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# Gilbert and Sullivan
**Gilbert and Sullivan** refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the dramatist W. S. Gilbert (1836--1911) and the composer Arthur Sullivan (1842--1900) and to the works they jointly created. The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896, of which *H.M.S. Pinafore*, *The Pirates of Penzance* and *The Mikado* are among the best known.
Gilbert, who wrote the libretti for these operas, created fanciful \"topsy-turvy\" worlds where each absurdity is taken to its logical conclusion: fairies rub elbows with British lords, flirting is a capital offence, gondoliers ascend to the monarchy, and pirates emerge as noblemen who have gone astray. Sullivan, six years Gilbert\'s junior, composed the music, contributing memorable melodies`{{refn|[[George Grove|Sir George Grove]] wrote, "Form and symmetry he seems to possess by instinct; rhythm and melody clothe everything he touches; the music shows not only sympathetic genius, but sense, judgement, proportion, and a complete absence of pedantry and pretension; while the orchestration is distinguished by a happy and original beauty hardly surpassed by the greatest masters".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071028030207/http://www.musicaltimes.co.uk/archive/obits/190012sullivan.html "Arthur Sullivan 1842–1900], ''The Musical Times'', vol. 41, no. 694, 1 December 1900, pp. 785–787</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} that could convey both humour and pathos.`{{refn|"[Sullivan] will by unanimous consent be classed amongst the epoch-making composers, the select few whose genius and strength of will empowered them to find and found a national school of music, that is, to endow their countrymen with the undefinable, yet positive means of evoking in a man's soul, by the magic of sound, those delicate nuances of feeling which are characteristic of the emotional power of each different race".<ref>Mazzucato Gian Andrea. "Sir Arthur Sullivan: The National Composer", ''Musical Standard'', vol. 12, no. 311, 30 December 1899, pp. 385–386</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki}
Their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English-speaking world. Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that directly influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century. The operas have also influenced political discourse, literature, film and television and have been widely parodied and pastiched by humorists. The producer Richard D\'Oyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration. He built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works (which came to be known as the Savoy Operas) and founded the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company, which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivan\'s works for over a century.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Beginnings
### Gilbert before Sullivan {#gilbert_before_sullivan}
Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836. His father, William, was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories, some of which included illustrations by his son. In 1861, to supplement his income, the younger Gilbert began writing illustrated stories, poems and articles of his own, many of which would later be mined as inspiration for his plays and operas, particularly Gilbert\'s series of illustrated poems, the *Bab Ballads*.
In the *Bab Ballads* and his early plays, Gilbert developed a unique \"topsy-turvy\" style in which humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences, however absurd. Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the \"Gilbertian\" style as follows:
thumb\|upright=1.25\|Poster for *Ages Ago*, during a rehearsal for which Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to SullivanGilbert developed his innovative theories on the art of stage direction, following the playwright and theatrical reformer Tom Robertson. At the time Gilbert began writing, theatre in Britain was in disrepute.`{{refn|Jessie Bond created the [[mezzo-soprano]] roles in most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas and is here leading into a description of Gilbert's role in reforming the Victorian theatre.<ref>Bond, Introduction</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre, especially beginning with his six short family-friendly comic operas, or \"entertainments\", for Thomas German Reed.
At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments, *Ages Ago*, in 1870, the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend, the young composer Arthur Sullivan.`{{refn|Gilbert and Sullivan met at a rehearsal for a second run of Gilbert's ''[[Ages Ago]]'' at the [[Gallery of Illustration]], probably in July 1870.<ref>Crowther (2011), p. 84</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} Over the next year, before the two first collaborated, Gilbert continued to write humorous verse, stories and plays, including the comic operas *Our Island Home* (1870) and *A Sensation Novel* (1871), and the blank verse comedies *The Princess* (1870), *The Palace of Truth* (1870) and *Pygmalion and Galatea* (1871).
### Sullivan before Gilbert {#sullivan_before_gilbert}
Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842. His father was a military bandmaster, and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight, he was proficient with all the instruments in the band. In school he began to compose anthems and songs. In 1856, he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig, where he also took up conducting. His graduation piece, completed in 1861, was a suite of incidental music to Shakespeare\'s *The Tempest*. Revised and expanded, it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation. He began building a reputation as England\'s most promising young composer, composing a symphony, a concerto, and several overtures, among them the *Overture di Ballo*, in 1870.
His early major works for the voice included *The Masque at Kenilworth* (1864); an oratorio, *The Prodigal Son* (1869); and a dramatic cantata, *On Shore and Sea* (1871). He composed a ballet, *L\'Île Enchantée* (1864) and incidental music for a number of Shakespeare plays. Other early pieces that were praised were his *Symphony in E*, *Cello Concerto*, and *Overture in C (In Memoriam)* (all three of which premiered in 1866). These commissions were not sufficient to keep Sullivan afloat. He worked as a church organist and composed numerous hymns, popular songs, and parlour ballads.
Sullivan\'s first foray into comic opera was *Cox and Box* (1866), written with the librettist F. C. Burnand for an informal gathering of friends. Public performance followed, with W. S. Gilbert (then writing dramatic criticism for the magazine *Fun*) saying that Sullivan\'s score \"is, in many places, of too high a class for the grotesquely absurd plot to which it is wedded.\" Nonetheless, it proved highly successful, and is still regularly performed today. Sullivan and Burnand\'s second opera, *The Contrabandista* (1867) was not as successful.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Operas
### First collaborations {#first_collaborations}
#### *Thespis*
upright=1.25\|thumb\|A contemporary illustration of *Thespis* from *The Illustrated London News* of 6 January 1872 In 1871, producer John Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to produce a Christmas entertainment, *Thespis*, at his Gaiety Theatre, a large West End house. The piece was an extravaganza in which the classical Greek gods, grown elderly, are temporarily replaced by a troupe of 19th-century actors and actresses, one of whom is the eponymous Thespis, the Greek father of the drama. Its mixture of political satire and grand opera parody mimicked Offenbach\'s *Orpheus in the Underworld* and *La belle Hélène*, which (in translation) then dominated the English musical stage.
*Thespis* opened on Boxing Day and ran for 63 performances. It outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season, and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety, but no one at the time foresaw that this was the beginning of a great collaboration. Unlike the later Gilbert and Sullivan works, it was hastily prepared, and its nature was more risqué, like Gilbert\'s earlier burlesques, with a broader style of comedy that allowed for improvisation by the actors. Two of the male characters were played by women, whose shapely legs were put on display in a fashion that Gilbert later condemned. The musical score to *Thespis* was never published and is now lost, except for one song that was published separately, a chorus that was re-used in *The Pirates of Penzance*, and the Act II ballet music.
Over the next three years, Gilbert and Sullivan did not have occasion to work together again, but each man became more eminent in his field. Gilbert worked with Frederic Clay on *Happy Arcadia* (1872) and Alfred Cellier on *Topsyturveydom* (1874) and wrote *The Wicked World* (1873), *Sweethearts* (1874) and several other libretti, farces, extravaganzas, fairy comedies, dramas and adaptations. Sullivan completed his *Festival Te Deum* (1872); another oratorio, *The Light of the World* (1873); his only song cycle, *The Window; or, The Song of the Wrens* (1871); incidental music to *The Merry Wives of Windsor* (1874); and more songs, parlour ballads, and hymns, including \"Onward, Christian Soldiers\" (1872). At the same time, the audience for theatre was growing because of the rapidly expanding British population; improvement in education and the standard of living, especially of the middle class; improving public transport; and installation of street lighting, which made travel home from the theatre safer. The number of pianos manufactured in England doubled between 1870 and 1890 as more people began to play parlour music at home and more theatres and concert halls opened.`{{refn|At the beginning of the century there were only two main theatres in London;<ref>Bratton, Jacky, "[https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/19th-century-theatre Theatre in the 19th century"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710130926/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/19th-century-theatre |date=10 July 2022 }}, British Library, 2014</ref> by the late 1860s there were 32.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/jstor-20647868/page/n1/mode/2up "The Theatres of London"], ''Watson's Art Journal'', 22 February 1868, p. 245</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki}
#### *Trial by Jury* {#trial_by_jury}
In 1874, Gilbert wrote a short libretto on commission from producer-conductor Carl Rosa, whose wife would have played the leading role, but her death in childbirth cancelled the project. Not long afterwards, Richard D\'Oyly Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre and needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach\'s *La Périchole*. Carte knew about Gilbert\'s libretto for Rosa and suggested that Sullivan write a score for it. Gilbert read the piece to Sullivan in February 1875, and the composer was delighted with it; *Trial by Jury* was composed and staged in a matter of weeks.`{{refn|Sullivan recalled Gilbert reading the libretto of ''Trial by Jury'' to him: "As soon as he had come to the last word he closed up the manuscript violently, apparently unconscious of the fact that he had achieved his purpose so far as I was concerned, in as much as I was screaming with laughter the whole time."<ref>Lawrence, p. 105</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki}
thumb\|upright=1.25\|left\|D. H. Friston\'s engraving of the original production of *Trial by Jury* The piece is one of Gilbert\'s humorous spoofs of the law and the legal profession, based on his short experience as a barrister. It concerns a breach of promise of marriage suit. The defendant argues that damages should be slight, since \"he is such a very bad lot,\" while the plaintiff argues that she loves the defendant fervently and seeks \"substantial damages.\" After much argument, the judge resolves the case by marrying the lovely plaintiff himself. With Sullivan\'s brother, Fred, as the Learned Judge, the opera was a runaway hit, outlasting the run of *La Périchole*. Provincial tours and productions at other theatres quickly followed.
Fred Sullivan was the prototype for the \"patter\" (comic) baritone roles in the later operas. F. C. Burnand wrote that he \"was one of the most naturally *comic little men* I ever came across. He, too, was a first-rate practical musician\.... As he was the most absurd person, so was he the very kindliest\....\" Fred\'s creation would serve as a model for the rest of the collaborators\' works, and each of them has a crucial *comic little man* role, as Burnand had put it. The \"patter\" baritone (or \"principal comedian\", as these roles later were called) would often assume the leading role in Gilbert and Sullivan\'s comic operas, and was usually allotted the speedy patter songs.
After the success of *Trial by Jury*, Gilbert and Sullivan were suddenly in demand to write more operas together. Over the next two years, Richard D\'Oyly Carte and Carl Rosa were two of several theatrical managers who negotiated with the team but were unable to come to terms. Carte proposed a revival of *Thespis* for the 1875 Christmas season, which Gilbert and Sullivan would have revised, but he was unable to obtain financing for the project. In early 1876, Carte requested that Gilbert and Sullivan create another one-act opera on the theme of burglars, but this was never completed.`{{refn|Wachs argues that much of the material from a draft of this opera later made its way into Act II of ''The Pirates of Penzance''.<ref>Wachs, Kevin. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111218180046/http://sitemaker.umich.edu/umgass/files/gasbag227.pdf "Let’s vary piracee / With a little burglaree!"], ''The Gasbag'', Issue 227, Winter 2005, accessed 8 May 2012.</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Operas
### Early successes {#early_successes}
#### *The Sorcerer* {#the_sorcerer}
Carte\'s real ambition was to develop an English form of light opera that would displace the bawdy burlesques and badly translated French operettas then dominating the London stage. He assembled a syndicate and formed the Comedy Opera Company, with Gilbert and Sullivan commissioned to write a comic opera that would serve as the centrepiece for an evening\'s entertainment.
Gilbert found a subject in one of his own short stories, \"The Elixir of Love\", which concerned the complications arising when a love potion is distributed to all the residents of a small village. The leading character was a Cockney businessman who happened to be a sorcerer, a purveyor of blessings (not much called for) and curses (very popular). Gilbert and Sullivan were tireless taskmasters, seeing to it that *The Sorcerer* (1877) opened as a fully polished production, in marked contrast to the under-rehearsed *Thespis*. While *The Sorcerer* won critical acclaim, it did not duplicate the success of *Trial by Jury*. Nevertheless, it ran for more than six months, and Carte and his syndicate were sufficiently encouraged to commission another full-length opera from the team.
#### *H.M.S. Pinafore* {#h.m.s._pinafore}
Gilbert and Sullivan scored their first international hit with *H.M.S. Pinafore* (1878), satirising the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority and poking good-natured fun at the Royal Navy and the English obsession with social status (building on a theme introduced in *The Sorcerer*, love between members of different social classes). As with many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, a surprise twist changes everything dramatically near the end of the story.
Gilbert oversaw the designs of sets and costumes, and he directed the performers on stage.`{{refn|Gilbert was strongly influenced by the innovations in "stagecraft", now called stage direction, by the playwrights [[James Planché]] and especially [[Thomas William Robertson|Tom Robertson]].<ref>[http://gsarchive.net/gilbert/short_stories/stage_play.html ''A Stage Play'']; and Bond, Jessie, [http://gsarchive.net/books/bond/intro.html Introduction].</ref> |group=n}}`{=mediawiki} He sought realism in acting, shunned self-conscious interaction with the audience, and insisted on a standard of characterisation in which the characters were never aware of their own absurdity. He insisted that his actors know their words perfectly and obey his stage directions, which was something new to many actors of the day. Sullivan personally oversaw the musical preparation. The result was a crispness and polish new to the English musical theatre.`{{refn|The director [[Mike Leigh]] wrote in 2006, "That Gilbert was a good director is not in doubt. He was able to extract from his actors natural, clear performances, which served the Gilbertian requirements of outrageousness delivered straight."<ref>Leigh, Mike. "True anarchists", [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,,1938719,00.html], ''The Guardian'', 4 November 2006</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} Jessie Bond wrote later: `{{blockindent|Our stage discipline was strict and unbending. Gilbert's word was law; he thoroughly worked out in his own mind every bit of action, by-play and grouping, and allowed no deviation from his plan. He...made drawings and took measurements with the minutest care.... He had unlimited fertility of invention in comic business and would allow no gag, no clowning, no departure from his own definite conception. Sullivan's musical conception was equally clear-cut and decided. Every part must be made subservient to the whole, and his sarcasms overwhelmed the transgressor with scorn. "And now, might I trouble you to try over my music," he would say to a singer too anxious to display his or her top notes. But there was nothing to hurt or offend us in this unswerving discipline, we took their good-humoured raillery as our due when we failed in our rendering or overstepped the bounds; and the patience and enthusiasm of that artistic pair so infected all of us that we worked willingly for hours and hours at rehearsals, trying with all our might to realize the conceptions of those two brilliant minds.<ref>Bond, Jessie. [http://gsarchive.net/books/bond/004.html ''The Reminiscences of Jessie Bond''], Chapter 4 (1930), reprinted at ''The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive'', 15 November 2008, accessed 21 August 2012</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
*H.M.S. Pinafore* ran in London for 571 performances, an exceptional run for the period.`{{refn|The run of ''H.M.S. Pinafore'' was exceeded by that of the West End production of the operetta ''[[Les cloches de Corneville]]'', which opened earlier in the same year and was still running when ''H.M.S. Pinafore'' closed; ''Les cloches de Corneville'' held the record (705 performances) for London's longest musical theatre run until ''[[Dorothy (opera)|Dorothy]]'' (931 performances) surpassed it in 1886–1889.<ref>Traubner, p. 183; and Herbert, pp. 1598–1599, 1605 and 1907</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} Hundreds of unauthorised, or \"pirated\", productions of *Pinafore* appeared in America. During the run of *Pinafore*, Richard D\'Oyly Carte split up with his former investors. The disgruntled former partners, who had invested in the production with no return, staged a public fracas, sending a group of thugs to seize the scenery during a performance. Stagehands managed to ward off their backstage attackers. This event cleared the way for Carte, in alliance with Gilbert and Sullivan, to form the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company, which then produced all their succeeding operas.
The libretto of *H.M.S. Pinafore* relied on stock character types, many of which were familiar from European opera (and some of which grew out of Gilbert\'s earlier association with the German Reeds): the heroic protagonist (tenor) and his love-interest (soprano); the older woman with a secret or a sharp tongue (contralto); the baffled lyric baritone -- the girl\'s father; and a classic villain (bass-baritone). Gilbert and Sullivan added the element of the comic patter-singing character. With the success of *H.M.S. Pinafore*, the D\'Oyly Carte repertory and production system was cemented, and each opera would make use of these stock character types. Before *The Sorcerer*, Gilbert had constructed his plays around the established stars of whatever theatre he happened to be writing for, as had been the case with *Thespis* and *Trial by Jury*. Building on the team he had assembled for *The Sorcerer*, Gilbert no longer hired stars; he created them. He and Sullivan selected the performers, writing their operas for ensemble casts rather than individual stars.
The repertory system ensured that the comic patter character who performed the role of the sorcerer, John Wellington Wells, would become the ruler of the Queen\'s navy as Sir Joseph Porter in *H.M.S. Pinafore*, then join the army as Major-General Stanley in *The Pirates of Penzance*, and so on. Similarly, Mrs. Partlet in *The Sorcerer* transformed into Little Buttercup in *Pinafore*, then into Ruth, the piratical maid-of-all-work in *Pirates*. Relatively unknown performers whom Gilbert and Sullivan engaged early in the collaboration would stay with the company for many years, becoming stars of the Victorian stage. These included George Grossmith, the principal comic; Rutland Barrington, the lyric baritone; Richard Temple, the bass-baritone; and Jessie Bond, the mezzo-soprano soubrette.
#### *The Pirates of Penzance* {#the_pirates_of_penzance}
*The Pirates of Penzance* (New Year\'s Eve, 1879) also poked fun at grand opera conventions, sense of duty, family obligation, the \"respectability\" of civilisation and the peerage, and the relevance of a liberal education. The story also revisits *Pinafore*{{\'}}s theme of unqualified people in positions of authority, in the person of the \"modern Major-General\" who has up-to-date knowledge about everything except the military. The Major-General and his many daughters escape from the tender-hearted Pirates of Penzance, who are all orphans, on the false plea that he is an orphan himself. The pirates learn of the deception and re-capture the Major-General, but when it is revealed that the pirates are all peers, the Major-General bids them: \"resume your ranks and legislative duties, and take my daughters, all of whom are beauties!\"
The piece premiered in New York rather than London, in an (unsuccessful) attempt to secure the American copyright, and was another big success with both critics and audiences. Gilbert, Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas, without success. Nevertheless, *Pirates* was a hit both in New York, again spawning numerous imitators, and then in London, and it became one of the most frequently performed, translated and parodied Gilbert and Sullivan works, also enjoying successful 1981 Broadway and 1982 West End revivals by Joseph Papp that continue to influence productions of the opera.
In 1880, Sullivan\'s cantata *The Martyr of Antioch* premiered at the Leeds Triennial Music Festival, with a libretto adapted by Sullivan and Gilbert from an 1822 epic poem by Henry Hart Milman concerning the 3rd-century martyrdom of St. Margaret of Antioch. Sullivan became the conductor of the Leeds festival beginning in 1880 and conducted the performance. The Carl Rosa Opera Company staged the cantata as an opera in 1898.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Operas
### Savoy Theatre opens {#savoy_theatre_opens}
#### *Patience*
*Patience* (1881) satirised the aesthetic movement in general and its colourful poets in particular, combining aspects of A. C. Swinburne, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Oscar Wilde, James McNeill Whistler and others in the rival poets Bunthorne and Grosvenor. Grossmith, who created the role of Bunthorne, based his makeup, wig and costume on Swinburne and especially Whistler, as seen in the adjacent photograph. The work also lampoons male vanity and chauvinism in the military. The story concerns two rival aesthetic poets, who attract the attention of the young ladies of the village, formerly engaged to the members of a cavalry regiment. But both poets are in love with Patience, the village milkmaid, who detests one of them and feels that it is her duty to avoid the other despite her love for him. Richard D\'Oyly Carte was the booking manager for Oscar Wilde, a then lesser-known proponent of aestheticism, and dispatched him on an American lecture tour in conjunction with the opera\'s U.S. run, so that American audiences might better understand what the satire was all about.
During the run of *Patience*, Carte built the large, modern Savoy Theatre, which became the partnership\'s permanent home. It was the first theatre (and the world\'s first public building) to be lit entirely by electric lighting. *Patience* moved into the Savoy after six months at the Opera Comique and ran for a total of 578 performances, surpassing the run of *H.M.S. Pinafore*.
#### *Iolanthe*
*Iolanthe* (1882) was the first of the operas to open at the Savoy. The fully electric Savoy made possible numerous special effects, such as sparkling magic wands for the female chorus of fairies. The opera poked fun at English law and the House of Lords and made much of the war between the sexes. The critics felt that Sullivan\'s work in *Iolanthe* had taken a step forward. *The Daily Telegraph* commented, \"The composer has risen to his opportunity, and we are disposed to account *Iolanthe* his best effort in all the Gilbertian series.\" Similarly, *The Theatre* judged that \"the music of *Iolanthe* is Dr Sullivan\'s *chef d\'oeuvre*. The quality throughout is more even, and maintained at a higher standard, than in any of his earlier works\...\"
*Iolanthe* is one of several of Gilbert\'s works, including *The Wicked World* (1873), *Broken Hearts* (1875), *Princess Ida* (1884) and *Fallen Fairies* (1909), where the introduction of men and \"mortal love\" into a tranquil world of women wreaks havoc with the status quo. Gilbert had created several \"fairy comedies\" at the Haymarket Theatre in the early 1870s. These plays, influenced by the fairy work of James Planché, are founded upon the idea of self-revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference.
In 1882, Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study. Gilbert had referred to the new technology in *Pinafore* in 1878, only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service. Sullivan had one installed as well, and on 13 May 1883, at a party to celebrate the composer\'s 41st birthday, the guests, including the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), heard a direct relay of parts of *Iolanthe* from the Savoy. This was probably the first live \"broadcast\" of an opera.
During the run of *Iolanthe*, in 1883, Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria. Although it was the operas with Gilbert that had earned him the broadest fame, the honour was conferred for his services to serious music. The musical establishment, and many critics, believed that this should put an end to his career as a composer of comic opera -- that a musical knight should not stoop below oratorio or grand opera. Sullivan, despite the financial security of writing for the Savoy, increasingly viewed his work with Gilbert as unimportant, beneath his skills, and repetitious. Furthermore, he was unhappy that he had to simplify his music to ensure that Gilbert\'s words could be heard. But paradoxically, in February 1883, just after *Iolanthe* opened, Sullivan had signed a five-year agreement with Gilbert and Carte requiring him to produce a new comic opera on six months\' notice.
#### *Princess Ida* {#princess_ida}
*Princess Ida* (1884) spoofed women\'s education and male chauvinism and continued the theme from *Iolanthe* of the war between the sexes. The opera is based on Tennyson\'s poem *The Princess: A Medley*. Gilbert had written a blank verse farce based on the same material in 1870, called *The Princess*, and he reused a good deal of the dialogue from his earlier play in the libretto of *Princess Ida*. *Ida* is the only Gilbert and Sullivan work with dialogue entirely in blank verse and is also the only one of their works in three acts. Lillian Russell had been engaged to create the title role, but Gilbert did not believe that she was dedicated enough, and when she missed a rehearsal, he dismissed her.
*Princess Ida* was the first of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas that, by the partnership\'s previous standards, was not a success. A particularly hot summer in London did not help ticket sales. The piece ran for a comparatively short 246 performances and was not revived in London until 1919. Sullivan had been satisfied with the libretto, but two months after *Ida* opened, Sullivan told Carte that \"it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself.\" As *Princess Ida* showed signs of flagging, Carte realised that, for the first time in the partnership\'s history, no new opera would be ready when the old one closed. On 22 March 1884, he gave Gilbert and Sullivan contractual notice that a new opera would be required in six months\' time. In the meantime, when *Ida* closed, Carte produced a revival of *The Sorcerer*.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Operas
### Dodging the magic lozenge {#dodging_the_magic_lozenge}
#### *The Mikado* {#the_mikado}
The most successful of the Savoy Operas was *The Mikado* (1885), which made fun of English bureaucracy, thinly disguised by a Japanese setting. Gilbert initially proposed a story for a new opera about a magic lozenge that would change the characters, which Sullivan found artificial and lacking in \"human interest and probability\", as well as being too similar to their earlier opera, *The Sorcerer*.`{{refn|Gilbert eventually found another opportunity to present his "lozenge plot" in ''[[The Mountebanks (opera)|The Mountebanks]]'', written with [[Alfred Cellier]] in 1892.<ref>Stedman, p. 284</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} As dramatised in the film *Topsy-Turvy*, the author and composer were at an impasse until 8 May 1884, when Gilbert dropped the lozenge idea and agreed to provide a libretto without any supernatural elements.`{{refn|A story circulated that Gilbert's inspiration for an opera set in Japan came when a Japanese sword mounted on his study wall fell down. The incident is portrayed in the film, but it is apocryphal.<ref>Jones, Brian. "The sword that never fell", ''W. S. Gilbert Society Journal'' 1 (1), Spring 1985, pp. 22–25</ref>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki}
The story focuses on a \"cheap tailor\", Ko-Ko, who is promoted to the position of Lord High Executioner of the town of Titipu. He loves his ward, Yum-Yum, but she loves a musician, who is really the son of the emperor of Japan (the Mikado) and who is in disguise to escape the attentions of the elderly and amorous Katisha. The Mikado has decreed that executions must resume without delay in Titipu. When news arrives that the Mikado will be visiting the town, Ko-Ko assumes that he is coming to ascertain whether Ko-Ko has carried out the executions. Too timid to execute anyone, Ko-Ko cooks up a conspiracy to misdirect the Mikado, which goes awry. Eventually, Ko-Ko must persuade Katisha to marry him to save his own life and the lives of the other conspirators.
With the opening of trade between England and Japan, Japanese imports, art and styles became fashionable, and a Japanese village exhibition opened in Knightsbridge, London, making the time ripe for an opera set in Japan. Gilbert said, \"I cannot give you a good reason for our\... piece being laid in Japan. It\... afforded scope for picturesque treatment, scenery and costume, and I think that the idea of a chief magistrate, who is\... judge and actual executioner in one, and yet would not hurt a worm, may perhaps please the public.\"
Setting the opera in Japan, an exotic locale far away from Britain, allowed Gilbert and Sullivan to satirise British politics and institutions more freely by clothing them in superficial Japanese trappings. Gilbert wrote, \"The Mikado of the opera was an imaginary monarch of a remote period and cannot by any exercise of ingenuity be taken to be a slap on an existing institution.\" G. K. Chesterton compared it to Swift\'s *Gulliver\'s Travels*: \"Gilbert pursued and persecuted the evils of modern England till they had literally not a leg to stand on, exactly as Swift did\... I doubt if there is a single joke in the whole play that fits the Japanese. But all the jokes in the play fit the English. \... About England Pooh-bah is something more than a satire; he is the truth.\" Several of the later operas are similarly set in foreign or fictional locales, including *The Gondoliers*, *Utopia, Limited* and *The Grand Duke*.
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{{Listen filename=1914 - Edison Light Opera Company - Favorite airs from The Mikado (restored).ogg title=\"Favorite airs from *The Mikado*\" description=A 1914 Edison Records recording of selections from *The Mikado*. Includes parts of the overture, \"A wand\'ring minstrel\", \"Three little maids\", \"Tit-willow\", and the Act II finale. }}
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*The Mikado* became the partnership\'s longest-running hit, enjoying 672 performances at the Savoy Theatre, and surpassing the runs of *Pinafore* and *Patience*. It remains the most frequently performed Savoy Opera. It has been translated into numerous languages and is one of the most frequently played musical theatre pieces in history.
#### *Ruddigore*
*Ruddigore* (1887), a topsy-turvy take on Victorian melodrama, was less successful than most of the earlier collaborations with a run of 288 performances. The original title, *Ruddygore*, together with some of the plot devices, including the revivification of ghosts, drew negative comments from critics.`{{refn|Gilbert's response to being told that the two spellings meant the same thing was: "Then I suppose you'll take it that if I say 'I admire your ruddy countenance', I mean 'I like your bloody cheek'."<ref>Bradley (1996), p. 656</ref>|group= n}}`{=mediawiki} Gilbert and Sullivan respelled the title and made a number of changes and cuts. Nevertheless, the piece was profitable, and the reviews were not all bad. For instance, *The Illustrated London News* praised the work and both Gilbert and, especially, Sullivan: \"Sir Arthur Sullivan has eminently succeeded alike in the expression of refined sentiment and comic humour. In the former respect, the charm of graceful melody prevails; while, in the latter, the music of the most grotesque situations is redolent of fun.\" Further changes were made, including a new overture, when Rupert D\'Oyly Carte revived *Ruddigore* after the First World War, and the piece was regularly performed by the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company thereafter.
Some of the plot elements of *Ruddigore* were introduced by Gilbert in his earlier one-act opera, *Ages Ago* (1869), including the tale of the wicked ancestor and the device of the ghostly ancestors stepping out of their portraits. When *Ruddigore* closed, no new opera was ready. Gilbert again proposed a version of the \"lozenge\" plot for their next opera, and Sullivan reiterated his reluctance to set it. While the two men worked out their artistic differences, and Sullivan finished other obligations, Carte produced revivals of such old favourites as *H.M.S. Pinafore*, *The Pirates of Penzance*, and *The Mikado*.
#### *The Yeomen of the Guard* {#the_yeomen_of_the_guard}
*The Yeomen of the Guard* (1888), their only joint work with a serious ending, concerns a pair of strolling players -- a jester and a singing girl -- who are caught up in a risky intrigue at the Tower of London during the 16th century. The dialogue, though in prose, is quasi-Early Modern English in style, and there is no satire of British institutions. For some of the plot elements, Gilbert had reached back to his 1875 tragedy, *Broken Hearts*. *The Times* praised the libretto: \"It should\... be acknowledged that Mr. Gilbert has earnestly endeavoured to leave familiar grooves and rise to higher things\". Although not a grand opera, the new libretto provided Sullivan with the opportunity to write his most ambitious theatre score to date. The critics, who had recently lauded the composer for his successful oratorio, *The Golden Legend*, considered the score to *Yeomen* to be Sullivan\'s finest, including its overture, which was written in sonata form, rather than as a sequential pot-pourri of tunes from the opera, as in most of his other overtures. The *Daily Telegraph* said:
*Yeomen* was a hit, running for over a year, with strong New York and touring productions. During the run, on 12 March 1889, Sullivan wrote to Gilbert,
Sullivan insisted that the next opera must be a grand opera. Gilbert did not feel that he could write a grand opera libretto, but he offered a compromise that Sullivan eventually accepted. The two would write a light opera for the Savoy, and at the same time, Sullivan a grand opera (*Ivanhoe*) for a new theatre that Carte was constructing to present British opera. After a brief impasse over the choice of subject, Sullivan accepted an idea connected with Venice and Venetian life, as \"this seemed to me to hold out great chances of bright colour and taking music.\"
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Operas
### Dodging the magic lozenge {#dodging_the_magic_lozenge}
#### *The Gondoliers* {#the_gondoliers}
*The Gondoliers* (1889) takes place partly in Venice and partly in a fictional kingdom ruled by a pair of gondoliers who attempt to remodel the monarchy in a spirit of \"republican equality.\" Gilbert recapitulates a number of his earlier themes, including the satire of class distinctions figuring in many of his earlier librettos. The libretto also reflects Gilbert\'s fascination with the \"Stock Company Act\", highlighting the absurd convergence of natural persons and legal entities, which plays an even larger part in the next opera, *Utopia, Limited*. Press accounts were almost entirely favourable. The *Illustrated London News* reported:
Sullivan\'s old collaborator on *Cox and Box* (later the editor of *Punch* magazine), F. C. Burnand, wrote to the composer: \"Magnificento!\...I envy you and W.S.G. being able to place a piece like this on the stage in so complete a fashion.\" The opera enjoyed a run longer than any of their other joint works except for *H.M.S. Pinafore*, *Patience* and *The Mikado*. There was a command performance of *The Gondoliers* for Queen Victoria and the royal family at Windsor Castle in 1891, the first Gilbert and Sullivan opera to be so honoured. *The Gondoliers* was Gilbert and Sullivan\'s last great success.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Operas
### Carpet quarrel {#carpet_quarrel}
Though Gilbert and Sullivan\'s working relationship was mostly cordial and even friendly, it sometimes became strained, especially during their later operas, partly because each man saw himself as allowing his work to be subjugated to the other\'s, and partly caused by the opposing personalities of the two: Gilbert was often confrontational and notoriously thin-skinned (though prone to acts of extraordinary kindness), while Sullivan eschewed conflict. Gilbert imbued his libretti with absurdist \"topsy-turvy\" situations in which the social order was turned upside down. After a time, these subjects were often at odds with Sullivan\'s desire for realism and emotional content. Gilbert\'s political satire often poked fun at the wealthy and powerful whom Sullivan sought out for friendship and patronage.
Gilbert and Sullivan disagreed several times over the choice of a subject. After each of *Princess Ida* and *Ruddigore*, which were less successful than their seven other operas from *H.M.S. Pinafore* to *The Gondoliers*, Sullivan asked to leave the partnership, saying that he found Gilbert\'s plots repetitive and that the operas were not artistically satisfying to him. While the two artists worked out their differences in those cases, Carte kept the Savoy open with revivals of their earlier works. On each occasion, after a few months\' pause, Gilbert responded with a libretto that met Sullivan\'s objections, and the partnership was able to continue.
In April 1890, during the run of *The Gondoliers*, Gilbert challenged Carte over the expenses of the production. Among other items to which Gilbert objected, Carte had charged the cost of a new carpet for the Savoy Theatre lobby to the partnership. Gilbert believed that this was a maintenance expense that should be charged to Carte alone. Gilbert confronted Carte, who refused to reconsider the accounts. Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that \"I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen\". Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte \"in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial\". On 5 May 1890, Gilbert wrote to Sullivan: \"The time for putting an end to our collaboration has at last arrived. ... I am writing a letter to Carte \... giving him notice that he is not to produce or perform any of my libretti after Christmas 1890.\" As biographer Andrew Crowther has explained:
Things soon degraded, Gilbert lost his temper with his partners and brought a lawsuit against Carte. Sullivan supported Carte by making an affidavit erroneously stating that there were minor legal expenses outstanding from a battle Gilbert had in 1884 with Lillian Russell when, in fact, those expenses had already been paid. When Gilbert discovered this, he asked for a retraction of the affidavit; Sullivan refused. Gilbert felt it was a moral issue and could not look past it. Sullivan felt that Gilbert was questioning his good faith, and in any event Sullivan had other reasons to stay in Carte\'s good graces: Carte was building a new theatre, the Royal English Opera House (now the Palace Theatre), to produce Sullivan\'s only grand opera, *Ivanhoe*. After *The Gondoliers* closed in 1891, Gilbert withdrew the performance rights to his libretti, vowing to write no more operas for the Savoy.
Gilbert next wrote *The Mountebanks* with Alfred Cellier and the flop *Haste to the Wedding* with George Grossmith, and Sullivan wrote *Haddon Hall* with Sydney Grundy. Gilbert eventually won the lawsuit, but his actions and statements had been hurtful to his partners. Nevertheless, the partnership had been so profitable that, after the financial failure of the Royal English Opera House, Carte and his wife sought to reunite the author and composer. In late 1891, after many failed attempts at reconciliation, Gilbert and Sullivan\'s music publisher, Tom Chappell, stepped in to mediate between two of his most profitable artists, and within two weeks he had succeeded, eventually leading to two further collaborations between Gilbert and Sullivan.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Operas
### Last works {#last_works}
*Utopia, Limited* (1893), their penultimate opera, was a very modest success, and their last, *The Grand Duke* (1896), was an outright failure. Neither work entered the canon of regularly performed Gilbert and Sullivan works until the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company made the first complete professional recordings of the two operas in the 1970s. Gilbert had also offered Sullivan another libretto, *His Excellency* (1894), but Gilbert\'s insistence on casting Nancy McIntosh, his protege from *Utopia*, led to Sullivan\'s refusal, and *His Excellency* was instead composed by F. Osmond Carr. Meanwhile, the Savoy Theatre continued to revive the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, in between new pieces, and D\'Oyly Carte touring companies also played them in repertory.
After *The Grand Duke*, the partners saw no reason to work together again. A last unpleasant misunderstanding occurred in 1898. At the premiere of Sullivan\'s opera *The Beauty Stone* on 28 May, Gilbert arrived at the Savoy Theatre with friends, assuming that Sullivan had reserved some seats for him. Instead, he was informed that Sullivan objected to his presence. The composer later denied that this was true. The last time they met was at the Savoy Theatre on 17 November 1898 at the celebration of the 21st anniversary of the first performance of *The Sorcerer*. They did not speak to each other. Sullivan, by this time in exceedingly poor health, died in 1900, although to the end he continued to write new comic operas for the Savoy with other librettists, most successfully with Basil Hood in *The Rose of Persia* (1899). Gilbert also wrote several works, some with other collaborators, in the 1890s. By the time of Sullivan\'s death in 1900, Gilbert wrote that any memory of their rift had been \"completely bridged over,\" and \"the most cordial relations existed between us.\" He stated that \"Sullivan \... because he was a composer of the rarest genius, was as modest and as unassuming as a neophyte should be, but seldom is\...I remember all that he has done for me in allowing his genius to shed some of its lustre upon my humble name.\"
Richard D\'Oyly Carte died in 1901, after which his widow, Helen, directed the activities of the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company at the Savoy and on tour. Gilbert went into semi-retirement, although he continued to direct revivals of the Savoy Operas and wrote new plays occasionally. Between 1906 and 1909, he assisted Mrs. Carte in staging two repertory seasons at the Savoy Theatre. These were very popular and revived interest in the works. Gilbert was knighted during the first repertory season. After Sullivan\'s death, Gilbert wrote only one more comic opera, *Fallen Fairies* (1909; music by Edward German), which was not a success.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Legacy and assessment {#legacy_and_assessment}
Gilbert died in 1911, and Richard\'s son, Rupert D\'Oyly Carte, took over the opera company upon his step-mother\'s death in 1913. His daughter, Bridget, inherited the company upon his death in 1948. The D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company toured nearly year-round, except for its many London seasons and foreign tours, performing exclusively the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, until it closed in 1982. During the 20th century, the company gave well over 35,000 performances. The Savoy operas, from the beginning, were produced extensively in North America and Australasia, and soon afterwards in Germany, Russia, and elsewhere in Europe and around the world.
In 1922, Sir Henry Wood explained the enduring success of the collaboration as follows: `{{quote|Sullivan has never had an equal for brightness and drollery, for humour without coarseness and without vulgarity, and for charm and grace. His orchestration is delightful: he wrote with full understanding of every orchestral voice. Above all, his music is perfectly appropriate to the words of which it is the setting.... He found the right, the only cadences to fit Gilbert's happy and original rhythms, and to match Gilbert's fun or to throw Gilbert's frequent irony, pointed although not savage, into relief. Sullivan's music is much more than the accompaniment of Gilbert's libretti, just as Gilbert's libretti are far more than words to Sullivan's music. We have two masters who are playing a concerto. Neither is subordinate to the other; each gives what is original, but the two, while neither predominates, are in perfect correspondence. This rare harmony of words and music is what makes these operas entirely unique. They are the work not of a musician and his librettist nor of a poet and one who sets his words to music, but of two geniuses.<ref>[[Henry Wood|Wood, Henry]]. [http://gsarchive.net/books/walbrook/foreword.html Foreword] in Walbrook</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
G. K. Chesterton similarly praised the combination of the two artists, anticipating the operas\' success into the \"remote future\". He wrote that Gilbert\'s satire was \"too intelligent to be intelligible\" by itself, and that perhaps only Sullivan could have given \"wings to his words \... in exactly the right degree frivolous and exactly the right degree fastidious. \[The words\'\] precise degree of levity and distance from reality \... seemed to be expressed \... in the very notes of the music; almost \... in the note of the laughter that followed it.\" In 1957, a review in *The Times* gave this rationale for \"the continued vitality of the Savoy operas\": `{{quote|[T]hey were never really contemporary in their idiom.... Gilbert and Sullivan's [world], from the first moment was obviously not the audience's world, [it was] an artificial world, with a neatly controlled and shapely precision which has not gone out of fashion – because it was never in fashion in the sense of using the fleeting conventions and ways of thought of contemporary human society.... For this, each partner has his share of credit. The neat articulation of incredibilities in Gilbert's plots is perfectly matched by his language.... His dialogue, with its primly mocking formality, satisfies both the ear and the intelligence. His verses show an unequalled and very delicate gift for creating a comic effect by the contrast between poetic form and prosaic thought and wording.... How deliciously [his lines] prick the bubble of sentiment.... [Of] equal importance... Gilbert's lyrics almost invariably take on extra point and sparkle when set to Sullivan's music.... Sullivan's tunes, in these operas, also exist in a make-believe world of their own.... [He is] a delicate wit, whose airs have a precision, a neatness, a grace, and a flowing melody.... The two men together remain endlessly and incomparably delightful.... Light, and even trifling, though [the operas] may seem upon grave consideration, they yet have the shapeliness and elegance that can make a trifle into a work of art.<ref>"The Lasting Charm of Gilbert and Sullivan: Operas of an Artificial World", ''The Times'', 14 February 1957, p. 5</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Because of the unusual success of the operas, the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company were able, from the start, to license the works to other professional companies, such as the J. C. Williamson Gilbert and Sullivan Opera Company, and to amateur troupes. For almost a century, until the British copyrights expired at the end of 1961, and even afterwards, the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company influenced productions of the operas worldwide, creating a \"performing tradition\" for most of the operas that is still referred to today by many directors, both amateur and professional. Indeed, Gilbert, Sullivan and Carte had an important influence on amateur theatre. Cellier and Bridgeman wrote in 1914 that, prior to the creation of the Savoy operas, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals. After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies in the 1880s licensed to perform the operas, professionals recognised that the amateur performing groups \"support the culture of music and the drama. They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage, and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present-day favourites.\" Cellier and Bridgeman attributed the rise in quality and reputation of the amateur groups largely to \"the popularity of, and infectious craze for performing, the Gilbert and Sullivan operas\". The National Operatic and Dramatic Association (NODA) was founded in 1899. It reported, in 1914, that nearly 200 British troupes were performing Gilbert and Sullivan that year, constituting most of the amateur companies in the country (this figure included only the societies that were members of NODA). The association further reported that almost 1,000 performances of the Savoy operas had been given in Britain that year, many of them to benefit charities. Cellier and Bridgeman noted that strong amateur groups were performing the operas in places as far away as New Zealand. In the U.S., and elsewhere where British copyrights on the operas were not enforced, both professional and amateur companies performed the works throughout the 20th century -- the Internet Broadway Database counts about 150 productions on Broadway alone from 1900 to 1960. The Savoy Company, an amateur group formed in 1901 in Philadelphia, continues to perform today. In 1948, *Life* magazine reported that about 5,000 performances of Gilbert and Sullivan operas were given annually in the US, exceeding the number of performances of Shakespeare plays.
After the copyrights on the operas expired, other professional companies were free to perform and record the operas, even in Britain and The Commonwealth. Many performing companies arose to produce the works, such as Gilbert and Sullivan for All in Britain, and existing companies, such as English National Opera, Carl Rosa Opera Company and Australian Opera, added Gilbert and Sullivan to their repertories. The operas were presented by professional repertory companies in the US, including the competing Light Opera of Manhattan and NYGASP in New York City. In 1980, a Broadway and West End production of *Pirates* produced by Joseph Papp brought new audiences to Gilbert and Sullivan. Between 1988 and 2003, a new iteration of the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company revived the operas on tour and in the West End. Today, various professional repertory companies, such as NYGASP, Opera della Luna, National Gilbert & Sullivan Opera Company, Opera North, Ohio Light Opera, Scottish Opera and other regional opera companies, and numerous amateur societies, churches, schools and universities continue to produce the works. The most popular G&S works also continue to be performed from time to time by major opera companies,`{{refn|Although opera companies have rarely embraced Gilbert and Sullivan as part of the regular opera repertory, commentators have questioned the wisdom of this attitude.<ref>[[Jessica Duchen|Duchen, Jessica]]. [https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/classical/features/its-time-to-reassess-gilbert-and-sullivan-2078399.html "It's time to reassess Gilbert and Sullivan"]. ''The Independent'', 14 September 2010</ref>|group= n}}`{=mediawiki} and recordings of the operas, overtures and songs from the operas continue to be released. Since 1994, the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival has been held every August in England (except 2020), with some two dozen or more performances of the operas given on the main stage, and several dozen related \"fringe\" events given in smaller venues. The Festival records and offers videos of its most popular professional and amateur productions. In connection with the 2009 festival, a contemporary critic wrote, \"The appeal of G&S\'s special blend of charm, silliness and gentle satire seems immune to fashion.\" There continue to be hundreds of amateur companies performing the Gilbert and Sullivan works worldwide.
### Recordings and broadcasts {#recordings_and_broadcasts}
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Legacy and assessment {#legacy_and_assessment}
### Recordings and broadcasts {#recordings_and_broadcasts}
The first commercial recordings of individual numbers from the Savoy operas began in 1898.`{{refn|The first was "Take a pair of sparkling eyes", from ''The Gondoliers''.<ref>Wolfson, John (1973). "A history of Savoyard recordings", Notes to Pearl LP set GEM 118/120</ref>|group= n}}`{=mediawiki} In 1917 the Gramophone Company (HMV) produced the first album of a complete Gilbert and Sullivan opera, *The Mikado*, followed by recordings of eight more. Electrical recordings of most of the operas were then issued by HMV and Victor, beginning in the late 1920s, supervised by Rupert D\'Oyly Carte. The D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company continued to produce well-regarded recordings until 1979, helping to keep the operas popular through the decades. Many of these recordings have been reissued on CD. After the company was revived in 1988, it recorded seven of the operas.
After the copyrights on the operas expired, numerous companies around the world released popular audio and video recordings of the operas. In 1966 and again in the 1980s, BBC Radio presented complete cycles of the thirteen extant Gilbert and Sullivan operas, with dialogue. Ad hoc casts of operatic singers conducted by Sir Malcolm Sargent in the 1950s and 60s and Sir Charles Mackerras in the 1990s have made audio sets of several Savoy operas, and in the 1980s Alexander Faris conducted video recordings of eleven of the operas (omitting the last two) with casts including show-business stars as well as professional singers. Joseph Papp\'s Broadway production of *The Pirates of Penzance* was put on record in 1981. Since 1994, the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival has released numerous professional and amateur CDs and videos of its productions. Ohio Light Opera has recorded several of the operas in the 21st century. The Really Authentic Gilbert and Sullivan Performance Trust (RAGSPT) of Dunedin, New Zealand, recorded all 13 extant Savoy Operas between 2002 and 2012 and licensed the recordings on Creative Commons.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Legacy and assessment {#legacy_and_assessment}
### Cultural influence {#cultural_influence}
*Main article: Cultural impact of Gilbert and Sullivan* For nearly 150 years, Gilbert and Sullivan have pervasively influenced popular culture in the English-speaking world, and lines and quotations from their operas have become part of the English language (even if not originated by Gilbert), such as \"short, sharp shock\", \"What never? Well, hardly ever!\", \"let the punishment fit the crime\", and \"A policeman\'s lot is not a happy one\". The operas have influenced political style and discourse, literature, film and television, have been widely parodied by humorists, and have been quoted in legal rulings.
The American and British musical owes a tremendous debt to G&S, who were admired and copied by early musical theatre authors and composers such as Ivan Caryll, Adrian Ross, Lionel Monckton, P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Bolton and Victor Herbert, and later Jerome Kern, Ira Gershwin, Yip Harburg, Irving Berlin, Ivor Novello, Oscar Hammerstein II, and Andrew Lloyd Webber. Gilbert\'s lyrics served as a model for such 20th-century Broadway lyricists as Cole Porter, Ira Gershwin, and Lorenz Hart. Noël Coward wrote: \"I was born into a generation that still took light music seriously. The lyrics and melodies of Gilbert and Sullivan were hummed and strummed into my consciousness at an early age. My father sang them, my mother played them, my nurse, Emma, breathed them through her teeth\.... My aunts and uncles\... sang them singly and in unison at the slightest provocation\....\"
Professor Carolyn Williams has noted: \"The influence of Gilbert and Sullivan -- their wit and sense of irony, the send ups of politics and contemporary culture -- goes beyond musical theater to comedy in general. Allusions to their work have made their way into our own popular culture\". Gilbert and Sullivan expert and enthusiast Ian Bradley agrees:
The works of Gilbert and Sullivan are themselves frequently pastiched and parodied.`{{refn|Bradley (2005) devotes an entire chapter (chapter 8) to parodies and pastiches of G&S used in advertising, comedy and journalism.|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} Well known examples of this include Tom Lehrer\'s *The Elements* and *Clementine*; Allan Sherman\'s *I\'m Called Little Butterball*, *When I Was a Lad*, *You Need an Analyst* and *The Bronx Bird-Watcher*; and The Two Ronnies\' 1973 Christmas Special. Other comedians have used Gilbert and Sullivan songs as a key part of their routines, including Hinge and Bracket, Anna Russell, and the *HMS Yakko* episode of the animated TV series *Animaniacs*. Songs from Gilbert and Sullivan are often pastiched in advertising, and elaborate advertising parodies have been published, as have the likenesses of various Gilbert and Sullivan performers throughout the decades.`{{refn|For example, in 1961 [[Guinness]] published an entire book of parodies of Gilbert and Sullivan lyrics, illustrated with cartoons, to advertise Guinness [[stout]]. The book, by Anthony Groves-Raines with illustrations by Stanley Penn is called ''My Goodness! My Gilbert and Sullivan!'' Numerous examples of advertising uses of Gilbert and Sullivan and the best-known Gilbert and Sullivan performers (likenesses, often in costume, or endorsements) are described in Cannon, John. "Gilbert and Sullivan Celebrities in the World of Advertising", ''Gilbert & Sullivan News'', pp. 10–14, Vol. IV, No. 13, Spring 2011.|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas are commonly referenced in literature, film and television in various ways that include extensive use of Sullivan\'s music or where action occurs during a performance of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera, such as in the film *The Girl Said No*. There are also a number of Gilbert and Sullivan biographical films, such as Mike Leigh\'s *Topsy-Turvy* (1999) and *The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan* (1953), as well as shows about the partnership, including a 1938 Broadway show, *Knights of Song* and a 1975 West End show called *Tarantara! Tarantara!*
It is not surprising, given the focus of Gilbert on politics, that politicians and political observers have often found inspiration in these works. Chief Justice of the United States William Rehnquist added gold stripes to his judicial robes after seeing them used by the Lord Chancellor in a production of *Iolanthe*. Alternatively, Lord Chancellor Charles Falconer is recorded as objecting so strongly to *Iolanthe*\'s comic portrayal of Lord Chancellors that he supported moves to disband the office. British politicians, beyond quoting some of the more famous lines, have delivered speeches in the form of Gilbert and Sullivan pastiches. These include Conservative Peter Lilley\'s speech mimicking the form of \"I\'ve got a little list\" from *The Mikado*, listing those he was against, including \"sponging socialists\" and \"young ladies who get pregnant just to jump the housing queue\".
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Collaborations
### Major works and original London runs {#major_works_and_original_london_runs}
- *Thespis*; or, *The Gods Grown Old* (1871) 63 performances
- *Trial by Jury* (1875) 131 performances
- *The Sorcerer* (1877) 178 performances
- *H.M.S. Pinafore*; or, *The Lass That Loved a Sailor* (1878) 571 performances
- *The Pirates of Penzance*; or, *The Slave of Duty* (1879) 363 performances
- *The Martyr of Antioch* (cantata) (1880) (Gilbert helped to modify the poem by Henry Hart Milman)
- *Patience*; or *Bunthorne\'s Bride* (1881) 578 performances
- *Iolanthe*; or, *The Peer and the Peri* (1882) 398 performances
- *Princess Ida*; or, *Castle Adamant* (1884) 246 performances
- *The Mikado*; or, *The Town of Titipu* (1885) 672 performances
- *Ruddigore*; or, *The Witch\'s Curse* (1887) 288 performances
- *The Yeomen of the Guard*; or, *The Merryman and his Maid* (1888) 423 performances
- *The Gondoliers*; or, *The King of Barataria* (1889) 554 performances
- *Utopia, Limited*; or, *The Flowers of Progress* (1893) 245 performances
- *The Grand Duke*; or, *The Statutory Duel* (1896) 123 performances
### Parlour ballads {#parlour_ballads}
- \"The Distant Shore\" (1874)
- \"The Love that Loves Me Not\" (1875)
- \"Sweethearts\" (1875), based on Gilbert\'s 1874 play, *Sweethearts*
### Overtures
The overtures from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas remain popular, and there are many recordings of them. Most of them are structured as a *potpourri* of tunes from the operas. They are generally well-orchestrated, but not all of them were composed by Sullivan. However, even those delegated to his assistants were based on an outline he provided, and in many cases incorporated his suggestions or corrections. Sullivan invariably conducted them (as well as the entire operas) on opening night, and they were included in the published scores approved by Sullivan.
Those Sullivan wrote himself include the overtures to *Thespis*, *Iolanthe*, *Princess Ida*, *The Yeomen of the Guard*, *The Gondoliers* and *The Grand Duke*. Sullivan\'s authorship of the overture to *Utopia, Limited* cannot be verified with certainty, as his autograph score is now lost, but it is likely attributable to him, as it consists of only a few bars of introduction, followed by a straight copy of music heard elsewhere in the opera (the Drawing Room scene). *Thespis* is now lost, but there is no doubt that Sullivan wrote its overture. Very early performances of *The Sorcerer* used a section of Sullivan\'s incidental music to Shakespeare\'s *Henry the VIII*, as he did not have time to write a new overture, but this was replaced in 1884 by one executed by Hamilton Clarke. Of those remaining, the overtures to *H.M.S. Pinafore* and *The Pirates of Penzance* are by Alfred Cellier, the overture to *Patience* is by Eugene d\'Albert,`{{refn|The biographer Michael Ainger writes, "That evening (21 April 1881) Sullivan gave his sketch of the overture to Eugene d'Albert to score. D'Albert was a seventeen-year-old student at the National Training School (where Sullivan was the principal and supervisor of the composition dept.) and winner of the Mendelssohn Scholarship that year.<ref>Ainger, p. 195</ref> Several months before that, Sullivan had given d'Albert the task of preparing a piano reduction of ''[[The Martyr of Antioch]]'' for use in choral rehearsals of that 1880 work. The musicologist [[David Russell Hulme]] studied the handwriting in the score's manuscript and confirmed that it is that of Eugen, not of his father Charles (as had erroneously been reported by Jacobs), both of whose script he sampled and compared to the ''Patience'' manuscript.<ref name=hulme/>|group=n}}`{=mediawiki} The overtures to *The Mikado* and *Ruddigore* are by Hamilton Clarke (although the *Ruddigore* overture was later replaced by one written by Geoffrey Toye).
Most of the overtures are in three sections: a lively introduction, a slow middle section, and a concluding allegro in sonata form, with two subjects, a brief development, a recapitulation and a coda. Sullivan himself did not always follow this pattern. The overture to *Princess Ida*, for instance, has only an opening fast section and a concluding slow section. The overture to *Utopia Limited* is dominated by a slow section, with only a very brief original passage introducing it.
In the 1920s, the D\'Oyly Carte Opera Company commissioned its musical director at the time, Geoffrey Toye, to write new overtures for *Ruddigore* and *The Pirates of Penzance*. Toye\'s *Ruddigore* overture entered the general repertory, and today is more often heard than the original overture by Clarke. Toye\'s *Pirates* overture did not last long and is now presumed lost. Sir Malcolm Sargent devised a new ending for the overture to *The Gondoliers*, adding the \"cachucha\" from the second act of the opera. This gave the *Gondoliers* overture the familiar fast-slow-fast pattern of most of the rest of the Savoy Opera overtures, and this version has competed for popularity with Sullivan\'s original version.
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# Gilbert and Sullivan
## Alternative versions {#alternative_versions}
### Translations
Gilbert and Sullivan operas have been translated into many languages, including Yiddish, Hebrew, Portuguese, Swedish, Dutch, Danish, Estonian, Hungarian, Russian, Japanese, French, Italian, Spanish (reportedly including a zarzuela-style *Pinafore*), Catalan and others.
There are many German versions of Gilbert and Sullivan operas, including the popular *Der Mikado*. There is even a German version of *The Grand Duke*. Some German translations of the operas were made by Friedrich Zell and Richard Genée, librettists of *Die Fledermaus* and other Viennese operettas, who even translated one of Sullivan\'s lesser-known operas, *The Chieftain*, as *(Der Häuptling)*.
### Ballets
- *Pineapple Poll*, created by John Cranko in 1951 at Sadler\'s Wells Theatre; in repertoire at the Birmingham Royal Ballet. The ballet is based on Gilbert\'s 1870 Bab Ballad \"The Bumboat Woman\'s Story\", as is *H.M.S. Pinafore*. Cranko expanded the plotline of Gilbert\'s poem and added a happy ending. The music is arranged by Sir Charles Mackerras from themes by Sullivan.
- *Pirates of Penzance - The Ballet!*, created for the Queensland Ballet in 1991
### Adaptations
Gilbert adapted the stories of *H.M.S. Pinafore* and *The Mikado* into children\'s books called *The Pinafore Picture Book* and *The Story of The Mikado* giving, in some cases, backstory that is not found in the librettos. Many other children\'s books have since been written retelling the stories of the operas or adapting characters or events from them. In the 19th century, the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan songs and music were adapted as dance pieces.
Many musical theatre and film adaptations of the operas have been produced, including the following:
- *The Swing Mikado* (1938; Chicago -- all-black cast)
- *The Hot Mikado* (1939) and *Hot Mikado* (1986)
- *The Jazz Mikado* (1927, Berlin)
- *Hollywood Pinafore* (1945)
- *The Cool Mikado* (1962 film)
- *The Black Mikado* (1975)
- *Dick Deadeye, or Duty Done* (1975 animated film)
- *The Pirate Movie* (1982 film)
- *The Ratepayers\' Iolanthe* (1984; Olivier Award-winning musical) adapted by Ned Sherrin and Alistair Beaton
- *The Metropolitan Mikado* (political satire adapted by Sherrin and Beaton, first performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall (1985) starring Louise Gold, Simon Butteriss, Rosemary Ashe, Robert Meadmore and Martin Smith)
- *Di Yam Gazlonim* by Al Grand (1986; a Yiddish adaptation of *Pirates*; a New York production was nominated for a 2007 Drama Desk Award)
- *Pinafore! (A Saucy, Sexy, Ship-Shape New Musical)* (adapted by Mark Savage, first performed at the Celebration Theater in Los Angeles, California in 2001; only one character is female, and all but one of the male characters are gay.
- *Gondoliers*: A Mafia-themed adaptation of the opera, broadly rewritten by John Doyle and orchestrated and arranged Sarah Travis, was given at the Watermill Theatre and transferred to the Apollo Theatre in the West End in 2001. The production used Doyle\'s signature conceit of the actors playing their own orchestra instruments
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# Gallurese
**Gallurese** (*gadduresu*) is a Romance dialect of the Italo-Dalmatian family spoken in the region of Gallura, northeastern Sardinia. Gallurese is variously described as a distinct southern dialect of Corsican or transitional language of the dialect continuum between Corsican and Sardinian. \"Gallurese International Day\" (*Ciurrata Internaziunali di la Linga Gadduresa*) takes place each year in Palau (Sardinia) with the participation of orators from other areas, including Corsica.
Gallurese is generally considered a southern Corsican dialect, sharing close resemblance in morphology and vocabulary with the dialects of Sartene and Porto-Vecchio on Corsica, whereas its phonology and syntax are similar to those of Sardinian. One third of Gallurese vocabulary is also influenced by Logudorese Sardinian, Catalan, and Spanish.
The Sassarese language, spoken in the area of Sassari, shares similar transitional traits between Tuscan, Corsican and Sardinian but, in comparison with Gallurese, is definitely closer to the Logudorese dialects of Sardinian.
## History
The most ancient literary sources in Gallurese date back to the early 17th century, mainly as poetry and religious odes. Some late Middle Age fragments suggest that the formation of the language could be dated to the early 15th century. The origin and the development of Gallurese are debated. Max Leopold Wagner and Maurice Le Lannou argued that successive migration waves from Southern Corsica, promoted under the Aragonese rule to repopulate an area devastated by famine and pandemics, were crucial in the formation of a transitional language.
## Typical constitutional elements of Gallurese {#typical_constitutional_elements_of_gallurese}
- the plural form of nouns in *-i* (*ghjanni* or *polti* \'doors\') are like in Corsican and Italian, and not as in *-s* like in Sardinian (*jannas*, *portas*), French, Spanish, Catalan, etc.
- Latin \'ll\' has become *-dd-* (like *casteddu, coraddu* \'castle\', \'coral\'), the same as in Sardinian, southern Corsican and Sicilian (but *castellu, corallu* in northern Corsican);
- *-r-* modified to *-l-* (*poltu* \'port\', while *portu* in Corsican and Sardinian);
- *-chj-* and *-ghj-* sounds (*ghjesgia* \'church\', *occhji* \'eyes\'), like in Corsican, while Sardinian is *cresia, ogros*.
- articles *lu*, *la*, *li*, like in ancient Corsican dialects (*u*, *a*, *i* in modern Corsican, *su*, *sa*, *sos*, *sas* in Sardinian);
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# Gallurese
## Relation to Corsican {#relation_to_corsican}
Gallurese is classified by some linguists as a dialect of Corsican, and by others as a dialect of Sardinian. In any case, a great deal of similarity exists between Southern Corsican dialects and Gallurese, while there is relatively more distance from the neighbouring Sardinian varieties.
Concluding the debate speech, the Sardinian linguist Mauro Maxia stated as follows: `{{blockquote|From a historical and geographic point of view, Gallurese might be classed either under Corsican or Sardinian, in light of its presence specific to Sardinia for the last six-seven centuries. From a linguistic point of view, Gallurese might be defined as:
*Predominantly Corsican on a phono-morphological level;
*Predominantly Sardinian on a syntactic level;
*Predominantly Corsican on a lexical level, with a lot of Sardinian, Catalan, and Spanish words, making up around 1/3 of the total vocabulary.
Gallurese is less Corsican than many scholars make it out to be. What makes Gallurese a different language from Corsican, rather than a Corsican dialect, are many grammatical features, especially related to syntax, and the significant number of Sardinian, Catalan and Spanish loanwords.
It can be therefore claimed that, from a grammatical and lexical point of view, Gallurese is a transitional language between Corsican and Sardinian.|Mauro Maxia, Seminar on the Gallurese language, Palau 2014}}`{=mediawiki}
The Regional Government of Sardinia has recognized Gallurese, along with Sassarese as separate languages, distinct from Sardinian.
### Sample of text {#sample_of_text}
An excerpt from a hymn dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
+------------------+-------------------+-----------+-----------+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Standard Italian | Southern Corsican | Gallurese | Sassarese | Logudorese Sardinian | English translation |
+==================+===================+===========+===========+======================+=====================================================================================================================================+
| | | | | | You were born of enchantment Delightful beauty The best of Luogosanto The most beautiful in Gallura. |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | You are so beautiful that every heart Falls in love with you A flower to my eyes The best one that there is. |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | I am old and grey And my time is passing by But I am always cheering up The same way as when you met me. |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | No matter how many fields I must till I will always honor Luogosanto For it is a land of enchantment For whoever comes to visit it. |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | The Patron of Gallura Is here for us in Luogosanto Crowned by hymns Such a splendid creature
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# List of glues
There are many adhesive substances that are considered or commonly referred to as *glue*. Historically, the term only referred to protein colloids prepared from animal flesh. The meaning has been extended to refer to any fluid adhesive. `{{Expand list|date=August 2008}}`{=mediawiki}
## Plant- and animal-based adhesives {#plant__and_animal_based_adhesives}
Type Subtypes Source(s) Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety Properties Shelf life Working time Setting Strength Solvents Uses Date
------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------ ------------------------- ---------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------
Roasted hydrocarbons Tar, pitch, and asphalt/ bitumen Made from plants (especially wood) or fossil hydrocarbons natural or artificial destructive distillation Hydrocarbon goo of no specific chemical formula Emits Volatile organic compounds, especially when heated health effects understudied (see Asphalt#Health and safety) dark, viscous, more flexible when heated Indefinite, may stiffen Indefinite Reversibly becomes more flexible and fluid when heated water-repellant, Sealant, hafting prehistoric
Mixed-protein glues Casein glue Milk, limestone and brine Milk curd is mixed with alkalis non-toxic (preservatives excepted) Once wet, 6--7 hours. \~4 hours for softwood, 8 for hardwood; must be under pressure for \>0.5-2 hrs tensile strength exceeds most woods, 2,200-3,00 pounds per square inch water-resistant, depending on alkalis used Woodworking, paper glue, fireproof laminates Medieval or earlier
Soybean glue As for casein glue, but using soy protein Soy protein is mixed with alkalis
Albumin glues (blood glues and egg albumin adhesive, EAA) blood (serum albumin) or eggs prehistoric
Gelatin glues hide glue, including rabbit-skin glue; bone glue, and fish glue including isinglass Animal connective tissue and bones hides are acid-treated, neutralized, and repeatedly soaked; the soaking-water is dried into chips hydrolyzed collagen Until it cools Thermoplastic. Somewhat brittle when set Water-soluble Cabinetmaking, bookbinding, lutherie, glue-size
Keratin glues Hoof glue and horn glue hooves of ungulates, animal horns Hooves or horns are fragmented, boiled into goo, and acidified partially- hydrolyzed keratin Until it cools Thermoplastic. Hardens as it cools, but does not become brittle Gluing and stiffening textiles, cabinetmaking, glass sealant
Fibrin glue human fibrinogen and human thrombin when two parts are mixed, they form fibrin 10--60 seconds converts to fibrin Medicine
Waxes Beeswax made by insects
Starch glues potato starch, rice glue, wheatpaste starches (plant energy-storage chemicals) Starch may be purified before being mixed with water; leaving gluten in makes a more permanent bond
Dextrin glues British gum, Coccoina usually derived from potato starch mid-19th century
Polysaccharide glues mucilage, agar, algin
Tree gums/resins Balsam (fir) resins, such as Canada balsam, Dammar gum, Gum Arabic (also called acacia gum), Mastic
Latex rubber cement (cow gum) latex, a coagulating plant fluid, also made synthetically latex is dissolved in an organic solvent organic solvent evaporates as it sets solvent may be hazardous; latex is an allergen
Methyl cellulose cellulose, a plant structural material, and methyl chloride heating cellulose with an alkali and reacting it with methyl chloride
## Solvent-type glues {#solvent_type_glues}
Solvent adhesives temporarily dissolve the substance they are gluing, and bond by solvent-welding material together with the re-solidified material.
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th scope="col" width="20"><p>Type</p></th>
<th scope="col" width="20"><p>Subtypes</p></th>
<th scope="col" width="50"><p>Source(s)</p></th>
<th><p>Manufacture</p></th>
<th scope="col" width="250"><p>Chemistry</p></th>
<th scope="col" width="200"><p>Volatiles</p></th>
<th style="text-align: center;" scope="col" width="100"><p>Safety</p></th>
<th scope="col" width="80"><p>Properties</p></th>
<th><p>Shelf life</p></th>
<th><p>Working time</p></th>
<th><p>Setting</p></th>
<th><p>Strength</p></th>
<th><p>Solvents</p></th>
<th scope="col" width="30"><p>Uses</p></th>
<th scope="col" width="30"><p>Date</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td rowspan="2"><p>Ketones</p></td>
<td><p>Acetone</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>dissolves ABS plastic</p></td>
<td><p>it is volatile</p></td>
<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Polystyrene cement/Butanone/methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>dissolves polystyrene</p></td>
<td><p>it is volatile</p></td>
<td style="text-align: center;"><p>Vapour is heavier-than-air and explosive. Toxic, neuropsychological effects. Rapidly absorbed through undamaged skin and lungs. Produces toxic ozone.</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Dichloromethane</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>Dissolves:</p>
<ul>
<li>Polycarbonate</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), commonly called "acrylic glass" among other brand names</li>
</ul></td>
<td><p>it is volatile, boiling at 39.6°C (103.3°F; 312.8K)</p></td>
<td style="text-align: center;"></td>
<td><p>Will also glue acrylic to wood. Clear, waterproof, exterior grades exist.</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>24 hours to set fully.</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
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# List of glues
## Synthetic glues {#synthetic_glues}
### Synthetic monomer glues {#synthetic_monomer_glues}
Type Subtypes Source(s) Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety Properties Shelf life Working time Setting Strength Solvents Uses Date
----------------------------------------------- ---------- ----------- ------------- ------------------- ----------- -------- ------------ ------------ -------------- --------- ---------- ---------- ------ ------
Acrylonitrile synthetic monomer
Cyanoacrylate (\"Superglue\", \"Krazy Glue\") synthetic monomer
Methyl acrylate (\"acrylic\") synthetic monomer
### Synthetic polymer glues {#synthetic_polymer_glues}
#### Thermoplastic polymers {#thermoplastic_polymers}
Thermoplastic glues including hot-melt adhesives cure reversibly as they cool, like the gelatin and keratin glues listed above. They frequently don\'t emit volatiles unless overheated.
Type Subtypes Source(s) Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety Properties Shelf life Setting Strength Solvents Uses Date
------------------------ ------------------------------------- ----------- ------------------------------------------------- --------------- ----------- -------- ------------ ------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- ---------- ------ ------
Ethylene-vinyl acetate synthetic polyethylene mixed with about 11% vinyl acetate
Polyolefins (polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.) synthetic thermosetting
Polyamides synthetic
Polyesters synthetic
Polyurethanes synthetic
Polycaprolactone synthetic biodegradable very low melting temperature, 40 - and heat conductivity means it can be moulded by hand. Can be used to mould itself.
- Styrene acrylic copolymer -- e.g. \"No More Nails\"
#### Thermosetting polymers {#thermosetting_polymers}
Thermosetting glues or thermosets cure irreversibly by polymerization. The polymerization can be triggered by heat or other radiation, or high pressure or a catalyst/hardener may be added.
Type Subtypes Source(s) Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety Properties Shelf life Working time Setting Strength Solvents Uses Date
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------- ----------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------- ----------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------- --------------- -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- ------
Phenol formaldehyde resins (PF), also called phenolic resins Resorcinol glue, Para tertiary butylphenol formaldehyde resin synthetic resorcinol or similar is mixed with phenol to make a resin; cured by adding formaldehyde offgasses phenol and formeldehyde phenol and formeldehyde are toxic, PTBPF causes contact allergies Temperature-, UV-, and microbe-resistant. No gap-filling; joint must fit tightly. Brown in colour, sands off. A few years, unmixed. Temperature-dependent. Will not cure at temperatures below 10 C. Needs to be clamped Structural Water-soluble until set, waterproof after. laminating plywood, especially for exterior use; woodworking
Urea-formaldehyde glue synthetic urea and formaldehyde offgasses urea and formeldehyde formeldehyde is toxic, urea is an irritant thermosetting
Polysulfides synthetic Will melt acrylic, polycarbonate, ABS and PVC plastic. Can be used to glue nylon, epoxy, and polyoxymethylene.
- Epoxy resins
- Epoxy putty
- Polyvinyls
- Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) Includes white glue (e.g
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# Gaussian elimination
In mathematics, **Gaussian elimination**, also known as **row reduction**, is an algorithm for solving systems of linear equations. It consists of a sequence of row-wise operations performed on the corresponding matrix of coefficients. This method can also be used to compute the rank of a matrix, the determinant of a square matrix, and the inverse of an invertible matrix. The method is named after Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777--1855). To perform row reduction on a matrix, one uses a sequence of elementary row operations to modify the matrix until the lower left-hand corner of the matrix is filled with zeros, as much as possible. There are three types of elementary row operations:
- Swapping two rows,
- Multiplying a row by a nonzero number,
- Adding a multiple of one row to another row.
Using these operations, a matrix can always be transformed into an upper triangular matrix (possibly bordered by rows or columns of zeros), and in fact one that is in row echelon form. Once all of the leading coefficients (the leftmost nonzero entry in each row) are 1, and every column containing a leading coefficient has zeros elsewhere, the matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form. This final form is unique; in other words, it is independent of the sequence of row operations used. For example, in the following sequence of row operations (where two elementary operations on different rows are done at the first and third steps), the third and fourth matrices are the ones in row echelon form, and the final matrix is the unique reduced row echelon form. $\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 3 & 1 & 9 \\
1 & 1 & -1 & 1 \\
3 & 11 & 5 & 35
\end{bmatrix}\to
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 3 & 1 & 9 \\
0 & -2 & -2 & -8 \\
0 & 2 & 2 & 8
\end{bmatrix}\to
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 3 & 1 & 9 \\
0 & -2 & -2 & -8 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{bmatrix}\to
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 & -2 & -3 \\
0 & 1 & 1 & 4 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{bmatrix}$
Using row operations to convert a matrix into reduced row echelon form is sometimes called **`{{vanchor|Gauss–Jordan elimination}}`{=mediawiki}**. In this case, the term *Gaussian elimination* refers to the process until it has reached its upper triangular, or (unreduced) row echelon form. For computational reasons, when solving systems of linear equations, it is sometimes preferable to stop row operations before the matrix is completely reduced.
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# Gaussian elimination
## Definitions and example of algorithm {#definitions_and_example_of_algorithm}
The process of row reduction makes use of elementary row operations, and can be divided into two parts. The first part (sometimes called forward elimination) reduces a given system to row echelon form, from which one can tell whether there are no solutions, a unique solution, or infinitely many solutions. The second part (sometimes called back substitution) continues to use row operations until the solution is found; in other words, it puts the matrix into reduced row echelon form.
Another point of view, which turns out to be very useful to analyze the algorithm, is that row reduction produces a matrix decomposition of the original matrix. The elementary row operations may be viewed as the multiplication on the left of the original matrix by elementary matrices. Alternatively, a sequence of elementary operations that reduces a single row may be viewed as multiplication by a Frobenius matrix. Then the first part of the algorithm computes an LU decomposition, while the second part writes the original matrix as the product of a uniquely determined invertible matrix and a uniquely determined reduced row echelon matrix.
### Row operations {#row_operations}
There are three types of elementary row operations which may be performed on the rows of a matrix:
1. Interchanging two rows.
2. Multiplying a row by a non-zero scalar.
3. Adding a scalar multiple of one row to another.
If the matrix is associated to a system of linear equations, then these operations do not change the solution set. Therefore, if one\'s goal is to solve a system of linear equations, then using these row operations could make the problem easier.
### Echelon form {#echelon_form}
For each row in a matrix, if the row does not consist of only zeros, then the leftmost nonzero entry is called the *leading coefficient* (or *pivot*) of that row. So if two leading coefficients are in the same column, then a row operation of type 3 could be used to make one of those coefficients zero. Then by using the row swapping operation, one can always order the rows so that for every non-zero row, the leading coefficient is to the right of the leading coefficient of the row above. If this is the case, then matrix is said to be in row echelon form. So the lower left part of the matrix contains only zeros, and all of the zero rows are below the non-zero rows. The word \"echelon\" is used here because one can roughly think of the rows being ranked by their size, with the largest being at the top and the smallest being at the bottom.
For example, the following matrix is in row echelon form, and its leading coefficients are shown in red: $\begin{bmatrix}
0 & \color{red}{\mathbf{2}} & 1 & -1 \\
0 & 0 & \color{red}{\mathbf{3}} & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{bmatrix}.$
It is in echelon form because the zero row is at the bottom, and the leading coefficient of the second row (in the third column), is to the right of the leading coefficient of the first row (in the second column).
A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if furthermore all of the leading coefficients are equal to 1 (which can be achieved by using the elementary row operation of type 2), and in every column containing a leading coefficient, all of the other entries in that column are zero (which can be achieved by using elementary row operations of type 3).
| 592 |
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| 1 |
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# Gaussian elimination
## Definitions and example of algorithm {#definitions_and_example_of_algorithm}
### Example of the algorithm {#example_of_the_algorithm}
Suppose the goal is to find and describe the set of solutions to the following system of linear equations: $\begin{alignat}{4}
2x &{}+{}& y &{}-{}& z &{}={}& 8 & \qquad (L_1) \\
-3x &{}-{}& y &{}+{}& 2z &{}={}& -11 & \qquad (L_2) \\
-2x &{}+{}& y &{}+{}& 2z &{}={}& -3 & \qquad (L_3)
\end{alignat}$
The table below is the row reduction process applied simultaneously to the system of equations and its associated augmented matrix. In practice, one does not usually deal with the systems in terms of equations, but instead makes use of the augmented matrix, which is more suitable for computer manipulations. The row reduction procedure may be summarized as follows: eliminate `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki} from all equations below `{{math|''L''<sub>1</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}, and then eliminate `{{mvar|y}}`{=mediawiki} from all equations below `{{math|''L''<sub>2</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}. This will put the system into triangular form. Then, using back-substitution, each unknown can be solved for.
: {\| class=\"wikitable\"
\|- ! System of equations !! Row operations !! Augmented matrix \|- align=\"center\" \| $\begin{alignat}{4}
2x &{}+{}& y &{}-{}& z &{}={}& 8 & \\
-3x &{}-{}& y &{}+{}& 2z &{}={}& -11 & \\
-2x &{}+{}& y &{}+{}& 2z &{}={}& -3 &
\end{alignat}$ \| \| $\left[\begin{array}{rrr|r}
2 & 1 & -1 & 8 \\
-3 & -1 & 2 & -11 \\
-2 & 1 & 2 & -3
\end{array}\right]$ \|- align=\"center\" \| $\begin{alignat}{4}
2x &{}+{}& y &{}-{}& z &{}={}& 8 & \\
& & \tfrac12 y &{}+{}& \tfrac12 z &{}={}& 1 & \\
& & 2y &{}+{}& z &{}={}& 5 &
\end{alignat}$ \| $\begin{align}
L_2 + \tfrac32 L_1 &\to L_2 \\
L_3 + L_1 &\to L_3
\end{align}$ \| $\left[\begin{array}{rrr|r}
2 & 1 & -1 & 8 \\
0 & \frac12 & \frac12 & 1 \\
0 & 2 & 1 & 5
\end{array}\right]$ \|- align=\"center\" \| $\begin{alignat}{4}
2x &{}+{}& y &{}-{}& z &{}={}& 8 & \\
& & \tfrac12 y &{}+{}& \tfrac12 z &{}={}& 1 & \\
& & & & -z &{}={}& 1 &
\end{alignat}$ \| $L_3 + -4 L_2 \to L_3$ \| $\left[\begin{array}{rrr|r}
2 & 1 & -1 & 8 \\
0 & \frac12 & \frac12 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & -1 & 1
\end{array}\right]$ \|- \|colspan=3 align=\"center\"\| The matrix is now in echelon form (also called triangular form) \|- align=\"center\" \| $\begin{alignat}{4}
2x &{}+{}& y & & &{}={} 7 & \\
& & \tfrac12 y & & &{}={} \tfrac32 & \\
& & &{}-{}& z &{}={} 1 &
\end{alignat}$ \| $\begin{align}
L_1 - L_3 &\to L_1\\
L_2 + \tfrac12 L_3 &\to L_2
\end{align}$ \| $\left[\begin{array}{rrr|r}
2 & 1 & 0 & 7 \\
0 & \frac12 & 0 & \frac32 \\
0 & 0 & -1 & 1
\end{array}\right]$ \|- align=\"center\" \| $\begin{alignat}{4}
2x &{}+{}& y &\quad& &{}={}& 7 & \\
& & y &\quad& &{}={}& 3 & \\
& & &\quad& z &{}={}& -1 &
\end{alignat}$ \| $\begin{align}
2 L_2 &\to L_2 \\
-L_3 &\to L_3
\end{align}$ \| $\left[\begin{array}{rrr|r}
2 & 1 & 0 & 7 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 3 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & -1
\end{array}\right]$ \|- align=\"center\" \| $\begin{alignat}{4}
x &\quad& &\quad& &{}={}& 2 & \\
&\quad& y &\quad& &{}={}& 3 & \\
&\quad& &\quad& z &{}={}& -1 &
\end{alignat}$ \| $\begin{align}
L_1 - L_2 &\to L_1 \\
\tfrac12 L_1 &\to L_1
\end{align}$ \| $\left[\begin{array}{rrr|r}
1 & 0 & 0 & 2 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 3 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & -1
\end{array}\right]$ \|}
The second column describes which row operations have just been performed. So for the first step, the `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki} is eliminated from `{{math|''L''<sub>2</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} by adding `{{math|{{sfrac|3|2}}''L''<sub>1</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{math|''L''<sub>2</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}. Next, `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki} is eliminated from `{{math|''L''<sub>3</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} by adding `{{math|''L''<sub>1</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{math|''L''<sub>3</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}. These row operations are labelled in the table as $\begin{align}
L_2 + \tfrac32 L_1 &\to L_2, \\
L_3 + L_1 &\to L_3.
\end{align}$
Once `{{mvar|y}}`{=mediawiki} is also eliminated from the third row, the result is a system of linear equations in triangular form, and so the first part of the algorithm is complete. From a computational point of view, it is faster to solve the variables in reverse order, a process known as back-substitution. One sees the solution is `{{math|1=''z'' = −1}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{math|1=''y'' = 3}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{math|1=''x'' = 2}}`{=mediawiki}. So there is a unique solution to the original system of equations.
Instead of stopping once the matrix is in echelon form, one could continue until the matrix is in *reduced* row echelon form, as it is done in the table. The process of row reducing until the matrix is reduced is sometimes referred to as Gauss--Jordan elimination, to distinguish it from stopping after reaching echelon form.
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# Gaussian elimination
## History
The method of Gaussian elimination appears -- albeit without proof -- in the Chinese mathematical text Chapter Eight: *Rectangular Arrays* of *The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art*. Its use is illustrated in eighteen problems, with two to five equations. The first reference to the book by this title is dated to 179 AD, but parts of it were written as early as approximately 150 BC. It was commented on by Liu Hui in the 3rd century.
According to Grcar solution of linear equations by elimination was invented independently in several cultures in Eurasia starting from antiquity and in Europe definite examples of procedure were published already by late Renaissance (in 1550\'s). It is quite possible that already then the procedure was considered by mathematicians elementary and in no need to explanation for professionals, so we may never learn its detailed history except that by then it was practiced in at least several places in Europe.
The method in Europe stems from the notes of Isaac Newton. In 1670, he wrote that all the algebra books known to him lacked a lesson for solving simultaneous equations, which Newton then supplied. Cambridge University eventually published the notes as *Arithmetica Universalis* in 1707 long after Newton had left academic life. The notes were widely imitated, which made (what is now called) Gaussian elimination a standard lesson in algebra textbooks by the end of the 18th century. Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1810 devised a notation for symmetric elimination that was adopted in the 19th century by professional hand computers to solve the normal equations of least-squares problems. The algorithm that is taught in high school was named for Gauss only in the 1950s as a result of confusion over the history of the subject.
Some authors use the term *Gaussian elimination* to refer only to the procedure until the matrix is in echelon form, and use the term Gauss--Jordan elimination to refer to the procedure which ends in reduced echelon form. The name is used because it is a variation of Gaussian elimination as described by Wilhelm Jordan in 1888. However, the method also appears in an article by Clasen published in the same year. Jordan and Clasen probably discovered Gauss--Jordan elimination independently.
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# Gaussian elimination
## Applications
Historically, the first application of the row reduction method is for solving systems of linear equations. Below are some other important applications of the algorithm.
### Computing determinants {#computing_determinants}
To explain how Gaussian elimination allows the computation of the determinant of a square matrix, we have to recall how the elementary row operations change the determinant:
- Swapping two rows multiplies the determinant by −1
- Multiplying a row by a nonzero scalar multiplies the determinant by the same scalar
- Adding to one row a scalar multiple of another does not change the determinant.
If Gaussian elimination applied to a square matrix `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} produces a row echelon matrix `{{mvar|B}}`{=mediawiki}, let `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} be the product of the scalars by which the determinant has been multiplied, using the above rules. Then the determinant of `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} is the quotient by `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} of the product of the elements of the diagonal of `{{mvar|B}}`{=mediawiki}: $\det(A) = \frac{\prod\operatorname{diag}(B)}{d}.$
Computationally, for an `{{math|''n'' × ''n''}}`{=mediawiki} matrix, this method needs only `{{math|[[O notation|O(''n''<sup>3</sup>)]]}}`{=mediawiki} arithmetic operations, while using Leibniz formula for determinants requires $(n\, n!)$ operations (number of summands in the formula times the number of multiplications in each summand), and recursive Laplace expansion requires `{{math|O(''n'' 2<sup>''n''</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki} operations if the sub-determinants are memorized for being computed only once (number of operations in a linear combination times the number of sub-determinants to compute, which are determined by their columns). Even on the fastest computers, these two methods are impractical or almost impracticable for `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} above 20.
### Finding the inverse of a matrix {#finding_the_inverse_of_a_matrix}
A variant of Gaussian elimination called **Gauss--Jordan elimination** can be used for finding the inverse of a matrix, if it exists. If `{{math|''A''}}`{=mediawiki} is an `{{math|''n'' × ''n''}}`{=mediawiki} square matrix, then one can use row reduction to compute its inverse matrix, if it exists. First, the `{{math|''n'' × ''n''}}`{=mediawiki} identity matrix is augmented to the right of `{{math|''A''}}`{=mediawiki}, forming an `{{math|''n'' × 2''n''}}`{=mediawiki} block matrix `{{math|[''A'' {{!}}`{=mediawiki} *I*\]}}. Now through application of elementary row operations, find the reduced echelon form of this `{{math|''n'' × 2''n''}}`{=mediawiki} matrix. The matrix `{{math|''A''}}`{=mediawiki} is invertible if and only if the left block can be reduced to the identity matrix `{{math|''I''}}`{=mediawiki}; in this case the right block of the final matrix is `{{math|''A''<sup>−1</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}. If the algorithm is unable to reduce the left block to `{{math|''I''}}`{=mediawiki}, then `{{math|''A''}}`{=mediawiki} is not invertible.
For example, consider the following matrix: $A =
\begin{bmatrix}
2 & -1 & 0 \\
-1 & 2 & -1 \\
0 & -1 & 2
\end{bmatrix}.$
To find the inverse of this matrix, one takes the following matrix augmented by the identity and row-reduces it as a 3 × 6 matrix: $[ A | I ] =
\left[\begin{array}{ccc|ccc}
2 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
-1 & 2 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & -1 & 2 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}\right].$
By performing row operations, one can check that the reduced row echelon form of this augmented matrix is $[ I | B ] =
\left[\begin{array}{rrr|rrr}
1 & 0 & 0 & \frac34 & \frac12 & \frac14 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & \frac12 & 1 & \frac12 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & \frac14 & \frac12 & \frac34
\end{array}\right].$
One can think of each row operation as the left product by an elementary matrix. Denoting by `{{math|''B''}}`{=mediawiki} the product of these elementary matrices, we showed, on the left, that `{{math|1=''BA'' = ''I''}}`{=mediawiki}, and therefore, `{{math|1=''B'' = ''A''<sup>−1</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}. On the right, we kept a record of `{{math|1=''BI'' = ''B''}}`{=mediawiki}, which we know is the inverse desired. This procedure for finding the inverse works for square matrices of any size.
### Computing ranks and bases {#computing_ranks_and_bases}
The Gaussian elimination algorithm can be applied to any `{{math|''m'' × ''n''}}`{=mediawiki} matrix `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki}. In this way, for example, some 6 × 9 matrices can be transformed to a matrix that has a row echelon form like $T=
\begin{bmatrix}
a & * & * & *& * & * & * & * & * \\
0 & 0 & b & * & * & * & * & * & * \\
0 & 0 & 0 & c & * & * & * & * & * \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & d & * & * \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & e \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{bmatrix},$ where the stars are arbitrary entries, and `{{math|''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ''d'', ''e''}}`{=mediawiki} are nonzero entries. This echelon matrix `{{mvar|T}}`{=mediawiki} contains a wealth of information about `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki}: the rank of `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} is 5, since there are 5 nonzero rows in `{{mvar|T}}`{=mediawiki}; the vector space spanned by the columns of `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} has a basis consisting of its columns 1, 3, 4, 7 and 9 (the columns with `{{math|''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ''d'', ''e''}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{mvar|T}}`{=mediawiki}), and the stars show how the other columns of `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} can be written as linear combinations of the basis columns.
All of this applies also to the reduced row echelon form, which is a particular row echelon format.
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# Gaussian elimination
## Computational efficiency {#computational_efficiency}
The number of arithmetic operations required to perform row reduction is one way of measuring the algorithm\'s computational efficiency. For example, to solve a system of `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} equations for `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} unknowns by performing row operations on the matrix until it is in echelon form, and then solving for each unknown in reverse order, requires `{{math|''n''(''n'' + 1)/2}}`{=mediawiki} divisions, `{{math|(2''n''<sup>3</sup> + 3''n''<sup>2</sup> − 5''n'')/6}}`{=mediawiki} multiplications, and `{{math|(2''n''<sup>3</sup> + 3''n''<sup>2</sup> − 5''n'')/6}}`{=mediawiki} subtractions, for a total of approximately `{{math|2''n''<sup>3</sup>/3}}`{=mediawiki} operations. Thus it has a *arithmetic complexity* (time complexity, where each arithmetic operation take a unit of time, independently of the size of the inputs) of `{{math|O(''n''<sup>3</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki}.
This complexity is a good measure of the time needed for the whole computation when the time for each arithmetic operation is approximately constant. This is the case when the coefficients are represented by floating-point numbers or when they belong to a finite field. If the coefficients are integers or rational numbers exactly represented, the intermediate entries can grow exponentially large, so the bit complexity is exponential. However, Bareiss\' algorithm is a variant of Gaussian elimination that avoids this exponential growth of the intermediate entries; with the same arithmetic complexity of `{{math|O(''n''<sup>3</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki}, it has a bit complexity of `{{math|O(''n''<sup>5</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki}, and has therefore a strongly-polynomial time complexity.
Gaussian elimination and its variants can be used on computers for systems with thousands of equations and unknowns. However, the cost becomes prohibitive for systems with millions of equations. These large systems are generally solved using iterative methods. Specific methods exist for systems whose coefficients follow a regular pattern (see system of linear equations).
### Bareiss algorithm {#bareiss_algorithm}
The first strongly-polynomial time algorithm for Gaussian elimination was published by Jack Edmonds in 1967. Independently, and almost simultaneously, Erwin Bareiss discovered another algorithm, based on the following remark, which applies to a division-free variant of Gaussian elimination.
In standard Gaussian elimination, one subtracts from each row $R_i$ below the pivot row $R_k$ a multiple of $R_k$ by $r_{i,k}/r_{k,k},$ where $r_{i,k}$ and $r_{k,k}$ are the entries in the pivot column of $R_i$ and $R_k,$ respectively.
Bareiss variant consists, instead, of replacing $R_i$ with $\frac{r_{k,k}R_i-r_{i,k}R_k}{r_{k-1,k-1}}.$ This produces a row echelon form that has the same zero entries as with the standard Gaussian elimination.
Bareiss\' main remark is that each matrix entry generated by this variant is the determinant of a submatrix of the original matrix.
In particular, if one starts with integer entries, the divisions occurring in the algorithm are exact divisions resulting in integers. So, all intermediate entries and final entries are integers. Moreover, Hadamard\'s inequality provides an upper bound on the absolute values of the intermediate and final entries, and thus a bit complexity of $\tilde O(n^5),$ using soft O notation.
Moreover, as an upper bound on the size of final entries is known, a complexity $\tilde O(n^4)$ can be obtained with modular computation followed either by Chinese remaindering or Hensel lifting.
As a corollary, the following problems can be solved in strongly polynomial time with the same bit complexity:
- Testing whether *m* given rational vectors are linearly independent
- Computing the determinant of a rational matrix
- Computing a solution of a rational equation system *Ax* = *b*
- Computing the inverse matrix of a nonsingular rational matrix
- Computing the rank of a rational matrix
### Numeric instability {#numeric_instability}
One possible problem is numerical instability, caused by the possibility of dividing by very small numbers. If, for example, the leading coefficient of one of the rows is very close to zero, then to row-reduce the matrix, one would need to divide by that number. This means that any error which existed for the number that was close to zero would be amplified. Gaussian elimination is numerically stable for diagonally dominant or positive-definite matrices. For general matrices, Gaussian elimination is usually considered to be stable, when using partial pivoting, even though there are examples of stable matrices for which it is unstable.
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# Gaussian elimination
## Generalizations
Gaussian elimination can be performed over any field, not just the real numbers.
Buchberger\'s algorithm is a generalization of Gaussian elimination to systems of polynomial equations. This generalization depends heavily on the notion of a monomial order. The choice of an ordering on the variables is already implicit in Gaussian elimination, manifesting as the choice to work from left to right when selecting pivot positions.
Computing the rank of a tensor of order greater than 2 is NP-hard. Therefore, if `{{math|[[P=NP|P ≠ NP]]}}`{=mediawiki}, there cannot be a polynomial time analog of Gaussian elimination for higher-order tensors (matrices are array representations of order-2 tensors).
## Pseudocode
As explained above, Gaussian elimination transforms a given `{{math|''m'' × ''n''}}`{=mediawiki} matrix `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} into a matrix in row-echelon form.
In the following pseudocode, `A[i, j]` denotes the entry of the matrix `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} in row `{{mvar|i}}`{=mediawiki} and column `{{mvar|j}}`{=mediawiki} with the indices starting from 1. The transformation is performed *in place*, meaning that the original matrix is lost for being eventually replaced by its row-echelon form.
`h := 1 /* `*`Initialization of the pivot row`*` */`\
`k := 1 /* `*`Initialization of the pivot column`*` */`\
\
**`while`**` h ≤ m `**`and`**` k ≤ n`\
` /* `*`Find the k-th pivot:`*` */`\
` i_max := ``argmax`` (i = h ... m, abs(A[i, k]))`\
` `**`if`**` A[i_max, k] = 0`\
` /* `*`No pivot in this column, pass to next column`*` */`\
` k := k + 1`\
` `**`else`**\
` `**`swap rows`**`(h, i_max)`\
` /* `*`Do for all rows below pivot:`*` */`\
` `**`for`**` i = h + 1 ... m:`\
` f := A[i, k] / A[h, k]`\
` /* `*`Fill with zeros the lower part of pivot column:`*` */`\
` A[i, k] := 0`\
` /* `*`Do for all remaining elements in current row:`*` */`\
` `**`for`**` j = k + 1 ... n:`\
` A[i, j] := A[i, j] - A[h, j] * f`\
` /* `*`Increase pivot row and column`*` */`\
` h := h + 1`\
` k := k + 1`
This algorithm differs slightly from the one discussed earlier, by choosing a pivot with largest absolute value. Such a *partial pivoting* may be required if, at the pivot place, the entry of the matrix is zero. In any case, choosing the largest possible absolute value of the pivot improves the numerical stability of the algorithm, when floating point is used for representing numbers.
Upon completion of this procedure the matrix will be in row echelon form and the corresponding system may be solved by back substitution
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# Gladstone Gander
**Gladstone Gander** is a cartoon character created in 1948 by Carl Barks for *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories*. He is an anthropomorphic gander (male goose) who possesses exceptionally good luck that grants him anything he desires as well as protecting him from any harm. This is in contrast to his cousin Donald Duck, who is often characterized for having bad luck. Gladstone is also a rival of Donald for the affection of Daisy Duck. Gladstone dresses in a very debonair way, often in a suit, and wearing a bow-tie, fedora, and spats. He has a wavy hairstyle which is depicted either as white or blonde. In the story \"Luck of the North\" (December 1949), he is described as having a brassy voice.
## Origin
Gladstone Gander first appeared in \"Wintertime Wager\" in *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories* #88 (January 1948), written and drawn by Carl Barks. In that story he arrives at Donald Duck\'s house during a freezing cold Christmas Day to remind him of a wager Donald made the previous summer; that he could swim in the Frozenbear Lake during Christmas Day or forfeit his house to Gladstone. Donald eventually loses the wager but Gladstone later on loses a wager of his own, brought to light by Daisy Duck, and thus Donald\'s house is returned to him.
Barks gradually developed Gladstone\'s personality and demeanor after his first appearance and used him quite frequently---in 24 stories between 1948 and 1953, the first five years of his existence. In his first three appearances in 1948 (\"Wintertime Wager\", \"Gladstone Returns\", \"Links Hijinks\"), he was portrayed as the mirror image of Donald: an obstinate braggart, perhaps just a little bit more arrogant, but did not yet have his characteristic luck. In his next two appearances, \"Rival Beachcombers\" and \"The Goldilocks Gambit\", Gladstone is portrayed as merely lazy and irritable, and also gullible. The breakthrough of his lucky streak occurs in 1949, within the adventure story \"Race to the South Seas!\" (*March of Comics* #41). In that story, Donald and his three nephews set sail on a rescue mission from Duckburg to a remote Pacific island on which Scrooge McDuck is believed to have stranded, in an attempt to gain their uncle\'s favor. For the same reason Gladstone is in hot pursuit as well, but because he was \"born lucky\" as Donald explains to his nephews, without lifting a finger, is having a much easier time than them.
His and Donald\'s rivalry over Daisy is established in \"Donald\'s Love Letters\" (1949), \"Wild About Flowers\" (1950), and \"Knightly Rivals\" (1951), and as potential heirs to Scrooge\'s fortune in \"Some Heir Over the Rainbow\" (1953). After that, Barks felt unable to develop the character further, finding him basically unsympathetic, and began using him less frequently. But by then, Gladstone had found a steady place in the Duck universe as one of the main established characters; frequently used by other writers and artists both in the Americas and Europe. He was first used by an artist other than Barks in 1951: \"Presents For All\" by Del Connell and Bob Moore. He appears as a main character in the Big Little Book series book \"Luck of the Ducks\" (1969).
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# Gladstone Gander
## Character
Gladstone\'s good luck defies probability and provides him with anything that would be to his benefit or enjoyment; as well as things he specifically wishes for, which are at times related to the plot of some stories. This could range from finding wallets and other valuables on the sidewalk to pieces of a ripped apart treasure map floating together in river to form it whole again; revealing the treasure\'s location. His good luck also protects him from any harm. At times he might not even know that a situation will work out in his favor in a later stage and by then often feeling confused or at times even thinking his luck has abandoned him; just to learn that it has been with him all along.
There have been various explanations for Gladstone\'s good luck over the years by various writers and artists. In Barks\' story \"Luck of the North\" Gladstone proclaims: \"I was born under a lucky star, and everything I do will bring me good fortune \[\...\].\" This is read from a horoscope book he owns which also has a map showing his lucky star conniving with the planet Neptunus. In many of the Italian comic books stories, Gladstone is bestowed with his luck because Fortuna, the goddess of fortune, is in love with him. In Don Rosa\'s story \"The Sign of the Triple Distelfink\" (1997), he added the fact that Gladstone was born on the day of his mother Daphne\'s birthday in 1920, under the protection sign of the Triple Distelfink, thus inheriting his mother\'s luck. In some stories he also uses good luck charms like lucky horseshoes or rabbits foots.
However, for all his luck, Gladstone has no achievements to be proud of and no true ambitions, as he is incapable of long-term planning. This is all because of that he does not have to make the slightest of efforts to get what he wants, as his good luck will just give it to him in the end. He also often does not learn any life lessons from any misfortunes he could experience. This leads him to be extremely lazy; at times even thinking that willfully wishing for something is hard work, and disconnected from the realities of ordinary life. All of this is in stark contrast to his relative Scrooge McDuck, who is also capable of taking advantage of opportunities but works hard to create situations favorable for him; is strongly motivated by his ambitions and takes pride in forming his fortune by his own efforts and experiences. Instead, Gladstone often shows pride in his effortlessness and expresses great anxiety if he would betray those ideals. This is something first explored in more detail in Carl Barks\'s story \"Gladstone\'s Terrible Secret\" (May, 1952). Comic artist and writer Don Rosa has commented about this on the character: \"Gladstone is unwilling to make the slightest effort to gain something that his luck cannot give him, and, when things go wrong, he resigns immediately, certain that around the next corner a wallet, dropped by a passer-by, will be waiting for him\". Gladstone feels open contempt towards work of any kind, claiming it is beneath him, to the point of hesitating to help others even if it is to his own advantage, claiming that it seems alarmingly like work.
Also because of his good fortune, Gladstone is most often characterized to be very snobbish and a gloat; especially (and in some stories exclusively) toward his cousin Donald to whom he also can be very aggravating. For all of these reasons, he and Donald have formed an intense rivalry with each other. Gladstone\'s outrageous luck and boastfulness toward his cousin, combined with Donald\'s own ego and belief he can still best him despite all odds --- or as Don Rosa\'s version of Donald comments, \"Donald\'s eternal tendency towards self-destruction\" --- have set the stage for many stories featuring the two cousins\' confrontations. They have, however, worked together or at least tolerated each other at times, but this is very rare and not without some tension that easily can turn into their ordinary rivalry.
Occasionally, he is a rival to Scrooge McDuck himself who resents his complete reliance on his uncanny good luck. In such stories, often the only way Gladstone can be believably defeated is to have him win by the letter of the original story preset while the heroes later on take the bigger prize. In Carl Barks\' story \"The Golden Nugget Boat\" (*Uncle Scrooge* #35, September 1961), Gladstone and Scrooge are competing in a gold prospecting contest in which Gladstone finds a gold nugget the nephews fashioned from a gold item Scrooge already owns to stop him from killing himself from overexertion in the contest. Gladstone finds the nugget and returns to win, but Scrooge and his nephews then find a much bigger nugget they are able to fashion into a boat to return to civilization afterward with a monetary worth that is easily more than Gladstone\'s find. Another instance of this with his rivalry with Donald was in the \"Salmon Derby\" (*Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories* #167, August 1954), where Gladstone catches the biggest fish and wins a new car but Donald manages to save a wealthy tycoon\'s daughter and is able to purchase a much bigger car. Another instance was when both Donald and Gladstone were competing for a job as a cameraman for a nature film director because Daisy was the director\'s assistant, Gladstone got the job but wished he had not because he wound up trudging through a swamp to film giant spiders while Daisy stayed behind in America, with Donald.
In more modern stories where he takes a more protagonistic role, writers most often downplay his unlikability to make him more relatable. For example, showing that he can learn from potential bad experiences, even if they never would become reality, and put more emphasis on his love for his family, even if he at times has a hard time expressing these feelings.
In many stories, Gladstone is also considered among the prime candidates for Scrooge McDuck\'s succession. In \"Some Heir Over the Rainbow\" (*Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories* #155, August 1953) by Carl Barks, Scrooge gives \$1,000 to Donald, Gladstone, and Huey, Dewey and Louie to determine how they use it in order to be the most suitable heir to his fortune. Gladstone thinks of using the money to buy a television set until he finds a raffle ticket, in which he decides to save the money by placing it in a tree. Scrooge is unimpressed that Gladstone did not increase the money at all, but acknowledges that at least he still \"had\" it. Huey, Dewey, and Louie infuriate Scrooge by investing their money in what Scrooge assumes was a scam. Finally, Scrooge thinks to himself, \"I guess my heir will have to be Gladstone Gander! \.... What an awful injustice to the world!\" Soon afterwards, however, the children\'s decision proves to be the wisest, and they become Scrooge\'s heirs instead of Gladstone.
He is a rival of Donald for the love of his girlfriend Daisy Duck. This is often portrayed either by showing Daisy uncertain of which one she likes the most or; the more common version, that she is angry with Donald and goes out with Gladstone instead to make Donald jealous. In modern comics this love-triangle is at times often more downplayed. However, despite having an eternal crush on Daisy Duck, Gladstone has appeared in love with other duck girls in Italian and Danish comic stories. One of those is Linda Paper, who really conquered Gladstone, making him want to give up all his luck, since she is unlucky and absolutely hates lucky people. She appeared in two subsequent comic stories. Another is Feather Mallard, who is as lucky as Gladstone but whenever they are together they are instead experiencing bad luck. A number of recent Italian stories feature Gladstone\'s protector goddess Fortuna appearing in person. She appears in one noteworthy tale, \"Gastone e il debole dalla Fortuna\" (\"Gladstone and the Struck of Luck\"), by Enrico Faccini and Augusto Macchetto, first published on March 24, 1998. In this story, the Goddess takes mortal guise in order to be able to date her favorite gander, and appears to be love-struck with him. Although Gladstone competes for Daisy\'s attention and affection with Donald and often loses, he reassures himself that at least he still has his extraordinary luck, because in the end he is a hedonist and the only person he really adores is himself.
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# Gladstone Gander
## Character
His exact relation to the Duck Family Tree at its early stages was somewhat uncertain. In Carl Barks\' original version of the family tree from the 1950s, Gladstone was the son of Luke the Goose and Daphne Duck who died by overeating at a free-lunch picnic. He was later adopted by Matilda McDuck and Goosetave Gander. Later, Barks is reported to have done away with the adoption, which was never featured in any story. (Of course, no stories denying the event were published.) In a more recent version of the family tree created by Don Rosa, with input from Barks, it was established that Daphne Duck (Donald\'s paternal aunt) married Goostave Gander and the two were Gladstone\'s parents. This is consistent with what Gladstone says in \"Race to the South Seas\": \"Scrooge McDuck is my mother\'s brother\'s brother-in-law\".
Gladstone has a nephew named **Shamrock Gladstone** who shares his propensity for luck. He also has a con artist cousin (not on Donald\'s side of the family) named **Disraeli Duck**.
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# Gladstone Gander
## Animation
Gladstone makes two speaking appearances in the animated series *DuckTales*, where he was voiced by Rob Paulsen. In these episodes he is not characterized as much of a braggart he is in the comics but rather focusing much more on his care-free nature, and additionally acting a bit more foolishly. In the episode \"Dime Enough for Luck\", Gladstone is an unwitting stooge for Magica De Spell in one of her attempts to steal Scrooge\'s Number One Dime. He returns in the episode \"Dr. Jekyll & Mr. McDuck\", where he accidentally bids on an item that turns out to be valuable. This inspires Scrooge to bid on the next item---a trunk containing Dr. Jekyll\'s formula---which sets the plot in motion. He also makes non-speaking cameo appearances in the episodes \"Sweet Duck of Youth\" and \"Till Nephews Do Us Part\", as well in episode of *House of Mouse* titled \"Goofy For A Day\". Gladstone appears in the 2000 video game *Donald Duck: Goin\' Quackers* in his traditional role of Donald\'s rival for Daisy\'s affection, and every time a Boss Battle is about to start, Gladstone greets Donald, but always gets hurt, becoming squished by a giant bird, getting knocked off a building by a wrecking ball, being sent crashing to the bottom of a haunted mansion, and even gets sent back to Duckburg inside a pipe, and every time he gets hurt, he says that he has found a nickel. He also appears in the *DuckTales* reboot, first appearing in the episode \"The House of the Lucky Gander!\". In this series, he is voiced by Paul F. Tompkins. This series brings his personality far closer to how he acts in the comics, although it is implied that he is genuinely unaware of how arrogant he is
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# Gordon Michael Woolvett
**Gordon Michael Woolvett** (born 1970) is a Canadian actor from Hamilton, Ontario.
## Career
Woolvett\'s most enduring role was as Seamus Zelazny Harper on the television series *Andromeda* (2000--2005). Prior to *Andromeda* he starred in another science fiction television series, *Deepwater Black* (known as *Mission Genesis* in the US). He was also credited as playing Mitch in the \"Pariah\" episode of the short-lived 1980s science-fiction/action series *Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future*. He was in two episodes of *Psi Factor: Chronicles of the Paranormal*.
Woolvett was one of the first program jockeys for YTV\'s *The Zone* (then called *The After-School Zone*) and the original main host for a program called *Video & Arcade Top 10* which also aired on YTV. He acted in the 1999 made-for-TV film *Ultimate Deception* with Yasmine Bleeth. He also appeared on the Canadian television series *The Guard*, which aired from 2008 to 2009 on Global Television Network.
In 1992, Woolvett was nominated for the Gemini Award for Best Performance by a Supporting Actor for his role in *Princes in Exile* (1990). He directed the documentary *Around the World in 80 Anthems*, which won Best Documentary at the seventh International Film Festival Manhattan in 2017.
In 2020, Woolvett began teaching acting, improv, scene study, movie making, screenwriting and performance to young actors aged 9--18 on the Outschool homeschooling platform.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Woolvett was born in 1970 in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. He married Michele Morand on January 15, 2000. His brother is actor Jaimz Woolvett. He has three children.`{{better source needed|date=February 2022|reason=existing source is a 'gossip site' with grammar errors, suggesting lack of editorial oversight}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Gordon Michael Woolvett
## Filmography
### Film
Year Title Role Notes
------ ------------------------------------------------------- --------------- -------
1985 *Joshua Now and Then* Teddy Shapiro
1990 *Princes in Exile* Louis
1992 *Bordertown Café* Jimmy
1995 *Rude* Ricky
1996 *`{{sortname|The|Legend of Gator Face}}`{=mediawiki}* Chip
1998 *Shadow Builder* Larry Eggers
1998 *Clutch* Spit
1998 *Bride of Chucky* David Collins
2000 *`{{sortname|The|Highwayman|nolink=1}}`{=mediawiki}* Walter
2006 *Everything\'s Gone Green* Spike
2014 *Down Here* Coach Randall
### Television
Year Title Role Notes
------------ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
1984 *`{{sortname|The|Edison Twins}}`{=mediawiki}* Dave \"Diamonds\"
1986 *Act of Vengeance* Bobby TV film
1986 *9B* Kevin TV film
1987 *Air Waves* Greg \"Happy 16th\", \"A Second Look\"
1987 *Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future* Mitch \"Pariah\"
1988 *Learning the Ropes* Brad Recurring role
1988 *My Secret Identity* Tim \"It Only Hurts for a Little While\"
1989 *T. and T.* Steve \"Thicker Than Water\"
1990 *`{{sortname|The|Campbells}}`{=mediawiki}* Henry Clay \"A Proposal of Marriage\"
1990 *`{{sortname|The|World's Oldest Living Bridesmaid|nolink=1}}`{=mediawiki}* Rodney TV film
1992 *E.N.G.* Nick \"To Kill with Kindness\"
1992 *Road to Avonlea* Rat \"When She Was Bad, She Was Horrid: Part 2\"
1992 *Maniac Mansion* John Cody \"Ike\'s New Buddy\"
1993 *Family Pictures* Soletski TV film
1993 *X-Rated* Tony Foster TV film (series pilot)
1993 *Wild Side Show* Host Season 2 \"13 episodes\"
1994 *`{{sortname|The|Mighty Jungle|The Mighty Jungle (American TV series)}}`{=mediawiki}* Peter \"Allison\'s Restaurant\"
1994 *Side Effects* Chris Stokes \"House of Caduceus\"
1994 *Forever Knight* Kyle \"Can\'t Run, Can\'t Hide\"
1995 *Mysterious Island* Herbert Pencroft Main role
1995 *Heritage Minutes* Young \"The Paris Crew\"
1996 *Sliders* Judge \"The Young and the Relentless\"
1996 *Gone in a Heartbeat* Paul Hackett TV film
1997 *F/X: The Series* Jules \"Bad Influence\"
1997 *Mission Genesis* Reb Andersen Main role
1997 *Promise the Moon* Little Jay TV film
1997 *Peacekeepers* Pte
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# Growth factor
A **growth factor** is a naturally occurring substance capable of stimulating cell proliferation, wound healing, and occasionally cellular differentiation. Usually it is a secreted protein or a steroid hormone. Growth factors are important for regulating a variety of cellular processes.
Growth factors typically act as signaling molecules between cells. Examples are cytokines and hormones that bind to specific receptors on the surface of their target cells.
They often promote cell differentiation and maturation, which varies between growth factors. For example, epidermal growth factor (EGF) enhances osteogenic differentiation (osteogenesis or bone formation), while fibroblast growth factors and vascular endothelial growth factors stimulate blood vessel differentiation (angiogenesis).
## Comparison to cytokines {#comparison_to_cytokines}
*Growth factor* is sometimes used interchangeably among scientists with the term *cytokine.* Historically, cytokines were associated with hematopoietic (blood and lymph forming) cells and immune system cells (e.g., lymphocytes and tissue cells from spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes). For the circulatory system and bone marrow in which cells can occur in a liquid suspension and not bound up in solid tissue, it makes sense for them to communicate by soluble, circulating protein molecules. However, as different lines of research converged, it became clear that some of the same signaling proteins which the hematopoietic and immune systems use were also being used by all sorts of other cells and tissues, during development and in the mature organism.
While *growth factor* implies a positive effect on cell proliferation, *cytokine* is a neutral term with respect to whether a molecule affects proliferation. While some cytokines can be growth factors, such as G-CSF and GM-CSF, others have an inhibitory effect on cell growth or cell proliferation. Some cytokines, such as Fas ligand, are used as \"death\" signals; they cause target cells to undergo programmed cell death or *apoptosis*.
The nerve growth factor (NGF) was first discovered by Rita Levi-Montalcini, which won her a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
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# Growth factor
## List of classes {#list_of_classes}
Individual growth factor proteins tend to occur as members of larger families of structurally and evolutionarily related proteins. There are many families, some of which are listed below:
- Adrenomedullin (AM)
- Angiopoietin (Ang)
- Autocrine motility factor
- Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)
- Ciliary neurotrophic factor family
- Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)
- Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)
- Interleukin-6 (IL-6)
- Colony-stimulating factors
- Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)
- Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)
- Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)
- Epidermal growth factor (EGF)
- Ephrins
- Ephrin A1
- Ephrin A2
- Ephrin A3
- Ephrin A4
- Ephrin A5
- Ephrin B1
- Ephrin B2
- Ephrin B3
- Erythropoietin (EPO)
- Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)
- Fibroblast growth factor 1(FGF1)
- Fibroblast growth factor 2(FGF2)
- Fibroblast growth factor 3(FGF3)
- Fibroblast growth factor 4(FGF4)
- Fibroblast growth factor 5(FGF5)
- Fibroblast growth factor 6(FGF6)
- Fibroblast growth factor 7(FGF7)
- Fibroblast growth factor 8(FGF8)
- Fibroblast growth factor 9(FGF9)
- Fibroblast growth factor 10(FGF10)
- Fibroblast growth factor 11(FGF11)
- Fibroblast growth factor 12(FGF12)
- Fibroblast growth factor 13(FGF13)
- Fibroblast growth factor 14(FGF14)
- Fibroblast growth factor 15(FGF15)
- Fibroblast growth factor 16(FGF16)
- Fibroblast growth factor 17(FGF17)
- Fibroblast growth factor 18(FGF18)
- Fibroblast growth factor 19(FGF19)
- Fibroblast growth factor 20(FGF20)
- Fibroblast growth factor 21(FGF21)
- Fibroblast growth factor 22(FGF22)
- Fibroblast growth factor 23(FGF23)
- Foetal Bovine Somatotrophin (FBS)
- GDNF family of ligands
- Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)
- Neurturin
- Persephin
- Artemin
- Growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF9)
- Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)
- Hepatoma-derived growth factor (HDGF)
- Insulin
- Insulin-like growth factors
- Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)
- Insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2)
- Interleukins
- IL-1- Cofactor for IL-3 and IL-6. Activates T cells.
- IL-2 -- T-cell growth factor. Stimulates IL-1 synthesis. Activates B-cells and NK cells.
- IL-3 -- Stimulates production of all non-lymphoid cells.
- IL-4 -- Growth factor for activated B cells, resting T cells, and mast cells.
- IL-5 -- Induces differentiation of activated B cells and eosinophils.
- IL-6 -- Stimulates Ig synthesis. Growth factor for plasma cells.
- IL-7 -- Growth factor for pre-B cells.
- Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF)
- Migration-stimulating factor (MSF)
- Macrophage-stimulating protein (MSP), also known as hepatocyte growth factor-like protein (HGFLP)
- Myostatin (GDF-8)
- Neuregulins
- Neuregulin 1 (NRG1)
- Neuregulin 2 (NRG2)
- Neuregulin 3 (NRG3)
- Neuregulin 4 (NRG4)
- Neurotrophins
- Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
- Nerve growth factor (NGF)
- Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3)
- Neurotrophin-4 (NT-4)
- Placental growth factor (PGF)
- Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
- Renalase (RNLS) -- Anti-apoptotic survival factor
- T-cell growth factor (TCGF)
- Thrombopoietin (TPO)
- Transforming growth factors
- Transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-α)
- Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)
- Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)
- Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
## In platelets {#in_platelets}
The alpha granules in blood platelets contain growth factors PDGF, IGF-1, EGF, and TGF-β which begin healing of wounds by attracting and activating macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells
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# Giuseppe Peano
**Giuseppe Peano** (`{{IPAc-en|p|i|ˈ|ɑː|n|oʊ}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{IPA|it|dʒuˈzɛppe peˈaːno|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 27 August 1858 -- 20 April 1932) was an Italian mathematician and glottologist. The author of over 200 books and papers, he was a founder of mathematical logic and set theory, to which he contributed much notation. The standard axiomatization of the natural numbers is named the Peano axioms in his honor. As part of this effort, he made key contributions to the modern rigorous and systematic treatment of the method of mathematical induction. He spent most of his career teaching mathematics at the University of Turin. He also created an international auxiliary language, Latino sine flexione (\"Latin without inflections\"), which is a simplified version of Classical Latin. Most of his books and papers are in Latino sine flexione, while others are in Italian.
## Biography
Peano was born and raised on a farm at Spinetta, a hamlet now belonging to Cuneo, Piedmont, Italy. He attended the Liceo classico Cavour in Turin, and enrolled at the University of Turin in 1876, graduating in 1880 with high honours, after which the University employed him to assist first Enrico D\'Ovidio, and then Angelo Genocchi, the Chair of calculus. Due to Genocchi\'s poor health, Peano took over the teaching of calculus course within two years. His first major work, a textbook on calculus entitled *Calcolo differenziale, e principii di calcolo integrale*, was published in 1884 and was credited to Genocchi. A few years later, Peano published his first book dealing with mathematical logic. Here the modern symbols for the union and intersection of sets appeared for the first time.
Peano joined Freemasonry. It is not known where he was initiated, but on December 24, 1885, he was affiliated as Master in the \"Dante Alighieri\" Masonic Lodge in Turin. Here he knew the Italian socialist and freemason Giovanni Lerda (1853-1927), a close collaborator of Cesare Lombroso.
In 1887, Peano married Carola Crosio, the daughter of the Turin-based painter Luigi Crosio, known for painting the *Refugium Peccatorum Madonna*. In 1886, he began teaching concurrently at the Royal Military Academy, and was promoted to Professor First Class in 1889. In that year he published the Peano axioms, a formal foundation for the collection of natural numbers. The next year, the University of Turin also granted him his full professorship. The Peano curve was published in 1890 as the first example of a space-filling curve which demonstrated that the unit interval and the unit square have the same cardinality. Today it is understood to be an early example of what is known as a fractal.
In 1890 Peano founded the journal *Rivista di Matematica*, which published its first issue in January 1891. In 1891 Peano started the Formulario Project. It was to be an \"Encyclopedia of Mathematics\", containing all known formulae and theorems of mathematical science using a standard notation invented by Peano. In 1897, the first International Congress of Mathematicians was held in Zürich. Peano was a key participant, presenting a paper on mathematical logic. He also started to become increasingly occupied with *Formulario* to the detriment of his other work.
In 1898 he presented a note to the Academy about binary numeration and its ability to be used to represent the sounds of languages. He also became so frustrated with publishing delays (due to his demand that formulae be printed on one line) that he purchased a printing press.
Paris was the venue for the Second International Congress of Mathematicians in 1900. The conference was preceded by the First International Conference of Philosophy where Peano was a member of the patronage committee. He presented a paper which posed the question of correctly formed definitions in mathematics, *i.e.* \"how do you define a definition?\". This became one of Peano\'s main philosophical interests for the rest of his life. At the conference, Peano met Bertrand Russell and gave him a copy of *Formulario*. Russell was struck by Peano\'s innovative logical symbols and after the conference, he retired to the country \"to study quietly every word written by him or his disciples\".
Peano\'s students Mario Pieri and Alessandro Padoa also had papers presented at the philosophy congress. For the mathematical congress, Peano did not speak, but Padoa\'s memorable presentation has been frequently recalled. A resolution calling for the formation of an \"international auxiliary language\" to facilitate the spread of mathematical (and commercial) ideas, was proposed; Peano fully supported it.
By 1901, Peano was at the peak of his mathematical career. He had made advances in the areas of analysis, foundations and logic, made many contributions to the teaching of calculus and also contributed to the fields of differential equations and vector analysis. Peano played a key role in the axiomatization of mathematics and was a leading pioneer in the development of mathematical logic. Peano had by this stage become heavily involved with the *Formulario* project and his teaching began to suffer. In fact, he became so determined to teach his new mathematical symbols that the calculus in his course was neglected. As a result, he was dismissed from the Royal Military Academy but retained his post at Turin University.
In 1903 Peano announced his work on an international auxiliary language called *Latino sine flexione* (\"Latin without inflexion,\" later called Interlingua, and the precursor of the Interlingua of the IALA). This was an important project for him (along with finding contributors for \'Formulario\'). The idea was to use Latin vocabulary, since this was widely known, but simplify the grammar as much as possible and remove all irregular and anomalous forms to make it easier to learn. On 3 January 1908, he read a paper to the *Academia delle Scienze di Torino* in which he started speaking in Latin and, as he described each simplification, introduced it into his speech so that by the end he was talking in his new language.
The year 1908 was important for Peano. The fifth and final edition of the *Formulario* project, titled *Formulario mathematico*, was published. It contained 4200 formulae and theorems, all completely stated and most of them proved. The book received little attention since much of the content was dated by this time. However, it remains a significant contribution to mathematical literature. The comments and examples were written in *Latino sine flexione*.
Also in 1908, Peano took over the chair of higher analysis at Turin (this appointment was to last for only two years). He was elected the director of *Academia pro Interlingua*. Having previously created Idiom Neutral, the Academy effectively chose to abandon it in favour of Peano\'s Latino sine flexione.
After his mother died in 1910, Peano divided his time between teaching, working on texts aimed for secondary schooling including a dictionary of mathematics, and developing and promoting his and other auxiliary languages, becoming a revered member of the international auxiliary language movement. He used his membership of the *Accademia dei Lincei* to present papers written by friends and colleagues who were not members (the Accademia recorded and published all presented papers given in sessions).
During the years 1913--1918, Peano published several papers that dealt with the remainder term for various numerical quadrature formulas, and introduced the Peano kernel.
In 1925 Peano switched Chairs unofficially from Infinitesimal Calculus to Complementary Mathematics, a field which better suited his current style of mathematics. This move became official in 1931. Giuseppe Peano continued teaching at Turin University until the day before he died when he suffered a fatal heart attack.
## Milestones and honours received {#milestones_and_honours_received}
- 1881: Published first paper.
- 1884: *Calcolo Differenziale e Principii di Calcolo Integrale*.
- 1887: *Applicazioni Geometriche del Calcolo Infinitesimale*.
- 1889: Appointed Professor First Class at the Royal Military Academy.
- 1889: *Arithmetices principia: nova methodo exposita.*
- 1890: Appointed Extraordinary Professor of infinitesimal calculus at the University of Turin.
- 1891: Made a member of the Academy of Science, Torino.
- 1893: *Lezioni di Analisi Infinitesimale*, 2 vols.
- 1895: Promoted to Ordinary Professor.
- 1901: Made Knight of the Order of Saints Maurizio and Lazzaro.
- 1903: Announces *Latino sine flexione*.
- 1905: Made Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy. Elected a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome, the highest Italian honour for scientists.
- 1908: Fifth and final edition of the *Formulario mathematico*.
- 1917: Made an Officer of the Crown of Italy.
- 1921: Promoted to Commendatore of the Crown of Italy
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# Gin and tonic
A **gin and tonic** is a highball cocktail made with gin and tonic water poured over a large amount of ice. The ratio of gin to tonic varies according to taste, strength of the gin, other drink mixers being added, etc., with most recipes calling for a ratio between 1:1 and 1:3. It is usually garnished with a slice or wedge of lime. To preserve effervescence, the tonic can be poured down a bar spoon. The ice cools the gin, dulling the effect of the alcohol in the mouth and making the drink more pleasant and refreshing to taste.
It is commonly referred to as a **G and T** in the UK, US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Ireland. In some parts of the world (e.g., in Germany, Italy, France, Japan, the Netherlands, Spain, Turkey), it is called a `{{nihongo|''gin tonic''|ジン・トニック|jin tonikku|lead=yes}}`{=mediawiki}. It is also referred to as *ginto* in the Netherlands, and as *GT* in the Nordics.
## Garnish and serving {#garnish_and_serving}
Gin and tonic is traditionally garnished with a slice or wedge of lime, often slightly squeezed into the drink before being placed in the glass. In most parts of the world, lime remains the only usual garnish; however, lemon is often used as an alternative fruit. In the United Kingdom, the use of both lemon and lime together is known as an \"Evans\". Although the origins of the use of lemons are unknown, their use dates back at least as far as the late 1930s. The use of lemon or lime is a debated issue -- some leading brands, such as Gordon\'s, Tanqueray, and Bombay Sapphire, recommend the use of lime in their gin.
The use of a balloon glass for serving gin has become popular, possibly through promotion by the Bombay Sapphire gin brand. The use of such a glass, with plenty of ice and a garnish tailored to the flavours of the gin, is sometimes said to allow the aromas of the drink to gather at its opening for the drinker to more easily appreciate.
The use of assorted fruits, herbs, and vegetables, as garnish (reflecting the botanicals of the individual gin), is increasingly popular. Besides the classic lime wheel or wedge, alternative garnishes can include orange peel, star anise, thyme, elderflower, a slice of ginger, pink grapefruit, rosemary, cucumber, mint, black peppercorns, strawberry and basil, strawberry syrup, or chillies. Fruits such as kumquats or other citrus or cucumber can be included.
## History
The cocktail was created by officers of the Presidency armies, the military force of the East India Company which operated on the Indian subcontinent. On the Indian subcontinent and in other tropical regions, malaria was a persistent problem for Europeans, and in the 18th century, Scottish doctor George Cleghorn studied how quinine, a traditional cure for malaria, could be used to prevent the disease. The quinine was drunk in tonic water but the bitter taste was unpleasant. Presidency armies officers in India in the early 19th century took to adding a mixture of water, sugar, lime and gin to the quinine in order to make the drink more palatable, and thus the gin and tonic cocktail was born. The officers were already given a gin ration as part of their rations, and the sweet concoction made sense. Since it is no longer used as an antimalarial, tonic water today contains much less quinine, is usually sweetened, and is consequently much less bitter.
A 2004 study found that after 12 hours, \"considerable quantities (500 to 1,000 ml) of tonic water may, for a short period of time, lead to quinine plasma levels at the lower limit of therapeutic efficacy and may, in fact, cause transitory suppression of parasites\". This method of consumption of quinine was impractical for malaria prophylaxis, as the amount of drug needed \"cannot be maintained with even large amounts of tonic\". The authors concluded that it is not an effective form of treatment for malaria.
## Variations
Mixers can include lime juice, lemon juice, orange juice and spiced simple syrup, grenadine, tea, etc.
A gin and tonic can also be mixed with a sorbet.
Some gin-and-tonic inspired drinks also have champagne (e.g., the Parisian), vermouth and Campari (e.g. the Negroni Sbagliato), vermouth and bitters (e.g., the Posh G&T), super smokey whiskey (e.g., the Ol\' Smokey), peach liqueur and grapefruit bitters (e.g., the Tonic Delight), mint bitters, and chocolate liqueur (e.g., the Guilty Pleasure), etc.
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# Gin and tonic
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
The trans-galactic nature of the gin and tonic is imagined in Douglas Adams\'s novel *The Restaurant at the End of the Universe*, which describes how \"85% of all known worlds in the Galaxy, be they primitive or highly advanced, have invented a drink called jynnan tonnyx, or gee-N\'N-T\'N-ix, or jinond-o-nicks, or any one of a thousand or more variations on the same phonetic theme. The drinks themselves are not the same, and vary between the Sivolvian \'chinanto/mnigs\' which is ordinary water served at slightly above room temperature, and the Gagrakackan \'tzjin-anthony-ks\' which kills cows at a hundred paces; and in fact the one common factor between all of them, beyond the fact that the names sound the same, is that they were all invented and named before the worlds concerned made contact with any other worlds.\"
In *Top Gear* and*The Grand Tour*, Jeremy Clarkson, James May, and Richard Hammond were known to be quite fond of the drink, and drank them on camera a number of times, in one case causing controversy when Jeremy Clarkson appeared to drink one whilst behind the wheel of a car driving to the North Pole. James May later teamed up with Hugh Anderson of Downton Distillery to create his own brand of gin, named James Gin.
James Bond specifies a recipe for a gin and tonic while in Kingston, Jamaica, in the book *Dr. No*. Unusually, it involves the juice of a whole lime.
In the BBC1 and Amazon Prime television series *Fleabag*, Fleabag and the Priest enjoy canned G&Ts from Marks and Spencer. The store reported a 24% increase in sales after the episodes aired.
Founded in 2010, International Gin & Tonic Day is celebrated worldwide on 19 October.
## Images
<File:Self-made> gin and tonic cropped.jpg\|Gin and tonic made with Bombay Sapphire London Dry Gin and Schweppes Indian Tonic, garnished with slices of lime <File:Gin> and tonic with lemon.jpg\|A gin and tonic with ice and lemon wedge <File:Crafter's> Gin and Tonic on a balcony.jpg\|Gin and tonic made from Estonian Crafter\'s Gin. The botanicals in the gin have turned the drink pink in colour <File:A> Gin Tonica with Fruit Garnish at Cappuccino Gin Bar in Salou, Spain, June-2013
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# Gimlet (tool)
A **gimlet** is a hand tool for drilling small holes, mainly in wood, without splitting. It was defined in Joseph Gwilt\'s *Architecture* (1859) as \"a piece of steel of a semi-cylindrical form, hollow on one side, having a cross handle at one end and a worm or screw at the other\".
A gimlet is always a small tool. A similar tool of larger size is called an auger. The cutting action of the gimlet is slightly different from an auger and the initial hole it makes is smaller; the cutting edges pare away the wood, which is moved out by the spiral sides, falling out through the entry hole. This also pulls the gimlet further into the hole as it is turned. Unlike a bradawl, pressure is not required once the tip has been drawn in.
The name *gimlet* comes from the Old French *guinbelet*, *guimbelet*, later *guibelet*, probably a diminutive of the Anglo-French *wimble*, a variation of \"guimble\", from the Middle Low German *wiemel* (cf. the Scandinavian *wammie*, \'to bore or twist\'). Modern French uses the term *vrille*, also the French for \"tendril\".
## Use as a metaphor {#use_as_a_metaphor}
The term is also used figuratively to describe something as sharp or piercing, along with describing the twisting, boring motion of using a gimlet. For example, the gimlet cocktail may be named after the tool. The term *gimlet-eyed* can mean sharp-eyed or squint-eyed. One example of this use is Major General Smedley Darlington Butler, who was known as \"Old Gimlet Eye\"
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# Gnumeric
**Gnumeric** is a spreadsheet program that is part of the GNOME Free Software Desktop Project. Gnumeric version 1.0 was released on 31 December 2001. Gnumeric is distributed as free software under the GNU General Public License; it is intended to replace proprietary spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Excel. Gnumeric was created and developed by Miguel de Icaza, but he has since moved on to other projects. The maintainer `{{as of|2002|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki} was Jody Goldberg.
## Features
Gnumeric has the ability to import and export data in several file formats, including CSV, Microsoft Excel (write support for the more recent `.xlsx` format is incomplete), Microsoft Works spreadsheets (`.wks`), HTML, LaTeX, Lotus 1-2-3, OpenDocument and Quattro Pro; its native format is the *Gnumeric file format* (`.gnm` or `.gnumeric`), an XML file compressed with gzip. It includes all of the spreadsheet functions of the North American edition of Microsoft Excel and many functions unique to Gnumeric. Pivot tables and Visual Basic for Applications macros are not yet supported.
Gnumeric\'s accuracy has helped it to establish a niche for statistical analysis and other scientific tasks. For improving the accuracy of Gnumeric, the developers are cooperating with the R Project.
Gnumeric has an interface for the creation and editing of graphs different from other spreadsheet software. For editing a graph, Gnumeric displays a window where all the elements of the graph are listed. Other spreadsheet programs typically require the user to select the individual elements of the graph in the graph itself in order to edit them
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# Galeon
**Galeon** is a discontinued Gecko-based web browser that was created by Marco Pesenti Gritti with the goal of delivering a consistent browsing experience to GNOME desktop environment. It gained some popularity in the early 2000s due to its speed, flexibility in configuration and features.
The disagreement over the future of Galeon split the development team in 2002, which resulted in the departure of the browser\'s initial author and several other developers. This event marked the beginning of the browser\'s popularity decline, which led to its discontinuation in September 2008. Some of Galeon\'s features were subsequently ported to Epiphany (now called Web) -- the descendant of Galeon.
## Features
Galeon made use of Gecko\'s features including configuration options and standards support. Apart from that, Galeon had several features that were uncommon in browsers at that time:
- mouse gestures
- configurable user agent string
- configurable display of favicons
- customizable toolbars
- configurable position of tab bar
- smart bookmarks with search history
- ability to specify own fonts and colors for web content
- configurable MIME types handler
- configurable history expiry
- page zooming
## Development history {#development_history}
The project was started by Marco Pesenti Gritti with the goal of creating a web browser that would be fast and consistent with the GNOME desktop environment. The first public version (Galeon 0.6) was released in June 2000.
### On the rise {#on_the_rise}
The first releases of Galeon were criticised for lack of such basic features as cookie and proxy support, though the browser added some features with every release. Version 1.2 of Galeon introduced many new features that drew attention of the general public.`{{Failed verification|date=September 2014}}`{=mediawiki}
At the time of Galeon\'s creation, the most popular Linux browsers, including Netscape and Mozilla, were large multi-functional programs. This made them slow to start and often impractical due to their high memory usage and processor requirements. Opera was somewhat faster, but it was proprietary software distributed in trialware and adware versions, both of which lacked some of the functionality of the Microsoft Windows version.
Galeon was widely seen as one of the best Linux browsers available. The polls revealed the substantial usage share of Galeon, though its popularity was regarded as owing to lack of stability evident in Mozilla\'s browsers.`{{Failed verification|date=September 2014}}`{=mediawiki}
### Split of the development team {#split_of_the_development_team}
With the release of new version of the GTK+ widget toolkit, which was used to construct the user interface of Galeon, the team decided to write a new version of Galeon from scratch. At the same time the GNOME project has adopted its new human interface guidelines, which promoted simplicity and uniform design. The Galeon team had differing opinions on the new guidelines. The author and lead developer, Marco Pesenti Gritti, endorsed them and saw the rewrite as an opportunity to make Galeon simpler. Many other developers believed that reducing the number of preferences and simplifying the user interface would harm the project.
In November 2002, as the result of several discussions on the topic Gritti made the decision to cease his work in Galeon and fork the project and started development of a HIG-compliant web browser he called *Epiphany* (now known as Web).
### After the split {#after_the_split}
As Gritti no longer controlled the development of Galeon, the previous functionality was restored in subsequent releases and some new features were added, though development got slow after the split. At the same time the rising popularity of Firefox, its status of the default browser in major distribution and the overwhelming number of its extensions led to decline of Galeon\'s user base.
Eventually the Galeon developers announced plans to halt development of Galeon, saying \"the current approach is unsustainable\" regarding the resources required to maintain it. Instead, they planned to develop a set of extensions for Epiphany to provide similar functionality.
### Persistence
Even after development ceased in September 2008, the browser remained popular and in December 2011 was still available in some Linux distribution\'s repositories, such as Debian 6 Squeeze, although it was not part of Debian 7 Wheezy.
## Reception
Galeon was praised for its customizability and speed, as compared to Netscape Navigator and Firefox, though Konqueror and Opera were still faster on older hardware. Galeon was noted for its session handling and crash recovery.
In November 2002, OSNews conducted a poll to determine the most popular Gecko-based browser, which included several browsers for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux, but didn\'t include Netscape Navigator and Mozilla Suite. The Linux-only Galeon was the second most popular, after cross-platform Firefox, at that time known as Phoenix.
Critics noted Galeon\'s tricky plugin installation
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# Granville rail disaster
The **Granville rail disaster** occurred on Tuesday 18 January 1977 at Granville, a western suburb of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, when a crowded commuter train derailed, running into the supports of a road bridge that collapsed onto two of the train\'s passenger carriages.
While the official inquiry found the primary cause of the crash to be poor fastening of the track, there were a number of factors that were identified as contributing to the accident.
It remains the worst rail disaster in Australian history; 83 people died and 213 were injured. An 84th victim, an unborn child, was added to the fatality list in 2017.
## Disaster
The train involved in the disaster consisted of eight wooden bodied Supplementary Interurban Passenger Carriages, which had been converted from country passenger stock by the PTC, which were hauled by 46 class electric locomotive 4620, which had commenced its journey towards Sydney from Mount Victoria in the Blue Mountains at 6:09 a.m.
At approximately 8:10 a.m. it was approaching Granville railway station when the locomotive derailed and struck one of the steel-and-concrete pillars supporting the bridge carrying Bold Street over the railway cutting.
The derailed engine and first two carriages passed the bridge, with the first carriage being separated free from the other carriages and torn open when it collided with a severed overhead stanchion from beside the track, killing eight passengers instantly.
The remaining carriages (cars 2 to 8) came to a halt with the second carriage clear of the bridge, and the rear half of the third carriage, along with the forward half of the fourth carriage, coming to rest under the weakened bridge, whose weight was estimated at 570 t. Carriages 5, 6, 7 and 8 were clear of the bridge at the Harris Park (or country side) of the bridge and were not affected by the incident other than passengers suffering minor injuries or from the shock of being involved in the incident.
Within 15 seconds, with the majority of its supports demolished, the bridge including several motor cars that were driving across at the time, collapsed on top of the carriages, demolishing their wooden bodies and crushing the passengers inside.
Of the total number of passengers travelling in the third and fourth carriages, half were killed instantly when the bridge fell on them, crushing them in their seats, some to the point where their head and shoulders were below the level of their knees.
Of the 213 injured, some of the trapped were in the train for hours after the accident, with parts of the bridge, parts of the carriage body, broken carriage seating, or deceased passengers crushing them, hampering rescuers. Some of these injured had been conscious and lucid, talking to rescuers and explaining their experiences of the event, however, most died of crush syndrome soon after the weight was removed from their bodies.
Rescuers also faced the greater difficulty of the weight of the bridge, which was still crushing the affected carriages and reducing the available space in which they could work in to rescue survivors. At one stage of the rescue, a declaration was made by those in charge that no one was permitted to attempt further rescues until the collapsed bridge had been lifted clear of the site. Soon after however, the bridge settled a further 2 in onto the train, trapping two rescuers and crushing a portable generator \"like butter\".
Another major danger came from Liquid Petroleum Gas, as LPG cylinders were being kept year-round on board the train to be used in the winters for heating purposes.
Several of the deceased were overcome by the gas leaking from ruptured cylinders, reducing the amount of available breathable air in the area underneath the bridge. This leaking gas also prevented the immediate use of powered rescue tools such as petrol powered saws and cutting equipment due to the risk of explosion. The NSW Fire Brigade provided enough ventilation equipment to dispel the gas, as well as a constant mist/film of water, sprayed over the accident site to prevent the possibility of the gas ignition.
The train driver, the assistant crewman (the \"second man\"), and the motorists including one motorcyclist driving on the fallen bridge all survived.
The operation lasted from 8:12 a.m. Tuesday until 6:00 a.m. Thursday. Ultimately, 84 people were killed in the accident, including an unborn child.
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# Granville rail disaster
## Aftermath
The Bold Street Bridge was rebuilt as a single span without any intermediate support piers, and other bridges similar to the destroyed bridge had their piers reinforced.
The original inquiry into the accident found that the primary cause of the crash was \"the very unsatisfactory condition of the permanent way\", being the poor fastening of the track, causing the track to spread and allowing the left front wheel of the locomotive to come off the rail.
However, it was found that there were other contributing factors that included the structure of the bridge itself, the condition of the track, and the condition of the locomotive.
When built, the base of the Bold Street Bridge was found to be one metre lower than the road surface at each adjoining street. In order to bring the bridge road surface up to the same height as the street concrete was added on top to remove the difference. This additional weight, adding almost triple the originally designed weight of the bridge, significantly added to the destruction of the wooden train carriages.
It was found that the track immediately prior to the curve leading into the area of Bold Street Bridge had not been maintained correctly, leading to the locomotives\' wheels to push the track out of gauge, which led to the front right-hand wheel to leave the track, effectively derailing the locomotive.
Locomotive 4620 had been involved in a similar accident twelve years earlier, when it had derailed at Wentworth Falls in the Blue Mountains when operating a freight service. 4620 \'jumped the tracks\' as it entered the loop at the western end (country side) of Wentworth Falls platform, resulting in the entire train derailing. The cause was found to be an irregular operation of the train brake pipe. After being recovered from this accident, 4620 had the dents and scratches repaired and placed back into service.
The carriages involved were wooden bodied Supplementary Interurban Passenger Carriages, which had been converted from Country Passenger Stock by the PTC to Interurban Passenger stock. This was done by removing the previous internal arrangement of individual compartments and making the carriages an \'open plan\' similar to how passenger stock is today. This left the cars with only the side and end walls supporting the roof instead of a number of internal walls bearing the weight of the roof. It is entirely possible that if the cars had been left as built, with individual compartments, then whilst the collapse of the bridge would have crushed the carriages, the internal walls could have prevented the cars from being completely destroyed, enabling passenger to survive in pockets rather than simply being crushed.
The disaster prompted substantial increases in rail-maintenance expenditure, something that had been experiencing a deficiency decline since the Second World War due to the reduction available of materials, finances, and labour forces. The Public Transport Commission of NSW soon after the accident immediately began a systematic process of track maintenance in order to prevent another incident like this from occurring.
The train driver, Edward Olencewicz, was exonerated by the inquiry due to the exhaustive investigation into the incident.
Due to the Granville Rail Disaster and the number of victims who suffered from crush syndrome (a little understood medical condition at the time), a number of changes were made as to how crush injuries are dealt with by rescue personnel, not only at incidents such as this, but also for smaller rescues as well.
On 4 May 2017, New South Wales Premier Gladys Berejiklian apologised to the victims of the disaster, in Parliament House after extensive pushing for the apology.
After the 2023 New South Wales state election, the incoming Labor Government discovered that the previous Liberal/National Coalition Government had been deferring essential maintenance on many levels of the Sydney Trains network. It was found that some infrastructure, including track and overhead bridges, had been seriously under financed over a number of years, reducing the network to the point where another accident similar to Granville would occur. The Minns Government immediately began a review (the Sydney Trains Review) into the network which has resulted in 1,900 high priority defects and 800 kilometres of rail repaired between 3 June 2023 and 4 December 2023, leaving the project ahead of its twelve month schedule.
### Memorial
Families and friends of the victims and survivors gather with surviving members of the rescue crews annually. The ceremony ends with the throwing of 84 roses on to the tracks to mark the number of passengers killed. In 2007, a plaque was placed on the bridge to mark the efforts of railway workers who assisted in rescuing survivors from the train.
The original group, known as \'the trust\', made submissions on rail safety issues, including recommending that fines for safety breaches be dedicated to rail safety improvements, and campaigning for the establishment of an independent railway safety ombudsman.
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# Granville rail disaster
## Media
- A television docudrama, *The Day of the Roses*, was produced in 1998 about the accident.
- *The Granville Train Disaster: 35 Years of Memories* -- a 2011 book by B. J. Gobbe, an emergency worker who attended the incident.
- A television documentary, *The Train*, produced by Graham McNeice from Shadow Productions was aired in 2012 on The History Channel Australia about the accident, and narrated by Brian Henderson.
- *Revisiting the Granville Train Disaster of 1977* -- a 2017 book by B. J. Gobbe.
- ABC\'s *You Can\'t Ask That*, series 4 episode 8 (\"Disaster Survivors\"), featured a victim from the accident who spoke about what happened and the long-term impacts on her life
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# Great Victoria Desert
The **Great Victoria Desert** is a sparsely populated desert ecoregion and interim Australian bioregion in Western Australia and South Australia.
## History
In 1875, British-born Australian explorer Ernest Giles became the first European to cross the desert. He named the desert after the then-reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. In 1891, David Lindsey\'s expedition travelled across this area from north to south. Frank Hann was looking for gold in this area between 1903 and 1908. Len Beadell explored the area in the 1960s.
## Location and description {#location_and_description}
The Great Victoria is the largest desert in Australia, and consists of many small sandhills, grassland plains, areas with a closely packed surface of pebbles (called desert pavement or gibber plains), and salt lakes. It is over 700 km wide (from west to east) and covers an area of 348750 km2 from the Eastern Goldfields region of Western Australia to the Gawler Ranges in South Australia. The Western Australian mulga shrublands ecoregion lies to the west, the Little Sandy Desert to the northwest, the Gibson Desert and the Central Ranges xeric shrublands to the north, the Tirari-Sturt stony desert to the east, and the Nullarbor Plain to the south separates it from the Southern Ocean. Average annual rainfall is low and irregular, ranging from 200 to per year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the Great Victoria Desert, with an average of 15--20 thunderstorms yearly. Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to, while in winter, this falls to 18 to.
The Great Victoria desert is a World Wildlife Fund ecoregion and an Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia region of the same name.
## Habitation
The majority of people living in the region are Indigenous Australians from different groups, including the Kogara, the Mirning and the Pitjantjatjara. Aboriginal populations have been increasing in this region. Young Indigenous adults from the Great Victoria Desert region work in the Wilurarra Creative programs to maintain and develop their culture.
Despite its isolated location, the Great Victoria is bisected by very rough tracks, including the Connie Sue Highway and the Anne Beadell Highway. Human activity has included some mining and nuclear weapons testing.
## Flora
Only the hardiest of plants can survive in much of this environment. Between the sand ridges, the areas of wooded steppe consist of *Eucalyptus gongylocarpa*, *Eucalyptus youngiana*, and *Acacia aneura* (mulga) shrubs scattered over areas of resilient spinifex grasses, particularly *Triodia basedowii*.
## Fauna
The wildlife that adapted to these harsh conditions include a few large birds or mammals such as emus and red kangaroos. However, the desert does sustain many types of lizards, including the vulnerable great desert skink (*Egernia kintorei*), the Central Ranges taipan (discovered in 2007), and a number of small marsupials, including the endangered sandhill dunnart *(Sminthopsis psammophila)* and the crest-tailed mulgara *(Dasycercus cristicauda)*. One way to survive here is to burrow into the sands, as a number of the desert\'s animals, including the southern marsupial mole *(Notoryctes typhlops)*, and the water-holding frog do. Birds include the chestnut-breasted whiteface (*Aphelocephala pectoralis*) found on the eastern edge of the desert and the malleefowl of Mamungari Conservation Park. Predators of the desert include the dingo (as the desert is north of the Dingo Fence) and two large monitor lizards, the perentie *(Varanus giganteus)* and the sand goanna *(Varanus gouldii)*.
## Conservation and threats {#conservation_and_threats}
As this area has had very limited use for agriculture, many habitats remain largely undisturbed. 31% of the desert is in protected areas, including Mamungari Conservation Park (formerly known as Unnamed Conservation Park) in South Australia, a large area of pristine arid zone wilderness, which possesses cultural significance and is one of the 14 World Biosphere Reserves in Australia. Habitat is also preserved in the large Aboriginal local government area of Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara in South Australia and in the Great Victoria Desert Nature Reserve of Western Australia. Protected areas include:
- Antara-Sandy Bore Indigenous Protected Area
- Apara-Makiri-Punti Indigenous Protected Area
- De La Poer Range Nature Reserve
- Gawler Ranges National Park
- Gawler Ranges Conservation Park
- Great Victoria Desert Nature Reserve
- Kalka-Pipalyatjara Indigenous Protected Area
- Lake Gairdner National Park
- Mamungari Conservation Park
- Mount Willoughby Indigenous Protected Area
- Neale Junction Nature Reserve
- Ngaanyatjarra Indigenous Protected Area
- Nullarbor Regional Reserve
- Plumridge Lakes Nature Reserve
- Pureba Conservation Park
- Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve
- Tallaringa Conservation Park
- Walalkara Indigenous Protected Area
- Watarru Indigenous Protected Area
- Yellabinna Regional Reserve
- Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area
- Yeo Lake Nature Reserve
- Yumbarra Conservation Park
The nuclear weapons trials carried out by the United Kingdom at Maralinga and Emu Field in the 1950s and early 1960s have left areas contaminated with plutonium-239 and other radioactive material
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# GNU Lesser General Public License
The **GNU Lesser General Public License** (**LGPL**) is a free-software license published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). The license allows developers and companies to use and integrate a software component released under the LGPL into their own (even proprietary) software without being required by the terms of a strong copyleft license to release the source code of their own components. However, any developer who modifies an LGPL-covered component is required to make their modified version available under the same LGPL license. For proprietary software, code under the LGPL is usually used in the form of a shared library, so that there is a clear separation between the proprietary and LGPL components. The LGPL is primarily used for software libraries, although it is also used by some stand-alone applications.
The LGPL was developed as a compromise between the strong copyleft of the GNU General Public License (GPL) and more permissive licenses such as the BSD licenses and the MIT License. The word \"Lesser\" in the title shows that the LGPL does not guarantee the end user\'s complete freedom in the use of software; it only guarantees the freedom of modification for components licensed under the LGPL, but not for any proprietary components.
## History
The license was originally called the **GNU Library General Public License** and was first published in 1991, and adopted the version number 2 for parity with GPL version 2. The LGPL was revised in minor ways in the 2.1 point release, published in 1999, when it was renamed the GNU Lesser General Public License to reflect the FSF\'s position that not all libraries should use it. Version 3 of the LGPL was published in 2007 as a list of additional permissions applied to GPL version 3.
In addition to the term \"work based on the Program\" of GPL, LGPL version 2 introduced two additional clarification terms \"work based on the library\" and \"work that uses the library\". LGPL version 3 partially dropped these terms.
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# GNU Lesser General Public License
## Differences from the GPL {#differences_from_the_gpl}
The main difference between the GPL and the LGPL is that the latter allows the work to be linked with (in the case of a library, \"used by\") a non-(L)GPLed program, regardless of whether it is licensed under a license of GPL family or other licenses. In LGPL 2.1, the non-(L)GPLed program can then be distributed under any terms if it is not a derivative work. If it is a derivative work, then the program\'s terms must allow for \"modification of the work for the customer\'s own use and reverse engineering for debugging such modifications\". Whether a work that uses an LGPL program is a derivative work or not is a legal issue. A standalone executable that dynamically links to a library through a .so, .dll, or similar medium is generally accepted as not being a derivative work as defined by the LGPL. It would fall under the definition of a \"work that uses the Library\". Paragraph 5 of the LGPL version 2.1 states:
: A program that contains no derivative of any portion of the Library, but is designed to work with the Library by being compiled or linked with it, is called a \"work that uses the Library\". Such a work, in isolation, is not a derivative work of the Library, and therefore falls outside the scope of this License.
Essentially, if it is a \"work that uses the library\", then it must be possible for the software to be linked with a newer version of the LGPL-covered program. The most commonly used method for doing so is to use \"a suitable shared library mechanism for linking\". Alternatively, a statically linked library is allowed if either source code or linkable object files are provided.
## Compatibility
One feature of the LGPL is the permission to sublicense under the GPL any piece of software which is received under the LGPL (see section 3 of the LGPL version 2.1, and section 2 option b of the LGPL version 3). This feature allows for direct reuse of LGPLed code in GPLed libraries and applications.
Version 3 of the LGPL is not inherently compatible with version 2 of the GPL. However, works using the latter that have given permission to use a later version of the GPL are compatible: a work released under the GPLv2 \"or any later version\" may be combined with code from a LGPL version 3 library, with the combined work as a whole falling under the terms of the GPLv3.
## FSF recommendations on library licensing {#fsf_recommendations_on_library_licensing}
The former name *GNU Library General Public License* gave some the impression that the FSF recommended that all software libraries should use the LGPL and programs should use the GPL. In 1999 essay *Why you shouldn\'t use the Lesser GPL for your next library* Richard Stallman explained that while the LGPL had not been deprecated, one should not necessarily use the LGPL for all libraries, as using GPL can give advantage to free-software developers.
## Programming language specifications {#programming_language_specifications}
The license uses terminology which is mainly intended for applications written in the C programming language or its family. Franz Inc., the developers of Allegro Common Lisp, published their own preamble to the license to clarify terminology in the Lisp context. The LGPL with this preamble is sometimes referred to as the LLGPL.
In addition, Ada has a special feature, generics, which may prompt the use of the GNAT Modified General Public License (GMGPL): it allows code to link against or instantiate GMGPL-covered units without the code itself becoming covered by the GPL.
C++ templates and header-only libraries have the same problem as Ada generics. Version 3 of the LGPL addresses such cases in section 3.
### Class inheritance {#class_inheritance}
Some concern has risen about the suitability of object-oriented classes in LGPL-licensed code being inherited by non-(L)GPL code. Clarification is given on the official GNU website:
: The LGPL does not contain special provisions for inheritance, because none are needed. Inheritance creates derivative works in the same way as traditional linking, and the LGPL permits this type of derivative work in the same way as it permits ordinary function calls
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# Glottis
The **glottis** (`{{plural form}}`{=mediawiki}: **glottises** or **glottides**) is the opening between the vocal folds (the rima glottidis). The glottis is crucial in producing sound from the vocal folds.
## Etymology
From Ancient Greek *γλωττίς* (glōttís), derived from *γλῶττα* (glôtta), variant of *γλῶσσα* (glôssa, \"tongue\").
## Function
### Phonation
As the vocal folds vibrate, the resulting vibration produces a \"buzzing\" quality to the speech, called **voice** or **voicing** or **pronunciation**.
Sound production that involves moving the vocal folds close together is called *glottal*. English has a voiceless glottal transition spelled \"h\". This sound is produced by keeping the vocal folds spread somewhat, resulting in non-turbulent airflow through the glottis. In many accents of English the glottal stop (made by pressing the folds together) is used as a variant allophone of the phoneme `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} (and in some dialects, occasionally of `{{IPA|/k/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/p/}}`{=mediawiki}); in some languages, this sound is a phoneme of its own.
Skilled players of the Australian didgeridoo restrict their glottal opening in order to produce the full range of timbres available on the instrument.
The vibration produced is an essential component of *voiced* consonants as well as vowels. If the vocal folds are drawn apart, air flows between them causing no vibration, as in the production of voiceless consonants.
The glottis is also important in the Valsalva maneuver.
- Voiced consonants include `{{IPA|/v/, /z/, /ʒ/, /d͡ʒ/, /ð/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /w/.}}`{=mediawiki}
- Voiceless consonants include `{{IPA|/f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /t͡ʃ/, /θ/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /ʍ/, and /h/
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# Geneva College
**Geneva College** is a private Christian college in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded in 1848 in Northwood, Ohio, the college moved to its present location in 1880. It enrolls about 1,400 undergraduates in over 30 majors, as well as graduate students in a handful of master\'s programs. The undergraduate curriculum emphasizes the humanities and the formation of a Reformed Christian worldview. It is the only undergraduate institution affiliated with the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America.
## History
Geneva College was founded in 1848 in Northwood, Logan County, Ohio, by John Black Johnston, a minister of the RPCNA. The college was founded as \"Geneva Hall\", and was named after the Swiss center of the Reformed faith movement. After briefly closing during the American Civil War, the college continued operating in Northwood until 1880. By that time, the college leadership had begun a search for alternate locations that were closer to urban areas. After considering several locations in the Midwest, the denomination chose the College Hill neighborhood of Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania. The college constructed its current campus on land donated by the Harmony Society. Old Main, the oldest building on campus, was completed in 1881.
The Rapp Technical Design Center was completed in 2002. A major project to reroute Pennsylvania Route 18, which runs through the campus, was completed in November 2007. Improvements to Reeves Stadium and the construction of a campus entrance and pedestrian mall were completed in 2009.
### Presidents
## Administration
Two bodies oversee the administration of the college, the Board of Corporators and the Board of Trustees; while the Corporators are the legal owners of the college, in practice most authority is delegated to the Trustees, who are elected by the Corporators. Both Boards drafted the philosophical basis on which the college rests, known as the Foundational Concepts of Higher Education. The RPCNA still takes an active sponsorship and oversight role in the college: the college president, chaplain, and chairman of the Department of Biblical Studies must be members of the RPCNA, and all members of the Board of Corporators and the majority of the Board of Trustees must be RPCNA members. All professors and lecturers in the Department of Biblical Studies must subscribe to the Westminster Confession of Faith, and all full-time faculty and staff members must submit a written statement confessing faith in Jesus Christ and the Christian religion.
The university was granted an exception to Title IX in 2014 which allows it to legally discriminate against LGBT students.
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# Geneva College
## Academics
Geneva offers undergraduate degree programs in the arts and sciences, such as elementary education, business, engineering, student ministry, biology, and psychology. In 2006, the Educational Testing Service (ETS) rated the Business and Accounting undergraduates in the 95th percentile amongst American colleges.
Historically, Geneva offered a Degree Completion Program (DCP) for degrees in Human Resource Management, Community Ministry or Organizational Development for adult students mainly at off-campus locations. Geneva also established the Center for Urban Theological Studies in Philadelphia and has sister colleges in Taiwan (Christ College) and South Korea (Chong Shin College and Theological Seminary).
Geneva also offers graduates studies in several fields and degrees including a Master of Business Administration, Master of Arts in Higher Education, Master of Arts in Counseling, and a Master of Science in Cybersecurity.
Geneva established the Center for Technology Development in 1986 for providing research, prototyping and technical support to local industries and entrepreneurs. The center was awarded first prize in the Consolidated Natural Gas Company\'s Annual Award of Excellence competition in 1990.
### Online courses {#online_courses}
Geneva offers online degree programs for adult students. Currently, Geneva offers online Bachelor of Professional Studies degrees in Child and Family Services, Human Resources, Management, and Organization Leadership. The College also offers an online Associate\'s Degree in general studies.
Geneva partners with Portage Learning to offer online college courses on their platform. These online college courses are offered to visiting students seeking to transfer courses to their home institution where they intend to pursue a degree. Courses completed prior to matriculation may be used by Geneva students to fulfill degree requirements.
### Affiliations and accreditations {#affiliations_and_accreditations}
Geneva College is a member institution of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities, Council of Independent Colleges, and National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities. Accreditations include the Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs, and the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. The chemistry degree is certified by the American Chemical Society.
## Athletics
thumb\|left\|170px\|Geneva athletics logo Geneva\'s sports teams are called the Golden Tornadoes. The college is a dual member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III and National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA) Division I.
The Golden Tornadoes compete as a member of the Presidents\' Athletic Conference. Geneva was a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) for many years and competed in the now-defunct American Mideast Conference. Geneva joined the NCAA as a provisional member in 2007 and during the transition process was not eligible for post season play or conference Player of the Week honors until gaining membership in July 2011.
The school offers a range of men\'s and women\'s varsity sports, including football, baseball, softball, basketball, volleyball, track and field, cross country, tennis, and soccer. Geneva has also offered rugby as a club sport since 1994.
The football program began in 1890 under head coach William McCracken. Over the years, the football team has amassed an all-time record of 496 wins, 437 losses, and 48 ties with five appearances in the Victory Bowl. The current football coach is Geno DeMarco.
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# Geneva College
## Culture and traditions {#culture_and_traditions}
Students must attend a designated number of weekly college-sponsored chapels to qualify for graduation. Alcohol is banned from the campus, and tobacco use is restricted from the entire campus. Greek letter fraternities and sororities are not permitted.
One of the earliest college basketball games in the United States occurred at Geneva College on April 8, 1893, when the Geneva College Covenanters defeated the New Brighton YMCA. Geneva commemorates this event through the athletic slogan of \"The Birthplace of College Basketball\". Geneva also has one of the oldest basketball courts in collegiate sports in the Johnston Gymnasium.
Geneva was founded by Scottish and Scots-Irish immigrants. Many names of campus buildings and areas bear Scottish names:
- The main meeting area of the Student Center is called *Skye Lounge* after the Isle of Skye.
- The library on campus is named *McCartney Library* after Dr. Clarence E. Macartney, the son of Scottish immigrant parents.
- The restaurant-style eating area is called *The Brig*, short for Brigadoon, commemorating a play about a mythical Highland village.
Geneva sports teams were nicknamed the *Covenanters* until the 1950s. Members of the RPCNA are sometimes referred to as Covenanters because the denomination traces its roots to the Covenanting tradition of Reformation era Scotland. The modern sports nickname of *Golden Tornadoes* commemorates the \"Golden Tornado\" of May 11, 1914, when a major tornado struck the college, most notably taking the gold colored roof from the top of Old Main, which was the origin of the associated color. Although the storm caused significant damage to the campus, there were no serious injuries. College students and faculty rejoiced at what they believed was a sign of God\'s mercy.
Geneva\'s traditional sports rivalry is with Westminster College in nearby New Wilmington, Pennsylvania.
Homosexual behavior is prohibited in the student handbook; students must confess and change their behavior or be suspended.`{{Primary source inline|date=May 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Geneva College
## Facilities
### Offices and classrooms {#offices_and_classrooms}
- Alexander Hall---Admissions, Financial Aid, Alumni Relations, and the Geneva College Foundation (first floor), and main dining hall (second floor).
- Alumni Hall, the primary music building, including music department offices
- Fern Cliffe, faculty offices for political science, humanities, history and English departments
- Johnston Gym, built in 1911, Johnston Gym is primarily used for music and band purposes. Originally, per its name, it was used as the college gymnasium.
- McCartney Library, the college library, built in 1930 and expanded in 1965, and named for Clarence E. Macartney. Its collection includes over 371,000 items including a special section of RPCNA historical documents.
- Northwood Hall, classrooms and faculty offices for business and psychology departments, completed in 1998
- Old Main, classrooms, administration offices (including the president\'s office), and faculty offices. When Geneva moved to Beaver Falls, Old Main was the first classroom structure, completed in 1881. It has been assessed as eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places.
- Rapp Technical Design Center, technical classrooms and laboratories. Completed in 2002, it is the newest educational building on campus.
- Science and Engineering (S&E), technical classrooms, laboratories, and faculty offices for engineering, chemistry, biology, physics and computer science departments.
### Sports and student life {#sports_and_student_life}
- Bagpiper Theatre---Theater hosting productions sponsored by the Communications Department.
- Merriman Athletic Complex---Track and field and soccer.
- Metheny Fieldhouse---Gyms, locker rooms, sports faculty offices, and other sports-related facilities.
- Jannuzi Tennis Courts---A pair of dedicated tennis courts.
- Reeves Field---Football. The field is also used by the Beaver Falls High School football team and was Joe Namath\'s home field during his high school days.
- Student Center---Lounges, Brigadoon restaurant, Riverview Cafe coffee shop, student mail, fitness center and bookstore.
- WGEV---college radio station.
### Residence halls {#residence_halls}
Full-time undergraduate students between ages 17 and 23 are required to live in college housing, with the exception of commuters and some seniors. Six dormitories --- Clarke, Geneva Arms, McKee, Memorial, Pearce, and Young --- house resident students. Geneva Arms and Young are apartment-style options divided into women\'s and men\'s wings. The college also owns a few smaller houses nearby campus, primarily for upperclassmen, that are available depending on residential need.
<File:Old> Main Geneva College.JPG\|Old Main <File:Geneva> Reformed Presbyterian Church.jpg\|Reformed Presbyterian Church <File:Northwood> Stone.jpg\|Stone marking the original campus in Northwood, Ohio <File:Geneva> College Alexander Hall front.jpg\|Campus-level view of Alexander Hall <File:McCartney> Library.jpg\|McCartney Library <File:Johnston> Gym 07.JPG\|Johnston Gym
## Legal actions {#legal_actions}
### CareerLink
On December 15, 2006, the college filed a federal lawsuit against the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, alleging that a decision by the state to block the college from participating in the state sponsored CareerLink job service amounted to a violation of the college\'s First Amendment rights. Although the state argued that the college\'s requirement that faculty and staff members subscribe to the Christian religion amounted to discrimination, the lawsuit was settled. Geneva\'s right to access to CareerLink was restored and the college retains a statement on its employment applications stating \"Compliance with Geneva\'s Christian views is considered a bona fide occupational qualification \... and will have a direct impact on employment consideration.\"
### Obamacare
In 2012, the college sued the federal government over the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (\"Obamacare\") contraceptive mandate, which requires employers to provide health insurance coverage for their employees that includes contraception, which Geneva College \"considers abortion, abortifacients and embryo-harming pharmaceuticals\" and objects to on religious grounds. The college, represented by Alliance Defending Freedom in the litigation, prevailed in its case, obtaining a permanent injunction in 2018.
## Notable alumni {#notable_alumni}
- Josie Badger, Ms Wheelchair America in 2011
- Joyce Bender, CEO, President, and founder of Bender Consulting Services, Inc. International advocate for disability employment
- Norman Clyde, Naturalist and mountaineer
- John Steuart Curry, American painter
- William Fitzsimmons, Singer-songwriter
- Kathryn Gardner, Judge of the Kansas Court of Appeals
- David Girardi, professional football coach
- Cal Hubbard, professional football and professional baseball umpire
- Josh Kail, Member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from the 15th district
- Gertrude Martin Rohrer, composer
- David Shedd, Former Director of Defense Intelligence Agency
- John Snarey, Franklin N. Parker Professor Emeritus at Emory University
- Caleb Stegall, Kansas Supreme Court judge
- Dan K
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# GW-BASIC
**GW-BASIC** is a dialect of the BASIC programming language developed by Microsoft from IBM BASICA. Functionally identical to BASICA, its BASIC interpreter is a fully self-contained executable and does not need the Cassette BASIC ROM found in the original. It was bundled with MS-DOS operating systems on IBM PC--compatibles by Microsoft.
The language is suitable for simple games, business programs and the like. Since it was included with most versions of MS-DOS, it was also a low-cost way for many aspiring programmers to learn the fundamentals of computer programming. Microsoft also sold a BASIC compiler, BASCOM, compatible with GW-BASIC, for programs needing more speed.
According to Mark Jones Lorenzo, given the scope of the language, \"GW-BASIC is arguably the *ne plus ultra* of Microsoft\'s family of line-numbered BASICs stretching back to Altair BASIC --- and perhaps even of line-numbered BASIC in general.\"
With the release of MS-DOS 5.0, GW-BASIC\'s place was taken by QBasic, a slightly abridged version of the interpreter part of the separately available QuickBASIC interpreter and compiler package.
On May 21, 2020, Microsoft released the 8088 assembler source code for GW-BASIC 1.0 on GitHub under the MIT License.
## Features
IBM BASICA and GW-BASIC are largely ports of MBASIC version 5.x, but with added features specifically for the IBM PC hardware. Common features of BASIC-80 5.x and BASICA/GW-BASIC include:
- `WHILE...WEND` loops
- Variable names of up to 40 characters
- `OPTION BASE` statement to set the starting index of array variables as either 0 or 1
- Dynamic string space allocation
- `LINE INPUT`, which allowed field-separator characters like comma to be ignored
- `CALL` statement for executing machine-language routines
- `CHAIN` and `MERGE` commands
- Ability to save programs in either tokenized binary format or ASCII text
The ability to \"crunch\" program lines by omitting spaces, a common feature of earlier Microsoft BASIC implementations, was removed from BASIC-80 5.x and BASICA/GWBASIC.
BASIC-80 programs not using `PEEK`/`POKE` statements run under GW-BASIC. BASICA adds many features for the IBM PC such as sound, graphics, and memory commands. Features not present in BASIC-80 include the ability to execute the `RND` function with no parameters and the ability to also save programs in a \"protected\" format, preventing them from being `LIST`ed. BASICA also allows double-precision numbers to be used with mathematical and trigonometric functions such as `COS`, `SIN`, and `ATN`, which wasn\'t allowed in 8-bit versions of BASIC. This feature was normally not enabled and required the optional parameter `/D` at startup, i.e., `GWBASIC /D`. BASIC\'s memory footprint was slightly increased if it was used.
Microsoft did not offer a generic version of MS-DOS until v3.20 in 1986; before then, all variants of the operating system were OEM versions. Depending on the OEM, BASIC was distributed as either BASICA.EXE or GWBASIC.EXE. The former should not be confused with IBM BASICA, which always came as a COM file. Some variants of BASIC has extra features to support a particular machine. For example, the AT&T and Tandy versions of DOS include a special GW-BASIC that supports their enhanced sound and graphics capabilities.
The initial version of GW-BASIC is the one included with Compaq DOS 1.13, released with the Compaq Portable in 1983, and was analogous to IBM BASICA 1.10. It uses the CP/M-derived file control blocks for disk access and does not support subdirectories. Later versions support subdirectories, improved graphics, and other capabilities.
GW-BASIC 3.20 (1986) adds EGA graphics support (no version of BASICA or GW-BASIC had VGA support) and is the last major new version released before it was superseded by QBasic.
Buyers of Hercules Graphics Cards received a special version of GW-BASIC on the card\'s utility disk that is called HBASIC, which adds support for its 720×348 monochrome graphics. Other versions of BASICA/GW-BASIC do not support Hercules graphics and can only display graphics on that card through the use of third-party CGA emulation, such as SIMCGA.
GW-BASIC has a command-line-based integrated development environment (IDE) based on Dartmouth BASIC. Using the cursor movement keys, any line displayed on the screen can be edited. It also includes function key shortcuts at the bottom of the screen. Like other early microcomputer versions of BASIC, GW-BASIC lacks many of the structures needed for structured programming, such as local variables. GW-BASIC programs executed relatively slowly because it was an interpreted language. All program lines must be numbered; all non-numbered lines are considered to be commands in direct mode to be executed immediately. Program source files are normally saved in binary compressed format with tokens replacing keywords, with an option to save in ASCII text form.
The GW-BASIC command-line environment has commands to `RUN`, `LOAD`, `SAVE`, `LIST` the current program, or quit to the operating `SYSTEM`; these commands can also be used as program statements. There is little support for structured programming in GW-BASIC. All `IF`/`THEN`/`ELSE` conditional statements must be written on one line, although `WHILE`/`WEND` statements may group multiple lines. Functions can only be defined using the single line `DEF FNf``(x)=``{{var|<mathematical function of x>}}`{=mediawiki} statement (e.g., `{{code|1=DEF FNLOG(base,number)=LOG(number)/LOG(base)|2=basic}}`{=mediawiki}). The data type of variables can be specified with a character at the end of the variable name: `A$` is a string of characters, `A%` is an integer, etc. Groups of variables can also be set to default types based on the initial letter of their name by use of the `DEFINT`, `DEFSTR`, etc., statements. The default type for undeclared variables not identified by such typing statements is single-precision floating-point (32-bit MBF).
GW-BASIC allows use of joystick and light pen input devices. GW-BASIC can read from and write to files and COM ports; it can also do event trapping for ports. Since the cassette tape port interface of the original IBM PC was never implemented on compatibles, cassette operations are not supported. GW-BASIC can play simple music using the `PLAY` statement, needing a string of notes represented in a music macro language, e.g., `PLAY "edcdeeL2edfedL4c"`. More low-level control is possible with the `SOUND` statement, which takes the arguments of a frequency in hertz and a length in clock ticks for the standard internal PC speaker in IBM machines. Consequently, sound is limited to single channel beeps and whistles as befits a \"business\" machine. GW-BASIC for the Tandy 1000 allows up to three channels of sound for the `SOUND` and `PLAY` commands.
## Name
There are several theories on what the initials \"GW\" represent. Greg Whitten, an early Microsoft employee who developed the standards in the company\'s BASIC compiler line, says that Bill Gates picked the name GW-BASIC. Whitten refers to it as *Gee-Whiz* BASIC and is unsure whether Gates named the program after him. The *Microsoft User Manual* from Microsoft Press also refers to it by the *Gee-Whiz* BASIC name. It may have also been nicknamed *Gee-Whiz* because of its numerous graphics commands. Other common theories as to the initials\' origins include \"Graphics and Windows\", \"Gates, William\" (Microsoft\'s president at the time), or \"Gates--Whitten\" (the two main designers of the program)
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# Granite
**Granite** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|r|æ|n|ɪ|t}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|GRAN|it}}`{=mediawiki}) is a coarse-grained (phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly cools and solidifies underground. It is common in the continental crust of Earth, where it is found in igneous intrusions. These range in size from dikes only a few centimeters across to batholiths exposed over hundreds of square kilometers.
Granite is typical of a larger family of *granitic rocks*, or *granitoids*, that are composed mostly of coarse-grained quartz and feldspars in varying proportions. These rocks are classified by the relative percentages of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase (the QAPF classification), with true granite representing granitic rocks rich in quartz and alkali feldspar. Most granitic rocks also contain mica or amphibole minerals, though a few (known as leucogranites) contain almost no dark minerals.
Granite is nearly always massive (lacking any internal structures), hard (falling between 6 and 7 on the Mohs hardness scale), and tough. These properties have made granite a widespread construction stone throughout human history.
## Description
The word \"granite\" comes from the Latin *granum*, a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a completely crystalline rock. Granites can be predominantly white, pink, or gray in color, depending on their mineralogy. Granitic rocks mainly consist of feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole minerals, which form an interlocking, somewhat equigranular matrix of feldspar and quartz with scattered darker biotite mica and amphibole (often hornblende) peppering the lighter color minerals. Occasionally some individual crystals (phenocrysts) are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a porphyritic texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks. Petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The alkali feldspar in granites is typically orthoclase or microcline and is often perthitic. The plagioclase is typically sodium-rich oligoclase. Phenocrysts are usually alkali feldspar.
Granitic rocks are classified according to the QAPF diagram for coarse grained plutonic rocks and are named according to the percentage of quartz, alkali feldspar (orthoclase, sanidine, or microcline) and plagioclase feldspar on the A-Q-P half of the diagram. True granite (according to modern petrologic convention) contains between 20% and 60% quartz by volume, with 35% to 90% of the total feldspar consisting of alkali feldspar. Granitic rocks poorer in quartz are classified as syenites or monzonites, while granitic rocks dominated by plagioclase are classified as granodiorites or tonalites. Granitic rocks with over 90% alkali feldspar are classified as alkali feldspar granites. Granitic rock with more than 60% quartz, which is uncommon, is classified simply as quartz-rich granitoid or, if composed almost entirely of quartz, as quartzolite. True granites are further classified by the percentage of their total feldspar that is alkali feldspar. Granites whose feldspar is 65% to 90% alkali feldspar are syenogranites, while the feldspar in monzogranite is 35% to 65% alkali feldspar. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or *two-mica* granite. Two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites, as described below.
Another aspect of granite classification is the ratios of metals that potentially form feldspars. Most granites have a composition such that almost all their aluminum and alkali metals (sodium and potassium) are combined as feldspar. This is the case when K~2~O + Na~2~O + CaO \> Al~2~O~3~ \> K~2~O + Na~2~O. Such granites are described as *normal* or *metaluminous*. Granites in which there is not enough aluminum to combine with all the alkali oxides as feldspar (Al~2~O~3~ \< K~2~O + Na~2~O) are described as *peralkaline*, and they contain unusual sodium amphiboles such as riebeckite. Granites in which there is an excess of aluminum beyond what can be taken up in feldspars (Al~2~O~3~ \> CaO + K~2~O + Na~2~O) are described as *peraluminous*, and they contain aluminum-rich minerals such as muscovite.
### Physical properties {#physical_properties}
The average density of granite is between 2.65 and, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa (29,000 psi), and its viscosity near STP is 3--6·10^20^ Pa·s.
The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215--1260 °C; it is strongly reduced in the presence of water, down to 650 °C at a few hundred megapascals of pressure.
Granite has poor primary permeability overall, but strong secondary permeability through cracks and fractures if they are present.
### Chemical composition {#chemical_composition}
A worldwide average of the chemical composition of granite, by mass percent, based on 2485 analyses:
----------- --
SiO~2~
Al~2~O~3~
K~2~O
Na~2~O
CaO
FeO
Fe~2~O~3~
MgO
TiO~2~
P~2~O~5~
MnO
----------- --
The medium-grained equivalent of granite is **microgranite**. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite.
## Occurrence
Granitic rock is widely distributed throughout the continental crust. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age; it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin sedimentary veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors, domes or bornhardts, and rounded massifs. Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as relatively small, less than 100 km^2^ stock masses (stocks) and in batholiths that are often associated with orogenic mountain ranges. Small dikes of granitic composition called aplites are often associated with the margins of granitic intrusions. In some locations, very coarse-grained pegmatite masses occur with granite.
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# Granite
## Origin
Granite forms from silica-rich (felsic) magmas. Felsic magmas are thought to form by addition of heat or water vapor to rock of the lower crust, rather than by decompression of mantle rock, as is the case with basaltic magmas. It has also been suggested that some granites found at convergent boundaries between tectonic plates, where oceanic crust subducts below continental crust, were formed from sediments subducted with the oceanic plate. The melted sediments would have produced magma intermediate in its silica content, which became further enriched in silica as it rose through the overlying crust.
Early fractional crystallisation serves to reduce a melt in magnesium and chromium, and enrich the melt in iron, sodium, potassium, aluminum, and silicon. Further fractionation reduces the content of iron, calcium, and titanium. This is reflected in the high content of alkali feldspar and quartz in granite.
The presence of granitic rock in island arcs shows that fractional crystallization alone can convert a basaltic magma to a granitic magma, but the quantities produced are small. For example, granitic rock makes up just 4% of the exposures in the South Sandwich Islands. In continental arc settings, granitic rocks are the most common plutonic rocks, and batholiths composed of these rock types extend the entire length of the arc. There are no indication of magma chambers where basaltic magmas differentiate into granites, or of cumulates produced by mafic crystals settling out of the magma. Other processes must produce these great volumes of felsic magma. One such process is injection of basaltic magma into the lower crust, followed by differentiation, which leaves any cumulates in the mantle. Another is heating of the lower crust by underplating basaltic magma, which produces felsic magma directly from crustal rock. The two processes produce different kinds of granites, which may be reflected in the division between S-type (produced by underplating) and I-type (produced by injection and differentiation) granites, discussed below.
### Alphabet classification system {#alphabet_classification_system}
thumb\|left\|upright=1.4\|Mineral assemblage of igneous rocks The composition and origin of any magma that differentiates into granite leave certain petrological evidence as to what the granite\'s parental rock was. The final texture and composition of a granite are generally distinctive as to its parental rock. For instance, a granite that is derived from partial melting of metasedimentary rocks may have more alkali feldspar, whereas a granite derived from partial melting of metaigneous rocks may be richer in plagioclase. It is on this basis that the modern \"alphabet\" classification schemes are based.
The letter-based Chappell & White classification system was proposed initially to divide granites into I-type (igneous source) granite and S-type (sedimentary sources). Both types are produced by partial melting of crustal rocks, either metaigneous rocks or metasedimentary rocks.
I-type granites are characterized by a high content of sodium and calcium, and by a strontium isotope ratio, ^87^Sr/^86^Sr, of less than 0.708. ^87^Sr is produced by radioactive decay of ^87^Rb, and since rubidium is concentrated in the crust relative to the mantle, a low ratio suggests origin in the mantle. The elevated sodium and calcium favor crystallization of hornblende rather than biotite. I-type granites are known for their porphyry copper deposits. I-type granites are orogenic (associated with mountain building) and usually metaluminous.
S-type granites are sodium-poor and aluminum-rich. As a result, they contain micas such as biotite and muscovite instead of hornblende. Their strontium isotope ratio is typically greater than 0.708, suggesting a crustal origin. They also commonly contain xenoliths of metamorphosed sedimentary rock, and host tin ores. Their magmas are water-rich, and they readily solidify as the water outgasses from the magma at lower pressure, so they less commonly make it to the surface than magmas of I-type granites, which are thus more common as volcanic rock (rhyolite). They are also orogenic but range from metaluminous to strongly peraluminous.
Although both I- and S-type granites are orogenic, I-type granites are more common close to the convergent boundary than S-type. This is attributed to thicker crust further from the boundary, which results in more crustal melting.
A-type granites show a peculiar mineralogy and geochemistry, with particularly high silicon and potassium at the expense of calcium and magnesium and a high content of high field strength cations (cations with a small radius and high electrical charge, such as zirconium, niobium, tantalum, and rare earth elements.) They are not orogenic, forming instead over hot spots and continental rifting, and are metaluminous to mildly peralkaline and iron-rich. These granites are produced by partial melting of refractory lithology such as granulites in the lower continental crust at high thermal gradients. This leads to significant extraction of hydrous felsic melts from granulite-facies resitites. A-type granites occur in the Koettlitz Glacier Alkaline Province in the Royal Society Range, Antarctica. The rhyolites of the Yellowstone Caldera are examples of volcanic equivalents of A-type granite.
M-type granite was later proposed to cover those granites that were clearly sourced from crystallized mafic magmas, generally sourced from the mantle. Although the fractional crystallisation of basaltic melts can yield small amounts of granites, which are sometimes found in island arcs, such granites must occur together with large amounts of basaltic rocks.
H-type granites were suggested for hybrid granites, which were hypothesized to form by mixing between mafic and felsic from different sources, such as M-type and S-type. However, the big difference in rheology between mafic and felsic magmas makes this process problematic in nature.
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# Granite
## Origin
### Granitization
Granitization is an old, and largely discounted, hypothesis that granite is formed in place through extreme metasomatism. The idea behind granitization was that fluids would supposedly bring in elements such as potassium, and remove others, such as calcium, to transform a metamorphic rock into granite. This was supposed to occur across a migrating front. However, experimental work had established by the 1960s that granites were of igneous origin. The mineralogical and chemical features of granite can be explained only by crystal-liquid phase relations, showing that there must have been at least enough melting to mobilize the magma.
However, at sufficiently deep crustal levels, the distinction between metamorphism and crustal melting itself becomes vague. Conditions for crystallization of liquid magma are close enough to those of high-grade metamorphism that the rocks often bear a close resemblance. Under these conditions, granitic melts can be produced in place through the partial melting of metamorphic rocks by extracting melt-mobile elements such as potassium and silicon into the melts but leaving others such as calcium and iron in granulite residues. This may be the origin of *migmatites*. A migmatite consists of dark, refractory rock (the *melanosome*) that is permeated by sheets and channels of light granitic rock (the *leucosome*). The leucosome is interpreted as partial melt of a parent rock that has begun to separate from the remaining solid residue (the melanosome). If enough partial melt is produced, it will separate from the source rock, become more highly evolved through fractional crystallization during its ascent toward the surface, and become the magmatic parent of granitic rock. The residue of the source rock becomes a granulite.
The partial melting of solid rocks requires high temperatures and the addition of water or other volatiles which lower the solidus temperature (temperature at which partial melting commences) of these rocks. It was long debated whether crustal thickening in orogens (mountain belts along convergent boundaries) was sufficient to produce granite melts by radiogenic heating, but recent work suggests that this is not a viable mechanism. In-situ granitization requires heating by the asthenospheric mantle or by underplating with mantle-derived magmas.
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# Granite
## Ascent and emplacement {#ascent_and_emplacement}
Granite magmas have a density of 2.4 Mg/m^3^, much less than the 2.8 Mg/m^3^ of high-grade metamorphic rock. This gives them tremendous buoyancy, so that ascent of the magma is inevitable once enough magma has accumulated. However, the question of precisely how such large quantities of magma are able to shove aside country rock to make room for themselves (the *room problem*) is still a matter of research.
Two main mechanisms are thought to be important:
- Stokes diapir
- Fracture propagation
Of these two mechanisms, Stokes diapirism has been favoured for many years in the absence of a reasonable alternative. The basic idea is that magma will rise through the crust as a single mass through buoyancy. As it rises, it heats the wall rocks, causing them to behave as a power-law fluid and thus flow around the intrusion allowing it to pass without major heat loss. This is entirely feasible in the warm, ductile lower crust where rocks are easily deformed, but runs into problems in the upper crust which is far colder and more brittle. Rocks there do not deform so easily: for magma to rise as a diapir it would expend far too much energy in heating wall rocks, thus cooling and solidifying before reaching higher levels within the crust.
Fracture propagation is the mechanism preferred by many geologists as it largely eliminates the major problems of moving a huge mass of magma through cold brittle crust. Magma rises instead in small channels along self-propagating dykes which form along new or pre-existing fracture or fault systems and networks of active shear zones. As these narrow conduits open, the first magma to enter solidifies and provides a form of insulation for later magma.
These mechanisms can operate in tandem. For example, diapirs may continue to rise through the brittle upper crust through stoping, where the granite cracks the roof rocks, removing blocks of the overlying crust which then sink to the bottom of the diapir while the magma rises to take their place. This can occur as piecemeal stopping (stoping of small blocks of chamber roof), as cauldron subsidence (collapse of large blocks of chamber roof), or as roof foundering (complete collapse of the roof of a shallow magma chamber accompanied by a caldera eruption.) There is evidence for cauldron subsidence at the Mt. Ascutney intrusion in eastern Vermont. Evidence for piecemeal stoping is found in intrusions that are rimmed with *igneous breccia* containing fragments of country rock.
Assimilation is another mechanism of ascent, where the granite melts its way up into the crust and removes overlying material in this way. This is limited by the amount of thermal energy available, which must be replenished by crystallization of higher-melting minerals in the magma. Thus, the magma is melting crustal rock at its roof while simultaneously crystallizing at its base. This results in steady contamination with crustal material as the magma rises. This may not be evident in the major and minor element chemistry, since the minerals most likely to crystallize at the base of the chamber are the same ones that would crystallize anyway, but crustal assimilation is detectable in isotope ratios. Heat loss to the country rock means that ascent by assimilation is limited to distance similar to the height of the magma chamber.
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# Granite
## Weathering
Physical weathering occurs on a large scale in the form of exfoliation joints, which are the result of granite\'s expanding and fracturing as pressure is relieved when overlying material is removed by erosion or other processes.
Chemical weathering of granite occurs when dilute carbonic acid, and other acids present in rain and soil waters, alter feldspar in a process called hydrolysis. As demonstrated in the following reaction, this causes potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, with potassium ions, bicarbonate, and silica in solution as byproducts. An end product of granite weathering is grus, which is often made up of coarse-grained fragments of disintegrated granite.
Climatic variations also influence the weathering rate of granites. For about two thousand years, the relief engravings on Cleopatra\'s Needle obelisk had survived the arid conditions of its origin before its transfer to London. Within two hundred years, the red granite has drastically deteriorated in the damp and polluted air there.
Soil development on granite reflects the rock\'s high quartz content and dearth of available bases, with the base-poor status predisposing the soil to acidification and podzolization in cool humid climates as the weather-resistant quartz yields much sand. Feldspars also weather slowly in cool climes, allowing sand to dominate the fine-earth fraction. In warm humid regions, the weathering of feldspar as described above is accelerated so as to allow a much higher proportion of clay with the Cecil soil series a prime example of the consequent Ultisol great soil group.
Fires can also contribute to the weathering of granite. The high temperatures reached during a fire---often exceeding 1000 °C---can cause significant physical and chemical processes that alter the rock. Among the physical processes, the differential thermal expansion of individual mineral grains, the anisotropic expansion of certain minerals, and polymorphic transformations, such as the alpha-beta quartz transition, induce substantial volume changes and generate internal stresses that damage the granite. Additionally, the decomposition of certain granite constituents, such as phyllosilicates, at specific temperatures further contributes to granite degradation. As a result, granite becomes micro-fractured, its total porosity increases, and its mechanical strength is significantly reduced.
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# Granite
## Natural radiation {#natural_radiation}
Granite is a natural source of radiation, like most natural stones. Potassium-40 is a radioactive isotope of weak emission, and a constituent of alkali feldspar, which in turn is a common component of granitic rocks, more abundant in alkali feldspar granite and syenites. Some granites contain around 10 to 20 parts per million (ppm) of uranium. By contrast, more mafic rocks, such as tonalite, gabbro and diorite, have 1 to 5 ppm uranium, and limestones and sedimentary rocks usually have equally low amounts.
Many large granite plutons are sources for palaeochannel-hosted or roll front uranium ore deposits, where the uranium washes into the sediments from the granite uplands and associated, often highly radioactive pegmatites.
Cellars and basements built into soils over granite can become a trap for radon gas, which is formed by the decay of uranium. Radon gas poses significant health concerns and is the number two cause of lung cancer in the US behind smoking.
Thorium occurs in all granites. Conway granite has been noted for its relatively high thorium concentration of 56±6 ppm.
There is some concern that some granite sold as countertops or building material may be hazardous to health. Dan Steck of St. Johns University has stated that approximately 5% of all granite is of concern, with the caveat that only a tiny percentage of the tens of thousands of granite slab types have been tested. Resources from national geological survey organizations are accessible online to assist in assessing the risk factors in granite country and design rules relating, in particular, to preventing accumulation of radon gas in enclosed basements and dwellings.
A study of granite countertops was done (initiated and paid for by the Marble Institute of America) in November 2008 by National Health and Engineering Inc. of USA. In this test, all of the 39 full-size granite slabs that were measured for the study showed radiation levels well below the European Union safety standards (section 4.1.1.1 of the National Health and Engineering study) and radon emission levels well below the average outdoor radon concentrations in the US.
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# Granite
## Industry and uses {#industry_and_uses}
Granite and related marble industries are considered one of the oldest industries in the world, existing as far back as Ancient Egypt. Major modern exporters of granite include China, India, Italy, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Sweden, Spain and the United States.
### Antiquity
The Red Pyramid of Egypt (c. 2590 BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed limestone surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Pyramid of Menkaure, likely dating 2510 BC, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2580 BC) contains a granite sarcophagus fashioned of \"Red Aswan Granite\". The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, which is now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer. How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Tool marks described by the Egyptologist Anna Serotta indicate the use of flint tools on finer work with harder stones, e.g. when producing the hieroglyphic inscriptions. Patrick Hunt has postulated that the Egyptians used emery, which has greater hardness.
The Seokguram Grotto in Korea is a Buddhist shrine and part of the Bulguksa temple complex. Completed in 774 AD, it is an artificial grotto constructed entirely of granite. The main Buddha of the grotto is a highly regarded piece of Buddhist art, and along with the temple complex to which it belongs, Seokguram was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1995.
Rajaraja Chola I of the Chola Dynasty in South India built the world\'s first temple entirely of granite in the 11th century AD in Tanjore, India. The Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva was built in 1010. The massive Gopuram (ornate, upper section of shrine) is believed to have a mass of around 81 tonnes. It was the tallest temple in south India.
Imperial Roman granite was quarried mainly in Egypt, and also in Turkey, and on the islands of Elba and Giglio. Granite became \"an integral part of the Roman language of monumental architecture\". The quarrying ceased around the third century AD. Beginning in Late Antiquity the granite was reused, which since at least the early 16th century became known as spolia. Through the process of case-hardening, granite becomes harder with age. The technology required to make tempered metal chisels was largely forgotten during the Middle Ages. As a result, Medieval stoneworkers were forced to use saws or emery to shorten ancient columns or hack them into discs. Giorgio Vasari noted in the 16th century that granite in quarries was \"far softer and easier to work than after it has lain exposed\" while ancient columns, because of their \"hardness and solidity have nothing to fear from fire or sword, and time itself, that drives everything to ruin, not only has not destroyed them but has not even altered their colour.\"
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# Granite
## Industry and uses {#industry_and_uses}
### Modern
#### Sculpture and memorials {#sculpture_and_memorials}
In some areas, granite is used for gravestones and memorials. Granite is a hard stone and requires skill to carve by hand. Until the early 18th century, in the Western world, granite could be carved only by hand tools with generally poor results.
A key breakthrough was the invention of steam-powered cutting and dressing tools by Alexander MacDonald of Aberdeen, inspired by seeing ancient Egyptian granite carvings. In 1832, the first polished tombstone of Aberdeen granite to be erected in an English cemetery was installed at Kensal Green Cemetery. It caused a sensation in the London monumental trade and for some years all polished granite ordered came from MacDonald\'s. As a result of the work of sculptor William Leslie, and later Sidney Field, granite memorials became a major status symbol in Victorian Britain. The royal sarcophagus at Frogmore was probably the pinnacle of its work, and at 30 tons one of the largest. It was not until the 1880s that rival machinery and works could compete with the MacDonald works.
Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and sandblasting over a rubber stencil. Leaving the letters, numbers, and emblems exposed and the remainder of the stone covered with rubber, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.
The stone known as \"black granite\" is usually gabbro, which has a completely different chemical composition.
#### Buildings
Granite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles in public and commercial buildings and monuments. Aberdeen in Scotland, which is constructed principally from local granite, is known as \"The Granite City\". Because of its abundance in New England, granite was commonly used to build foundations for homes there. The Granite Railway, America\'s first railroad, was built to haul granite from the quarries in Quincy, Massachusetts, to the Neponset River in the 1820s.
#### Engineering
Engineers have traditionally used polished granite surface plates to establish a plane of reference, since they are relatively impervious, inflexible, and maintain good dimensional stability. Sandblasted concrete with a heavy aggregate content has an appearance similar to rough granite, and is often used as a substitute when use of real granite is impractical. Granite tables are used extensively as bases or even as the entire structural body of optical instruments, CMMs, and very high precision CNC machines because of granite\'s rigidity, high dimensional stability, and excellent vibration characteristics. A most unusual use of granite was as the material of the tracks of the Haytor Granite Tramway, Devon, England, in 1820. Granite block is usually processed into slabs, which can be cut and shaped by a cutting center. In military engineering, Finland planted granite boulders along its Mannerheim Line to block invasion by Russian tanks in the Winter War of 1939--40.
#### Paving
Granite is used as a pavement material. This is because it is extremely durable, permeable and requires little maintenance. For example, in Sydney, Australia black granite stone is used for the paving and kerbs throughout the Central Business District.
#### Curling stones {#curling_stones}
Curling stones are traditionally fashioned of Ailsa Craig granite. The first stones were made in the 1750s, the original source being Ailsa Craig in Scotland. Because of the rarity of this granite, the best stones can cost as much as US\$1,500. Between 60 and 70 percent of the stones used today are made from Ailsa Craig granite. Although the island is now a wildlife reserve, it is still quarried under license for Ailsa granite by Kays of Scotland for curling stones.
## Rock climbing {#rock_climbing}
Granite is one of the rocks most prized by climbers, for its steepness, soundness, crack systems, and friction. Well-known venues for granite climbing include the Yosemite Valley, the Bugaboos, the Mont Blanc massif (and peaks such as the Aiguille du Dru, the Mourne Mountains, the Adamello-Presanella Alps, the Aiguille du Midi and the Grandes Jorasses), the Bregaglia, Corsica, parts of the Karakoram (especially the Trango Towers), the Fitzroy Massif and the Paine Massif in Patagonia, Baffin Island, Ogawayama, the Cornish coast, the Cairngorms, Sugarloaf Mountain in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and the Stawamus Chief, British Columbia, Canada.
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# Granite
## Gallery
<File:St>. Louis wharf cobbles 20090121 1.jpg\|Granite was used for setts on the St. Louis riverfront and for the piers of the Eads Bridge (background) <File:Torres> del Paine, Patagonia (2004).jpg\|The granite peaks of the Cordillera Paine in the Chilean Patagonia <File:Yosemite> 20 bg 090404.jpg\|alt=Half Dome, Yosemeite National Park\|Half Dome, Yosemite National Park, is actually a granite arête and is a popular rock climbing destination <File:Rixö> granitbrott 4.jpg\|Rixö red granite quarry in Lysekil, Sweden <File:Auyuittuq> National Park, Baffin Island, Nunavut -c.jpg\|Granite in Auyuittuq National Park on Baffin Island, Canada <File:Paarl> Mountain04.jpg\|Granite in Paarl, South Africa <File:HuangShan.JPG%7CA> granite peak at Huangshan, China <File:The> Cheesewring
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# Global Climate Coalition
The **Global Climate Coalition** (GCC) (1989--2001) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and engaged in climate change denial, publicly challenging the science behind global warming. The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations. The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol, and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States. The coalition knew it could not deny the scientific consensus, but sought to sow doubt over the scientific consensus on climate change and create manufactured controversy.
The GCC was dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism. It declared that its primary objective had been achieved: U.S. President George W. Bush withdrew the U.S., which alone accounted for nearly a quarter of the world\'s greenhouse gas emissions, from the Kyoto Protocol process through the Senate voting to not ratify the treaty. Thus, this rendered mandatory global reductions unreachable.
## Founding
The Global Climate Coalition (GCC) was formed in 1989 as a project under the auspices of the National Association of Manufacturers. The GCC was formed to represent the interests of the major producers and users of fossil fuels, to oppose regulation to mitigate global warming, and to challenge the science behind global warming. Context for the founding of the GCC from 1988 included the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and NASA climatologist James Hansen\'s congressional testimony that climate change was occurring. The government affairs\' offices of five or six corporations recognized that they had been inadequately organized for the Montreal Protocol, the international treaty that phased out ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons, and the Clean Air Act in the United States, and recognized that fossil fuels would be targeted for regulation.
According to GCC\'s mission statement on the home page of its website, GCC was established: \"to coordinate business participation in the international policy debate on the issue of global climate change and global warming,\" and GCC\'s executive director in a 1993 press release said GCC was organized \"as the leading voice for industry on the global climate change issue.\"
GCC reorganized independently in 1992, with the first chairman of the board of directors being the director of government relations for the Phillips Petroleum Company. Exxon, later ExxonMobil, was a founding member, and a founding member of the GCC\'s board of directors; the energy giant also had a leadership role in coalition. The American Petroleum Institute (API) was a leading member of the coalition. API\'s executive vice president was a chairman of the coalition\'s board of directors. Other GCC founding members included the National Coal Association, United States Chamber of Commerce, American Forest & Paper Association, and Edison Electric Institute. GCC\'s executive director John Shlaes was previously the director of government relations at the Edison Electric Institute. GCC was run by Ruder Finn, a public relations firm. GCC\'s comprehensive PR campaign was designed by E. Bruce Harrison, who had been creating campaigns for the US industry against environmental legislation from the 1970s.
GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy. About 40 companies and industry associations were GCC members. Considering member corporations, member trade associations, and business represented by member trade associations, GCC represented over 230,000 businesses. Industry sectors represented included: aluminium, paper, transportation, power generation, petroleum, chemical, and small businesses. All major oil companies were members until 1996 (Shell left in 1998). GCC members were from industries that would have been adversely effected by limitations on fossil fuel consumption. GCC was funded by membership dues.
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# Global Climate Coalition
## Advocacy activities {#advocacy_activities}
GCC was one of the most powerful lobbyist groups against action to mitigate global warming. It was the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations, and led a campaign opposed to policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The GCC was one of the most powerful non-governmental organizations representing business interests in climate policy, according to Kal Raustiala, professor at the UCLA School of Law.
GCC\'s advocacy activities included lobbying government officials, grassroots lobbying through press releases and advertising, participation in international climate conferences, criticism of the processes of international climate organizations, critiques of climate models, and personal attacks on scientists and environmentalists. Policy positions advocated by the coalition included denial of anthropogenic climate change, emphasizing the uncertainty in climatology, advocating for additional research, highlighting the benefits and downplaying the risks of climate change, stressing the priority of economic development, defending national sovereignty, and opposition to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions.
GCC sent delegations to all of the major international climate conventions. Only nations and non-profits may send official delegates to the United Nations Climate Change conferences. GCC registered with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as a non-governmental organization, and executives from GCC members attended official UN conferences as GCC delegates.
In 1990, after US president, George H. W. Bush, addressed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) urging caution in responding to global warming, and offering no new proposals, GCC said Bush\'s speech was \"very strong\" and concurred with the priorities of economic development and additional research. GCC sent 30 attendees to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, where it lobbied to keep targets and timetables out of the Framework Convention on Climate Change. In December, 1992 GCC\'s executive director wrote in a letter to *The New York Times*: \"\...there is considerable debate on whether or not man-made greenhouse gases (produced primarily by burning fossil fuels) are triggering a dangerous \'global warming\' trend.\" In 1992 GCC distributed a half-hour video entitled *The Greening of Planet Earth*, to hundreds of journalists, the White House, and several Middle Eastern oil-producing countries, which suggested that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide could boost crop yields and solve world hunger.
In 1993, after then US president Bill Clinton pledged \"to reducing our emissions of greenhouse gases to their 1990 levels by the year 2000,\" GCC\'s executive director said it \"could jeopardize the economic health of the nation.\" GCC\'s lobbying was key to the defeat in the United States Senate of Clinton\'s 1993 BTU tax proposal. In 1994, after United States Secretary of Energy Hazel R. O\'Leary said the 1992 UNFCCC needed to be strengthened, and that voluntary carbon dioxide reductions may not be enough, GCC said it was: \"disturbed by the implication that the President\'s voluntary climate action plan, which is just getting under way, will be inadequate and that more stringent measures may be needed domestically.\"
GCC did not fund original scientific research and its climate claims relied largely on the *World Climate Review* and its successor the *World Climate Report* edited by Patrick Michaels and funded by the Western Fuels Association. GCC promoted the views of climate deniers such as Michaels, Fred Singer, and Richard Lindzen. In 1996, GCC published a report entitled *Global warming and extreme weather: fact vs. fiction* written by Robert E. Davis.
GCC members questioned the efficacy of climate change denial and shifted their message to highlighting the economic costs of proposed greenhouse gas emission regulations and the limited effectiveness of proposals exempting developing nations. In 1995, after the United Nations Climate Change conference in Berlin agreed to negotiate greenhouse gas emission limits, GCC\'s executive director said the agreement gave \"developing countries like China, India and Mexico a free ride\" and would \"change the relations between sovereign countries and the United Nations. This could have very significant implications. It could be a way of capping our economy.\" At a Washington, D.C. press conference on the eve of the second United Nations Climate Change conference in Geneva, GCC\'s executive director said, \"The time for decision is not yet now.\" At the conference in Geneva, GCC issued a statement that said it was too early to determine the causes of global warming. GCC representatives lobbied scientists at the September, 1996 IPCC conference in Mexico City.
After actor Leonardo DiCaprio, chairman of Earth Day 2000, interviewed Clinton for ABC News, GCC sent out an e-mail that said that DiCaprio\'s first car was a Jeep Grand Cherokee and that his current car was a Chevrolet Tahoe.
### *Predicting Future Climate Change: A Primer* {#predicting_future_climate_change_a_primer}
In 1995, GCC assembled an advisory committee of scientific and technical experts to compile an internal-only, 17-page report on climate science entitled *Predicting Future Climate Change: A Primer*, which said: \"The scientific basis for the Greenhouse Effect and the potential impact of human emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2 on climate is well established and cannot be denied.\" In early 1996, GCC\'s operating committee asked the advisory committee to redact the sections that rebutted contrarian arguments, and accepted the report and distributed it to members. The draft document was disclosed in a 2007 lawsuit filed by the auto industry against California\'s efforts to regulate automotive greenhouse gas emissions.
According to *The New York Times*, the primer demonstrated that \"even as the coalition worked to sway opinion, its own scientific and technical experts were advising that the science backing the role of greenhouse gases in global warming could not be refuted.\" According to the Union of Concerned Scientists in 2015, the primer was: \"remarkable for indisputably showing that, while some fossil fuel companies\' deception about climate science has continued to the present day, at least two decades ago the companies\' own scientific experts were internally alerting them about the realities and implications of climate change.\"
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# Global Climate Coalition
## Advocacy activities {#advocacy_activities}
### IPCC Second Assessment Report {#ipcc_second_assessment_report}
GCC was an industry participant in the review process of the IPCC Second Assessment Report. In 1996, prior to the publication of the Second Assessment Report, GCC distributed a report entitled *The IPCC: Institutionalized Scientific Cleansing* to reporters, US Congressmen, and scientists. The coalition report said that Benjamin D. Santer, the lead author of Chapter 8 in the assessment, entitled \"Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes,\" had altered the text, after acceptance by the Working Group, and without approval of the authors, to strike content characterizing the uncertainty of the science. Frederick Seitz repeated GCC\'s charges in a letter to *The Wall Street Journal* published June 12, 1996. The coalition ran newspaper advertisements that said: \"unless the management of the IPCC promptly undertakes to republish the printed versions \... the IPCC\'s credibility will have been lost.\"
Santer and his co-authors said the edits were integrations of comments from peer review as per agreed IPCC processes.
### Opposition to Kyoto Protocol {#opposition_to_kyoto_protocol}
GCC was the main industry group in the United States opposed to the Kyoto Protocol, which committed signatories to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The coalition \"was the leading industry group working in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol,\" according to Greenpeace, and led opposition to the Kyoto Protocol, according to the *Los Angeles Times.*
Prior to 1997, GCC spent about \$1 million annually lobbying against limits on `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki} emissions; before Kyoto, GCC annual revenue peaked around \$1.5 million; GCC spent \$13 million on advertising in opposition to the Kyoto treaty. The coalition funded the Global Climate Information Project and hired the advertising firm that produced the 1993--1994 Harry and Louise advertising campaign which opposed Clinton\'s health care initiative. The advertisements said, \"the UN Climate Treaty isn\'t Global\...and it won\'t work\" and \"Americans will pay the price\...50 cents more for every gallon of gasoline.\"
GCC opposed the signing of the Kyoto Protocol by Clinton. GCC was influential in the withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol by the administration of President George W. Bush. According to briefing notes prepared by the United States Department of State for the under-secretary of state, Bush\'s rejection of the Kyoto Protocol was \"in part based on input from\" GCC. GCC lobbying was key to the July, 1997 unanimous passage in the United States Senate of the Byrd--Hagel Resolution, which reflected the coalition\'s position that restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions must include developing countries. GCC\'s chairman told a US congressional committee that mandatory greenhouse gas emissions limits were: \"an unjustified rush to judgement.\" The coalition sent 50 delegates to the third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Kyoto. On December 11, 1997, the day the Kyoto delegates reached agreement on legally binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions, GCC\'s chairman said the agreement would be defeated by the US Senate. In 2001, GCC\'s executive director compared the Kyoto Protocol to the *RMS Titanic*.
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# Global Climate Coalition
## Membership decline {#membership_decline}
GCC\'s challenge to science prompted a backlash from environmental groups. Environmentalists described GCC as a \"club for polluters\" and called for members to withdraw their support. \"Abandonment of the Global Climate Coalition by leading companies is partly in response to the mounting evidence that the world is indeed getting warmer,\" according to environmentalist Lester R. Brown. In 1998, Green Party delegates to the European Parliament introduced an unsuccessful proposal that the World Meteorological Organization name hurricanes after GCC members. Defections weakened the coalition. In 1996, British Petroleum resigned and later announced support for the Kyoto Protocol and commitment to greenhouse gas emission reductions. In 1997, Royal Dutch Shell withdrew after criticism from European environmental groups. In 1999, Ford Motor Company was the first US company to withdraw; the *New York Times* described the departure as \"the latest sign of divisions within heavy industry over how to respond to global warming.\" DuPont left the coalition in 1997 and Shell USA (then known as Shell Oil Company) left in 1998. In 2000, GCC corporate members were the targets of a national student-run university divestiture campaign. Between December, 1999 and early March, 2000, Texaco, the Southern Company, General Motors and Daimler-Chrysler withdrew. Some former coalition members joined the Business Environmental Leadership Council within the Pew Center on Global Climate Change which represented diverse stakeholders, including business interests, with a commitment to peer-reviewed scientific research and accepted the need for emissions restrictions to address climate change.
In 2000, GCC restructured as an association of trade associations; membership was limited to trade associations, and individual corporations were represented through their trade association. Brown called the restructuring \"a thinly veiled effort to conceal the real issue -- the loss of so many key corporate members.\"
## Dissolution
After US President George W. Bush withdrew the US from the Kyoto process in 2001, GCC disbanded. Absent the participation of the US, the effectiveness of the Kyoto process was limited. GCC said on its website that its mission had been successfully achieved, writing \"At this point, both Congress and the Administration agree that the U.S. should not accept the mandatory cuts in emissions required by the protocol.\" Networks of well-funded industry lobbyists and other climate change denial groups continue its work.
## Reception
In 2015, the Union of Concerned Scientists compared GCC\'s role in the public policy debate on climate change to the roles in the public policy debate on tobacco safety of the Tobacco Institute, the tobacco industry\'s lobbyist group, and the Council for Tobacco Research, which promoted misleading science. Environmentalist Bill McKibben said that, by promoting doubt about the science, \"throughout the 1990s, even as other nations took action, the fossil fuel industry\'s Global Climate Coalition managed to make American journalists treat the accelerating warming as a he-said-she-said story.\" According to the *Los Angeles Times*, GCC members integrated projections from climate models into their operational planning while publicly criticising the models.
Former Vice President Al Gore described the oil companies\' blocking campaign as \"the most serious crime of the post-World War Two era\"
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# Charles Goren
**Charles Henry Goren** (March 4, 1901 -- April 3, 1991) was an American bridge player and writer who significantly developed and popularized the game. He was the leading American bridge personality in the 1950s and 1960s and widely known as \"Mr. Bridge\".
## Early years {#early_years}
Goren was born in what is now Khotyn, Ukraine, then part of the Russian Empire, to a Jewish family. His parents were Jacob and Rebecca Goron, a writer and a homemaker. His father emigrated in 1903 with the family possibly coming later. He earned a law degree at McGill University in Montreal in 1923. While he was attending McGill, a girlfriend (or \"a young hostess\") laughed at his ineptness at the game of bridge, thus motivating him to immerse himself in a study of existing bridge materials.
After graduation, he practiced law for 13 years in Philadelphia. The growing fame of contract bridge player Ely Culbertson, however, prompted Goren to abandon his original career choice to pursue bridge competitions, where he attracted the attention of Milton Work, an American authority on many card games including contract bridge. Work was impressed by Goren\'s knowledge of the game and hired Goren to help him write his bridge articles and columns.
Work was one of many strong bridge players based in Philadelphia around the 1920s. By 1928 he had popularized the 4--3--2--1 point count system for evaluating balanced hands (now sometimes called the Work count). His chief assistant Olive Peterson and young Goren established a partnership as players.
As a player Goren\'s \"breakthrough\" was the 1937 Board-a-Match Teams championship (now called The Reisinger National Bridge Championship) which he won with three other Philadelphia players: John Crawford, Charles Solomon, and Sally Young.
Goren dominated the competitive bridge circuit ultimately becoming world champion at the Bermuda Bowl in 1950 and remained a competitive player until about 1962 after which he focused on writing and teaching bridge.
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# Charles Goren
## Bridge contributions {#bridge_contributions}
After Milton Work died in 1934, Goren began his own bridge writing career and published the first of his many books on playing bridge, *Winning Bridge Made Easy*, in 1936. Drawing on his experience with Work\'s system, Goren quickly became popular as an instructor and lecturer.
Goren\'s books have sold millions of copies (especially *Winning Bridge Made Easy* and *Contract Bridge Complete*); by 1958 his daily bridge column was appearing in 194 American newspapers. He also had a monthly column in *McCall\'s* and a weekly column in *Sports Illustrated*.
His television program, *Championship Bridge with Charles Goren*, was broadcast from 1959 to 1964 on the ABC network. It featured numerous appearances by top players and segments with celebrity guests such as Chico Marx, Alfred Drake, and Forest Evashevski, among others.
Goren\'s longest partnership was with Helen Sobel, but he also famously partnered actor Omar Sharif. Sharif also wrote introductions to or co-authored several of Goren\'s bridge books, and was also co-author of Goren\'s newspaper column, eventually taking it over in collaboration with Tannah Hirsch.
### Point count system {#point_count_system}
As he continued writing, Goren began to develop his point count system, based on the Milton Work point count, as an improvement over the existing system of counting \"honor tricks\". Goren, with assistance, formulated a method of combining the Work count, which was based entirely on high cards, and various distributional features. This may well have improved the bidding of intermediate players and beginners almost immediately.
### Four-card suits {#four_card_suits}
Goren also worked to continue the practice of opening four-card suits, with an occasional three-card club suit when the only four-card suit was a weak `{{gcb|majorsuit|major}}`{=mediawiki}. In this, he was following the practice established by Ely Culbertson in the early 1930s. Later on, he continued this practice, resisting the well-known *five-card majors* approach that has become a major feature of modern Standard American bidding.
Opening a four-card suit can improve the chances of the partnership identifying a four-four trump fit, and the four-card approach is still used by experts today, notably by most Acol players. It is claimed that the drawback of the four-card approach is that the Law of Total Tricks is more difficult to apply in cases where it is used. However, the five-card majors approach became popular before the Law of Total Tricks was propounded.
### Other contributions {#other_contributions}
In addition to his pioneering work in bringing simple and effective bridge to everyday players, Goren also worked to popularize the Precision bidding method, which is one of many so-called big club or strong club systems (which use an opening bid of one club to indicate a strong hand).
Tribune Content Agency distributes the daily column Goren Bridge, written by Bob Jones, using the Goren method.
## Legacy
Goren died on April 3, 1991, in Encino, California, at the age of 90. He had lived with his nephew Marvin Goren for 19 years. While few players \"play Goren\" exactly today, the point-count approach he popularized remains the foundation for most bidding systems.
During the month of Goren\'s death, Truscott followed his obituary with a bridge column entitled, \"Goren leaves behind many fans and a column with an international flavor\". His business interests had been \"managed by others\" since his retirement \"a quarter of a century ago\", according to Truscott. \"The Goren syndicated column now has an international flavor: It carries the bylines of the movie star Omar Sharif, an Egyptian who lives in Paris, and an entrepreneur, Tannah Hirsch, a South African who came to the United States via Israel.\"
Goren appeared on the Groucho Marx radio and television game show You Bet Your Life in March 1958.
Goren appeared on the television game show What's My Line in December 1961.
## Bridge accomplishments {#bridge_accomplishments}
### Honors
- ACBL Hall of Fame, 1964
```{=html}
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- ACBL Honorary Member of the Year, 1959
### Awards
- McKenney Trophy 1937, 1943, 1945, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1951
- Precision Award (Best Article or Series on a System or Convention) 1974
### Wins
- Bermuda Bowl (1) 1950
- North American Bridge Championships (32)
- Vanderbilt (2) 1944, 1945
- Asbury Park Trophy (now Spingold) (1) 1937
- Spingold (5) 1943, 1947, 1951, 1956, 1960
- Chicago (now Reisinger) (8) 1937, 1938, 1939, 1942, 1943, 1950, 1957, 1963
- Men\'s Board-a-Match Teams (1) 1952
- Master Mixed Teams (6) 1938, 1941, 1943, 1944, 1948, 1954
- Life Master Pairs (2) 1942, 1958
- Fall National Open Pairs (1) 1940
- Men\'s Pairs (3) 1938, 1943, 1949
- Rockwell Mixed Pairs (1) 1947
- Hilliard Mixed Pairs (1) 1943
- Master Individual (1) 1945
### Runners-up {#runners_up}
- Bermuda Bowl (2) 1956, 1957
- North American Bridge Championships (21)
- Vanderbilt (8) 1934, 1936, 1949, 1950, 1953, 1955, 1959, 1962
- Spingold (2) 1939, 1950
- Chicago (now Reisinger) (2) 1944, 1951
- Men\'s Board-a-Match Teams (2) 1946, 1955
- Master Mixed Teams (4) 1946, 1949, 1950, 1951
- Life Master Pairs (1) 1953
- Men\'s Pairs (1) 1935
- Hilliard Mixed Pairs (1) 1934
| 852 |
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# Charles Goren
## Publications
- *Winning Bridge Made Easy: a simplified self-teaching method of contract bidding combining all the principles of the new Culbertson system with the principal features of the four aces system* (Harrisburg, PA: The Telegraph Press, 1936), 92 pp., `{{LCCN|36014872}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Better Bridge for Better Players: the play of the cards*, introduction by Ely Culbertson, foreword by George S. Kaufman (Doubleday, Doran, 1942), 538 pp. `{{LCCN|42025653}}`{=mediawiki}; also known as *The Standard Book of Play: better bridge for better players*, `{{OCLC|647336}}`{=mediawiki}
: The earliest British edition in WorldCat records is *Better Bridge for Better Players: the standard book of play*, intro. Culbertson, fwd. Kauffman (London: Walter Edwards, 1947), `{{OCLC|836591784}}`{=mediawiki}
- *The Standard Book of Bidding* (Doubleday, 1944), 299 pp. `{{LCCN|44009061}}`{=mediawiki}; (Doubleday, 1947), 310 pp. `{{LCCN|47003052}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Contract Bridge in a Nutshell* (Doubleday, 1946), 128 pp. `{{LCCN|46006423}}`{=mediawiki}; at least seven editions to 1986 under the titles *Contract Bridge in a Nutshell* \[CBN\], *New CBN*, *Goren\'s New CBN*, or *Charles Goren\'s New CBN*
- *Contract Bridge Made Easy, a self-teacher* (Doubleday, 1948), 95 pp. -- \"Replaces the author\'s Winning bridge made easy, first pub. in 1936 and now out of print.\" `{{LCCN|48007366}}`{=mediawiki}
- First London edition published by Eyre & Spottiswoode in 1951. Title has been revised and reprinted numerous times to 1984.
- . First London edition published by Eyre & Spottiswoode in 1959. Title has been reprinted numerous times to 1972.
- with Jack Olsen: . Paperback editions published by Cornerstone Library, NY in 1967 and 1970, pp. 190.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- 100 Challenging Bridge Hands
- An Entirely New Bridge Summary
- The A.B.C.\'s of Contract Bridge
- Championship Bridge with Charles Goren
- Charles H. Goren\'s Bridge Quiz Book
- Contract Bridge Complete
- Easy Steps: Eight Steps to Winning Bridge
- The Elements of Bridge
- The Fundamental of contract Bridge
- Goren on Play and Defense: All of Play: The Technique, the Logic, and the Challenge of Master Bridge
- Goren Presents the Italian Bridge System
- Goren Settles the Bridge Arguments
- Goren\'s Bridge Complete
- Goren\'s Bridge Quizzes
- Goren\'s Hoyle Encyclopedia of Bridge
- Goren\'s New Contract Bridge Complete
- Goren\'s Point Count Bidding Made Easy
- Goren\'s Winning Partnership Bridge
- Introduction to Bridge
- Introduction to Competitive Bidding
- *Modern Backgammon Complete*
- Official Charles Goren Quick Reference to Winning Bridge
- Play and Defense
- Play As You Learn Bridge
- Play Bridge With Goren
- Play Winning Bridge With Any Partner: Even a Stranger
- Precision Bridge for Everyone
- The Precision System of Bidding
- Precision System of Contract Bridge Bidding: Charles H
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# Geoff Ryman
**Geoffrey Charles Ryman** (born 1951) is a Canadian writer of science fiction, fantasy, slipstream and historical fiction. Ryman has written and published seven novels, including an early example of a hypertext novel, *253*. He has won multiple awards, including the World Fantasy Award.
## Biography
Ryman was born in Canada and moved to the United States at age 11. He earned degrees in History and English at UCLA, then moved to England in 1973, where he has lived most of his life. He is gay.
In addition to being an author, Ryman started a web design team for the UK government at the Central Office of Information in 1994. He also led the teams that designed the first official British Monarchy and 10 Downing Street websites, and worked on the UK government\'s flagship website, www.direct.gov.uk.
## Works
Ryman says he knew he was a writer \"before \[he\] could talk\", with his first work published in his mother\'s newspaper column at six years of age. He is best known for his science fiction; however, his first novel was the fantasy *The Warrior Who Carried Life* (1985), and his revisionist fantasy of *The Wizard of Oz*, *Was\...* (1992), has been called \"his most accomplished work\".
In 1996, Ryman began publishing instalments of *253: A Novel for the Internet in Seven Cars and a Crash* on the web. The work deals with the interconnected lives of 253 people on a Bakerloo line train in London, hurtling towards death, and is an early example of a hypertext novel. It was deeply personal to Ryman. \'253 happens on January 11th, 1995,\' he writes, \'which is the day I learned my best friend was dying of Aids.\' The project was intricate and lengthy, and took up a great deal of time, but in the 2000s, when Ryman was suffering from cancer, he accidentally failed to renew the URL, which was sold on, resulting in the loss of the project. In 2023, however, Ryman was able to restore it, and it became available online again.
Much of Ryman\'s work is based on travels to Cambodia. The first of these, *The Unconquered Country* (1986), was winner of the World Fantasy Award and BSFA Award. His novel *The King\'s Last Song* (2006) was set both in the Angkor Wat era and the time after Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge.
In 2023, after a significant hiatus between novels, Ryman published *Him*, an alternative history of Jesus Christ, in which Jesus is born biologically female, but identifies as male. *New Scientist* called it \'provocative,\' while Lisa Tuttle commented in *The Guardian*: \'It will offend those determined to be offended, but it is a serious, heartfelt exploration of profound human questions by one of our best writers.\'
Ryman has written, directed and performed in several plays based on works by other writers.
He was guest of honour at Novacon in 1989 and has twice been a guest speaker at Microcon, in 1994 and in 2004. He was also the guest of honour at the national Swedish science fiction convention Swecon in 2006, at Gaylaxicon 2008, at Wiscon 2009, and at Åcon 2010. An article by Wendy Gay Pearson on Ryman\'s novel *The Child Garden* won the British Science Fiction Foundation\'s graduate essay award and was published in a special issue of *Foundation* on LGBT science fiction edited by Andrew M. Butler in 2002. Ryman\'s works were also the subject of a special issue of *Extrapolation* in 2008, with articles dealing with *Air, The Child Garden, Lust,* and *Was,* in particular. Neil Easterbrook\'s article in this special issue, \"\'Giving An Account of Oneself\': Ethics, Alterity, Air\" won the 2009 Science Fiction Research Association Pioneer Award for best published article on science fiction (this award has since been renamed the SFRA Innovative Research Award). The issue includes an interview with Geoff Ryman by Canadian speculative fiction writer Hiromi Goto. The introduction to the special issue, by Susan Knabe and Wendy Gay Pearson, also responds to Ryman\'s call for Mundane science fiction.
The Mundane SF movement was founded in 2002 during the Clarion Workshop by Ryman and other Clarion West Workshop instructors. In a 2004 manifesto on the subject, Ryman writes of the Mundane science fiction movement: \'This movement proposes \"mundane science fiction\" as its own subgenre science fiction, typically characterized by its setting on Earth and a believable use of technology and science as it exists at the time the story is written or a plausible extension of existing technology.\'
In 2008 a Mundane SF issue of *Interzone* magazine was published, guest-edited by Ryman, Julian Todd and Trent Walters.
Ryman has lectured at the University of Manchester since at least 2007; as of 2022 he is an Honorary Senior Lecturer in Creative Writing for University of Manchester\'s English Department, where in 2011 he won the Faculty Students\' Teaching Award for the School of Arts, History and Culture.
## Awards
\|- \| valign=top \|
British Science Fiction Award
- *The Unconquered Country* for Best Short (1984)
- *Air* for Best Novel (2005)
World Fantasy Award
- *The Unconquered Country* Best Novella (1985)
Arthur C. Clarke Award
- *The Child Garden* for Best Novel (1990)
- *Air* (2005)
\| valign=top \|
Campbell Award
- *The Child Garden* for Best Novel (1990)
Philip K. Dick Award
- *253: The Print Remix*, 1998
James Tiptree, Jr
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# Gavoi
**Gavoi** is a *comune* in central Sardinia (Italy), part of the province of Nuoro, in the natural region of Barbagia. It overlooks Lake Gusana.
## History
The territory of Gavoi is inhabited since the prenuragic period. During the middleage is cited various times in the list of villages and towns that paid the taxes to the Roman curia.
Gavoi was hit by the plague in the 18th century.
## Main sights {#main_sights}
The Roman church of San Gavino is Gavoi\'s foremost sacred spot, through there are eight other ancient churches in the village. The village\'s center contains rock houses with balconies, and a village fountain is known as \"Antana \'e Cartzonna\".
Near the lake are the archaeological areas of Orrui and San Michele di Fonni. A Roman bridge is submerged beneath the lake.
## Economy
Mountain tourism is among the sources of income. Agriculture production include potatoes and cheese (the town is famous for its Fiore Sardo).
## Traditions and culture {#traditions_and_culture}
The \"tumbarinu\" is a traditional drum made of lamb skin, and more rarely, dog or donkey skin. The tumbarinu is often accompanied with the pipiolu, the traditional sheppard\'s fife. The \"ballu tundu\", is a traditional dance in the round, as in the Balkan area. Poetry is esteemed, including extemporaneous rhyme competitions on given topics.
The nearby Sanctuary of Madonna d\'Itria hosts a palio, in this case a peculiar horse competition very similar to that of Siena
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# Lake Gusana
**Lake Gusana** (*Lago di Gusana*) is an artificial lake near the town of Gavoi in the interior of Sardinia, Italy.
The lake was built in the 1930s to store water for an electricity generator (central of Coghinadordza), and it covered an ancient Roman bridge as well as an ancient archaeological site of the Nuragici people.
It is now a tourist destination
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# Province of Grosseto
The **province of Grosseto** (*provincia di Grosseto*) is a province in the Tuscany region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Grosseto. As of 2013 the province had a total population of 225,098 people.
## Geography
The Province of Grosseto completely occupies the southern end of Tuscany, and with a territorial area of 4504 km2, it is the most extensive in the region and one of the least dense in population in Italy. The province is bordered to the northwest by the Province of Livorno, to the north by the Province of Pisa, to the northeast by the Province of Siena, and to the southeast by the Province of Viterbo in Lazio. To the south is the Tyrrhenian Sea, which includes the southern islands of the Tuscan archipelago, including Isola del Giglio and the smaller Giannutri islands and Formiche di Grosseto and Formica di Burano. The Arcipelago Toscano National Park spans both the provinces of Grosseto and Livorno, and includes the seven main islands of the Tuscan Archipelago: Elba, Isola del Giglio, Capraia, Montecristo, Pianosa, Giannutri, Gorgona, and some of the minor islands and rock outcrops. The highest point in the park is Mount Capanne, at 1019 m in elevation, on the island of Elba.
The Colline Metallifere (Metalliferous Hills) line the border in the south with Lazio, and contain the Natural Park of Maremma, that protects also some of the remainings of the large swamps that once covered the area. Other protected areas are the Diaccia Botrona marshland. The principal rivers are the Ombrone, Fiora, Albegna, Pecora, Bruna, Merse, Lente (river), Farma and Chiarone. The coastline between the Gulf of Follonica and the mouth of the Chiarone is dominated by blue waters and pine forests, and is home to resorts such as Marina di Grosseto, Principina a Mare, Castiglione della Pescaia, Punta Ala, Puntone di Scarlino and Talamone. Lakes include Lago dell\'Accesa, Lago di Burano, Lago di San Floriano and Lago Acquato. Also of note is the volcanic cone of Mount Amiata, Bandite di Scarlino (213 m), Promontorio di Punta Ala e delle Rocchette (350 m), Monti dell\'Uccellina (417 m), Monte Argentario (635 m), and Promontorio di Ansedonia (113 m).
### *Comuni*
There are 28 *\[\[comuni\]\]* (singular: *\[\[comune\]\]*) in the province
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# Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis
**Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis** (`{{IPA|fr|ɡaspaʁ ɡystav də kɔʁjɔlis|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 21 May 1792 -- 19 September 1843) was a French mathematician, mechanical engineer and scientist. He is best known for his work on the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference, leading to the Coriolis effect. He was the first to apply the term *travail* (translated as \"work\") for the transfer of energy by a force acting through a distance, and he prefixed the factor ½ to Leibniz\'s concept of *vis viva*, thus specifying today\'s *kinetic energy*.
## Biography
Coriolis was born in Paris in 1792. In 1808 he sat the entrance exam and was placed second of all the students entering that year, and in 1816, he became a tutor at the École Polytechnique, where he did experiments on friction and hydraulics. In 1829, Coriolis published a textbook, *Calcul de l\'Effet des Machines* (\"Calculation of the Effect of Machines\"), which presented mechanics in a way that could readily be applied by industry. He established the correct expression for kinetic energy, *½mv^2^*, and its relation to mechanical work.
During the following years, Coriolis worked to extend the notions of kinetic energy and work to rotating systems. The first of his papers, *Sur le principe des forces vives dans les mouvements relatifs des machines* (On the principle of kinetic energy in the relative motion in machines), was read to the Académie des Sciences (Coriolis 1832). Three years later came the paper that would make his name famous, *Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps* (On the equations of relative motion of a system of bodies). Coriolis\'s papers do not deal with the atmosphere or even the rotation of the Earth, but with the transfer of energy in rotating systems like waterwheels. Coriolis discussed the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference and he divided these forces into two categories. The second category contained the force that would eventually bear his name. A detailed discussion may be found in Dugas.
In 1835, he published a mathematical work on collisions of spheres: *Théorie Mathématique des Effets du Jeu de Billard*, considered a classic on the subject.
Coriolis\'s name began to appear in the meteorological literature at the end of the 19th century, although the term \"Coriolis force\" was not used until the beginning of the 20th century. Today, the name Coriolis has become strongly associated with meteorology, but all major discoveries about the general circulation and the relation between the pressure and wind fields were made without knowledge about Gaspard Gustave Coriolis.
Coriolis became professor of mechanics at the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in 1829. Upon the death of Claude-Louis Navier in 1836, Coriolis succeeded him in the chair of applied mechanics at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and to Navier\'s place in the Académie des Sciences. In 1838, he succeeded Dulong as *Directeur des études* (director of studies) in the École Polytechnique.
He died in 1843 at the age of 51 in Paris. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
<File:Coriolis-1.jpg%7C1829> copy of \"*Du Calcul de L\'Effet Des Machines*\" <File:Coriolis-3.jpg%7CIntroductory> page of an 1829 copy of \"*Du Calcul de L\'Effet Des Machines*\" <File:Coriolis-4
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# Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians
Géza of Hungary}} `{{Good article}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Infobox royalty
| name =Géza
| image =Geza-ChroniconPictum.jpg
| caption =Depicted in the ''[[Illuminated Chronicle]]''
| succession =[[Grand Prince of the Hungarians]]
| reign =early 970s – 997
| coronation =
| predecessor =[[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]]
| successor =[[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen]]
| spouse =[[Sarolt|Sarolt of Transylvania]]<br/>Adelaide (Adleta) of Poland (?)
| issue ={{plainlist|
* [[Judith of Hungary|Judith]]
* Margaret
* [[Stephen I of Hungary]]
* [[Grimelda of Hungary|Grimelda, Dogaressa of Venice]]}}
| house = [[Árpád dynasty]]
| house-type=Dynasty
| father =[[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]]
| mother =
| birth_date ={{circa}} 940
| birth_place =
| death_date =997
| death_place =
| place of burial=
|}}`{=mediawiki} **Géza** (c. 940 -- 997), also **Gejza**, was Grand Prince of the Hungarians from the early 970s. He was the son of Grand Prince Taksony and his Oriental`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}wife. He married Sarolt, a daughter of an Eastern Orthodox Hungarian chieftain. After ascending the throne, Géza made peace with the Holy Roman Empire. Within Hungary, he consolidated his authority with extreme cruelty, according to the unanimous narration of nearly contemporaneous sources. He was the first Hungarian monarch to support Christian missionaries from Western Europe. Although he was baptised (his baptismal name was **Stephen**), his Christian faith remained shallow and he continued to perform acts of pagan worship. He was succeeded by his son Stephen, who was crowned the first King of Hungary in 1000 or 1001.
## Early life {#early_life}
Géza was the elder son of Taksony, Grand Prince of the Hungarians. His mother was his father\'s wife \"from the land of the Cumans\", according to the anonymous author of the *Gesta Hungarorum*. This anachronistic reference to the Cumans suggests that she was of Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian origin. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, who listed the descendants of Grand Prince Árpád around 950, did not mention Géza. Even so, Gyula Kristó wrote that Géza was born around 940 and the emperor ignored him because of his youth. The genuine form of his name was either \"Gyeücsa\" or \"Gyeusa\", which is possibly a diminutive form of the Turkic title *yabgu*. Géza\'s father arranged his marriage with Sarolt`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}a daughter of a Hungarian chieftain called Gyula, who ruled Transylvania independently of the grand prince and had converted to Christianity in Constantinople. Sarolt seems to have also adhered to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, according to Bruno of Querfurt\'s remark on her \"languid and muddled Christianity\".
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# Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians
## Reign
Géza succeeded his father around 972. He adopted a centralizing policy, which gave rise to his fame as a merciless ruler. The longer version of his son\'s *Life* even states that Géza\'s hands were \"defiled with blood\". Pál Engel wrote that Géza carried out a \"large-scale purge\" against his relatives, which explains the lack of references to other members of the Árpád dynasty from around 972. Koppány, who continued to rule the southern parts of Transdanubia, is the only exception to this dearth of references. A marriage alliance between the German and Byzantine dynasties brought about a rapprochement between the two powers neighboring Hungary in 972. Géza decided to make peace with the Holy Roman Empire. First, a monk named Bruno sent by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor arrived in Hungary around 972. Hungarian \"legates\" were present at a conference held by the emperor in Quedlinburg in 973. `{{Blockquote|Geyza, who was strict and cruel, acting in a domineering way, as it were, with his own people, but compassionate and generous with strangers, especially with Christians, although [he was] still entangled in the rite of paganism. At the approach of the light of spiritual grace, he began to discuss peace attentively with all the neighboring provinces ... Moreover, he laid down a rule that the favor of hospitality and security be shown to all Christians wishing to enter his domains. He gave clerics and monks leave to enter his presence; he offered them a willing hearing, and delighted them in the germination of the seed of true faith sown in the garden of his heart.|[[Hartvik|Hartvic]]: ''[[Legenda Hartviciana|Life of King Stephen of Hungary]]''<ref>''Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary'' (ch. 2), pp. 379–380.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} A record on one Bishop Prunwart in the Abbey of Saint Gall mentions his success in baptising many Hungarians, including their \"king\". The nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg confirms that the conversion to Christianity of the pagan Hungarians started under Géza, who became the first Christian ruler of Hungary. His baptismal name was Stephen. However, Géza continued to observe pagan cults, which proves that his conversion to Christianity was never complete. Kristó and other historians have said that the first Roman Catholic diocese in Hungary, with its seat in Veszprém, was set up in Géza\'s reign, but their view has not been unanimously accepted. A charter issued during his son\'s reign states that Géza was the founder of the Benedictine Pannonhalma Archabbey.
Taking advantage of internal conflicts which emerged in the Holy Roman Empire after Emperor Otto II\'s death, Géza invaded Bavaria and took the fortress of Melk in 983. In 991, the Bavarians launched a counter-attack which forced Géza to withdraw Hungarian forces from the territories east of the Vienna Woods. Furthermore, he renounced the lands east of the river Leitha in his peace treaty of 996 with Henry IV of Bavaria. Géza also arranged the marriage of his son and heir Stephen to Henry IV\'s sister Giselle. Even before this marriage alliance, Géza convoked the Hungarian leaders to an assembly and forced them to take an oath confirming his son\'s right to succeed him.
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# Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians
## Family
Sarolt gave birth to at least three of Géza\'s children: Stephen, who succeeded his father on the throne, and two unnamed daughters. Sarolt survived Géza, which suggests that she was also the mother of Géza\'s daughters. Based on the *Polish-Hungarian Chronicle*, Szabolcs de Vajay wrote that the daughters\' mother was Géza\'s alleged second wife Adelaide of Poland, but this has not been widely accepted. Adelaide is only mentioned in the *Polish--Hungarian Chronicle*, which describes her as the sister of Mieszko I of Poland, but specialists have often questioned her existence. The chronicle attributes Géza\'s conversion to Adelaide\'s influence.
The following family tree presents Géza\'s ancestry and his offspring. `{{tree chart/start |summary=Árpád's family}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | ÁRP | | MÉN | ÁRP=[[Árpád]]|MÉN=[[Menumorut]]*}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | |!| | | |!|}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | ZOL |y| AN1| ZOL=[[Zoltán of Hungary|Zoltán]]|AN1=''daughter''}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | | | |!| }}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | | |TAK|y| AN2| TAK=[[Taksony of Hungary]] | AN2=a "Cuman" lady**}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | | | | | |!| }}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | SAR |y|GÉZ | | | | | | | | | | | | | MIC | SAR=[[Sarolt]]|GÉZ='''Géza'''|MIC=[[Michael of Hungary|Michael]]|boxstyle_GÉZ = background-color: #d0e5f5}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | |,|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|v|border=0|ONE| | | | | | | |!| ONE=(1)}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | AN1 |~| BOL | | AN2 |~| GAV | | | | | KO2 | AN1=''[[Judith of Hungary|daughter (Judith?)]]''|BOL=[[Boleslaus I of Poland]]|AN2=''daughter''|GAV=[[Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria]]|KO2=[[Kings of Hungary family tree|Kings of Hungary]]<br>(from 1046)}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | | }}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | | | | }}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart |border=0| | |ONE|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| ONE=(1)}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart |GIS|y|STE| |AN3|y|OTT| |AN4|y|SAM| AN1=''[[Judith of Hungary|daughter]]''|BOL=[[Boleslaus I of Poland]]|AN2=''daughter''|GAV=[[Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria]]|STE=[[Stephen I of Hungary]]|GIS=[[Giselle of Bavaria]]|AN3=''[[Grimelda of Hungary|daughter]]''|OTT=Doge [[Otto Orseolo]]|AN4=''daughter''|SAM=[[Samuel Aba, King of Hungary|Samuel of Hungary]]***}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | |!| | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | |!| |}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart | | | EME | | ADA |~| FRO | | PET| | ISS | EME=[[Saint Emeric of Hungary|Emeric]]|ADA=[[Adalbert of Austria]]|FRO=[[Frozza Orseolo|Frowila]]|PET=[[Peter Orseolo|Peter of Hungary]]|ISS=''Issue''****}}`{=mediawiki} `{{tree chart/end}}`{=mediawiki} *\*Whether Menumorut is an actual or an invented person is debated by modern scholars.*\
*\*\*A Khazar or Pecheneg lady.*\
*\*\*\*Samuel Aba might have been Géza\'s grandson instead of his son-in-law.*\
*\*\*\*\*The Aba family descending from them still flourished in the 14th century
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# George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
**George of Brandenburg-Ansbach** (German: *Georg*; 4 March 1484 -- 27 December 1543), known as **George the Pious** (*Georg der Fromme*), was a Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach from the House of Hohenzollern.
## Biography
### Early life {#early_life}
He was born in Ansbach, the second of eight sons of Margrave Frederick the Elder and his wife Sophia of Poland, daughter of Casimir IV of Poland and Elisabeth of Habsburg. Through his mother, he was related to the royal court in Buda. He entered the service of his uncle, King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary, living at his court from 1506. The king received him as an adopted son, entrusted him in 1515 with the Duchy of Oppeln, and in 1516 made him member of the tutelary government instituted for Hungary, and tutor of his son Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia. In 1521 he made an arrangement with Petar Keglević and pulled back from Hungary and Croatia; this arrangement, accepted by Louis II in 1526, was not accepted by Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I until 1559.
### Territories and influence {#territories_and_influence}
At the court of Hungary there were two parties arrayed against each other: the Magyar party under the leadership of Zápolyas and the German party under the leadership of George of Brandenburg, whose authority was increased by the acquisition of the duchies of Ratibor and Oppeln by hereditary treaties with their respective dukes and of the territories of Oderberg, Beuthen, and Tarnowitz as pledges from the king of Bohemia, who could not redeem his debts.
By the further appropriation of the Duchy of Jägerndorf, George came into possession of all Upper Silesia. As the owner and mortgagee of these territories he prepared the way for the introduction of the Protestant Reformation, here as well as in his native Franconia. Earlier than any other German prince or any other member of the Hohenzollern line including even his younger brother Albert, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, he turned his eyes and heart to the new faith proceeding from Wittenberg.
### Conversion
The first reformatory writings began the work of winning him over to the evangelical cause. Martin Luther\'s powerful testimony of faith at the Diet of Worms in 1521 made an indelible impression upon his mind, and the vigorous sermons of evangelical preachers in the pulpits of St. Lawrence and St. Sebald in Nuremberg, during the diet there in 1522, deepened the impression. The study of Luther\'s translation of the New Testament, which appeared in 1522, established his faith on personal conviction. Moreover, he entered into correspondence with Luther, discussing with him the most important problems of faith, and in 1524 he met him personally during the negotiations concerning his brother Albert\'s secularization of the Teutonic Order\'s state of Prussia into the secular Duchy of Prussia.
After the accession of King Louis II, George was aided in his reforming efforts by Queen Maria, a sister of Charles V and Ferdinand I, who was favorably inclined toward the new doctrine. As the adviser of the young king, George firmly advocated the cause of the new gospel against the influences and intrigues of his clerical opponents and successfully prevented their violent measures. His relationship with Duke Frederick II of Liegnitz, Brieg, and Wohlau, and with Duke Charles I of Münsterberg-Oels, who had both admitted the Reformation into their territories, contributed not a little to the expansion of the gospel in his own lands. But it was his own personal influence, energy, and practical spirit that introduced the new doctrine and founded a new evangelical and churchly life. He made efforts to secure preachers of the new gospel from Hungary, Silesia, and Franconia, and tried to introduce the church order of Brandenburg-Nuremberg, which had already found acceptance in the Franconian territories.
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# George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
## Biography
### Reformation in Franconia {#reformation_in_franconia}
In the hereditary lands Brandenburg-Ansbach in Franconia, where with his older brother Casimir of Brandenburg-Kulmbach he had assumed the regency in place of their father, he encountered greater difficulties, although the popular spirit was inclined toward the Reformation. Owing to his marriage with a Bavarian princess and to his military command in the imperial service, his brother was allied more closely with the old church and resisted the new reforming efforts. But the pressure of the estates of the land soon compelled him to allow preaching according to Luther\'s doctrine, although he ensured retention of the old church ceremonies, even of those that were contrary to the new faith.
George protested against such half-measures and showed his dissatisfaction with the half-hearted resolutions of the state assembly of October 1526. It was only after the death of his brother that as sole ruler he could successfully undertake and carry out reformation in the Franconian territories, with the assistance of councillors such as Johann von Schwarzenberg and through the new resolutions of the state assembly of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1528). At the same time George maintained his correspondence with Luther and Philipp Melanchthon, discussing such questions as the evangelization of monasteries, the use of monastic property for evangelical purposes, and especially the foundation of lower schools for the people and of higher schools for the education of talented young men for the service of church and state. He despoiled the churches and cloisters in his domains of all their gold and silver, their monstrances, vessels, chalices, pearls, jewels, images and precious vestments. He used 50,000 florins of the proceeds to pay off Casimir\'s gambling debts and other liabilities, and he endowed his son Frederick with ecclesiastical benefices with a total revenue of 190,000 florins. He tried to gain, by his continued correspondence with Luther and other reformers such as Urbanus Rhegius, efficient men for the preaching of the gospel and for the organization of the evangelical church. Hand in hand with the Council of Nuremberg he worked for the institution of a church visitation on the model of that of the Electorate of Saxony, from which after repeated revisions and emendations the excellent church order of Brandenburg-Nuremberg of 1533 was developed. After its introduction in Nuremberg and his territories in Franconia, it was also introduced in his dominions in Upper Silesia.
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# George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
## Biography
### Influence beyond his territories {#influence_beyond_his_territories}
George\'s influence manifested itself also in the development of the German Reformation as a whole. When a union of the evangelicals in upper and lower Germany was contemplated as a means of improved defense against the retaliatory measures of the Roman Catholic Church, George had a meeting with Elector John of Saxony at Schleitz in 1529, where they agreed on certain articles of faith and confession to be drawn up by Luther; the commission was executed in the seventeen articles of Schwabach on the basis of the fifteen theses of the Marburg Colloquy.
But neither at the Convention of Schwabach nor at that of Schmalkalden did George approve armed resistance against the emperor and his party, even in self-defense. He opposed the emperor energetically at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, when the emperor demanded the prohibition of evangelical preaching. King Ferdinand made George the most alluring offers of Silesian possessions if he would support the emperor, but he strongly rejected them. Next to the elector of Saxony, he stands foremost among the princes who defended the reformed faith. After the death of his cousin, Joachim I, who was a strict Catholic, he assisted his sons in the introduction of the Reformation in the territories of the Electorate of Brandenburg. He took part in the religious colloquy of Regensburg in 1541 where Elector Joachim II made a last attempt to bridge the differences between the Catholics and Lutherans and with his nephew requested Luther\'s cooperation. The Diet of Regensburg was the last religious meeting which he attended.
He is one of the figures on the *Prussian Homage* painting by Jan Matejko.
## Family and children {#family_and_children}
George was married three times. His first marriage was to Beatrice de Frangepan (1480 -- c. 1510) on 21 January 1509 in Gyula; the marriage produced no children.
George\'s second marriage took place on 9 January 1525, to Hedwig of Münsterberg-Oels (1508--1531), daughter of Charles I of Münsterberg-Oels; their marriage produced two daughters:
- Anna Maria of Brandenburg-Ansbach (28 December 1526 -- 20 May 1589); married Christoph, Duke of Württemberg in 1544.
- Sabina of Brandenburg-Ansbach (12 May 1529 -- 2 November 1575); married John George, Elector of Brandenburg.
His third wife was Emilie of Saxony (27 July 1516 -- 9 March 1591), daughter of Henry IV, Duke of Saxony, and Catherine of Mecklenburg on 25 August 1533:
- Sophie of Brandenburg-Ansbach (23 March 1535 -- 12 February 1587) married Henry XI of Legnica on November 11, 1560.
- Barbara of Brandenburg-Ansbach (17 June 1536 -- June 1591 in Kloster Himmelkron)
- Dorothy Catherine of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1538--1604); married in 1556 Henry V of Plauen, Burgrave of Meissen.
- George Frederick (1539--1603), who became Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Regent of the Duchy of Prussia
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# Gerolamo Cardano
**Gerolamo Cardano** (`{{IPA|it|dʒeˈrɔːlamo karˈdaːno|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; also **Girolamo** or **Geronimo**; *Jérôme Cardan*; *Hieronymus Cardanus*; 24 September 1501-- 21 September 1576) was an Italian polymath whose interests and proficiencies ranged through those of mathematician, physician, biologist, physicist, chemist, astrologer, astronomer, philosopher, music theorist, writer, and gambler. He became one of the most influential mathematicians of the Renaissance and one of the key figures in the foundation of probability; he introduced the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem in the Western world. He wrote more than 200 works on science.
Cardano partially invented and described several mechanical devices including the combination lock, the gimbal consisting of three concentric rings allowing a supported compass or gyroscope to rotate freely, and the Cardan shaft with universal joints, which allows the transmission of rotary motion at various angles and is used in vehicles to this day. He made significant contributions to hypocycloids - published in *De proportionibus*, in 1570. The generating circles of these hypocycloids, later named \"Cardano circles\" or \"cardanic circles\", were used for the construction of the first high-speed printing presses.
Today, Cardano is well known for his achievements in algebra. In his 1545 book *Ars Magna* he made the first systematic use of negative numbers in Europe, published (with attribution) the solutions of other mathematicians for cubic and quartic equations, and acknowledged the existence of imaginary numbers.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Cardano was born on 24 September 1501 in Pavia, Lombardy, the illegitimate child of Fazio Cardano, a mathematically gifted jurist, lawyer, and close friend of Leonardo da Vinci. In his autobiography, Cardano wrote that his mother, Chiara Micheri, had taken \"various abortive medicines\" to terminate the pregnancy; he said: \"I was taken by violent means from my mother; I was almost dead.\" She was in labour for three days. Shortly before his birth, his mother had to move from Milan to Pavia to escape the Plague; her three other children died from the disease.
After a depressing childhood, with frequent illnesses, and the rough upbringing by his overbearing father, in 1520, Cardano entered the University of Pavia. Against the wish of his father, who wanted his son to undertake studies of law, Girolamo felt more attracted to philosophy and science. During the Italian War of 1521--1526, however, the authorities in Pavia were forced to close the university in 1524. Cardano resumed his studies at the University of Padua, where he graduated with a doctorate in medicine in 1525. His eccentric and confrontational style did not earn him many friends and he had a difficult time finding work after he completed his studies. In 1525, Cardano repeatedly applied to the College of Physicians in Milan, but was not admitted owing to his combative reputation and illegitimate birth. However, he was consulted by many members of the College of Physicians, because of his irrefutable intelligence.
## Early career as a physician {#early_career_as_a_physician}
Cardano wanted to practice medicine in a large, rich city like Milan, but he was denied a license to practice, so he settled for the town of Piove di Sacco, where he practised without a license. There, he married Lucia Banderini in 1531. Before her death in 1546, they had three children, Giovanni Battista (1534), Chiara (1537) and Aldo Urbano (1543). Cardano later wrote that those were the happiest days of his life.
With the help of a few noblemen, Cardano obtained a mathematics teaching position in Milan. Having finally received his medical license, he practised mathematics and medicine simultaneously, treating a few influential patients in the process. Because of this, he became one of the most sought-after doctors in Milan. In fact, by 1536, he was able to quit his teaching position, although he was still interested in mathematics. His notability in the medical field was such that the aristocracy tried to lure him out of Milan. Cardano later wrote that he turned down offers from the kings of Denmark and France, and the Queen of Scotland.
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# Gerolamo Cardano
## Mathematics
Gerolamo Cardano was the first European mathematician to make systematic use of negative numbers. He published with attribution the solution of Scipione del Ferro to the cubic equation and the solution of Cardano\'s student Lodovico Ferrari to the quartic equation in his 1545 book *Ars Magna*, an influential work on algebra. The solution to one particular case of the cubic equation $ax^3+bx+c=0$ (in modern notation) had been communicated to him in 1539 by Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (who later claimed that Cardano had sworn not to reveal it, and engaged Cardano in a decade-long dispute) in the form of a poem, but del Ferro\'s solution predated Tartaglia\'s. In his exposition, he acknowledged the existence of what are now called imaginary numbers, although he did not understand their properties, described for the first time by his Italian contemporary Rafael Bombelli. In *Opus novum de proportionibus* he introduced the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem.
Cardano was chronically short of money and kept himself solvent by being an accomplished gambler and chess player. His book about games of chance, *Liber de ludo aleae* (\"Book on Games of Chance\"), written around 1564, but not published until 1663, contains the first systematic treatment of probability, as well as a section on effective cheating methods. He used the game of throwing dice to understand the basic concepts of probability. He demonstrated the efficacy of defining odds as the ratio of favourable to unfavourable outcomes (which implies that the probability of an event is given by the ratio of favourable outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes). He was also aware of the multiplication rule for independent events but was not certain about what values should be multiplied.
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# Gerolamo Cardano
## Other contributions {#other_contributions}
Cardano was a music theorist who studied music privately in Milan in his youth. He wrote two treatises on music, both of which were titled *De Musica*. The first was published within his 1663 work *Hieronymi Cardani Mediolanensis Opera Omnia*. It is of interest to scholars on the history of woodwind instruments because of its discussion of instruments from that family. The second treatise was published in 1574, and a copy of it is held in the Vatican Library. The work is valuable for studies in harmony for its discussion of the use of microtones. It is also of interest to scholars of historically informed performance practice for its details on 16th century performance. The later treatise of music *Della natura de principii et regole musicali* which has been attributed to Cardano by some, is according to *The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians* most likely falsely attributed to Cardano and is by another writer. Cardano also dabbled in composing, writing the motet *Beati estis* which is scored for 12 voices and contains four overlapping canons.
Cardano\'s work with hypocycloids led him to Cardan\'s Movement or Cardan Gear mechanism, in which a pair of gears with the smaller being one-half the size of the larger gear is used to convert rotational motion to linear motion with greater efficiency and precision than a Scotch yoke, for example. He is also credited with the invention of the Cardan suspension or gimbal.
Cardano made several contributions to hydrodynamics and held that perpetual motion is impossible, except in celestial bodies. He published two encyclopedias of natural science which contain a wide variety of inventions, facts, and occult superstitions. He also introduced the Cardan grille, a cryptographic writing tool, in 1550.
Significantly, in the history of education of the deaf, he said that deaf people were capable of using their minds, argued for the importance of teaching them, and was one of the first to state that deaf people could learn to read and write without learning how to speak first. He was familiar with a report by Rudolph Agricola about a deaf-mute who had learned to write.
Cardano\'s medical writings included: a commentary on Mundinus\' anatomy and of Galen\'s medicine, along with the treaties *Delle cause, dei segni e dei luoghi delle malattie*, *Picciola terapeutica*, *Degli abusi dei medici* and *Delle orine, libro quattro*.
Cardano has been credited with the invention of the so-called *Cardano\'s Rings*, also called Chinese Rings, but it is very probable that they predate Cardano. The universal joint, sometimes called *Cardan joint*, was not described by Cardano.
## *De Subtilitate* (1550) {#de_subtilitate_1550}
As quoted from Charles Lyell\'s *Principles of Geology*:
> The title of a work of Cardano\'s, published in 1552, *De Subtilitate* (corresponding to what would now be called transcendental philosophy), would lead us to expect, in the chapter on minerals, many far fetched theories characteristic of that age; but when treating of petrified shells, he decided that they clearly indicated the former sojourn of the sea upon the mountains.
## Scotland and Archbishop Hamilton {#scotland_and_archbishop_hamilton}
In 1552 Cardano travelled to Scotland with the Spanish physician William Casanatus, via London, to treat the Archbishop of St Andrews who suffered of a disease that had left him speechless and was thought incurable. The treatment was a success and the diplomat Thomas Randolph recorded that \"merry tales\" about Cardano\'s methods were still current in Edinburgh in 1562. Cardano and Casanatus argued over the Archbishop\'s cure. Cardano wrote that the Archbishop had been short of breath for ten years, and after the cure was effected by his assistant, he was paid 1,400 gold crowns.
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# Gerolamo Cardano
## Later years and death {#later_years_and_death}
Two of Cardano\'s children --- Giovanni Battista and Aldo Urbano --- came to ignoble ends. Giovanni Battista, Cardano\'s eldest and favourite son was arrested in 1560 for having poisoned his wife, after he had discovered that their three children were not his. Giovanni was put to trial and, when Cardano could not pay the restitution demanded by the victim\'s family, was sentenced to death and beheaded. Gerolamo\'s other son Aldo Urbano was a gambler, who stole money from his father, and so Cardano disinherited him in 1569.
Cardano moved from Pavia to Bologna, in part because he believed that the decision to execute his son was influenced by Gerolamo\'s battles with the academic establishment in Pavia, and his colleagues\' jealousy at his scientific achievements, and also because he was beset with allegations of sexual impropriety with his students. He obtained a position as professor of medicine at the University of Bologna.
Cardano was arrested by the Inquisition in 1570 after an accusation of heresy by the Inquisitor of Como, who targeted Cardano\'s *De rerum varietate* (1557). The inquisitors complained about Cardano\'s writings on astrology, especially his claim that self-harming religiously motivated actions of martyrs and heretics were caused by the stars. In his 1543 book *De Supplemento Almanach*, a commentary on the astrological work *Tetrabiblos* by Ptolemy, Cardano had also published a horoscope of Jesus. Cardano was imprisoned for several months and lost his professorship in Bologna. He abjured and was freed, probably with help from powerful churchmen in Rome. All his non-medical works were prohibited and placed on the Index.
He moved to Rome, where he received a lifetime annuity from Pope Gregory XIII (after first having been rejected by Pope Pius V, who died in 1572) and finished his autobiography. He was accepted into the Royal College of Physicians, and as well as practising medicine he continued his philosophical studies until his death in 1576.
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# Gerolamo Cardano
## Works
- *De malo recentiorum medicorum medendi usu libellus*, Hieronymus Scotus, Venice, 1536 (on medicine).
- *Practica arithmetice et mensurandi singularis* (on mathematics), Io. Antoninus Castellioneus/Bernadino Caluscho, Milan, 1539.
- *De Consolatione, Libri tres*, Hieronymus Scotus, Venice, 1542.
- Translation into English by T. Bedingfield (1573).
- *Libelli duo: De Supplemento Almanach; De Restitutione temporum et motuum coelestium; Item Geniturae LXVII insignes casibus et fortuna, cum expositione*, Iohan. Petreius, Norimbergae, 1543.
- *De Sapientia, Libri quinque*, Iohan. Petreius, Norimbergae, 1544 (with *De Consolatione* reprint and *De Libris Propriis*, book I).
- *De Immortalitate animorum*, Henric Petreius, Nuremberg 1544/Sebastianus Gryphius, Lyons, 1545.
- *Contradicentium medicorum* (on medicine), Hieronymus Scotus, Venetijs, 1545.
- *Artis magnae, sive de regulis algebraicis* (on algebra: also known as *Ars magna*), Iohan. Petreius, Nuremberg, 1545.
- Translation into English by D. Witmer (1968).
- *Della Natura de Principii e Regole Musicale*, ca 1546 (on music theory: in Italian): posthumously published. (most likely falsely attributed to Cardano)
- *De Subtilitate rerum* (on natural phenomena), Johann Petreius, Nuremberg, 1550.
- Translation into English by J.M. Forrester (2013).
- *Metoposcopia libris tredecim, et octingentis faciei humanae eiconibus complexa* (on physiognomy), written 1550 (published posthumously by Thomas Jolly, Paris (Lutetiae Parisiorum), 1658).
- *In Cl. Ptolemaei Pelusiensis IIII, De Astrorum judiciis\... libros commentaria: cum eiusdem De Genituris libro*, Henrichus Petri, Basle, 1554.
- *Geniturarum Exemplar* (*De Genituris liber*, separate printing), Theobaldus Paganus, Lyons, 1555.
- *Ars Curandi Parva* (written c. 1556).
- *De Libris propriis* (about the books he has written, and his successes in medical work), Gulielmus Rouillius, Leiden, 1557.
- *De Rerum varietate, Libri XVII* (on natural phenomena); (Revised edition), Matthaeus Vincentius, Avignon 1558. Also Basle, Henricus Petri, 1559.
- *Actio prima in calumniatorem* (reply to J.C. Scaliger), 1557.
- *De Utilitate ex adversis capienda, Libri IIII* (on the uses of adversity), Henrich Petri, Basle, 1561.
- *Theonoston, seu De Tranquilitate*, 1561. (Opera, Vol. II).
- *Somniorum synesiorum omnis generis insomnia explicantes, Libri IIII* (Book of Dreams: with other writings), Henricus Petri, Basle 1562.
- *Neronis encomium* (a life of Nero), Basle, 1562.
- Translation into English by A. Paratico (2012).
- *De Providentia ex anni constitutione*, Alexander Benaccius, Bononiae, 1563.
- *De Methodo medendi*, Paris, In Aedibus Rouillii, 1565.
- *De Causis, signis ac locis morborum, Liber unus*, Alexander Benatius, Bononiae, 1569.
- *Commentarii in Hippocratis Coi Prognostica, Opus Divinum; Commentarii De Aere, aquis et locis opus*, Henric Petrina Officina, Basel, 1568/1570.
- *Opus novum, De Proportionibus numerorum, motuum, ponderum, sonorum, aliarumque rerum mensurandarum. Item de aliza regula*, Henric Petrina, Basel, 1570.
- *Opus novum, cunctis De Sanitate tuenda, Libri quattuor*, Sebastian HenricPetri, Basle, 1569.
- *De Vita propria*, 1576 (autobiography).
- Translation into English by J. Stoner (2002).
- *Liber De Ludo aleae* (\"On Casting the Die\"; on probability): posthumously published.
- Translation into English by S.H. Gould (1961).
- *Proxeneta, seu De Prudentia Civili* (posthumously published: Paulus Marceau, Geneva, 1630).
### *Collected Works* {#collected_works}
A chronological key to this edition is supplied by M. Fierz.
- *Hieronymi Cardani Mediolanensis Opera Omnia, cura Carolii Sponii* (Lugduni, Ioannis Antonii Huguetan and Marci Antonii Ravaud, 1663) (10 volumes, Latin):
- Volume 1: Philologica, Logica, Moralia ([Internet Archive](https://archive.org/details/imgmar3940MiscellaneaOpal/page/n2); another at [Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=r25kAAAAcAAJ); another at [Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=5-ioDlZFawwC))
- Volume 2: Moralia Quaedam et Physica ([Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=8kcIpBqL0lUC&pg=PP5))
- Volume 3: Physica ([Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=FpcIo8qMPf8C))
- Volume 4: Arithmetica, Geometrica, Musica ([Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=7lW9Odn9kbMC))
- Volume 5: Astronomica, Astrologica, Onirocritica ([Internet Archive](https://archive.org/stream/imgmar3940aooMiscellaneaOpal?ui=embed#mode/2up); another at [Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=tVUdw5vpyE4C))
- Volume 6: Medicinalium I ([Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=Jyh0yuZZZTwC))
- Volume 7: Medicinalium II ([Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=yUy3wOyaTn0C))
- Volume 8: Medicinalium III ([Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=jOoxQeT40foC))
- Volume 9: Medicinalium IV ([Google](https://books.google.com/books?id=xbwhwVSR324C))
- Volume 10: Opuscula Miscellanea ([Google](https://books.google
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# Gilles Apap
**Gilles Apap** (born 21 May 1963) is a French classical violinist. Born in Béjaïa, Algeria, he was raised in Nice, France. In 1985 he won first prize in the contemporary music category at the Yehudi Menuhin Competition. He served as concertmaster with the Santa Barbara Symphony Orchestra for 10 years, but has since focused on his career as a soloist with orchestras around the world.
A virtuosic violinist, Gilles is also known for his interpretations of traditional music from Eastern Europe to America, such as gypsy, Irish, swing or bluegrass.
He recorded three CDs in the 1990s with Sony Classical Records, then formed his own company, *Apapaziz Productions*. Since 1999, Apapaziz has recorded eight Gilles Apap CDs.
## Discography
- 1994 Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: *Who?* (Sony)
- 1996 Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: *Gilles Apap & the Transylvanian Mountain Boys* (Sony)
- 1996 Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: *d\'Ici & d\'Ailleurs* (Sony)
- 1999 *Enescu, Debussy and Ravel with Eric Ferrand-N\'Kaoua* (Apapaziz)
- 2001 *No Piano on That One* (Apapaziz)
- 2002 *Vivaldi\'s Four Seasons* (Apapaziz)
- 2003 *Mozart, Bach and Kreisler with The Sinfonia Varsovia* (Apapaziz)
- 2006 *Gilles Apap: Music for Solo Violin* (Apapaziz)
- 2007 *Friends* (Apapaziz)
- 2008 *Sans Orchestre* (Apapaziz)
- 2011 *Romanian Rhapsody* (Edel Germany / Deutschlandradio) - Guest
- 2012 *Gypsy Tunes..
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# Gneiss
**Gneiss** (pronounced `{{IPAc-en|n|aɪ|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|nice}}`{=mediawiki}) is a common and widely distributed type of metamorphic rock. It is formed by high-temperature and high-pressure metamorphic processes acting on formations composed of igneous or sedimentary rocks. This rock is formed under pressures ranging from 2 to 15 kbar, sometimes even more, and temperatures over 300 °C (572 °F). Gneiss nearly always shows a banded texture characterized by alternating darker and lighter colored bands and without a distinct cleavage.
Gneisses are common in the ancient crust of continental shields. Some of the oldest rocks on Earth are gneisses, such as the Acasta Gneiss.
## Description
thumb\|Orthogneiss from the Czech Republic In traditional English and North American usage, a gneiss is a coarse-grained metamorphic rock showing compositional banding (gneissic banding) but poorly developed schistosity and indistinct cleavage. In other words, it is a metamorphic rock composed of mineral grains easily seen with the unaided eye, which form obvious compositional layers, but which has only a weak tendency to fracture along these layers. In Europe, the term has been more widely applied to any coarse, mica-poor, high-grade metamorphic rock.
The British Geological Survey (BGS) and the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) both use *gneiss* as a broad textural category for medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rock that shows poorly developed schistosity, with compositional layering over 5 mm thick and tending to split into plates over 1 cm thick. Neither definition depends on composition or origin, though rocks poor in platy minerals are more likely to produce gneissose texture. Gneissose rocks thus are largely recrystallized but do not carry large quantities of micas, chlorite or other platy minerals. Metamorphic rock showing stronger schistosity is classified as schist, while metamorphic rock devoid of schistosity is called a granofels.
Gneisses that are metamorphosed igneous rocks or their equivalent are termed granite gneisses, diorite gneisses, and so forth. Gneiss rocks may also be named after a characteristic component such as garnet gneiss, biotite gneiss, albite gneiss, and so forth. **Orthogneiss** designates a gneiss derived from an igneous rock, and **paragneiss** is one from a sedimentary rock. Both the BGS and the IUGS use *gneissose* to describe rocks with the texture of gneiss, though *gneissic* also remains in common use. For example, a gneissose metagranite or a gneissic metagranite both mean a granite that has been metamorphosed and thereby acquired gneissose texture.
### Gneissic banding {#gneissic_banding}
The minerals in gneiss are arranged into layers that appear as bands in cross section. This is called gneissic banding. The darker bands have relatively more mafic minerals (those containing more magnesium and iron). The lighter bands contain relatively more felsic minerals (minerals such as feldspar or quartz, which contain more of the lighter elements, such as aluminium, sodium, and potassium).
The banding is developed at high temperature when the rock is more strongly compressed in one direction than in other directions (*nonhydrostatic stress*). The bands develop perpendicular to the direction of greatest compression, also called the shortening direction, as platy minerals are rotated or recrystallized into parallel layers.
A common cause of nonhydrodynamic stress is the subjection of the protolith (the original rock material that undergoes metamorphism) to extreme shearing force, a sliding force similar to the pushing of the top of a deck of cards in one direction, and the bottom of the deck in the other direction. These forces stretch out the rock like a plastic, and the original material is spread out into sheets. Per the polar decomposition theorem, the deformation produced by such shearing force is equivalent to rotation of the rock combined with shortening in one direction and extension in another.
Some banding is formed from original rock material (protolith) that is subjected to extreme temperature and pressure and is composed of alternating layers of sandstone (lighter) and shale (darker), which is metamorphosed into bands of quartzite and mica.
Another cause of banding is \"metamorphic differentiation\", which separates different materials into different layers through chemical reactions, a process not fully understood.
### Augen gneiss {#augen_gneiss}
**Augen gneiss**, from the *Augen* `{{IPA|de|ˈaʊɡən|}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"eyes\", is a gneiss resulting from metamorphism of granite, which contains characteristic elliptic or lenticular shear-bound grains (porphyroclasts), normally feldspar, surrounded by finer grained material. The finer grained material deforms around the more resistant feldspar grains to produce this texture.
### Migmatite
Migmatite is a gneiss consisting of two or more distinct rock types, one of which has the appearance of an ordinary gneiss (the *mesosome*), and another of which has the appearance of an intrusive rock such pegmatite, aplite, or granite (the *leucosome*). The rock may also contain a *melanosome* of mafic rock complementary to the leucosome. Migmatites are often interpreted as rock that has been partially melted, with the leucosome representing the silica-rich melt, the melanosome the residual solid rock left after partial melting, and the mesosome the original rock that has not yet experienced partial melting.
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# Gneiss
## Occurrences
Gneisses are characteristic of areas of regional metamorphism that reaches the middle amphibolite to granulite metamorphic facies. In other words, the rock was metamorphosed at a temperature in excess of 600 C at pressures between about 2 to 24 kbar. Many different varieties of rock can be metamorphosed to gneiss, so geologists are careful to add descriptions of the color and mineral composition to the name of any gneiss, such as *garnet-biotite paragneiss* or *grayish-pink orthogneiss*.
### Granite-greenstone belts {#granite_greenstone_belts}
Continental shields are regions of exposed ancient rock that make up the stable cores of continents. The rock exposed in the oldest regions of shields, which is of Archean age (over 2500 million years old), mostly belong to granite-greenstone belts. The greenstone belts contain metavolcanic and metasedimentary rock that has undergone a relatively mild grade of metamorphism, at temperatures of 350-500 C and pressures of 200-500 MPa. The greenstone belts are surrounded by high-grade gneiss terrains showing highly deformed low-pressure, high-temperature (over 500 C) metamorphism to the amphibolite or granulite facies. These form most of the exposed rock in Archean cratons.
### Gneiss domes {#gneiss_domes}
Gneiss domes are common in orogenic belts (regions of mountain formation). They consist of a dome of gneiss intruded by younger granite and migmatite and mantled with sedimentary rock. These have been interpreted as a geologic record of two distinct mountain-forming events, with the first producing the granite basement and the second deforming and melting this basement to produce the domes. However, some gneiss domes may actually be the cores of metamorphic core complexes, regions of the deep crust brought to the surface and exposed during extension of the Earth\'s crust.
### Examples
- The Acasta Gneiss is found in the Northwest Territories, Canada, on an island about 300 km north of Yellowknife. This is one of the most ancient intact crustal fragments on Earth, metamorphosed 3.58 to 4.031 billion years ago.
- The Lewisian gneiss is found throughout the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, on the Scottish mainland west of the Moine Thrust, and on the islands of Coll and Tiree. These rocks are largely igneous in origin, mixed with metamorphosed marble, quartzite and mica schist with later intrusions of basaltic dikes and granite magma.
- The Morton Gneiss is an Archean-age gneiss exposed in the Minnesota River Valley of southwestern Minnesota, United States. It is thought to be the oldest intact block of continental crust in the United States.
- The Peninsular Gneiss is a sequence of Archean gneisses found throughout the Indian Shield and ranging in age from 3400 to 2500 million years old.
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# Gneiss
## Etymology
The word *gneiss* has been used in English since at least 1757. It is borrowed from the German word *italic=no*, formerly also spelled *italic=no*, which is probably derived from the Middle High German noun *gneist* \"spark\" (so called because the rock glitters).
## Uses
Gneiss is used as a building material, such as the Facoidal gneiss. It\'s used extensively in Rio de Janeiro. Gneiss has also been used as construction aggregate for asphalt pavement
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# Hold come what may
\"**Hold come what may**\" is a phrase popularized by logician Willard Van Orman Quine. Beliefs that are \"held come what may\" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented.
Quine held that any belief can be held come what may, so long as one makes suitable adjustments to other beliefs. In other words, all beliefs are rationally revisable (\"no statement is immune to revision\"). He used this to reject the distinction between analytic truths (which are true come what may) and synthetic truths (which are true at least in part because of the state of the world).
Many philosophers argue to the contrary, believing that, for example, the laws of thought cannot be revised and may be \"held come what may\". Quine believed that all beliefs are linked by a web of beliefs, in which a belief is linked to another belief by supporting relations, but if one belief is found untrue, there is ground to find the linked beliefs also untrue. The latter statement is usually referred to as either confirmation holism or Duhem--Quine thesis.
A closely related phrase is \"**hold more stubbornly at least**\", also popularized by Quine. Some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implied by a large number of beliefs. Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects. Altering such central portions of the web of beliefs would have immense, ramifying consequences, and affect many other beliefs. It is better to alter auxiliary beliefs around the edges of the web of beliefs (considered to be sense beliefs, rather than main beliefs) in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one\'s central principles. Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to \"hold more stubbornly at least\"
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# Howard Hawks
**Howard Winchester Hawks** (May 30, 1896`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}December 26, 1977) was an American film director, producer, and screenwriter of the classic Hollywood era. Critic Leonard Maltin called him \"the greatest American director who is not a household name.\" Roger Ebert called Hawks \"one of the greatest American directors of pure movies, and a hero of auteur critics because he found his own laconic values in so many different kinds of genre material.\" He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for *Sergeant York* (1941) and earned the Honorary Academy Award in 1974. A versatile director, Hawks explored many genres such as comedies, dramas, gangster films, science fiction, film noir, war films and Westerns. His most popular films include *Scarface* (1932), *Bringing Up Baby* (1938), *Only Angels Have Wings* (1939), *His Girl Friday* (1940), *To Have and Have Not* (1944), *The Big Sleep* (1946), *Red River* (1948), *The Thing from Another World* (1951), *Gentlemen Prefer Blondes* (1953), and *Rio Bravo* (1959). His frequent portrayals of strong, tough-talking female characters came to define the \"Hawksian woman\".
His work has influenced such directors as Martin Scorsese, Peter Bogdanovich, Robert Altman, John Carpenter, Clint Eastwood, Billy Wilder, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Quentin Tarantino, and Michael Mann. *Entertainment Weekly* placed Hawks fourth on their list of greatest directors, writing: \"His hallmarks are more thematic than visual: men who adhere to an understated code of manliness; women who like to yank the rug out from under those men\'s feet; a mistrust of pomposity; a love of sly, leg-pulling wit. Yet there\'s the ease of the complete filmmaker in his Westerns, dramas, musicals, detective films, and supremely confident comedies. No wonder the French adored the guy: His casual profundity was the studio\'s best advertisement for itself.\" Jean-Luc Godard called him \"the greatest of all American artists\".
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# Howard Hawks
## Early life and background {#early_life_and_background}
Howard Winchester Hawks was born in Goshen, Indiana. He was the first-born child of Frank Winchester Hawks (1865--1950), a wealthy paper manufacturer, and his wife, Helen Brown (née Howard; 1872--1952), the daughter of a wealthy industrialist. Hawks\'s family on his father\'s side were American pioneers, and his ancestor John Hawks had emigrated from England to Massachusetts in 1630. The family eventually settled in Goshen and by the 1890s was one of the wealthiest families in the Midwest, due mostly to the highly profitable Goshen Milling Company.
Hawks\'s maternal grandfather, C. W. Howard (1845--1916), had homesteaded in Neenah, Wisconsin, in 1862 at age 17. Within 15 years he had made his fortune in the town\'s paper mill and other industrial endeavors. Frank Hawks and Helen Howard met in the early 1890s and married in 1895. Howard Hawks was the eldest of five children, and his birth was followed by Kenneth Neil Hawks (August 12, 1898 -- January 2, 1930), William Bellinger Hawks (January 29, 1901 -- January 10, 1969), Grace Louise Hawks (October 17, 1903 -- December 23, 1927), and Helen Bernice Hawks (1906 -- May 4, 1911). In 1898, the family moved back to Neenah where Frank Hawks began working for his father-in-law\'s Howard Paper Company.
Between 1906 and 1909, the Hawks family began to spend more time in Pasadena, California, during the cold Wisconsin winters in order to improve Helen Hawks\'s ill health. Gradually, they began to spend only their summers in Wisconsin before permanently moving to Pasadena in 1910. The family settled in a house down the street from Throop Polytechnic Institute, and the Hawks children began attending the school\'s Polytechnic Elementary School in 1907. Hawks was an average student and did not excel in sports, but by 1910 had discovered coaster racing, an early form of soapbox racing. In 1911, Hawks\'s youngest sibling, Helen, died suddenly of food poisoning. From 1910 to 1912, Hawks attended Pasadena High School. In 1912, the Hawks family moved to nearby Glendora, California, where Frank Hawks owned orange groves. Hawks finished his junior year of high school at Citrus Union High School in Glendora. During this time he worked as a barnstorming pilot.
He was sent to Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire from 1913 to 1914; his family\'s wealth may have influenced his acceptance to the elite private school. Even though he was 17, he was admitted as a lower middleclassman, the equivalent of a sophomore. While in New England, Hawks often attended the theaters in nearby Boston. In 1914, Hawks returned to Glendora and graduated from Pasadena High School that year. Skilled in tennis, at 18 Hawks won the United States Junior Tennis Championship. That same year, Hawks was accepted to Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where he majored in mechanical engineering and was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon. His college friend Ray S. Ashbury remembered Hawks spending more of his time playing craps and drinking alcohol than studying, although Hawks was also known to be a voracious reader of popular American and English novels in college.
While working in the film industry during his 1916 summer vacation, Hawks made an unsuccessful attempt to transfer to Stanford University. He returned to Cornell that September, leaving in April 1917 to join the Army when the United States entered World War I. He served as a lieutenant in the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps. During World War I, he taught aviators to fly, and these experiences influenced future aviation films like *The Dawn Patrol* (1930). Like many college students who joined the armed services during the war, he received a degree in absentia in 1918. Before Hawks was called for active duty, he returned to Hollywood and, by the end of April 1917, was working on a Cecil B. DeMille film.
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# Howard Hawks
## Career
### Entering films (1916--1925) {#entering_films_19161925}
Howard Hawks\'s interest and passion for aviation led him to many important experiences and acquaintances. In 1916, Hawks met Victor Fleming, a Hollywood cinematographer who had been an auto mechanic and early aviator. Hawks had begun racing and working on a Mercer race car---bought for him by his grandfather C.W. Howard---during his 1916 summer vacation in California. He allegedly met Fleming when the two men raced on a dirt track and caused an accident. This meeting led to Hawks\'s first job in the film industry, as a prop boy on the Douglas Fairbanks film *In Again, Out Again* (on which Fleming was employed as the cinematographer) for Famous Players--Lasky. According to Hawks, a new set needed to be built quickly when the studio\'s set designer was unavailable, so Hawks volunteered to do the job himself, much to Fairbanks\'s satisfaction. He was next employed as a prop boy and general assistant on an unspecified film directed by Cecil B. DeMille. (Hawks never named the film in later interviews, and DeMille made roughly five films in that time period). By the end of April 1917, Hawks was working on Cecil B. DeMille\'s *The Little American*. Hawks worked on Marshall Neilan\'s *The Little Princess*, starring Mary Pickford. According to Hawks, Neilan did not show up to work one day, so the resourceful Hawks offered to direct a scene himself, to which Pickford consented. Hawks began directing at age 21 after he and cinematographer Charles Rosher filmed a double exposure dream sequence Pickford.
Hawks worked with Pickford and Neilan again on *Amarilly of Clothes-Line Alley* before joining the United States Army Air Service. Hawks\'s military records were destroyed in the 1973 Military Archive Fire, so the only account of his military service is his own. According to Hawks, he spent 15 weeks in basic training at the University of California in Berkeley where he was trained to be a squadron commander in the Air Service. When Pickford visited Hawks at basic training, his superior officers were so impressed by the appearance of the celebrity that they promoted him to flight instructor and sent him to Texas to teach new recruits. Bored by this work, Hawks attempted to secure a transfer during the first half of 1918 and was eventually sent to Fort Monroe, Virginia. The Armistice was signed in November of that year, and Hawks was discharged as a Second Lieutenant without having seen active duty.
After the war, Hawks was eager to return to Hollywood. His brother Kenneth Hawks, who had also served in the Air Service, graduated from Yale in 1919, and the two of them moved to Hollywood together to pursue their careers. They quickly made friends with Hollywood insider Allan Dwan. Hawks landed his first important job when he used his family\'s wealth to loan money to studio head Jack L. Warner. Warner quickly paid back the loan and hired Hawks as a producer to \"oversee\" the making of a new series of one-reel comedies starring the Italian comedian Monty Banks. Hawks later stated that he personally directed \"three or four\" of the shorts, though no documentation exists to confirm the claim. The films were profitable, but Hawks soon left to form his own production company using his family\'s wealth and connections to secure financing. The production company, *Associated Producers*, was a joint venture between Hawks, Allan Dwan, Marshall Neilan and director Allen Holubar, with a distribution deal with First National. The company made 14 films between 1920 and 1923, with eight directed by Neilan, three by Dwan and three by Holubar. More of a \"boy\'s club\" than a production company, the four men gradually drifted apart and went their separate ways in 1923, by which time Hawks had decided that he wanted to direct rather than produce.
Beginning in early 1920, Hawks lived in rented houses in Hollywood with the group of friends he was accumulating. This rowdy group of mostly macho, risk-taking men included his brother Kenneth Hawks, Victor Fleming, Jack Conway, Harold Rosson, Richard Rosson, Arthur Rosson, and Eddie Sutherland. During this time, Hawks first met Irving Thalberg, the vice-president in charge of production at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Hawks admired his intelligence and sense of story. Hawks also became friends with barn stormers and pioneer aviators at Rogers Airport in Los Angeles, getting to know men like Moye Stephens.
In 1923, Famous Players--Lasky president Jesse Lasky was looking for a new Production Editor in the story department of his studio, and Thalberg suggested Hawks. Hawks accepted and was immediately put in charge of over 40 productions, including several literary acquisitions of stories by Joseph Conrad, Jack London and Zane Grey. Hawks worked on the scripts for all of the films produced, but he had his first official screenplay credit in 1924 on *Tiger Love*. Hawks was the Story Editor at Famous Players (later Paramount Pictures) for almost two years, occasionally editing such films as *Heritage of the Desert*. Hawks signed a new one-year contract with Famous-Players in the fall of 1924. He broke his contract to become a story editor for Thalberg at MGM, having secured a promise from Thalberg to make him a director within a year. In 1925, when Thalberg hesitated to keep his promise, Hawks broke his contract at MGM and left.
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# Howard Hawks
## Career
### Silent films (1925--1929) {#silent_films_19251929}
In October 1925, Sol Wurtzel, William Fox\'s studio superintendent at the Fox Film Corporation, invited Hawks to join his company with the promise of letting him direct. Over the next three years, Hawks directed his first eight films (six silent, two \"talkies\"). Hawks reworked the scripts of most of the films he directed without always taking official credit for his work. He also worked on the scripts for *Honesty -- The Best Policy* in 1926 and Joseph von Sternberg\'s *Underworld* in 1927, famous for being one of the first gangster films. Hawks\'s first film was *The Road to Glory*, which premiered in April 1926. The screenplay was based on a 35-page composition written by Hawks, making it one of the only films on which Hawks had extensive writing credit. Today, it is one of Hawks\'s two lost films. Immediately after completing *The Road to Glory*, Hawks began writing his next film, *Fig Leaves*, his first (and, until 1935, only) comedy. It received positive reviews, particularly for the art direction and costume designs. It was released in July 1926 and was Hawks\'s first hit as a director. Although he mainly dismissed his early work, Hawks praised this film in later interviews.
*Paid to Love* is notable in Hawks\'s filmography, because it was a highly stylized, experimental film, à la German director F. W. Murnau. Hawks\'s film includes atypical tracking shots, expressionistic lighting and stylistic film editing that was inspired by German expressionist cinema. In a later interview, Hawks commented, \"It isn\'t my type of stuff, at least I got it over in a hurry. You know the idea of wanting the camera to do those things: Now the camera\'s somebody\'s eyes.\" Hawks worked on the script with Seton I. Miller, with whom he would go on to collaborate on seven more films. The film stars George O\'Brien as the introverted Crown Prince Michael, William Powell as his happy-go-lucky brother and Virginia Valli as Michael\'s flapper love interest, Dolores. The characters played by Valli and O\'Brien anticipate those found in later films by Hawks: a sexually aggressive showgirl, who is an early prototype of the \"Hawksian woman\", and a shy man disinterested in sex, found in later roles played by Cary Grant and Gary Cooper. *Paid to Love* was completed by September 1926, but remained unreleased until July 1927. It was financially unsuccessful. *Cradle Snatchers* was based on a 1925 hit stage play by Russell G. Medcraft and Norma Mitchell. The film was shot in early 1927. The film was released in May 1927 and was a minor hit. It was believed to be lost until Peter Bogdanovich discovered a print in 20th Century Fox\'s film vaults, although it was missing part of reel three and all of reel four. In March 1927, Hawks signed a new one-year, three-picture contract with Fox and was assigned to direct *Fazil*, based on the play *L\'Insoumise* by Pierre Frondaie. Hawks again worked with Seton Miller on the script. Hawks was over schedule and over budget on the film, which began a rift between him and Sol Wurtzel that would eventually lead to Hawks leaving Fox. The film was finished in August 1927, though it was not released until June 1928.
*A Girl in Every Port* is considered by scholars to be the most important of Hawks\'s silent films. It is the first to feature many of the themes and archetypes that would define much of his subsequent work. It was his first \"love story between two men\", with two men bonding over their duty, skills and careers, who consider their friendship to be more important than their relationships with women. In France, Henri Langlois called Hawks \"the Gropius of the cinema\" and Swiss novelist and poet Blaise Cendrars said that the film \"definitely marked the first appearance of contemporary cinema.\" Hawks went over budget once again with this film, and his relationship with Sol Wurtzel deteriorated. After an advance screening that received positive reviews, Wurtzel told Hawks, \"This is the worst picture Fox has made in years.\" After seeing Louise Brooks in *A Girl in Every Port*, G. W. Pabst cast her in *Pandora\'s Box* (1929). *The Air Circus* was Hawks\'s first film centered around aviation, one of his early passions. In 1928, Charles Lindbergh was the world\'s most famous person and *Wings* was one of the most popular films of the year. Wanting to capitalize on the country\'s aviation craze, Fox immediately bought Hawks\'s original story for *The Air Circus*, a variation of the theme of male friendship about two young pilots. The film was shot from April to June 1928, but Fox ordered an additional 15 minutes of dialogue footage so that the film could compete with the new talkies being released. Hawks hated the new dialogue written by Hugh Herbert, and he refused to participate in the re-shoots. It was released in September 1928 and was a moderate hit and is one of two Hawks films that are lost.
*Trent\'s Last Case* is an adaptation of E. C. Bentley\'s 1913 novel of the same name. Hawks considered the novel to be \"one of the greatest detective stories of all time\" and was eager to make it his first sound film. He cast Raymond Griffith in the lead role of Phillip Trent. Griffith\'s throat had been damaged by poison gas during World War I, and his voice was a hoarse whisper, prompting Hawks to later state, \"I thought he ought to be great in talking pictures *because* of that voice.\" However, after shooting only a few scenes, Fox shut Hawks down and ordered him to make a silent film, both because of Griffith\'s voice and because they only owned the legal rights to make a silent film. The film did have a musical score and synchronized sound effects but no dialogue. Due to the failing business of silent films, it was never released in the US and only briefly screened in England where critics hated it. The film was believed lost until the mid-1970s and was screened for the first time in the US at a Hawks retrospective in 1974. Hawks was in attendance of the screening and attempted to have the only print of the film destroyed. Hawks\'s contract with Fox ended in May 1929, and he never again signed a long-term contract with a major studio. He managed to remain an independent producer-director for the rest of his long career.
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# Howard Hawks
## Career
### Early sound films (1930--1934) {#early_sound_films_19301934}
By 1930, Hollywood was in upheaval over the coming of \"talkies\", and the careers of many actors and directors were ruined. Hollywood studios were recruiting stage actors and directors that they believed were better suited for sound films. After working in the industry for 14 years and directing many financially successful films, Hawks found he had to prove himself an asset to the studios once again. Leaving Fox on sour terms did not help his reputation, but Hawks never backed down from fights with studio heads. After several months of unemployment, Hawks renewed his career with his first sound film in 1930.
Hawks\'s first all-sound film was *The Dawn Patrol*, based on an original story by John Monk Saunders and (unofficially) Hawks. Reportedly, Hawks paid Saunders to put his name on the film, so that Hawks could direct the film without arousing concern due to his lack of writing experience. Accounts vary on who came up with the idea of the film, but Hawks and Saunders developed the story together and tried to sell it to several studios before First National agreed to produce it. Shooting began in late February 1930, about the same time that Howard Hughes was finishing his World War I aviation epic *Hell\'s Angels*, which had been in production since September 1927. Shrewdly, Hawks began to hire many of the aviation experts and cameramen that had been employed by Hughes, including Elmer Dyer, Harry Reynolds and Ira Reed. When Hughes found out about the rival film, he did everything he could to sabotage *The Dawn Patrol*. He harassed Hawks and other studio personnel, hired a spy that was quickly caught, and finally sued First National for copyright infringement. Hughes eventually dropped the lawsuit in late 1930---he and Hawks had become good friends during the legal battle. Filming was finished in late May 1930, and it premiered in July, setting a first-week box office record at the Winter Garden Theatre in New York. The film became one of the biggest hits of 1930. The success of this film allowed Hawks to gain respect in the field of filmmaking and allowed him to spend the rest of his career as an independent director without the necessity to sign any long-term contracts with specific studios.
Hawks did not get along with Warner Brothers executive Hal B. Wallis, and his contract allowed him to be loaned out to other studios. Hawks took the opportunity to accept a directing offer from Harry Cohn at Columbia Pictures. The film opened in January 1931 and was a hit. The film was banned in Chicago, and experienced censorship, which would continue in his next film project. In 1930, Hughes hired Hawks to direct *Scarface*, a gangster film loosely based on the life of Chicago mobster Al Capone. The film was completed in September 1931, but the censorship of the Hays Code prevented it from being released as Hawks and Hughes had originally intended. The two men fought, negotiated, and made compromises with the Hays Office for over a year, until the film was eventually released in 1932, after such other pivotal early gangster films as *The Public Enemy* and *Little Caesar*. *Scarface* was the first film on which Hawks worked with screenwriter Ben Hecht, who became a close friend and collaborator for 20 years. After filming was complete on *Scarface*, Hawks left Hughes to fight the legal battles and returned to First National to fulfill his contract, this time with producer Darryl F. Zanuck. For his next film, Hawks wanted to make a film about his childhood passion: car racing. Hawks developed the script for *The Crowd Roars* with Seton Miller for their eighth and final collaboration. Hawks used real race car drivers in the film, including the 1930 Indianapolis 500 winner Billy Arnold. The film was released in March and became a hit.
Later in 1932, he directed *Tiger Shark*, starring Edward G. Robinson as a tuna fisherman. In these early films, Hawks established the prototypical \"Hawksian Man\", which film critic Andrew Sarris described as \"upheld by an instinctive professionalism.\" *Tiger Shark* demonstrated Hawks\'s ability to incorporate touches of humor into dramatic, tense and even tragic story lines. In 1933, Hawks signed a three-picture deal at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, the first of which was *Today We Live* in 1933. This World War I film was based on a short story by William Faulkner. Hawks\'s next two films at MGM were the boxing drama *The Prizefighter and the Lady* and the bio-pic *Viva Villa!*. Studio interference on both films led Hawks to walk out on his MGM contract without completing either film himself.
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# Howard Hawks
## Career
### Later sound films (1935--1970) {#later_sound_films_19351970}
In 1934, Hawks went to Columbia Pictures to make *Twentieth Century*, starring John Barrymore and Hawks\'s distant cousin Carole Lombard. It was based on a stage play by Hecht and Charles MacArthur and, along with Frank Capra\'s *It Happened One Night* (released the same year), is considered to be the defining film of the screwball comedy genre. In 1935, Hawks made *Barbary Coast* with Edward G. Robinson and Miriam Hopkins. Hawks collaborated with Hecht and MacArthur on *Barbary Coast* and reportedly convinced them to work on the film by promising to teach them a marble game. They would switch off between working on the script and playing with marbles during work days. In 1936, he made the aviation adventure *Ceiling Zero* with James Cagney and Pat O\'Brien. Also in 1936, Hawks began filming *Come and Get It*, starring Edward Arnold, Joel McCrea, Frances Farmer and Walter Brennan, but he was fired by Samuel Goldwyn in the middle of shooting, and the film was completed by William Wyler.
In 1938, Hawks made the screwball comedy *Bringing Up Baby* for RKO Pictures. It starred Cary Grant and Katharine Hepburn and was adapted by Dudley Nichols and Hagar Wilde. Sarris called it \"the screwiest of the screwball comedies\". Grant plays a near-sighted paleontologist who suffers one humiliation after another due to the lovestruck socialite played by Hepburn. Hawks\'s artistic direction for *Bringing Up Baby* revolved around the raw natural chemistry between Grant and Hepburn. With Grant portraying the paleontologist and Hepburn as an heiress, the roles only add to the movie\'s purpose of disintegrating the line between the real and the imaginary. *Bringing Up Baby* was a box office flop when initially released and, subsequently, RKO fired Hawks due to extreme losses; however, the film has become regarded as one of Hawks\'s masterpieces. Regarding Hepburn, Hawks said: \"We had trouble with Kate at first. The great trouble is people trying to be funny. If they don\'t try to be funny, then they are funny.\" Hawks followed it with 11 consecutive hits up to 1951, starting with the aviation drama *Only Angels Have Wings*, made in 1939 for Columbia Pictures and starring Grant, Jean Arthur, Thomas Mitchell, Rita Hayworth and Richard Barthelmess.
Hawks returned to screwball comedy with *His Girl Friday* (1940), starring Grant and Rosalind Russell and featuring Ralph Bellamy. It was an adaptation of the Broadway hit *The Front Page* by Hecht and MacArthur, which had been made into a film in 1931. David Thomson writes that Hawks \"turned *The Front Page* inside out -- this is the first demolition re-make (a noble form). He said, suppose the editor and the reporter are a man and a woman, a married couple (just divorced), and the woman is on the point of leaving the paper to get married to a decent, wholesome, truthful idiot? Thus agreeable entertainment becomes ravishing art; thus a sentimental tribute to friendship becomes a frenzied rhapsody on the perils of being in love while guarding the love against all those plausibly \'real\' things.\" Not forgetting the influence Jesse Lasky had on his early career, in 1941, Hawks made *Sergeant York*, starring Gary Cooper as a pacifist farmer who becomes a decorated World War I soldier. Hawks directed the film and cast Cooper as a specific favor to Lasky. This was the highest-grossing film of 1941 and won two Academy Awards, for Best Actor and Best Editing, as well as earning Hawks his only nomination for Best Director. Later that year, Hawks worked with Cooper again for *Ball of Fire*, which also starred Barbara Stanwyck. The film was written by Billy Wilder and Charles Brackett and is a playful take on * Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs*. Cooper plays a sheltered, intellectual linguist who is writing an encyclopedia with six other scientists and hires street-wise Stanwyck to help them with modern slang terms. In 1941, Hawks began work on the Howard Hughes-produced (and later directed) film *The Outlaw*, based on the life of Billy the Kid and starring Jane Russell. Hawks completed initial shooting of the film in early 1941, but due to perfectionism and battles with the Hollywood Production Code, Hughes continued to re-shoot and re-edit the film until 1943, when it was finally released with Hawks uncredited as director. After making the World War II film *Air Force* (1943), starring John Garfield and written by Nichols, Hawks did two films with Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. *To Have and Have Not* (1944) stars Bogart, Bacall and Brennan and is based on a novel by Ernest Hemingway. Hawks was a close friend of Hemingway and made a bet with the author that he could make a good film out of Hemingway\'s \"worst book\". Hawks, William Faulkner and Jules Furthman collaborated on the script, about an American fishing boat captain working out of Martinique after the Fall of France in 1940. Bogart and Bacall fell in love on the set of the film and married soon afterwards. The greatest strength of the movie has been said to come from its atmosphere and use of wit that really plays on the strengths of Bacall and helps the movie solidify the theme of beauty in perpetual opposition. *To Have and Have Not* is the only film with contributions from two Nobel laureates, Hemingway and Faulkner. Hawks reunited with Bogart and Bacall in 1945 and 1946 with *The Big Sleep*, based on the Philip Marlowe detective novel by Raymond Chandler. An early 1945 version was substantially recut to comprise the final 1946 U.S. release with additional scenes emphasizing the special repartee chemistry between Bogart and Bacall. The screenplay for the film also reteamed Faulkner and Furthman, in addition to Leigh Brackett. Chandler, who had been nominated for an Oscar as co-author of the 1944 *Double Indemnity* screenplay, was not invited to help adapt his best selling novel. The film featured Dorothy Malone in her breakout role, in a part that was largely improvised. Hawks said of her scene: \"We just did it because the girl was so damn good-looking. It taught me a great lesson, that if you make a good scene, if we could do something that was fun, the audience goes right along with you.\" The plot is notoriously convoluted; Hawks recalled that \"I never figured out what was going on, but I thought the basic thing had great scenes in it, and was good entertainment. After that I said, \'I\'m never going to worry about being logical again.\'\"
In 1948, Hawks made *Red River*, an epic Western reminiscent of *Mutiny on the Bounty* starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift in his first film. Later that year, Hawks remade his *Ball of Fire* as *A Song Is Born*, this time starring Danny Kaye and Virginia Mayo. This version follows the same plot but pays more attention to popular jazz music and includes such jazz legends as Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman, Louis Armstrong, Lionel Hampton and Benny Carter playing themselves. In 1949, Hawks reteamed with Grant in the screwball comedy *I Was a Male War Bride*, also starring Ann Sheridan.
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# Howard Hawks
## Career
### Later sound films (1935--1970) {#later_sound_films_19351970}
In 1951, Hawks produced, and according to some, directed, a science-fiction film, *The Thing from Another World*. Director John Carpenter stated: \"And let\'s get the record straight. The movie was directed by Howard Hawks. Verifiably directed by Howard Hawks. He let his editor, Christian Nyby, take credit. But the kind of feeling between the male characters---the camaraderie, the group of men that has to fight off the evil---it\'s all pure Hawksian.\" He followed this with the 1952 Western *The Big Sky*, starring Kirk Douglas. Later in 1952, Hawks worked with Grant for the fifth and final time in the screwball comedy *Monkey Business*, which also starred Marilyn Monroe and Ginger Rogers. Grant plays a scientist (reminiscent of his character in *Bringing up Baby*) who creates a formula that increases his vitality. Film critic John Belton called the film Hawks\'s \"most organic comedy\". Hawks\'s third film of 1952 was a contribution to the omnibus film *O. Henry\'s Full House*, which includes short stories by the writer O. Henry made by various directors. Hawks\'s short film *The Ransom of Red Chief* starred Fred Allen, Oscar Levant and Jeanne Crain.
In 1953, Hawks made *Gentlemen Prefer Blondes*, which famously featured Marilyn Monroe singing \"Diamonds Are a Girl\'s Best Friend\". The film starred Monroe and Jane Russell as two cabaret performing best friends; many critics argue that the film is the only female version of the \"buddy film\" genre. Choreographer Jack Cole is generally credited with staging the musical numbers while Hawks is credited with directing the non-musical scenes. In 1955, Hawks made *Land of the Pharaohs*, a sword-and-sandal epic about ancient Egypt that stars Jack Hawkins and Joan Collins. The film was Hawks\'s final collaboration with longtime friend William Faulkner. In 1959, Hawks worked with John Wayne in *Rio Bravo*, also starring Dean Martin, Ricky Nelson and Walter Brennan as four lawmen \"defending the fort\" of their local jail in which a local criminal is awaiting a trial while his family attempt to break him out. The screenplay was written by Furthman and Leigh Brackett, who had collaborated with Hawks previously on *The Big Sleep*. Film critic Robin Wood has said that if he \"were asked to choose a film that would justify the existence of Hollywood \... it would be *Rio Bravo*.\"
In 1962, Hawks made *Hatari!*, again with Wayne, who plays a wild animal catcher in Africa. It was also written by Leigh Brackett. Hawks\'s knowledge of mechanics allowed him to build the camera-car hybrid that allowed him to film the hunting scenes in the film. In 1964, Hawks made his final comedy, *Man\'s Favorite Sport?*, starring Rock Hudson (since Cary Grant felt he was too old for the role) and Paula Prentiss. Hawks then returned to his childhood passion for car races with *Red Line 7000* in 1965, featuring a young James Caan in his first leading role. Hawks\'s final two films were both Western remakes of *Rio Bravo* starring John Wayne and written by Leigh Brackett. In 1966, Hawks directed *El Dorado*, starring Wayne, Robert Mitchum, and Caan, which was released the following year. He then made *Rio Lobo*, with Wayne in 1970. After *Rio Lobo*, Hawks planned a project relating to Ernest Hemingway and \"Now, Mr. Gus\", a comedy about two male friends seeking oil and money. He died in December 1977, before these projects were completed.
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# Howard Hawks
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Howard Hawks was married three times: to actress Athole Shearer, sister of Norma Shearer, from 1928 to 1940; to socialite and fashion icon Slim Keith from 1941 to 1949; and to actress Dee Hartford from 1953 to 1959. Hawks had two children with Shearer, Barbara and David. David Hawks worked as an assistant director for the television series *M\*A\*S\*H*. His second daughter, Kitty Hawks, was a result of his second marriage to \"Slim\" Keith. Hawks had one son with his last wife, Dee Hartford, who was named Gregg after cinematographer Gregg Toland.
Along with his love of flying machines, Hawks also had a passion for cars and motorcycles. He built the race car that won the 1936 Indianapolis 500, as well as enjoyed riding motorcycles with Barbara Stanwyck and Gary Cooper. Hawks and his son Gregg were members of Checkers Motorcycle Club. Hawks continued riding until the age of 78. His other hobbies included golf, tennis, sailing, horse racing, carpentry, and silversmithing.
Hawks was also known for maintaining close friendships with many American writers such as Ben Hecht, Ernest Hemingway, and William Faulkner. Hawks credited himself with the discovery of William Faulkner and introducing the then-unknown writer to the Algonquin Round Table. Hawks and Faulkner had mutual interests in flying and drinking, and Faulkner admired the films of Hawks, asking Hawks to teach him how to write screenplays. Faulkner wrote five screenplays for Hawks, the first being *Today We Live* and the last being *Land of the Pharaohs*. With a mutual interest in fishing and skiing, Hawks was also close with Ernest Hemingway and was almost made the director of the film adaptation of *For Whom the Bell Tolls*. Hawks found it difficult to forgive Hemingway for his suicide. After coming to terms with it in the 1970s, he began to plan a film project about Hemingway and his relationship with Robert Capa. He never filmed the project.
Hawks supported Thomas Dewey in the 1944 United States presidential election.
## Later life and death {#later_life_and_death}
By the mid-1970s, Hawks\'s health began to decline, though he remained active. In addition to being in the early stages of Parkinson\'s disease in the years leading up to his death, an injury suffered on the set of *Rio Lobo* severely damaged one of his legs.
Hawks died on December 26, 1977, at the age of 81, from complications arising from a fall when he tripped over his dog at his home in Palm Springs, California. He had spent two weeks in the hospital recovering from his concussion when he asked to be taken home, dying a few days later. His death was attributed directly to \"arteriosclerotic vascular disease with stroke\". He was working with his last protégée discovery at the time, Larraine Zax.
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# Howard Hawks
## Style
Hawks was a versatile director whose career includes comedies, dramas, gangster films, science fiction, film noir, and Westerns. Hawks\'s own functional definition of what constitutes a good film is characteristic of his no-nonsense style: \"three good scenes, and no bad ones.\" Hawks also defined a good director as \"someone who doesn\'t annoy you\". He described his style: \"I try to tell my story as simply as possible, with the camera at eye level. I just imagine the way the story should be told, and I do it.\" His style was very actor-focused, and he made it a point to take as few shots as possible, thereby preserving an inherent and natural humor for his comedic pieces.
While Hawks was not sympathetic to feminism, he popularized the Hawksian woman archetype, a portrayal of women in stronger, less effeminate roles. Such an emphasis had never been done in the 1920s and therefore was seen to be a rarity and, according to Naomi Wise, has been cited as a prototype of the post-feminist movement. Another notable theme carried throughout his work included the relationship of morality and human interaction. In this sense, he tended to portray more dramatic elements of a concept or a plot in a humorous way.
Orson Welles, in conversation with Peter Bogdanovich, compared Hawks with John Ford: \"Hawks is great prose; Ford is poetry.\" Hawks cited Ford as an influence: \"He was a good director when I started, and I copied him every time I could. It\'s just as if you were a writer, you would read Hemingway and Faulkner and John Dos Passos and Willa Cather.\" Despite Hawks\'s work in a variety of Hollywood genres, he still retained an independent sensibility. Film critic David Thomson wrote of Hawks: \"Far from the meek purveyor of Hollywood forms, he always chose to turn them upside down. *To Have and Have Not* and *The Big Sleep*, ostensibly an adventure and a thriller, are really love stories. *Rio Bravo*, apparently a Western -- everyone wears a cowboy hat -- is a comedy conversation piece. The ostensible comedies are shot through with exposed emotions, with the subtlest views of the sex war, and with a wry acknowledgment of the incompatibility of men and women.\" David Boxwell argues that the filmmaker\'s body of work \"has been accused of a historical and adolescent escapism, but Hawks\'s fans rejoice in his oeuvre\'s remarkable avoidance of Hollywood\'s religiosity, bathos, flag-waving, and sentimentality.
## Writing and producing {#writing_and_producing}
In addition to his career as a film director, Howard Hawks either wrote or supervised the writing for most of his films. In some cases, he would rewrite parts of the script on set. Due to the Screen Writer\'s Guild\'s rule that the director and producer couldn\'t receive credit for writing, Hawks rarely received credit. Even though Sidney Howard received credit for writing *Gone with the Wind* (1939), the screenplay was actually written by a myriad of Hollywood screenwriters including, David O. Selznick, Ben Hecht, and Howard Hawks. Hawks was an uncredited contributor to many other screenplays such as *Underworld* (1927), *Morocco* (1930), *Shanghai Express* (1932), and *Gunga Din* (1939). Hawks also produced many of his own films, preferring not to work under major film studios, because it allowed him creative freedom in his writing, directing, and casting. Hawks would sometimes walk out on films that he wasn\'t producing himself. Hawks, however, never considered producing to come before his directing. For example, several of the film cards for his films show \"Directed and produced by Howard Hawks\" with \"produced\" underneath \"directed\" in much smaller font. Sometimes his films wouldn\'t credit any producer. Hawks discovered many well known film stars such as Paul Muni, George Raft, Ann Dvorak, Carole Lombard, Frances Farmer, Jane Russell, Montgomery Clift, Joanne Dru, Angie Dickinson, James Caan, and most famously, Lauren Bacall.
## Filmography
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# Howard Hawks
## Awards and recognition {#awards_and_recognition}
In 1962, Peter Bogdanovich suggested that the Museum of Modern Art do a retrospective on Howard Hawks, who was in the process of releasing *Hatari!* For marketing purposes, Paramount paid for part of the exhibition, which traveled to Paris and London. For the event, Bogdanovich prepared a monograph. As a result of the retrospective, a special edition of *Cahiers du Cinéma* was published, and Hawks was featured in his own issue of *Movie* magazine.
In 1996, Howard Hawks was voted No. 4 on *Entertainment Weekly*{{\'}}s list of 50 greatest directors. In 2007, *Total Film* magazine ranked Hawks as No. 4 in its \"100 Greatest Film Directors Ever\" list. *Bringing Up Baby* (1938) was listed number 97 on the American Film Institute\'s AFI\'s 100 Years\...100 Movies. On the AFI\'s AFI\'s 100 Years\...100 Laughs *Bringing Up Baby* was listed number 14, *His Girl Friday* (1940) was listed number 19 and *Ball of Fire* (1941) was listed number 92. In the 2012 *Sight & Sound* polls of the greatest films ever made, six films directed by Hawks were in the critics\' top 250 films: *Rio Bravo* (number 63), *Bringing Up Baby* (number 110), *Only Angels Have Wings* (number 154), *His Girl Friday* (number 171), *The Big Sleep* (number 202), and *Red River* (number 235). Six of his films currently hold a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. His films *Ball of Fire*, *The Big Sleep*, *Bringing Up Baby*, *His Girl Friday*, *Only Angels Have Wings*, *Red River*, *Rio Bravo*, *Scarface*, *Sergeant York*, *The Thing from Another World*, and *Twentieth Century* were deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the United States Library of Congress and inducted into the National Film Registry. With eleven films, he ties with John Ford for directing the most films that are in the registry.
From the film industry, he received three nominations for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures from the Directors Guild of America for *Red River* in 1949, *The Big Sky* in 1953, and *Rio Bravo* in 1960. He was inducted into the Online Film and Television Association\'s Hall of Fame for his directing in 2005. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Howard Hawks has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1708 Vine Street. He was nominated for Academy Award for Best Director in 1942 for *Sergeant York*, but he received his only Oscar in 1974 as an Honorary Award from the academy. He was cited as \"a giant of the American cinema whose pictures, taken as a whole, represent one of the most consistent, vivid, and varied bodies of work in world cinema\" and \"a master filmmaker whose creative efforts hold a distinguished place in world cinema.\"
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# Howard Hawks
## Influence and legacy {#influence_and_legacy}
In the 1950s, Eugene Archer, a film fan, was planning on writing a book on important American film directors such as John Ford. However, after reading *Cahiers du Cinéma*, Archer learned that the French film scene was more interested in Alfred Hitchcock and Howard Hawks. Books were not written on Hawks until the 1960s, and a full biography on Hawks wasn\'t published until 1997, twenty years after his death. Film critic Andrew Sarris cited Howard Hawks as \"the least known and least appreciated Hollywood director of any stature\". According to professor of film studies Ian Brookes, Hawks is not as well known as other directors, because of his lack of association with a particular genre such as Ford with Westerns and Hitchcock with thrillers. Hawks worked across many genres including gangster, film noir, musical comedy, romantic comedy, screwball comedy, Western, aviation, and combat. Moreover, Hawks preferred not to associate with major studios during his film production. He worked for all major studios at least once on short-term contract, but many of his films were produced under his own name. The simplicity of his narratives and stories may also have contributed to his under-recognition. Commercially, his films were successful, but he received little critical acclaim except for one Academy Award nomination for Best Director for *Sergeant York* (he lost to John Ford for *How Green Was My Valley*) and an Honorary Academy Award presented to him two years before his death.
Some critics limit Hawks by his action films, describing Hawks as a director who produced films with a \"masculine bias\", however action scenes in Hawks\'s films were often left to second-unit directors, and Hawks actually preferred to work indoors. Howard Hawks\'s style is difficult to interpret because there is no recognizable relationship between his visual and narrative style as in the films of his contemporary directors. Because his camera style was derived more from his working method rather than anecdotal or visual realization, his camera work is unobtrusive, making his films appear to have little to no cinematographic style. Hawks\'s style can, rather, be characterized as improvisational and collaborative. Hawks\'s directorial style and the use of natural, conversational dialogue in his films are cited as major influences on many noted filmmakers, including Robert Altman John Carpenter, and Quentin Tarantino. His work is also admired by Peter Bogdanovich, Martin Scorsese, Jean-Luc Godard, Clint Eastwood, Greta Gerwig, François Truffaut, Michael Mann, and Jacques Rivette. Andrew Sarris in his influential book of film criticism *The American Cinema: Directors and Directions 1929--1968* included Hawks in the \"pantheon\" of the 14 greatest film directors who had worked in the United States. Brian De Palma dedicated his version of *Scarface* to Hawks and Ben Hecht. Altman was influenced by the fast-paced dialogue of *His Girl Friday* in *M\*A\*S\*H* and subsequent productions. Hawks was nicknamed \"The Gray Fox\" by members of the Hollywood community, thanks to his prematurely gray hair.
Hawks has been considered by some film critics to be an auteur both because of his recognizable style and frequent use of specific thematic elements, and because of his attention to all aspects of his films, not merely directing. Hawks was venerated by French critics associated with *Cahiers du cinéma*, who intellectualized his work in a way that Hawks himself found moderately amusing (his work was promoted in France by The Studio des Ursulines cinema). Although he was not at first taken seriously by British critics of the *Sight & Sound* circle, other independent British writers, such as Robin Wood, admired his films. Wood named Hawks\'s *Rio Bravo* as his top film of all time. David Thomson writes that \"There was an absurdist in Hawks, and a Nabokovian delight in the game for its own sake. Thus, in a very important way, this seeming American may have been against the grain of his time and place. That may help explain why the films grow in wonder
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# Hollywood cycles
In the **classic era of the cinema of the United States** (1930 -- 1945) **genres** matured. A \"cycle\" occurs when a large amount of films consisting of specific features are produced in a certain period of time, and following the success of films with similar topics. While most would recognize many of the genres as Westerns, gangsters, musicals, etc., often the cycles were significantly more specific. A cycle is different from a genre or a subgenre, because a cycle focuses on a timeframe, the other two can be used at different times. Hollywood studios created my cycles to attract viewers in the 20th century, and succeed at the box office. Major Hollywood studios have made profits from film cycles because viewers are interest on films with the same theme or topic.
In the 1960s, successful examples of Hollywood cycles include cycles of youth revolution films, protest films, campus revolt films and youth rebellion films. However, in the 1980s, some films commercially failed, including Conan the Barbarian, The Thing and Footloose, because they did not meet the expectations.
Instead of \"romantic comedy\", a cycle might be described as the \"Boy-meets-girl-boy-loses-girl-boy-gets-girl\" cycle
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