline is approximately 172 km.
The most characteristic features of the coastline are the Ceraunian Mountains, which extend nearly 100 km along the Albanian Riviera roughly in a southeast--northwest direction. The region is particular fertile and known for its citrus fruits and viticulture, that has a long and special tradition in the region. The coastline is abundant in dolomite from the triassic period, the carbonate rocks follows with limestone from the jurassic period and bituminous schists, cretaceous porcelain and phosphate limestone.
### Northern Mountain Range {#northern_mountain_range}
The northern mountain range is the most mountainous region in the country and its physical geography and shape is distinguished by the convergence of two distinct geological regions, the Albanian Alps and Mirdita Highlands. A dominant feature of the region\'s landscape is the presence of several u-shaped valleys, such as the Valley of Valbonë, formed by the process of glaciation.
The Albanian Alps are the southernmost extension of the Dinaric Alps and simultaneously the highest and most imposing mountains of the country. Despite the fact that the ice ages had relatively little geological influence on the alps, the southernmost glaciers of Europe were recently discovered on the alps.
The Albanian Alps are home to many important rivers of Western Balkans. The main drainage basins of the Alps are those of the Drin and Danube Rivers. Rivers on the Alps fall roughly into two categories, those that flow into the Lim and those that enter the White Drin and meet the Black Drin downstream at the Drin confluence. However, Drin dominates, draining most of the Alps with its tributaries and when measured from the source of the White Drin to the mouth of the Drin near Lezhë. But not all of the Drin flows near or parallel to the Alps. One Drin tributary is the Valbona River, which drains into the Adriatic Sea, and its eastern tributary the Gashi River.
### Central Mountain Range {#central_mountain_range}
The terrain of the central mountain range is predominantly mountainous and extremely fragmented carved into its present shape by the glaciers of the last ice age. The region is dominated by three mountain ranges, each running from north-northeast to south-southwest, roughly parallel to the eastern border of Albania.
The Korab Mountains are certainly the most striking feature of the physical geography of the region. They hold the highest mountain of the country, the Mount Korab. The mountains extends over 40 kilometres and covers an area of 560 square kilometres. Between the valleys of Shkumbin and Devoll rise the mountains that constitute to the Valamara Mountains, while farther north stretches the connected mountain massifs of Shebenik and Jabllanicë.
The vast majority of the region\'s natural lakes are located in the southern half of the region and most of them are the product of a long contiguous history. The Lake of Ohrid lie adjacent to the border shared with North Macedonia. It is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world with a unique biodiversity. Further south, well hidden among high mountains, extend the Lake of Prespa that is linked by a small channel with a sluice that separates the two lakes.
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# Geography of Albania
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
### Southern Mountain Range {#southern_mountain_range}
The Ceraunian Mountains, a coastal mountain range in southwestern Albania, stretches about 100 km besides the Ionian Sea from Sarandë in south-east-northwest direction along the Albanian Riviera to Orikum. The relief is varied, with many mountain passes, canyons, gorges, hills and other landforms. The mountains are characterized by housing Black pines, Bulgarian firs, Bosnian pines and Ash trees. The mountain chain is home to many large mammals, including brown bears, grey wolves, lynx, golden eagles and others. The highest point on the chain is Maja e Çikës, that rises to an elevation of 2045 m above the Adriatic. From the peak, there is a view of the Albanian Riviera, the northern Ionian Islands as well as the Italian coast of Apulia and Otranto. The section has wide and long beaches, with a number of bays and headlands.
Stretching until the Llogara Pass at 1027 m, the mountain chain gets separated into the Ceraunians in the west and the Akroceraunians (or *Reza e Kanalit*) in the east within the Karaburun Peninsula. The villages of Palasë, Dhërmi, Vuno, Himarë, Qeparo, Borsh, Pilur, Kudhës and Ilias are located on the Ceraunian range. The Llogara National Park covers an area of 10100 m².
The Karaburun Peninsula is situated at the eastern side of Strait of Otranto, where the Adriatic Sea meets the Ionian Sea. Its area is 62 km², having a length of 16 km, and a width of only 5 km. The Mesokanali is the narrow channel, that separates the peninsula from the Sazan Island. Geologically, it is made up of carbonic limestone, dating back to the Mesozoic period, while in the northwestern it is composed of terrigenous sediment. Furthermore, these formations have been continuously under the effect of Karst and are exploited as marble. The relief of the peninsula comprises a number of hills with an average altitude of about 800 m above the Adriatic. The highest summits are Maja e Ilqës 733 m, Maja e Flamurit 826 m and Maja Çadëri 839 m.
The coastal landscape is characterized by a rough relief, that dips vertically into the Ionian Sea, it features several solitary peaks, large canyons, bays, caves and gulfs. Examples of typical landforms include Gjipe Canyon, Gjiri i Arushës, Gjiri i Dafinës, Gjiri i Gramës and so on. The geological evolution has formed also capes such as Haxhi Aliu, Galloveci and Kepi i Gjuhëzës, and other of 20 caves along the entire shoreline. The climate is Mediterranean, having hot summers and generally warm to cool, dry winters. Due to its climatic, hydrological and geological conditions, the area is characterized by its unique flora and fauna. Most of the territory consists of forests and is relatively well preserved, it includes many types of trees, such as Mediterranean oak, Manna ash, Kermes oak, and Field maple
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