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# Gymnosphaerid The **gymnosphaerids** (or **Gymnosphaerida**) are a small group of heliozoan protists found in marine environments. They tend to be roughly spherical with radially directed axopods, supported by microtubules in a triangular-hexagonal array arising from an amorphous central granule. ## Genera There are only three genera, each with a single species: *Gymnosphaera albida*, *Hedraiophrys hovassei*, and *Actinocoryne contractilis*. - *Gymnosphaera albida* is free-living, usually benthic in shallow water. The cells are round and naked, around 70-100 μm in diameter, and resemble the unrelated *Actinosphaerium*. The outer cytoplasm, or ectoplasm, forms a distinct layer containing large vesicles. - *Hedraiophrys hovassei* is larger and lives attached to algae and other objects. The cells have a conical base, and are covered with long siliceous spicules. The ectoplasm is distinct and frothy, and typically contains bacterial and algal endosymbionts. - *Actinocoryne contractilis* is benthic. When feeding, it has a multinucleate base and a contractile stalk up to 150 μm in length, supporting a relatively small uninucleate head, where the central granule and axopods are located. In order to move, it collapses the stalk and head into an amoeboid form which is capable of migration. Reproduction is either by budding off the head or fragmentation of the headless form, producing small free-living cells similar to *Gymnosphaera*, which then attach themselves and regrow the stalk and base. ## Classification Gymnosphaerids were originally considered centrohelids, which also have microtubules in a triangular-hexagonal array, but are set apart from the others by the structure of the central granule and the mitochondria, which have tubular cristae. The two groups have been treated as separate orders (Axoplasthelida and Centroplasthelida) in a common class, but this has lost support. Instead the gymnosphaerids may be allied with the desmothoracids, and on account of this have been placed in the Cercozoa, but this is somewhat tentative. - Order **Gymnosphaerida** Poche 1913 emend
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# Group representation In the mathematical field of representation theory, **group representations** describe abstract groups in terms of bijective linear transformations of a vector space to itself (i.e. vector space automorphisms); in particular, they can be used to represent group elements as invertible matrices so that the group operation can be represented by matrix multiplication. In chemistry, a group representation can relate mathematical group elements to symmetric rotations and reflections of molecules. Representations of groups allow many group-theoretic problems to be reduced to problems in linear algebra. In physics, they describe how the symmetry group of a physical system affects the solutions of equations describing that system. The term *representation of a group* is also used in a more general sense to mean any \"description\" of a group as a group of transformations of some mathematical object. More formally, a \"representation\" means a homomorphism from the group to the automorphism group of an object. If the object is a vector space we have a *linear representation*. Some people use *realization* for the general notion and reserve the term *representation* for the special case of linear representations. The bulk of this article describes linear representation theory; see the last section for generalizations. ## Branches of group representation theory {#branches_of_group_representation_theory} The representation theory of groups divides into subtheories depending on the kind of group being represented. The various theories are quite different in detail, though some basic definitions and concepts are similar. The most important divisions are: - *Finite groups* --- Group representations are a very important tool in the study of finite groups. They also arise in the applications of finite group theory to crystallography and to geometry. If the field of scalars of the vector space has characteristic *p*, and if *p* divides the order of the group, then this is called *modular representation theory*; this special case has very different properties. See Representation theory of finite groups. - *Compact groups or locally compact groups* --- Many of the results of finite group representation theory are proved by averaging over the group. These proofs can be carried over to infinite groups by replacement of the average with an integral, provided that an acceptable notion of integral can be defined. This can be done for locally compact groups, using the Haar measure. The resulting theory is a central part of harmonic analysis. The Pontryagin duality describes the theory for commutative groups, as a generalised Fourier transform. See also: Peter--Weyl theorem. - *Lie groups* --- Many important Lie groups are compact, so the results of compact representation theory apply to them. Other techniques specific to Lie groups are used as well. Most of the groups important in physics and chemistry are Lie groups, and their representation theory is crucial to the application of group theory in those fields. See Representations of Lie groups and Representations of Lie algebras. - *Linear algebraic groups* (or more generally *affine group schemes*) --- These are the analogues of Lie groups, but over more general fields than just **R** or **C**. Although linear algebraic groups have a classification that is very similar to that of Lie groups, and give rise to the same families of Lie algebras, their representations are rather different (and much less well understood). The analytic techniques used for studying Lie groups must be replaced by techniques from algebraic geometry, where the relatively weak Zariski topology causes many technical complications. - *Non-compact topological groups* --- The class of non-compact groups is too broad to construct any general representation theory, but specific special cases have been studied, sometimes using ad hoc techniques. The *semisimple Lie groups* have a deep theory, building on the compact case. The complementary *solvable* Lie groups cannot be classified in the same way. The general theory for Lie groups deals with semidirect products of the two types, by means of general results called *Mackey theory*, which is a generalization of Wigner\'s classification methods. Representation theory also depends heavily on the type of vector space on which the group acts. One distinguishes between finite-dimensional representations and infinite-dimensional ones. In the infinite-dimensional case, additional structures are important (e.g. whether or not the space is a Hilbert space, Banach space, etc.). One must also consider the type of field over which the vector space is defined. The most important case is the field of complex numbers. The other important cases are the field of real numbers, finite fields, and fields of p-adic numbers. In general, algebraically closed fields are easier to handle than non-algebraically closed ones. The characteristic of the field is also significant; many theorems for finite groups depend on the characteristic of the field not dividing the order of the group.
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# Group representation ## Definitions A **representation** of a group *G* on a vector space *V* over a field *K* is a group homomorphism from *G* to GL(*V*), the general linear group on *V*. That is, a representation is a map $$\rho \colon G \to \mathrm{GL}\left(V \right)$$ such that $$\rho(g_1 g_2) = \rho(g_1) \rho(g_2) , \qquad \text{for all }g_1,g_2 \in G.$$ Here *V* is called the **representation space** and the dimension of *V* is called the **dimension** or **degree** of the representation. It is common practice to refer to *V* itself as the representation when the homomorphism is clear from the context. In the case where *V* is of finite dimension *n* it is common to choose a basis for *V* and identify GL(*V*) with `{{nowrap|GL(''n'', ''K'')}}`{=mediawiki}, the group of $n \times n$ invertible matrices on the field *K*. - If *G* is a topological group and *V* is a topological vector space, a **continuous representation** of *G* on *V* is a representation *ρ* such that the application `{{nowrap|Φ : ''G'' × ''V'' → ''V''}}`{=mediawiki} defined by `{{nowrap|1=Φ(''g'', ''v'') = ''ρ''(''g'')(''v'')}}`{=mediawiki} is continuous. - The **kernel** of a representation *ρ* of a group *G* is defined as the normal subgroup of *G* whose image under *ρ* is the identity transformation: $$\ker \rho = \left\{g \in G \mid \rho(g) = \mathrm{id}\right\}.$$ : A faithful representation is one in which the homomorphism `{{nowrap|''G'' → GL(''V'')}}`{=mediawiki} is injective; in other words, one whose kernel is the trivial subgroup {*e*} consisting only of the group\'s identity element. - Given two *K* vector spaces *V* and *W*, two representations `{{nowrap|''ρ'' : ''G'' → GL(''V'')}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nowrap|''π'' : ''G'' → GL(''W'')}}`{=mediawiki} are said to be **equivalent** or **isomorphic** if there exists a vector space isomorphism `{{nowrap|''α'' : ''V'' → ''W''}}`{=mediawiki} so that for all *g* in *G*, $$\alpha \circ \rho(g) \circ \alpha^{-1} = \pi(g).$$
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# Group representation ## Examples Consider the complex number *u* = e^2πi\ /\ 3^ which has the property *u*^3^ = 1. The set *C*~3~ = {1, *u*, *u*^2^} forms a cyclic group under multiplication. This group has a representation ρ on $\mathbb{C}^2$ given by: $$\rho \left( 1 \right) = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \\ \end{bmatrix} \qquad \rho \left( u \right) = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & u \\ \end{bmatrix} \qquad \rho \left( u^2 \right) = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & u^2 \\ \end{bmatrix}.$$ This representation is faithful because ρ is a one-to-one map. Another representation for *C*~3~ on $\mathbb{C}^2$, isomorphic to the previous one, is σ given by: $$\sigma \left( 1 \right) = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \\ \end{bmatrix} \qquad \sigma \left( u \right) = \begin{bmatrix} u & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \\ \end{bmatrix} \qquad \sigma \left( u^2 \right) = \begin{bmatrix} u^2 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \\ \end{bmatrix}.$$ The group *C*~3~ may also be faithfully represented on $\mathbb{R}^2$ by τ given by: $$\tau \left( 1 \right) = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \\ \end{bmatrix} \qquad \tau \left( u \right) = \begin{bmatrix} a & -b \\ b & a \\ \end{bmatrix} \qquad \tau \left( u^2 \right) = \begin{bmatrix} a & b \\ -b & a \\ \end{bmatrix}$$ where $$a=\text{Re}(u)=-\tfrac{1}{2}, \qquad b=\text{Im}(u)=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}}{2}.$$ A possible representation on $\mathbb{R}^3$ is given by the set of cyclic permutation matrices *v*: $$\upsilon \left( 1 \right) = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \\ \end{bmatrix} \qquad \upsilon \left( u \right) = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ \end{bmatrix} \qquad \upsilon \left( u^2 \right) = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ \end{bmatrix} .$$ Another example: Let $V$ be the space of homogeneous degree-3 polynomials over the complex numbers in variables $x_1, x_2, x_3.$ Then $S_3$ acts on $V$ by permutation of the three variables. For instance, $(12)$ sends $x_{1}^3$ to $x_{2}^3$. ## Reducibility A subspace *W* of *V* that is invariant under the group action is called a *subrepresentation*. If *V* has exactly two subrepresentations, namely the zero-dimensional subspace and *V* itself, then the representation is said to be **irreducible**; if it has a proper subrepresentation of nonzero dimension, the representation is said to be **reducible**. The representation of dimension zero is considered to be neither reducible nor irreducible, just as the number 1 is considered to be neither composite nor prime. Under the assumption that the characteristic of the field *K* does not divide the size of the group, representations of finite groups can be decomposed into a direct sum of irreducible subrepresentations (see Maschke\'s theorem). This holds in particular for any representation of a finite group over the complex numbers, since the characteristic of the complex numbers is zero, which never divides the size of a group. In the example above, the first two representations given (ρ and σ) are both decomposable into two 1-dimensional subrepresentations (given by span{(1,0)} and span{(0,1)}), while the third representation (τ) is irreducible.
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# Group representation ## Generalizations ### Set-theoretical representations {#set_theoretical_representations} A *set-theoretic representation* (also known as a group action or *permutation representation*) of a group *G* on a set *X* is given by a function ρ : *G* → *X*^*X*^, the set of functions from *X* to *X*, such that for all *g*~1~, *g*~2~ in *G* and all *x* in *X*: $$\rho(1)[x] = x$$ $$\rho(g_1 g_2)[x]=\rho(g_1)[\rho(g_2)[x]],$$ where $1$ is the identity element of *G*. This condition and the axioms for a group imply that ρ(*g*) is a bijection (or permutation) for all *g* in *G*. Thus we may equivalently define a permutation representation to be a group homomorphism from G to the symmetric group S~*X*~ of *X*. For more information on this topic see the article on group action. ### Representations in other categories {#representations_in_other_categories} Every group *G* can be viewed as a category with a single object; morphisms in this category are just the elements of *G*. Given an arbitrary category *C*, a *representation* of *G* in *C* is a functor from *G* to *C*. Such a functor selects an object *X* in *C* and a group homomorphism from *G* to Aut(*X*), the automorphism group of *X*. In the case where *C* is **Vect**~*K*~, the category of vector spaces over a field *K*, this definition is equivalent to a linear representation. Likewise, a set-theoretic representation is just a representation of *G* in the category of sets. When *C* is **Ab**, the category of abelian groups, the objects obtained are called *G*-modules. For another example consider the category of topological spaces, **Top**. Representations in **Top** are homomorphisms from *G* to the homeomorphism group of a topological space *X*. Two types of representations closely related to linear representations are: - projective representations: in the category of projective spaces. These can be described as \"linear representations up to scalar transformations\". - affine representations: in the category of affine spaces. For example, the Euclidean group acts affinely upon Euclidean space
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# GRE Physics Test The **Graduate Record Examination** (**GRE**) **physics test** is an examination administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS). The test attempts to determine the extent of the examinees\' understanding of fundamental principles of physics and their ability to apply them to problem solving. Many graduate schools require applicants to take the exam and base admission decisions in part on the results. The scope of the test is largely that of the first three years of a standard United States undergraduate physics curriculum, since many students who plan to continue to graduate school apply during the first half of the fourth year. It consists of 70 five-option multiple-choice questions covering subject areas including the first three years of undergraduate physics. The International System of Units (SI Units) is used in the test. A table of information representing various physical constants and conversion factors is presented in the test book. ## Major content topics {#major_content_topics} ### 1. Classical mechanics (20%) {#classical_mechanics_20} - kinematics - Newton\'s laws - work and energy - oscillatory motion - rotational motion about a fixed axis - dynamics of systems of particles - central forces and celestial mechanics - three-dimensional particle dynamics - Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism - non-inertial reference frames - elementary topics in fluid dynamics ### 2. Electromagnetism (18%) {#electromagnetism_18} - electrostatics - currents and DC circuits - magnetic fields in free space - Lorentz force - induction - Maxwell\'s equations and their applications - electromagnetic waves - AC circuits - magnetic and electric fields in matter ### 3. Optics and wave phenomena (8%) {#optics_and_wave_phenomena_8} - wave properties - superposition - interference - diffraction - geometrical optics - polarization - Doppler effect ### 4. Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics (10%) {#thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanics_10} - laws of thermodynamics - thermodynamic processes - equations of state - ideal gases - kinetic theory - ensembles - statistical concepts and calculation of thermodynamic quantities - thermal expansion and heat transfer ### 5. Quantum mechanics (13%) {#quantum_mechanics_13} - fundamental concepts - solutions of the Schrödinger equation - square wells - harmonic oscillators - hydrogenic atoms - spin - angular momentum - wave function symmetry - elementary perturbation theory ### 6. Atomic physics (10%) {#atomic_physics_10} - properties of electrons - Bohr model - energy quantization - atomic structure - atomic spectra - selection rules - black-body radiation - x-rays - atoms in electric and magnetic fields ### 7. Special relativity (6%) {#special_relativity_6} - introductory concepts - time dilation - length contraction - simultaneity - energy and momentum - four-vectors and Lorentz transformation - velocity addition ### 8. Laboratory methods (6%) {#laboratory_methods_6} - data and error analysis - electronics - instrumentation - radiation detection - counting statistics - interaction of charged particles with matter - lasers and optical interferometers - dimensional analysis - fundamental applications of probability and statistics ### 9
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# Goodtimes virus The **Goodtimes virus**, also styled as **Good Times virus**, was a computer virus hoax that spread during the early years of the Internet\'s popularity. Warnings about a computer virus named \"Good Times\" began being passed around among Internet users in 1994. The Goodtimes virus was supposedly transmitted via an email bearing the subject header \"Good Times\" or \"Goodtimes\", hence the virus\'s name, and the warning recommended deleting any such email unread. The virus described in the warnings did not exist, but the warnings themselves were, in effect, virus-like. In 1997 the Cult of the Dead Cow hacker collective announced that they had been responsible for the perpetration of the \"Good Times\" virus hoax as an exercise to \"prove the gullibility of self-proclaimed \'experts\' on the Internet\". ## History The first recorded email warnings about the Good Times virus showed up on 15 November 1994. The first message was brief, a simple five sentence email with a Christmas greeting, advising recipients not to open email messages with the subject \"GOOD TIMES!!\", as doing so would \"ruin\" their files. Later messages became more intricate. The most common versions---the \"Infinite loop\" and \"ASCII buffer\" editions---were much longer, containing descriptions of what exactly Good Times would do to the computer of someone who opened it, as well as comparisons to other viruses of the time, and references to a U.S. Federal Communications Commission warning. The warning emails themselves usually contained the very subject line warned against. ## Sample email {#sample_email} ## Purported effects {#purported_effects} The longer version of the Good Times warning contained descriptions of what Good Times was supposedly capable of doing to computers. In addition to sending itself to every email address in a recipient\'s received or sent mail, the Good Times virus caused a wide variety of other effects. For example, one version said that if an infected computer contained a hard drive, it could be destroyed. If Good Times was not stopped in time, an infected computer would enter an \"nth-complexity infinite binary loop\" (a meaningless term), damaging the processor. The \"ASCII\" buffer email described the mechanism of Good Times as a buffer overflow. ## Hoaxes similar to Good Times {#hoaxes_similar_to_good_times} A number of computer virus hoaxes appeared after the Good Times hoax had begun to be widely shared. These messages were similar in form to Good Times, warning users not to open messages bearing particular subject lines. Subject lines mentioned in these emails include \"Penpal greetings\", \"Free Money\", \"Deeyenda\", \"Invitation\", and \"Win a Holiday\". The Bad Times computer virus warning is generally considered to be a spoof of the Good Times warning. ## Viruses that function like Good Times {#viruses_that_function_like_good_times} Developments in mail systems, such as Microsoft Outlook, without sufficient thought for security implications, made viruses that indeed propagate themselves via email possible. Notable examples include the Melissa worm, the ILOVEYOU virus, and the Anna Kournikova virus. In some cases, a user must open a document or program contained in an email message in order to spread the virus; in others, notably the Kak worm, merely opening or previewing an email message itself will trigger the virus. Some e-mail viruses written after the Good Times scare contained text announcing that \"This virus is called \'Good Times{{\' \"}}, presumably hoping to gain kudos amongst other virus writers by appearing to have created a worldwide scare. In general, virus researchers avoided naming these viruses as \"Good Times\", but an obvious potential for confusion exists, and some anti-virus tools may well detect a real virus they identify as \"Good Times\", though this will not be the cause of the original scare. ## Spoofs Weird Al Yankovic made a song parody of the virus titled \"Virus Alert\". The Bad Times virus hoax was created years later
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# Gary Snyder **Gary Snyder** (born May 8, 1930) is an American poet, essayist, lecturer, and environmental activist. His early poetry has been associated with the Beat Generation and the San Francisco Renaissance and he has been described as the \"poet laureate of Deep Ecology\". Snyder is a winner of a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and the American Book Award. His work, in his various roles, reflects an immersion in both Buddhist spirituality and nature. He has translated literature into English from ancient Chinese and modern Japanese. For many years, Snyder was an academic at the University of California, Davis, and for a time served as a member of the California Arts Council. ## Life and career {#life_and_career} ### Early life {#early_life} Snyder was born in San Francisco, California, to Harold and Lois Hennessy Snyder. Snyder is of German, Scottish, Irish and English ancestry. His family, impoverished by the Great Depression, moved to King County, Washington, when he was two years old. There, they tended dairy-cows, kept laying-hens, had a small orchard, and made cedar-wood shingles. At the age of seven, Snyder was bedridden for four months by an accident. \"So my folks brought me piles of books from the Seattle Public Library,\" he recalled in an interview, \"and it was then I really learned to read and from that time on was voracious --- I figure that accident changed my life. At the end of four months, I had read more than most kids do by the time they\'re eighteen. And I didn\'t stop.\" Also during his ten childhood years in Washington, Snyder became aware of the presence of the Coast Salish people and developed an interest in the Native American peoples in general and their traditional relationship with nature. In 1942, following his parents\' divorce, Snyder moved to Portland, Oregon, with his mother and his younger sister, Anthea. Their mother, Lois Snyder Hennessy (born Wilkey), worked during this period as a reporter for *The Oregonian*. One of his boyhood jobs was as a newspaper copy-boy at the *Oregonian*. During his teen years, he attended Lincoln High School, worked as a camp counselor, and went mountain-climbing with the Mazamas youth-group. Climbing remained an interest of his, especially during his twenties and thirties. In 1947, he started attending Reed College on a scholarship. Here, he met, and, for a time, roomed with the writer Carl Proujan, and became acquainted with the young poets Philip Whalen and Lew Welch. During his time at Reed, Snyder published his first poems in a student journal. In 1948 he spent the summer working as a seaman. To get this job, he joined the now-defunct Marine Cooks and Stewards union, and would later work as a seaman in the mid-1950s to gain experience of other cultures in port cities. Snyder married Alison Gass in 1950; they separated after seven months, and divorced in 1952. While attending Reed, Snyder conducted folklore research on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation in central Oregon. He graduated with a dual degree in anthropology and literature in 1951. Snyder\'s senior thesis, entitled *The Dimensions of a Myth*, employed perspectives from anthropology, folklore, psychology, and literature to examine a myth of the Pacific Northwest\'s Haida people. He spent the following few summers working as a timber scaler at Warm Springs, developing relationships with its people that were rooted less in academia. This experience formed the basis for some of his earliest published poems (including \"A Berry Feast\"), later collected in the book *The Back Country*. He also encountered the basic ideas of Buddhism and, through its arts, some East Asian traditional attitudes toward nature. He went to Indiana University with a graduate fellowship to study anthropology. (Snyder also began practicing self-taught Zen meditation.) He left after a single semester to return to San Francisco and to \'sink or swim as a poet\'. Snyder worked for two summers in the North Cascades in Washington as a fire lookout, on Crater Mountain in 1952 and Sourdough Mountain in 1953 (both locations on the upper Skagit River). His attempts to get another lookout stint in 1954 (at the peak of McCarthyism), however, failed. He found himself barred from working for the government due to his association with the Marine Cooks and Stewards. Instead, he went back to Warm Springs to work in logging as a choker setter. This experience contributed to his *Myths and Texts* and the essay *Ancient Forests of the Far West*.
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# Gary Snyder ## Life and career {#life_and_career} ### The Beats {#the_beats} Back in San Francisco, Snyder lived with Whalen, who shared his growing interest in Zen. Snyder\'s reading of the writings of D. T. Suzuki had in fact been a factor in his decision not to continue as a graduate student in anthropology, and in 1953 he enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, to study Asian culture and languages. He studied ink and wash painting under Chiura Obata and Tang dynasty poetry under Ch\'en Shih-hsiang. Snyder continued to spend summers working in the forests, including one summer as a trail-builder in Yosemite. He spent some months in 1955 and 1956 living in a cabin (which he dubbed \"Marin-an\") outside Mill Valley, California with Jack Kerouac. It was also at this time that Snyder was an occasional student at the American Academy of Asian Studies, where Saburo Hasegawa and Alan Watts, among others, were teaching. Hasegawa introduced Snyder to the treatment of landscape painting as a meditative practice. This inspired Snyder to attempt something equivalent in poetry, and with Hasegawa\'s encouragement, he began work on *Mountains and Rivers Without End*, which would be completed and published 40 years later. During these years, Snyder was writing and collecting his own work, as well as embarking on the translation of the \"Cold Mountain\" poems by the 8th-century Chinese recluse Han Shan; this work appeared in chapbook form in 1959, under the title *Riprap & Cold Mountain Poems*. Snyder met Allen Ginsberg when the latter sought Snyder out on the recommendation of Kenneth Rexroth. Then, through Ginsberg, Snyder and Kerouac came to know each other. This period provided the materials for Kerouac\'s novel *The Dharma Bums*, and Snyder was the inspiration for the novel\'s main character, Japhy Ryder, in the same way Neal Cassady had inspired Dean Moriarty in *On the Road*. As the large majority of people in the Beat movement had urban backgrounds, writers like Ginsberg and Kerouac found Snyder, with his backcountry and manual-labor experience and interest in things rural, a refreshing and almost exotic individual. Lawrence Ferlinghetti later referred to Snyder as \'the Thoreau of the Beat Generation\'. Snyder read his poem \"A Berry Feast\" at the poetry reading at the Six Gallery in San Francisco (October 7, 1955) that heard the first reading of Ginsberg\'s poem \"Howl\" and marked the emergence into mainstream publicity of the Beats. This also marked Snyder\'s first involvement with the Beats, although he was not a member of the original New York circle, having entered the scene through his association with Whalen and Welch. As recounted in Kerouac\'s *Dharma Bums*, even at age 25 Snyder felt he could have a role in the fateful future meeting of West and East. Snyder\'s first book, *Riprap*, which drew on his experiences as a forest lookout and on the trail crew in Yosemite, was published in 1959.
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# Gary Snyder ## Life and career {#life_and_career} ### Japan and India {#japan_and_india} Independently, some of the Beats, including Whalen, had become interested in Zen, but Snyder was one of the more serious scholars of the subject among them, preparing in every way he could think of for eventual study in Japan. In 1955, the First Zen Institute of America offered him a scholarship for a year of Zen training in Japan, but the State Department refused to issue him a passport, informing him that \"it has been alleged you are a Communist.\" A subsequent District of Columbia Court of Appeals ruling forced a change in policy, and Snyder got his passport. In the end, his expenses were paid by Ruth Fuller Sasaki, for whom he was supposed to work; but initially he served as personal attendant and English tutor to Zen abbot Miura Isshu, at Rinko-in, a temple in Shokoku-ji in Kyoto, where American Buddhist popularizer Dwight Goddard and British author and Japanese culture devotee R. H. Blyth had preceded him. Mornings, after *zazen*, *sutra* chanting, and chores for the abbot, he took Japanese classes, bringing his spoken Japanese up to a level sufficient for *kōan* study. He developed a friendship with Philip Yampolsky, an eminent translator and scholar of Zen Buddhism, who took him around Kyoto. In early July 1955, he took refuge and requested to become Miura\'s disciple, thus formally becoming a Buddhist. In 1958, he returned to California via the Persian Gulf, Turkey, Sri Lanka and various Pacific Islands, voyaging as a crewman in the engine room on the oil tanker *Sappa Creek*, and took up residence at Marin-an again. He turned one room into a *zendo*, with about six regular participants. In early June, he met the poet Joanne Kyger. She became his girlfriend, and eventually his wife. In 1959, he shipped for Japan again, where he rented a cottage outside Kyoto. He became the first foreign disciple of Rinzai *Rōshi* Oda Sesso, the new abbot of Daitoku-ji. He married Kyger on February 28, 1960, immediately after her arrival in Japan, which Fuller Sasaki insisted they do, if they were to live together and be associated with the Nichibei Daiichi Zen Kyokai,. Snyder and Kyger were married from 1960 to 1965. During the period between 1956 and 1969, Snyder went back and forth between California and Japan, studying Zen, working on translations with Fuller Sasaki, and finally living for a while with a group of other people on the small, volcanic island of Suwanosejima. His previous study of written Chinese assisted his immersion in the Zen tradition, which has its roots in Tang dynasty China, and enabled him to support himself while he was living in Japan. Snyder received the Zen precepts and his dharma name of *Chofu* (\"Listen to the Wind\"), and lived occasionally as a *de facto* monk, but never registered to become a priest, planning eventually to return to the United States to \"turn the wheel of the dharma\". During this time, he published two collections of his poems from the early to mid 1950s, *Myths & Texts* (1960), and *Six Sections from Mountains and Rivers Without End* (1965). This last was the beginning of a project that he was to continue working on until the late 1990s. Much of Snyder\'s poetry expresses experiences, environments, and insights involved with the work he has done for a living: logger, fire-lookout, steam-freighter crew, translator, carpenter, and itinerant poet, among other things. During his years in Japan, Snyder was also initiated into *Shugendo*, a highly syncretic ascetic religious cult. In the early 1960s he traveled for six months through India with Kyger, Ginsberg, and Ginsberg\'s partner, the poet and actor Peter Orlovsky. Their sojourn took them to Sri Lanka, then to south India, and eventually travelling up into the north. They observed the folkways of the various peoples, went on hikes, stopped at landmarks, temples, burning ghats, monastic caves, and ashrams. As they went, they learned in part through conversations with many Indians and Europeans who could speak English. They visited numerous cities, including Madras, Calcutta, Mumbai, Banaras, Old Delhi and New Delhi, as well as Rishikesh and Hardwar, and Bodh Gaya (where Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha, attained enlightenment). Especially important to Snyder and Ginsberg, in Dharamashala the Dalai Lama met with them and they discussed Buddhist principles and practices. Snyder and Kyger separated soon after their trip to India, and divorced in 1965. ### Dharma Bums {#dharma_bums} In the 1950s, Snyder took part in the rise of a strand of Buddhist anarchism emerging from the Beat movement. Snyder was the inspiration for the Japhy Ryder character in Kerouac\'s novel *The Dharma Bums* (1958). Snyder had spent considerable time in Japan studying Zen Buddhism, and in 1961 published an essay, \"Buddhist Anarchism\", where he described the connection he saw between these two traditions, originating in different parts of the world: \"The mercy of the West has been social revolution; the mercy of the East has been individual insight into the basic self/void.\" He advocated \"using such means as civil disobedience, outspoken criticism, protest, pacifism, voluntary poverty and even gentle violence\" and defended \"the right of individuals to smoke ganja, eat peyote, be polygynous, polyandrous or homosexual\" which he saw as being banned by \"the Judaeo-Capitalist-Christian-Marxist West\".
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# Gary Snyder ## Life and career {#life_and_career} ### Kitkitdizze In 1966, Snyder joined Allen Ginsberg, Richard Baker, future Roshi of the San Francisco Zen Center, and Kriyananda aka Donald J Walters, to buy 100 acre in the San Juan Ridge area of the Sierra-Nevada foothills, north of Nevada City, Northern California. In 1967 Snyder\'s book *The Back Country* appeared, again mainly a collection of poems stretching back over about fifteen years. Snyder devoted a section at the end of the book to his translations of eighteen poems by Kenji Miyazawa. In 1970, Kitkitdizze (as he named his portion of the San Juan Ridge property) would become his home. By that point, Snyder had already spent the summers of 1967 and 1968 with a group of Japanese back-to-the-land drop-outs known as \"the Tribe\" on Suwanosejima (a small Japanese island in the East China Sea), where they combed the beaches, gathered edible plants, and fished. On the island, on August 6, 1967, he married Masa Uehara, whom he had met in Osaka a year earlier. In 1968, they moved to California with their infant son, Kai (born April 1968). Their second son, Gen, was born a year later. They were shortly able to move onto the San Juan Ridge property, near the South Yuba River, where they and friends built a house that drew on rural-Japanese and Native-American architectural ideas. ### Later life and writings {#later_life_and_writings} *Regarding Wave* appeared in January 1970, a stylistic departure offering poems that were more emotional, metaphoric, and lyrical. From the late 1960s, the content of Snyder\'s poetry increasingly had to do with family, friends, and community. He continued to publish poetry throughout the 1970s, much of it reflecting his re-immersion in life on the American continent and his involvement in the back-to-the-land movement in the Sierra foothills. His 1974 book *Turtle Island*, titled after a Native American name for the North American continent, won a Pulitzer Prize. It also influenced numerous West Coast Generation X writers, including Alex Steffen, Bruce Barcott and Mark Morford. His 1983 book *Axe Handles*, won an American Book Award. Snyder wrote numerous essays setting forth his views on poetry, culture, social experimentation, and the environment. Many of these were collected in *Earth House Hold* (1969), *The Old Ways* (1977), *The Real Work* (1980), *The Practice of the Wild* (1990), *A Place in Space* (1995), and *The Gary Snyder Reader* (1999). In 1979, Snyder published *He Who Hunted Birds in His Father\'s Village: The Dimensions of a Haida Myth*, based on his Reed thesis. Snyder\'s journals from his travel in India in the mid-1960s appeared in 1983 under the title *Passage Through India*. In these, his wide-ranging interests in cultures, natural history, religions, social critique, contemporary America, and hands-on aspects of rural life, as well as his ideas on literature, were given full-blown articulation. In 1986, Snyder became a professor in the writing program at the University of California, Davis. Snyder is now professor emeritus of English. Snyder was married to Uehara for twenty-two years; the couple divorced in 1989. Snyder married Carole Lynn Koda (October 3, 1947 -- June 29, 2006), who would write *Homegrown: Thirteen brothers and sisters, a century in America*, in 1991, and remained married to her until her death of cancer. She had been born in the third generation of a successful Japanese-American farming family, noted for its excellent rice. She shared Buddhism, extensive travels, and work with Snyder, and performed independent work as a naturalist. As Snyder\'s involvement in environmental issues and his teaching grew, he seemed to move away from poetry for much of the 1980s and early 1990s. However, in 1996 he published the complete *Mountains and Rivers Without End*, a mixture of the lyrical and epic modes celebrating the act of inhabitation on a specific place on the planet. This work was written over a 40-year period. It has been translated into Japanese, French and Russian. In 2004 Snyder published *Danger on Peaks*, his first collection of new poems in twenty years. Snyder was awarded the Levinson Prize from the journal *Poetry*, the American Poetry Society Shelley Memorial Award (1986), was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1987), and won the 1997 Bollingen Prize for Poetry and, that same year, the John Hay Award for Nature Writing. Snyder also has the distinction of being the first American to receive the Buddhism Transmission Award (for 1998) from the Japan-based Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Foundation. For his ecological and social activism, Snyder was named as one of the 100 visionaries selected in 1995 by *Utne Reader*. Snyder\'s life and work were celebrated in John J. Healy\'s 2010 documentary *The Practice of the Wild.* The film, which debuted at the 53rd San Francisco International Film Festival, features wide-ranging, running conversations between Snyder and poet, writer and longtime colleague Jim Harrison, filmed mostly on the Hearst Ranch in San Simeon, California. The film also shows archival photographs and film of Snyder\'s life.
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# Gary Snyder ## Work ### Poetics Snyder uses mainly common speech-patterns as the basis for his lines, though his style has been noted for its \"flexibility\" and the variety of different forms his poems have taken. He typically uses neither conventional meters nor intentional rhyme. \"Love and respect for the primitive tribe, honour accorded the Earth, the escape from city and industry into both the past and the possible, contemplation, the communal\", such, according to Glyn Maxwell, is the awareness and commitment behind the specific poems. The author and editor Stewart Brand once wrote: \"Gary Snyder\'s poetry addresses the life-planet identification with unusual simplicity of style and complexity of effect.\" According to Jody Norton, this simplicity and complexity derives from Snyder\'s use of natural imagery (geographical formations, flora, and fauna) in his poems. Such imagery can be both sensual at a personal level yet universal and generic in nature. In the 1968 poem \"Beneath My Hand and Eye the Distant Hills, Your Body,\" the author compares the intimate experience of a lover\'s caress with the mountains, hills, cinder cones, and craters of the Uintah Mountains. Readers become explorers on both a very private level as well as a very public and grand level. A simplistic touch becoming a very complex interaction occurring at multiple levels. This is the effect Snyder intended. In an interview with Faas, he states, \"There is a direction which is very beautiful, and that\'s the direction of the organism being less and less locked into itself, less and less locked into its own body structure and its relatively inadequate sense organs, towards a state where the organism can actually go out from itself and share itself with others.\" Snyder has always maintained that his personal sensibility arose from his interest in Native Americans and their involvement with nature and knowledge of it; indeed, their ways seemed to resonate with his own. And he has sought something akin to this through Buddhist practices, Yamabushi initiation, and other experiences and involvements. However, since his youth he has been quite literate, and he has written about his appreciation of writers of similar sensibilities, like D. H. Lawrence, William Butler Yeats, and some of the great ancient Chinese poets. William Carlos Williams was another influence, especially on Snyder\'s earliest published work. Starting in high school, Snyder read and loved the work of Robinson Jeffers, his predecessor in poetry of the landscape of the American West, but whereas Jeffers valued nature over humankind, Snyder saw humankind as part of nature. Snyder commented in interviews, \"I have some concerns that I\'m continually investigating that tie together biology, mysticism, prehistory, general systems theory\". Snyder argues that poets, and humans in general, need to adjust to very long timescales, especially when judging the consequences of their actions. His poetry examines the gap between nature and culture so as to point to ways in which the two can be more closely integrated. In 2004, receiving the Masaoka Shiki International Haiku Awards Grand Prize, Snyder highlighted traditional ballads and folk songs, Native American songs and poems, William Blake, Walt Whitman, Jeffers, Ezra Pound, Noh drama, Zen aphorisms, Federico García Lorca, and Robert Duncan as significant influences on his poetry, but added, \"the influence from haiku and from the Chinese is, I think, the deepest.\" ### Romanticism Snyder is among those writers who have sought to dis-entrench conventional thinking about primitive peoples that has viewed them as simple-minded, ignorantly superstitious, brutish, and prone to violent emotionalism. In the 1960s Snyder developed a \"neo-tribalist\" view akin to the \"post-modernist\" theory of French Sociologist Michel Maffesoli. The \"re-tribalization\" of the modern, mass-society world envisioned by Marshall McLuhan, with all of the ominous, dystopian possibilities that McLuhan warned of, subsequently accepted by many modern intellectuals, is not the future that Snyder expects or works toward. Snyder\'s is a positive interpretation of the tribe and of the possible future. Todd Ensign describes Snyder\'s interpretation as blending ancient tribal beliefs and traditions, philosophy, physicality, and nature with politics to create his own form of Postmodern environmentalism. Snyder rejects the perspective which portrays nature and humanity in direct opposition to one another. Instead, he chooses to write from multiple viewpoints. He purposely sets out to bring about change on the emotional, physical, and political levels by emphasizing the ecological problems faced by today\'s society.
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# Gary Snyder ## Work ### Beat Snyder is widely regarded as a member of the Beat Generation circle of writers: he was one of the poets that read at the famous *Six Gallery* event, and was written about in one of Kerouac\'s most popular novels, *The Dharma Bums*. Some critics argue that Snyder\'s connection with the Beats is exaggerated and that he might better be regarded as a part of the San Francisco Renaissance, which developed independently. Snyder himself has some reservations about the label \"Beat\", but does not appear to have any strong objection to being included in the group. He often talks about the Beats in the first person plural, referring to the group as \"we\" and \"us\". A quotation from a 1974 interview at the University of North Dakota Writers Conference (published in *The Beat Vision*): > I never did know exactly what was meant by the term \'The Beats\', but let\'s say that the original meeting, association, comradeship of Allen \[Ginsberg\], myself, Michael \[McClure\], Lawrence \[Ferlinghetti\], Philip Whalen, who\'s not here, Lew Welch, who\'s dead, Gregory \[Corso\], for me, to a somewhat lesser extent (I never knew Gregory as well as the others) did embody a criticism and a vision which we shared in various ways, and then went our own ways for many years. Where we began to come really close together again, in the late \'60s, and gradually working toward this point, it seems to me, was when Allen began to take a deep interest in Oriental thought and then in Buddhism which added another dimension to our levels of agreement; and later through Allen\'s influence, Lawrence began to draw toward that; and from another angle, Michael and I after the lapse of some years of contact, found our heads very much in the same place, and it\'s very curious and interesting now; and Lawrence went off in a very political direction for a while, which none of us had any objection with, except that wasn\'t my main focus. It\'s very interesting that we find ourselves so much on the same ground again, after having explored divergent paths; and find ourselves united on this position of powerful environmental concern, critique of the future of the individual state, and an essentially shared poetics, and only half-stated but in the background very powerfully there, a basic agreement on some Buddhist type psychological views of human nature and human possibilities. Snyder has also commented \"The term Beat is better used for a smaller group of writers \... the immediate group around Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, plus Gregory Corso and a few others. Many of us \... belong together in the category of the San Francisco Renaissance. \... Still, beat can also be defined as a particular state of mind \... and I was in that mind for a while\"
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# Glissando In music, a **glissando** (`{{IPA|it|ɡlisˈsando|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; plural: *glissandi*, abbreviated *gliss.*) is a glide from one pitch to another (`{{audio|Glissando upwards an octave from C.mid|Play}}`{=mediawiki}). It is an Italianized musical term derived from the French *glisser*, \"to glide\". In some contexts, it is equivalent to portamento, which is a continuous, seamless glide between notes. In other contexts, it refers to discrete, stepped glides across notes, such as on a piano. Some terms that are similar or equivalent in some contexts are **slide**, **sweep** **bend**, **smear**, **rip** (for a loud, violent glissando to the beginning of a note), **lip** (in jazz terminology, when executed by changing one\'s embouchure on a wind instrument), **plop**, or **falling hail** (a glissando on a harp using the back of the fingernails). On wind instruments, a **scoop** is a glissando ascending to the onset of a note achieved entirely with the embouchure, except on instruments that have a slide (such as a trombone). ## Notation The glissando is indicated by following the initial note with a line, sometimes wavy, in the desired direction, often accompanied by the abbreviation *gliss.*. Occasionally, the desired notes are notated in the standard method (i.e. semiquavers) accompanied by the word \'glissando\'. ## Discrete glissando {#discrete_glissando} On some instruments (e.g., piano, harp, xylophone), discrete tones are clearly audible when sliding. For example, on a keyboard, a player\'s fingernails can be made to slide across the white keys or over the black keys, producing either a C major scale or an F`{{music|#}}`{=mediawiki} major pentatonic scale, or their relative modes; by performing both at once, it is possible to produce a full chromatic scale. Maurice Ravel used glissandi in many of his piano compositions, and \"Alborada del Gracioso\" contains notable piano glissando passages in thirds executed by the right hand. Rachmaninoff, Prokofiev, Liszt and Gershwin have all used glissandi for piano in notable compositions. Organ players---particularly in contemporary music---sometimes employ an effect known as the palm glissando, where over the course of the glissando the flat of the hand is used to depress a wide area of keys simultaneously, resulting in a dramatic atonal sweep. A similar device on the piano is cluster-glissandos, used extensively by Karlheinz Stockhausen in *Klavierstück X*, and which \"more than anything else, lend the work its unique aural flavour\". On a harp, the player can slide their finger across the strings, quickly playing the scale (or on pedal harp even arpeggios such as C`{{music|flat}}`{=mediawiki}-D-E`{{music|sharp}}`{=mediawiki}-F-G`{{music|sharp}}`{=mediawiki}-A`{{music|flat}}`{=mediawiki}-B). Wind, brass, and fretted-stringed-instrument players can perform an extremely rapid chromatic scale (e.g., sliding up or down a string quickly on a fretted instrument). Arpeggio effects (likewise named glissando) are also obtained by bowed strings (playing harmonics) and brass, especially the horn. ## Continuous glissando {#continuous_glissando} Musical instruments with continuously variable pitch are capable of continuous glissando, sometimes called portamento, over a substantial range. These include unfretted chordophones (such as the violin, viola, cello and double bass, and fretless guitars), stringed instruments with a way of stretching the strings (such as the guitar, veena, sitar or pipa), a fretted guitar or lap steel guitar when accompanied with the use of a slide, wind instruments without valves or stops (such as the trombone or slide whistle), timpani (kettledrums), electronic instruments (such as the theremin, the ondes Martenot, synthesizers and keytars), the water organ, and the human voice. Wind instruments can effect a similar limited slide by altering the lip pressure (on trumpet, for example) or a combination of embouchure and rolling the head joint (as on the flute), while others such as the clarinet can achieve this by slowly dragging fingers off tone holes or changing the oral cavity\'s resonance by manipulating tongue position, embouchure, and throat shaping. Many electric guitars are fitted with a tremolo arm which can produce either a portamento, a vibrato, or a combination of both (but not a true tremolo despite the name). Prescriptive attempts to distinguish the glissando from the portamento by limiting the former to discrete, stepped glides conflict with established usage of the term for instruments like the trombone and timpani. The clarinet gesture that opens *Rhapsody in Blue* was originally notated as a stepped glissando (Gershwin\'s score labels each individual note) but is in practice played as a portamento. ## Bent note {#bent_note} A **bent note** is a musical note that is varied in pitch. With unfretted strings or other continuous-pitch instruments such as the trombone, or with the human voice, such variation is more properly described in terms of intonation. A note is commonly bent to a higher pitch on fretted instruments literally by bending the string with excess finger pressure, and to a lower pitch on harmonica (a free-reed aerophone) by altering the vocal tract to shift the resonance of the reed. On brass instruments such as the trumpet, the note is bent by using the lip. \"Indeterminately pitched instruments \[such as unpitched percussion instruments and friction drum rolls\]\...produce a pitch or pitch spectrum that becomes higher with an increase of dynamic and lower with a decrease of dynamic.\" The bent note is commonly found in various forms of jazz, blues, and rock
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# Giant planet Jupiter \|image2=Saturn_during_Equinox\_(rot45).jpg{{!}}Saturn \|image3=Uranus Voyager2 color calibrated.png{{!}}Uranus \|image4=Neptune Voyager2 color calibrated.png{{!}}Neptune \|footer= The four giant planets of the Solar System: - (*top*) Jupiter and Saturn (gas giants) - (*bottom*) Uranus and Neptune (ice giants) *Shown in order from the Sun and in true color. Sizes are not to scale.* }} A **giant planet**, sometimes referred to as a **jovian planet** (*Jove* being another name for the Roman god Jupiter), is a diverse type of planet much larger than Earth. Giant planets are usually primarily composed of low-boiling point materials (volatiles), rather than rock or other solid matter, but massive solid planets can also exist. There are four such planets in the Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Many extrasolar giant planets have been identified. Giant planets are sometimes known as gas giants, but many astronomers now apply the term only to Jupiter and Saturn, classifying Uranus and Neptune, which have different compositions, as ice giants. Both names are potentially misleading; the Solar System\'s giant planets all consist primarily of fluids above their critical points, where distinct gas and liquid phases do not exist. Jupiter and Saturn are principally made of hydrogen and helium, whilst Uranus and Neptune consist of water, ammonia, and methane. The defining differences between a very low-mass brown dwarf and a massive gas giant (`{{Jupiter mass|~13|link=yes}}`{=mediawiki}) are debated. One school of thought is based on planetary formation; the other, on the physics of the interior of planets. Part of the debate concerns whether brown dwarfs must, by definition, have experienced nuclear fusion at some point in their history.
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# Giant planet ## Terminology The term *gas giant* was coined in 1952 by science fiction writer James Blish and was originally used to refer to all giant planets. Arguably it is something of a misnomer, because throughout most of the volume of these planets the pressure is so high that matter is not in gaseous form. Other than the upper layers of the atmosphere, all matter is likely beyond the critical point, where there is no distinction between liquids and gases. *Fluid planet* would be a more accurate term. Jupiter also has metallic hydrogen near its center, but much of its volume is hydrogen, helium, and traces of other gases above their critical points. The observable atmospheres of all these planets (at less than a unit optical depth) are quite thin compared to their radii, only extending perhaps one percent of the way to the center. Thus, the observable parts are gaseous (in contrast to Mars and Earth, which have gaseous atmospheres through which the crust can be seen). The rather misleading term has caught on because planetary scientists typically use *rock*, *gas*, and *ice* as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly found as planetary constituents, irrespective of the matter\'s phase. In the outer Solar System, hydrogen and helium are referred to as *gas*; water, methane, and ammonia as *ice*; and silicates and metals as *rock*. When deep planetary interiors are considered, it may not be far off to say that, by *ice* astronomers mean oxygen and carbon, by *rock* they mean silicon, and by *gas* they mean hydrogen and helium. The many ways in which Uranus and Neptune differ from Jupiter and Saturn have led some to use the term only for planets similar to the latter two. With this terminology in mind, some astronomers have started referring to Uranus and Neptune as ice giants to indicate the predominance of the *ices* (in fluid form) in their interior composition. The alternative term *jovian planet* refers to the Roman god Jupiter---the genitive form of which is *Jovis*, hence *Jovian*---and was intended to indicate that all of these planets were similar to Jupiter. Objects large enough to start deuterium fusion (above 13 Jupiter masses for solar composition) are called brown dwarfs, and these occupy the mass range between that of large giant planets and the lowest-mass stars. The 13-Jupiter-mass (`{{Jupiter mass}}`{=mediawiki}) cutoff is a rule of thumb rather than something of precise physical significance. Larger objects will burn most of their deuterium and smaller ones will burn only a little, and the `{{jupiter mass|link=yes|13}}`{=mediawiki} value is somewhere in between. The amount of deuterium burnt depends not only on the mass but also on the composition of the planet, especially on the amount of helium and deuterium present. The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 60 Jupiter masses, and the Exoplanet Data Explorer up to 24 Jupiter masses. ## Description A giant planet is a massive planet and has a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. They may have a condensed \"core\" of heavier elements, delivered during the formation process. This core may be partially or completely dissolved and dispersed throughout the hydrogen/helium envelope. In \"traditional\" giant planets such as Jupiter and Saturn (the gas giants) hydrogen and helium make up most of the mass of the planet, whereas they only make up an outer envelope on Uranus and Neptune, which are instead mostly composed of water, ammonia, and methane and therefore increasingly referred to as \"ice giants\". Extrasolar giant planets that orbit very close to their stars are the exoplanets that are easiest to detect. These are called hot Jupiters and hot Neptunes because they have very high surface temperatures. Hot Jupiters were, until the advent of space-borne telescopes, the most common form of exoplanet known, due to the relative ease of detecting them with ground-based instruments. Giant planets are commonly said to lack solid surfaces, but it is more accurate to say that they lack surfaces altogether since the gases that form them simply become thinner and thinner with increasing distance from the planets\' centers, eventually becoming indistinguishable from the interplanetary medium. Therefore, landing on a giant planet may or may not be possible, depending on the size and composition of its core.
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# Giant planet ## Subtypes ### Gas giants {#gas_giants} Gas giants consist mostly of hydrogen and helium. The Solar System\'s gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, have heavier elements making up between 3 and 13 percent of their mass. Gas giants are thought to consist of an outer layer of molecular hydrogen, surrounding a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen, with a probable molten core with a rocky composition. Jupiter and Saturn\'s outermost portion of the hydrogen atmosphere has many layers of visible clouds that are mostly composed of water and ammonia. The layer of metallic hydrogen makes up the bulk of each planet, and is referred to as \"metallic\" because the very high pressure turns hydrogen into an electrical conductor. The core is thought to consist of heavier elements at such high temperatures (20,000 K) and pressures that their properties are poorly understood. ### Ice giants {#ice_giants} Ice giants have distinctly different interior compositions from gas giants. The Solar System\'s ice giants, Uranus and Neptune, have a hydrogen-rich atmosphere that extends from the cloud tops down to about 80% (Uranus) or 85% (Neptune) of their radius. Below this, they are predominantly \"icy\", i.e. consisting mostly of water, methane, and ammonia. There is also some rock and gas, but various proportions of ice--rock--gas could mimic pure ice, so that the exact proportions are unknown. Uranus and Neptune have very hazy atmospheric layers with small amounts of methane, giving them light aquamarine colors. Both have magnetic fields that are sharply inclined to their axes of rotation. Unlike the other giant planets, Uranus has an extreme tilt that causes its seasons to be severely pronounced. The two planets also have other subtle but important differences. Uranus has more hydrogen and helium than Neptune despite being less massive overall. Neptune is therefore denser and has much more internal heat and a more active atmosphere. The Nice model, in fact, suggests that Neptune formed closer to the Sun than Uranus did, and should therefore have more heavy elements. ### Massive solid planets {#massive_solid_planets} Massive solid planets seemingly can also exist, though their formation mechanisms and occurrence remain subjects of ongoing research and debate. The possibility of solid planets up to thousands of Earth masses forming around massive stars (B-type and O-type stars; 5--120 solar masses) has been suggested in some earlier studies. The hypothesis proposed that the protoplanetary disk around such stars would contain enough heavy elements, and that high UV radiation and strong winds could photoevaporate the gas in the disk, leaving just the heavy elements. For comparison, Neptune\'s mass equals 17 Earth masses, Jupiter has 318 Earth masses, and the 13 Jupiter-mass limit used in the IAU\'s working definition of an exoplanet equals approximately 4000 Earth masses. However, it is important to note that more recent research has called into question the likelihood of massive solid planet formation around very massive stars (https://arxiv.org/pdf/1103.0556). Studies have shown that the ratio of protoplanetary disk mass to stellar mass decreases rapidly for stars above 10 solar masses, falling to less than 10\^-4. Furthermore, no protoplanetary disks have been observed around O-type stars to date. The original suggestion of massive solid planets forming around 5-120 solar mass stars, presented in earlier literature, lacks substantial supporting evidence or citations to planetary formation theories. The study in question primarily focused on simulating mass-radius relationships for rocky planets, including hypothetical super-massive solid planets, but did not investigate whether planetary formation theories actually support the existence of such objects. The authors of that study acknowledged that \"Such massive exoplanets are not yet known to exist.\" Given these considerations, the formation and existence of massive solid planets around very massive stars remain speculative and require further research and observational evidence. ### Super-Puffs {#super_puffs} A super-puff is a type of exoplanet with a mass only a few times larger than Earth's but a radius larger than Neptune, giving it a very low mean density. They are cooler and less massive than the inflated low-density hot-Jupiters. The most extreme examples known are the three planets around Kepler-51 which are all Jupiter-sized but with densities below 0.1 g/cm^3^.
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# Giant planet ## Extrasolar giant planets {#extrasolar_giant_planets} `{{See also|Hot Jupiter|Super-Jupiter|Sub-brown dwarf |Brown dwarf}}`{=mediawiki} Because of the limited techniques currently available to detect exoplanets, many of those found to date have been of a size associated, in the Solar System, with giant planets. Because these large planets are inferred to share more in common with Jupiter than with the other giant planets, some have claimed that \"jovian planet\" is a more accurate term for them. Many of the exoplanets are much closer to their parent stars and hence much hotter than the giant planets in the Solar System, making it possible that some of those planets are a type not observed in the Solar System. Considering the relative abundances of the elements in the universe (approximately 98% hydrogen and helium) it would be surprising to find a predominantly rocky planet more massive than Jupiter. On the other hand, models of planetary-system formation have suggested that giant planets would be inhibited from forming as close to their stars as many of the extrasolar giant planets have been observed to orbit. ## Atmospheres The bands seen in the atmosphere of Jupiter are due to counter-circulating streams of material called zones and belts, encircling the planet parallel to its equator. The zones are the lighter bands, and are at higher altitudes in the atmosphere. They have an internal updraft and are high-pressure regions. The belts are the darker bands, are lower in the atmosphere, and have an internal downdraft. They are low-pressure regions. These structures are somewhat analogous to the high and low-pressure cells in Earth\'s atmosphere, but they have a very different structure---latitudinal bands that circle the entire planet, as opposed to small confined cells of pressure. This appears to be a result of the rapid rotation and underlying symmetry of the planet. There are no oceans or landmasses to cause local heating and the rotation speed is much higher than that of Earth. There are smaller structures as well: spots of different sizes and colors. On Jupiter, the most noticeable of these features is the Great Red Spot, which has been present for at least 300 years. These structures are huge storms. Some such spots are thunderheads as well
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# Gesta Danorum ***Gesta Danorum*** (\"Deeds of the Danes\") is a patriotic work of Danish history, by the 12th-century author Saxo Grammaticus (\"Saxo the Literate\", literally \"the Grammarian\"). It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of medieval Denmark and is an essential source for the nation\'s early history. It is also one of the oldest known written documents about the history of Estonia and Latvia. Consisting of sixteen books written in Latin on the invitation of Archbishop Absalon, *Gesta Danorum* describes Danish history and to some degree Scandinavian history in general, from prehistory to the late 12th century. In addition, *Gesta Danorum* offers singular reflections on European affairs in the High Middle Ages from a unique Scandinavian perspective, supplementing what has been handed down by historians from Western and Southern Europe. ## Books The sixteen books, in prose with an occasional excursion into poetry, can be categorized into two parts: Books 1--9, which deal with Norse mythology and semi-legendary Danish history, and Books 10--16, which deal with medieval history. Book 9 ends with Gorm the Old. The last three books (14--16), which describe Danish conquests on the south shore of the Baltic Sea and wars against Slavic peoples (the Northern Crusades), are very valuable for the history of West Slavic tribes (Polabian Slavs, Pomeranians) and Slavic paganism. Book 14 contains a unique description of the temple on the island of Rügen. ### Overview #### Book 1 {#book_1} The first book is mostly Saxo\'s original work, sharing little with other primary works, but taking some inspiration from Ancient Greek epics. It very briefly covers the rule of the eponymous founder of the Danish nation, Dan, but also his brother Angul, his sons Humble and Lother, and Dan\'s grandson, Skiold, whose son, Gram is the first Danish king to be given some detail, his reign revolves around conquering Sweden and Finland, only to die in a battle. Most of the book deals with the adventures of Hading, the son of Gram and Finnish princess, Signe. Here the adventure concerns the loss of Denmark to the Swedes as well as Hading\'s attempts to reclaim it with the help of giants and Odin. The book concludes with Hading\'s suicide after hearing of his friend\'s death. #### Book 2 {#book_2} Book 2 follows adventures of Hading\'s descendants, who perform cunning raids across the Baltic Sea and far as England, while encountering many supernatural events and being forced to solve disputes via single combat. This book includes the stories of kings Helge and Rolf Krake, which are also told in *Hrólfs saga kraka*. #### Book 3 {#book_3} Book 3 begins with the story of a Swedish prince, Hother, in an alternate version of the story of Höðr and the death of the god Baldr (here presented as a false god named Balderus). Hother eventually does become King in Denmark after the deaths of Rolf Krake and his usurper Hiartuar. The second half of the book introduces Amleth, as a grandson of the Danish king Rorik. Amleth\'s father was murdered by his uncle, the governor of Jylland. Amleth pretends to be a fool in fear of his uncle who has married his mother. He is sent to Britain by his uncle to be put to death, but secretly rewrites the death warrant and instead marries the daughter of the king. Then he returns to Denmark and kills his uncle. This story was later told by Shakespeare as *Hamlet*. #### Book 4 {#book_4} After killing his uncle and securing the support of his people in doing so, Amleth returns to Britain. His father-in-law sends him to woo (on the King\'s behalf) the Scottish Queen Hermutrude, who is famous for murdering all her suitors. However, Hermutrude refuses to marry the King and instead marries Amleth, making the King into Amleth\'s enemy. Amleth is killed by the new King of Denmark, Wiglek, who then marries Hermutrude. Many subsequent kings follow. #### Book 5 {#book_5} Book 5 covers the life of just a single king, Frotho III, and focuses on his empire-building and the exploits of his brilliant Norwegian advisor, Erick the Eloquent (later King of Sweden). Ultimately Frotho ends up ruling over Britain, Scandinavia, the Slavs, and the Huns. Other tales from Norse legend are included in this book, within Frotho\'s lifetime, including the story of Hedin and Hogni and the story of Hialmar and Arrow-Odd. Saxo says that it was during Frotho\'s reign that Jesus came to Earth, and there was uninterrupted peace around the world. Frotho is eventually killed by a sorceress in the form of a sea-cow. #### Book 6 {#book_6} Follows the adventurers of the legendary hero, Starkad who is disappointed in the decadent ways of Frothi III\'s descendants. #### Book 7 {#book_7} Is a collection of short and unrelated love stories, many of these ventures feature shieldmaidens. #### Book 8 {#book_8} Covers the famous Battle of Brávellir, between Harald Wartooth and Sigurd Ring. Danish involvement in the Saxon wars against Charlemagne, voyages to Biarmia, and the death of Starkad. #### Book 9 {#book_9} The book deals with Ragnar Lothbrok and his rising empire, he appoints many of his sons to govern parts of his empire all the way from Scotland to Scythia. `{{Kings of Gesta Danorum family tree}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Gesta Danorum ## History ### Chronology When exactly *Gesta Danorum* was written is the subject of numerous works; however, it is generally agreed that *Gesta Danorum* was not finished before 1208. The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King Canute VI of Denmark subduing Pomerania under Duke Bogislaw I, in 1186. However the preface of the work, dedicated to Archbishop Anders Sunesen, mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the Elbe in 1208. Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with Absalon\'s appointment to archbishop in 1178. Since this book is so large and *Absalon* has greater importance than King Valdemar I, this book may have been written first and comprised a work on its own. It is possible that Saxo then enlarged it with Books 15 and 16, telling the story of King Valdemar I\'s last years and King Canute VI\'s first years. It is believed that Saxo then wrote Books 11, 12, and 13. Svend Aagesen\'s history of Denmark, *Brevis Historia Regum Dacie* (circa 1186), states that Saxo had decided to write about \"The king-father and his sons,\" which would be King Sweyn Estridson, in Books 11, 12, and 13. He would later add the first ten books. This would also explain the 22 years between the last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the 1208 event described in the preface. ### Manuscripts The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except for four fragments: the Angers Fragment, Lassen Fragment, Kall-Rasmussen Fragment and Plesner Fragment. The Angers Fragment is the biggest fragment, and the only one attested to be in Saxo\'s own handwriting. The other ones are copies from c. 1275. All four fragments are in the collection of the Danish Royal Library in Copenhagen, Denmark. The text has, however, survived. In 1510--1512, Christiern Pedersen, a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo\'s works, which by that time was nearly all but lost. By that time most knowledge of Saxo\'s work came from a summary located in *Chronica Jutensis*, from around 1342, called *Compendium Saxonis*. It is also in this summary that the name *Gesta Danorum* is found. The title Saxo himself used for his work is unknown. Christiern Pedersen finally found a copy in the collection of Archbishop Birger Gunnersen of Lund, Skåne (Skåne is now part of Sweden, but at the time was still part of Denmark), which he gladly lent him. With the help of printer Jodocus Badius, *Gesta Danorum* was refined and printed. ### Printing The first printed press publication and the oldest known complete text of Saxo\'s works is Christiern Pedersen\'s Latin edition, printed and published by Jodocus Badius in Paris, France, on 15 March 1514 under the title of *Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae* (\"History of the Kings and heroes of the Danes\"). The edition features the following colophon: \...*impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis. MDXIIII. Supputatione Romana.* (the Ides of March, 1514). The full front page reads (with abbreviations expanded) in Latin: > *Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae stilo eleganti a Saxone Grammatico natione Zialandico necnon Roskildensis ecclesiae praeposito, abhinc supra trecentos annos conscriptae et nunc primum literaria serie illustratae tersissimeque impressae.* English language: > *Histories of the Kings and heroes of the Danes, composed in elegant style by Saxo Grammaticus, a Zealander and also provost of the church of Roskilde, over three hundred years ago, and now for the first time illustrated and printed correctly in a learned compilation.* #### Latin versions {#latin_versions} The source of all existing translations and new editions is Christiern Pedersen\'s Latin *Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae*. There exist a number of different translations today, some complete, some partial. - - - - - - - - - #### Danish translations {#danish_translations} - Christiern Pedersen, never published ca. 1540, Lost - Jon Tursons, lost, never published ca. 1555 - - - - - - , 2 volumes #### English translations {#english_translations} - - (Volume 1: English text; volume 2: Commentary by Hilda Ellis Davidson) - - - (Volume 1: Books I-X; Volume 2: Books XI-XVI). #### Other translations {#other_translations} - - - - - \[Full translation on Russian by Andrey Dosaev in two vols.\] - Daniel Palmqvist (2021), *Gesta Danorum, Saxo Grammaticus, En del av Sveriges historia*. \[The first nine of the 16 books translated into Swedish\]. is also translated partially in other English, French and German releases.
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# Gesta Danorum ## Hamlet Certain aspects of *Gesta Danorum* formed the basis for William Shakespeare\'s play *Hamlet*. Saxo\'s version, told of in Books 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare\'s *Hamlet*. In Saxo\'s version, two brothers, Orvendil and Fengi are given the rule over Jutland by King Rørik Slyngebond of the Danes. Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rørik\'s daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in *Hamlet*). Amleth is their first and only child. Fengi becomes resentful of his brother\'s marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil. After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland. Eventually, Amleth avenges his father\'s murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful King of Jutland. However, while Hamlet dies in Shakespeare\'s version just after his uncle\'s death, in Saxo\'s version Amleth survives and begins ruling his kingdom, going on to other adventures
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# Generalization A **generalization** is a form of abstraction whereby common properties of specific instances are formulated as general concepts or claims. Generalizations posit the existence of a domain or set of elements, as well as one or more common characteristics shared by those elements (thus creating a conceptual model). As such, they are the essential basis of all valid deductive inferences (particularly in logic, mathematics and science), where the process of verification is necessary to determine whether a generalization holds true for any given situation. Generalization can also be used to refer to the process of identifying the parts of a whole, as belonging to the whole. The parts, which might be unrelated when left on their own, may be brought together as a group, hence belonging to the whole by establishing a common relation between them. However, the parts cannot be generalized into a whole---until a common relation is established among *all* parts. This does not mean that the parts are unrelated, only that no common relation has been established yet for the generalization. The concept of generalization has broad application in many connected disciplines, and might sometimes have a more specific meaning in a specialized context (e.g. generalization in psychology, generalization in learning). In general, given two related concepts *A* and *B,* *A* is a \"generalization\" of *B* (equiv., *B* is a special case of *A*) if and only if both of the following hold: - Every instance of concept *B* is also an instance of concept *A.* - There are instances of concept *A* which are not instances of concept *B*. For example, the concept *animal* is a generalization of the concept *bird*, since every bird is an animal, but not all animals are birds (dogs, for instance). For more, see Specialisation (biology). ## Hypernym and hyponym {#hypernym_and_hyponym} The connection of *generalization* to *specialization* (or *particularization*) is reflected in the contrasting words hypernym and hyponym. A hypernym as a generic stands for a class or group of equally ranked items, such as the term *tree* which stands for equally ranked items such as *peach* and *oak*, and the term *ship* which stands for equally ranked items such as *cruiser* and *steamer*. In contrast, a hyponym is one of the items included in the generic, such as *peach* and *oak* which are included in *tree*, and *cruiser* and *steamer* which are included in *ship*. A hypernym is superordinate to a hyponym, and a hyponym is subordinate to a hypernym.
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# Generalization ## Examples ### Biological generalization {#biological_generalization} An animal is a generalization of a mammal, a bird, a fish, an amphibian and a reptile. ### Cartographic generalization of geo-spatial data {#cartographic_generalization_of_geo_spatial_data} Generalization has a long history in cartography as an art of creating maps for different scale and purpose. Cartographic generalization is the process of selecting and representing information of a map in a way that adapts to the scale of the display medium of the map. In this way, every map has, to some extent, been generalized to match the criteria of display. This includes small cartographic scale maps, which cannot convey every detail of the real world. As a result, cartographers must decide and then adjust the content within their maps, to create a suitable and useful map that conveys the geospatial information within their representation of the world. Generalization is meant to be context-specific. That is to say, correctly generalized maps are those that emphasize the most important map elements, while still representing the world in the most faithful and recognizable way. The level of detail and importance in what is remaining on the map must outweigh the insignificance of items that were generalized---so as to preserve the distinguishing characteristics of what makes the map useful and important. ### Mathematical generalizations {#mathematical_generalizations} In mathematics, one commonly says that a concept or a result `{{mvar|B}}`{=mediawiki} is a *generalization* of `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} if `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} is defined or proved before `{{mvar|B}}`{=mediawiki} (historically or conceptually) and `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} is a special case of `{{mvar|B}}`{=mediawiki}. - The complex numbers are a generalization of the real numbers, which are a generalization of the rational numbers, which are a generalization of the integers, which are a generalization of the natural numbers. - A polygon is a generalization of a 3-sided triangle, a 4-sided quadrilateral, and so on to *n* sides. - A hypercube is a generalization of a 2-dimensional square, a 3-dimensional cube, and so on to *n* dimensions. - A quadric, such as a hypersphere, ellipsoid, paraboloid, or hyperboloid, is a generalization of a conic section to higher dimensions. - A Taylor series is a generalization of a MacLaurin series. - The binomial formula is a generalization of the formula for $(1+x)^n$. - A ring is a generalization of a field
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# Gia Carangi **Gia Marie Carangi** (January 29, 1960`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}November 18, 1986) was an American supermodel, considered by some to be the first supermodel. In 2023, Harpers Bazaar ranked her 15th among the greatest supermodels in the 1980s. She was featured on the cover of numerous magazines, including multiple editions of *Vogue* and *Cosmopolitan*, and appeared in advertising campaigns for fashion houses including Armani, Dior, Versace and Yves Saint Laurent. After Carangi became addicted to heroin, her career rapidly declined, which ultimately led her to quit modeling in 1983. In 1986, at age 26, she died of AIDS-related complications. Believed to have contracted it from a contaminated needle, she became one of the early notable women to die of the virus. Her life was dramatized in the television film *Gia* (1998), directed by Michael Cristofer and starring Angelina Jolie as Carangi. ## Early life {#early_life} Carangi was born on January 29, 1960, in Philadelphia, the third and youngest child of Joseph Carangi, a restaurant owner, and Kathleen Carangi (*née* Adams), a homemaker. She had three older brothers, one of them was from her father\'s previous marriage and one younger half-brother. Her father was Italian, and her mother was of Irish and Welsh ancestry. Joseph and Kathleen had an unstable, violent marriage, ultimately leading Kathleen to abandon the family when Carangi was eleven years old. Gia was described as \"needy and manipulative\" by relatives who recalled her as spoiled and shy as a child and a \"mommy\'s girl\" who did not receive the motherly attention that she desired. Those who knew Gia blamed her \"fractured childhood\" for the instability and drug dependence that plagued her adult life. Carangi was sexually abused when she was 5 years old, an event which traumatized her. In her adolescent years, Carangi found the attention she sought from other teenage girls, befriending them by sending flowers. While attending Abraham Lincoln High School, Carangi bonded with \"the Bowie kids\", a group of obsessive David Bowie fans who emulated Bowie\'s \"defiantly weird, high-glam\" style. Carangi was drawn to Bowie for his fashion preferences and his ambiguous gender play and outspoken bisexuality. One of Carangi\'s friends later spoke of her \"tomboy persona\", describing her relaxed openness about her sexuality as reminiscent of the character Cay in the film *Desert Hearts* (1985). Carangi and her \"bi-try Bowie-mad\" friends hung out in Philadelphia\'s gay clubs and bars. Though she\'s associated with the lesbian community, she did not want to take up \"the accepted lesbian style.\"
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# Gia Carangi ## Career After being featured in Philadelphia newspaper ads and being discovered by Sondra Scerca in Maurice Tannenbaum\'s hair salon, Carangi moved to New York City at the age of 17, where she signed with Wilhelmina Models. Her first major shoot, published in October 1978, was with top fashion photographer Chris von Wangenheim, who had her pose nude behind a chain-link fence with makeup artist Sandy Linter. Carangi immediately became infatuated with Linter and pursued her, though the relationship never became stable. By the end of 1978, her first year in New York, Carangi was already a well-established model. Of her quick rise to prominence, described by *Vogue* as \"meteoric\", Carangi later said, \"I started working with very good people, I mean all the time, very fast. I didn\'t build into a model, I just sort of became one.\" Carangi was earning half a million dollars in a year at the height of her career. Carangi was a favorite model of various fashion photographers, including Von Wangenheim, Francesco Scavullo, Arthur Elgort, Richard Avedon and Denis Piel. Well-integrated within the fashion world, she had the selection of several photographers, most notably Scavullo. Carangi was featured on the cover of many fashion magazines, including the April 1979 issue of *British Vogue*, the April 1979 and August 1980 issues of *Vogue Paris*, the August 1980 issue of *Vogue*, the February 1981 issue of *Vogue Italia*, and multiple issues of *Cosmopolitan* between 1979 and 1982. During these years, she also appeared in various advertising campaigns for high-profile fashion houses, including Armani, André Laug, Christian Dior, Versace, and Yves Saint Laurent. At the height of her career, Carangi was most known in modeling circles by only her first name. During this time, she also appeared in the Blondie music video for the single \"Atomic\". A regular at Studio 54 and the Mudd Club, Carangi usually used cocaine in clubs. After her agent, mentor and friend Wilhelmina Cooper, died of lung cancer in March 1980, a devastated Carangi began using drugs and developed an addiction to heroin. Carangi\'s addiction soon began to affect her work; she had violent temper tantrums, walked out of photo shoots to buy drugs, and fell asleep in front of the camera. Scavullo recalled a fashion shoot with Carangi in the Caribbean when \"she was crying, she couldn\'t find her drugs. I literally had to lay her down on her bed until she fell asleep.\" During one of her final location shoots for American *Vogue*, Carangi had red bumps in the crooks of her elbows where she had injected heroin. Despite airbrushing, some of the photos, as published in the November 1980 issue, reportedly still showed visible needle marks. In November 1980, Carangi left Wilhelmina Models and signed with Ford Models, but she was dropped within weeks. By then, her career was in a steep decline. Modeling offers soon ceased and her fashion industry friends, including Sandy Linter, refused to speak to her, fearing their association with her would harm their careers. In an attempt to quit using drugs, she moved back to Philadelphia with her mother and stepfather in February 1981. Carangi underwent a 21-day detox program, but her sobriety was short-lived. She was arrested in March 1981 after she drove into a fence in a suburban neighborhood. After a chase with police, she was taken into custody where it was later determined she was under the influence of alcohol and cocaine. After her release, Carangi briefly signed with a new agency, Legends, and worked sporadically, mainly in Europe. In late 1981, although still using drugs, Carangi was determined to make a comeback in the fashion industry and signed with Elite Model Management. While some clients refused to work with her, others were willing to hire her because of her past status as a top model. Scavullo photographed her for the April 1982 cover of *Cosmopolitan*, her last cover appearance for an American magazine. Sean Byrnes, Scavullo\'s long-time assistant, later said, \"What she was doing to herself finally became apparent in her pictures. \... I could see the change in her beauty. There was an emptiness in her eyes.\" Carangi then mainly worked with photographer Albert Watson and found work modeling for department stores and catalogs. She appeared in an advertising campaign for *Versace*, shot by Richard Avedon. He hired her for the fashion house\'s next campaign, but during the photo shoot, in late 1982, Carangi became uncomfortable and left before any usable shots of her were taken. Around this time, Carangi enrolled in an outpatient methadone program but soon began using heroin again. By the end of 1982, she had only a few clients that were willing to hire her. Carangi\'s final photo shoot was for German mail-order clothing company Otto GmbH in Tunisia; she was sent home during the shoot for using heroin. She left New York for the final time in early 1983. ## Death Carangi spent most of her modeling earnings on drugs, and spent the final three years of her life with various lovers, friends, and family members in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Atlantic City, New Jersey. She was admitted to an intense drug treatment program at Eagleville Hospital in December 1984. She was in intense therapy and was able to stay sober for 7 months. After treatment, she got a job in a clothing store, which she eventually quit. She later found employment as a checkout clerk and then worked in the cafeteria of a nursing home. By late 1985, she had begun using drugs again and was engaging in prostitution in Atlantic City. She had cancelled the meetings with her therapist, bought as much heroin as she could, and attempted suicide. In December 1985, Carangi was admitted to Warminster General Hospital in Warminster, Pennsylvania with bilateral pneumonia. A few days later, she was diagnosed with AIDS-related complex. Carangi was hospitalized in October 1986, feeling weak. On October 18, she was admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital in Philadelphia. Carangi died at the Hahnemann Hospital of AIDS-related complications one month later, on November 18, 1986, at the age of 26. Her funeral was held on November 23 at a small funeral home in Philadelphia. No one from the fashion world attended. However, weeks later, fashion photographer Francesco Scavullo, Carangi\'s friend and confidant, sent a Mass card when he learned of her death.
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# Gia Carangi ## Filmography Film ------------- Year 2003 Television Year 2009--2011 Music video Year 1980 ## Legacy Carangi\'s rise to fame as an androgynous brunette in an industry full of blue-eyed blondes is believed to have started heroin chic. Carangi is often considered to be the first supermodel, although that title has been applied to others, including Margaux Hemingway, Audrey Munson, Lisa Fonssagrives, Dorian Leigh, Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Cheryl Tiegs and Janice Dickinson. Model Cindy Crawford, who rose to prominence the year Carangi died, was referred to as \"Baby Gia\" because of her resemblance to Carangi. Crawford later recalled, \"My agents took me to all the photographers who liked Gia: Albert Watson, Francesco Scavullo, Bill King. Everyone loved her look so much that they gladly saw me.\" Additionally, Carangi, whose sexual orientation has been reported as either lesbian or bisexual, is considered a lesbian icon and is said to have \"epitomized lesbian chic more than a decade before the term was coined.\" Argentine model Mica Argañaraz has often been compared to Carangi, whom she considers a beauty icon. Carangi\'s life has been the subject of several works. A biography of Carangi by Stephen Fried titled *Thing of Beauty*---taken from the first line of John Keats\' famous poem *Endymion*---was published in 1993. *Gia*, a biographical film starring Angelina Jolie, debuted on HBO in 1998. Jolie won a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance, among other accolades. A documentary titled *The Self-Destruction of Gia*, released in 2003, showcased footage of Carangi, contemporary interviews with Carangi\'s family and former colleagues, including Sandy Linter, and footage of actress-screenwriter Zoë Lund, herself a heroin addict, who had been commissioned to write a screenplay based upon Carangi\'s life at the time of her own death of drug-related causes in 1999. Carangi is commemorated on the AIDS Memorial Quilt on block #5949, block #3505, and block #4113
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# Gas mask A **gas mask** is a piece of personal protective equipment used to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne pollutants and toxic gases. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. Most gas masks are also respirators, though the word *gas mask* is often used to refer to military equipment (such as a field protective mask), the scope used in this article. Gas masks only protect the user from ingesting or inhaling chemical agents, as well as preventing contact with the user\'s eyes (many chemical agents affect through eye contact). Most combined gas mask filters will last around 8 hours in a biological or chemical situation. Filters against specific chemical agents can last up to 20 hours. Airborne toxic materials may be gaseous (for example, chlorine or mustard gas), or particulates (such as biological agents). Many filters provide protection from both types. The earliest mechanically described gas mask was designed by the Banū Mūsā brothers in ninth-century Baghdad to protect workers descending into polluted wells. Modern gas masks developed during World War I featured circular lenses made of glass, mica or cellulose acetate to allow vision. Glass and mica were quite brittle and needed frequent replacement. The later Triplex lens style (a cellulose acetate lens sandwiched between glass ones) became more popular, and alongside plain cellulose acetate they became the standard into the 1930s. Panoramic lenses were not popular until the 1930s, but there are some examples of those being used even during the war`{{clarify|which war?|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki} (Austro-Hungarian 15M). Later, stronger polycarbonate came into use. Some masks have one or two compact air filter containers screwed onto inlets, while others have a large air filtration container connected to the gas mask via a hose that is sometimes confused with an *air-supplied respirator* in which an alternate supply of fresh air (oxygen tanks) is delivered.
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# Gas mask ## History and development {#history_and_development} ### Early breathing devices {#early_breathing_devices} According to *Popular Mechanics*, \"The common sponge was used in ancient Greece as a gas mask\...\" In 1785, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier invented a respirator. Primitive respirator examples were used by miners and introduced by Alexander von Humboldt in 1799, when he worked as a mining engineer in Prussia. The forerunner to the modern gas mask was invented in 1847 by Lewis P. Haslett, a device that contained elements that allowed breathing through a nose and mouthpiece, inhalation of air through a bulb-shaped filter, and a vent to exhale air back into the atmosphere. *First Facts* states that a \"gas mask resembling the modern type\" was patented by Lewis Phectic Haslett of Louisville, Kentucky, who received a patent on June 12, 1849. U.S. patent #6,529 issued to Haslett, described the first \"Inhaler or Lung Protector\" that filtered dust from the air. Early versions were constructed by the Scottish chemist John Stenhouse in 1854 and the physicist John Tyndall in the 1870s. Another early design was the \"Safety Hood and Smoke Protector\" invented by Garrett Morgan in 1912, and patented in 1914. It was a simple device consisting of a cotton hood with two hoses which hung down to the floor, allowing the wearer to breathe the safer air found there. In addition, moist sponges were inserted at the end of the hoses in order to better filter the air. ### World War I {#world_war_i} The First World War brought about the first need for mass-produced gas masks on both sides because of extensive use of chemical weapons. The German army successfully used poison gas for the first time against Allied troops at the Second Battle of Ypres, Belgium on April 22, 1915. An immediate response was cotton wool wrapped in muslin, issued to the troops by May 1. This was followed by the Black Veil Respirator, invented by John Scott Haldane, which was a cotton pad soaked in an absorbent solution which was secured over the mouth using black cotton veiling. Seeking to improve on the Black Veil respirator, Cluny Macpherson created a mask made of chemical-absorbing fabric which fitted over the entire head: a 50.5 x 48 cm canvas hood treated with chlorine-absorbing chemicals, and fitted with a transparent mica eyepiece. Macpherson presented his idea to the British War Office Anti-Gas Department on May 10, 1915; prototypes were developed soon after. The design was adopted by the British Army and introduced as the British Smoke Hood in June 1915; Macpherson was appointed to the War Office Committee for Protection against Poisonous Gases. More elaborate sorbent compounds were added later to further iterations of his helmet (PH helmet), to defeat other respiratory poison gases used such as phosgene, diphosgene and chloropicrin. In summer and autumn 1915, Edward Harrison, Bertram Lambert and John Sadd developed the Large Box Respirator.`{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=July 2024}}`{=mediawiki} This canister gas mask had a tin can containing the absorbent materials by a hose and began to be issued in February 1916. A compact version, the Small Box Respirator, was made a universal issue from August 1916. In the first gas masks of World War I, it was initially found that wood charcoal was a good absorbent of poison gases. Around 1918, it was found that charcoals made from the shells and seeds of various fruits and nuts such as coconuts, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, and peach stones performed much better than wood charcoal. These waste materials were collected from the public in recycling programs to assist the war effort. The first effective filtering activated charcoal gas mask in the world was invented in 1915 by Russian chemist Nikolay Zelinsky. Also in World War I, since dogs were frequently used on the front lines, a special type of gas mask was developed that dogs were trained to wear. Other gas masks were developed during World War I and the time following for horses in the various mounted units that operated near the front lines. In America, thousands of gas masks were produced for American as well as Allied troops. Mine Safety Appliances was a chief producer. This mask was later used widely in industry. ### World War II {#world_war_ii} `{{anchor|WWII gas mask}}`{=mediawiki} The British Respirator, Anti-Gas (Light) was developed in 1943 by the British. It was made of plastic and rubber-like material that greatly reduced the weight and bulk compared to World War I gas masks, and fitted the user\'s face more snugly and comfortably. The main improvement was replacing the separate filter canister connected with a hose by an easily replaceable filter canister screwed on the side of the gas mask. Also, it had replaceable plastic lenses.
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# Gas mask ## History and development {#history_and_development} ### Modern mask {#modern_mask} Gas mask development since has mirrored the development of chemical agents in warfare, filling the need to protect against ever more deadly threats, biological weapons, and radioactive dust in the nuclear era. However, for agents that cause harm through contact or penetration of the skin, such as blister agent or nerve agent, a gas mask alone is not sufficient protection, and full protective clothing must be worn in addition to protect from contact with the atmosphere. For reasons of civil defence and personal protection, individuals often buy gas masks since they believe that they protect against the harmful effects of an attack with nuclear, biological, or chemical (NBC) agents, which is only partially true, as gas masks protect only against respiratory absorption. Most military gas masks are designed to be capable of protecting against all NBC agents, but they can have filter canisters proof against those agents (heavier) or only against riot control agents and smoke (lighter and often used for training purposes). There are lightweight masks solely for protection against riot-control agents and not for NBC situations. Although thorough training and the availability of gas masks and other protective equipment can nullify the casualty-causing effects of an attack by chemical agents, troops who are forced to operate in full protective gear are less efficient in completing tasks, tire easily, and may be affected psychologically by the threat of attack by those weapons. During the Cold War, it was seen as inevitable that there would be a constant NBC threat on the battlefield and so troops needed protection in which they could remain fully functional; thus, protective gear and especially gas masks have evolved to incorporate innovations in terms of increasing user comfort and compatibility with other equipment (from drinking devices to artificial respiration tubes, to communications systems etc.). During the Iran--Iraq War (1980--88), Iraq developed its chemical weapons program with the help of European countries such as Germany and France and used them in a large scale against Iranians and Iraqi Kurds. Iran was unprepared for chemical warfare. In 1984, Iran received gas masks from the Republic of Korea and East Germany, but the Korean masks were not suited for the faces of non-East Asian people, the filter lasted for only 15 minutes, and the 5,000 masks bought from East Germany proved to be not gas masks but spray-painting goggles. As late as 1986, Iranian diplomats still travelled in Europe to buy active charcoal and models of filters to produce defensive gear domestically. In April 1988, Iran started domestic production of gas masks by the Iran Yasa factories.
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# Gas mask ## Principles of construction {#principles_of_construction} Absorption is the process of being drawn into a (usually larger) body or substrate, and adsorption is the process of deposition upon a surface. This can be used to remove both particulate and gaseous hazards. Although some form of reaction may take place, it is not necessary; the method may work by attractive charges. For example, if the target particles are positively charged, a negatively charged substrate may be used. Examples of substrates include activated carbon, and zeolites. This effect can be very simple and highly effective, for example using a damp cloth to cover the mouth and nose while escaping a fire. While this method can be effective at trapping particulates produced by combustion, it does not filter out harmful gases which may be toxic or which displace the oxygen required for survival. <File:US> Navy gas mask exercise 021015-N-6996M-589.jpg\|US Navy MCU-2/P gas mask system. <File:Gas> mask 501556 fh000007.jpg\|Gas mask used by the French military. The filter cartridge is connected via a flexible hose. <File:Gas> mask greek.jpg\|Greek Infantry with US M17 gas masks ### Safety of old gas masks {#safety_of_old_gas_masks} Gas masks have a useful lifespan limited by the absorbent capacity of the filter. Filters cease to provide protection when saturated with hazardous chemicals, and degrade over time even if sealed. Most gas masks have sealing caps over the air intake and are stored in vacuum-sealed bags to prevent the filter from degrading due to exposure to humidity and pollutants in normal air. Unused gas mask filters from World War II may not protect the wearer at all, and could be harmful if worn due to long-term changes in the chemical composition of the filter. Some World War II and Soviet Cold War gas mask filters contained chrysotile asbestos or crocidolite asbestos. not known to be harmful at the time. It is not reliably known for how long the materials were used in filters. Typically, masks using 40 mm connections are a more recent design. Rubber degrades with time, so boxed unused \"modern type\" masks can be cracked and leak. The US C2 canister (black) contains hexavalent chromium; studies by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps found that the level in the filter was acceptable, but suggest caution when using, as it is a carcinogen. ### Modern filter classification {#modern_filter_classification} The filter is selected according to the toxic compound. Each filter type protects against a particular hazard and is color-coded: EU Class, color US color Hazard ------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- AX, brown black Low-boiling (≤65 °C) organic compounds A, brown High-boiling (\>65 °C) organic compounds B, grey (many) Inorganic gases (hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, hydrogen cyanide) E, yellow white Acidic gases (Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride) K, green green Ammonia and amines CO, black blue Carbon monoxide Hg, red Mercury vapor R(eactor), orange magenta Radioactive particles (iodine and methyl iodide) P, white purple, orange, or teal Particles : Filter types Particle filters are often included, because in many cases the hazardous materials are in the form of mist, which can be captured by the particle filter before entering the chemical adsorber. In Europe and jurisdictions with similar rules such as Russia and Australia, filter types are given suffix numbers to indicate their capacity. For non-particle hazards, the level \"1\" is assumed and a number \"2\" is used to indicate a better level. For particles (P), three levels are always given with the number. In the US, only the particle part is further classified by NIOSH air filtration ratings. A filter type that can protect against multiple hazards is notated with the European symbols concatenated with each other. Examples include ABEK, ABEK-P3, and ABEK-HgP3. A2B2E2K2-P3 is the highest rating of filter available.`{{when|date=April 2020}}`{=mediawiki} An entirely different \"multi/CBRN\" filter class with an olive color is used in the US. Filtration may be aided with an air pump to improve wearer comfort. Filtration of air is only possible if there is sufficient oxygen in the first place. Thus, when handling asphyxiants, or when ventilation is poor or the hazards are unknown, filtration is not possible and air must be supplied (with a SCBA system) from a pressurized bottle as in scuba diving.
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# Gas mask ## Use A modern mask typically is constructed of an elastic polymer in various sizes. It is fitted with various adjustable straps which may be tightened to secure a good fit. Crucially, it is connected to a filter cartridge near the mouth either directly, or via a flexible hose. Some models contain drinking tubes which may be connected to a water bottle. Corrective lens inserts are also available for users who require them. Masks are typically tested for fit before use. After a mask is fitted, it is often tested by various challenge agents. Isoamyl acetate, a synthetic banana flavourant, and camphor are often used as innocuous challenge agents. In the military, teargases such as CN, CS, and stannic chloride in a chamber may be used to give the users confidence in the efficacy of the mask. ## Shortcomings The protection of a gas mask comes with some disadvantages. The wearer of a typical gas mask must exert extra effort to breathe, and some of the exhaled air is re-inhaled due to the dead space between the facepiece and the user\'s face. The exposure to carbon dioxide may exceed its OELs (0.5% by volume/9 grammes per cubic metre for an eight-hour shift; 1.4%/27 grammes per m^3^ for 15 minutes\' exposure) by a factor of many times: for gas masks and elastomeric respirators, up to 2.6%); and in case of long-term use, headache, dermatitis and acne may appear. The UK HSE textbook recommends limiting the use of respirators without air supply (that is, not PAPR) to one hour. ## Reaction and exchange {#reaction_and_exchange} This principle relies on substances harmful to humans being usually more reactive than air. This method of separation will use some form of generally reactive substance (for example an acid) coating or supported by some solid material. An example is synthetic resins. These can be created with different groups of atoms (usually called functional groups) that have different properties. Thus a resin can be tailored to a particular toxic group. When the reactive substance comes in contact with the resin, it will bond to it, removing it from the air stream. It may also exchange with a less harmful substance at this site. Though it was crude, the hypo helmet was a stopgap measure for British troops in the trenches that offered at least some protection during a gas attack. As the months passed and poison gas was used more often, more sophisticated gas masks were developed and introduced. There are two main difficulties with gas mask design: - The user may be exposed to many types of toxic material. Military personnel are especially prone to being exposed to a diverse range of toxic gases. However, if the mask is for a particular use (such as the protection from a specific toxic material in a factory), then the design can be much simpler and the cost lower. - The protection will wear off over time. Filters will clog up, substrates for absorption will fill up, and reactive filters will run out of reactive substances. Thus the user only has protection for a limited time, and then they must either replace the filter device in the mask, or use a new mask. <File:Humboldt> gasmask 1799.jpg\|A primitive respirator was designed by Alexander von Humboldt in 1799 for underground mining <File:Various> gas masks WWI.jpg\|Various gas masks employed on the Western Front and Eastern Front during World War I <File:1930s> gas mask.jpg\|Finnish civilian gas mask from 1939. These masks were distributed during World War II <File:A> mother and baby both in gas-masks during 1941. D3918
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# Goons {{safesubst:#invoke:RfD\|\|2=Gooner\|month = June \|day = 6 \|year = 2025 \|time = 00:23 \|timestamp = 20250606002303 \|content= 1. REDIRECT Goon }} **Gooner**, or **gooning** may refer to: - Participants in gooning (kidnapping) - One who engages in the practice of gooning (sexual practice) - Gooners, Arsenal F.C
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# General anaesthetic **General anaesthetics** (or **anesthetics**) are often defined as compounds that induce a loss of consciousness in humans or loss of righting reflex in animals. Clinical definitions are also extended to include an induced coma that causes lack of awareness to painful stimuli, sufficient to facilitate surgical applications in clinical and veterinary practice. General anaesthetics do not act as analgesics and should also not be confused with sedatives. General anaesthetics are a structurally diverse group of compounds whose mechanisms encompass multiple biological targets involved in the control of neuronal pathways. The precise workings are the subject of some debate and ongoing research. General anesthetics elicit a state of general anesthesia. It remains somewhat controversial regarding how this state should be defined. General anesthetics, however, typically elicit several key reversible effects: immobility, analgesia, amnesia, unconsciousness, and reduced autonomic responsiveness to noxious stimuli. ## Mode of administration {#mode_of_administration} General anaesthetics can be administered either as gases or vapours (inhalational anaesthetics), or as injections (intravenous or even intramuscular). All of these agents share the property of being quite hydrophobic (i.e., as liquids, they are not freely miscible---or mixable---in water, and as gases they dissolve in oils better than in water). It is possible to deliver anaesthesia solely by inhalation or injection, but most commonly the two forms are combined, with an injection given to induce anaesthesia and a gas used to maintain it. ### Inhalation Inhalational anaesthetic substances are either volatile liquids or gases, and are usually delivered using an anaesthesia machine. An anaesthesia machine allows composing a mixture of oxygen, anaesthetics and ambient air, delivering it to the patient and monitoring patient and machine parameters. Liquid anaesthetics are vapourised in the machine. Many compounds have been used for inhalation anaesthesia, but only a few are still in widespread use. Desflurane, isoflurane and sevoflurane are the most widely used volatile anaesthetics today. They are often combined with nitrous oxide. Older, less popular volatile anaesthetics include halothane, enflurane, and methoxyflurane. Researchers are also actively exploring the use of xenon as an anaesthetic. ### Injection Injectable anaesthetics are used for the induction and maintenance of a state of unconsciousness. Anaesthetists prefer to use intravenous injections, as they are faster, generally less painful and more reliable than intramuscular or subcutaneous injections. Among the most widely used drugs are: - Propofol - Etomidate - Barbiturates such as methohexital and thiopentone/thiopental - Benzodiazepines such as midazolam - Ketamine is used in the UK as \"field anaesthesia\", for instance in road traffic incidents or similar situations where an operation must be conducted at the scene or when there is not enough time to move to an operating room, while preferring other anaesthetics where conditions allow their use. It is more frequently used in the operative setting in the US. Benzodiazepines are sedatives and are used in combinations with other general anaesthetics.
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# General anaesthetic ## Mechanism of action {#mechanism_of_action} Induction and maintenance of general anesthesia, and the control of the various physiological side effects is typically achieved through a combinatorial drug approach. Individual general anesthetics vary with respect to their specific physiological and cognitive effects. While general anesthesia induction may be facilitated by one general anesthetic, others may be used in parallel or subsequently to achieve and maintain the desired anesthetic state. The drug approach utilized is dependent upon the procedure and the needs of the healthcare providers. It is postulated that general anaesthetics exert their action by the activation of inhibitory central nervous system (CNS) receptors, and the inactivation of CNS excitatory receptors. The relative roles of different receptors is still under debate, but evidence exists for particular targets being involved with certain anaesthetics and drug effects. Below are several key targets of general anesthetics that likely mediate their effects: ### GABA~A~ receptor agonists {#gabaa_receptor_agonists} - GABA~A~ receptors are chloride channels that hyperpolarize neurons and function as inhibitory CNS receptors. General anesthetics that agonize them are typically used to induce a state of sedation and/or unconsciousness. Such drugs include propofol, etomidate, isoflurane, benzodiazepines (midazolam, lorazepam, diazepam), and barbiturates (sodium thiopental, methohexital). ### NMDA receptor antagonists {#nmda_receptor_antagonists} - Ketamine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, is used primarily for its analgesic effects and in an off-label capacity for its anti-depressant effects. This drug, however, also alters arousal and is often used in parallel with other general anesthetics to help maintain a state of general anesthesia. Administration of ketamine alone leads to a dissociative state, in which a patient may experience auditory and visual hallucinations. Additionally, the perception of pain is dissociated from the perception of noxious stimuli. Ketamine appears to bind preferentially to the NMDA receptors on GABAergic interneurons, which may partially explain its effects. ### Two-pore potassium channels (K~2P~s) activation {#two_pore_potassium_channels_k2ps_activation} - Two-pore potassium channels (K~2P~s) modulate the potassium conductance that contributes to the resting membrane potential in neurons. Opening of these channels therefore facilitates a hyperpolarizing current, which reduces neuronal excitability. K~2P~s have been found to be affected by general anesthetics (esp. halogenated inhalation anesthetics) and are currently under investigation as potential targets. The K~2P~ channel family comprises six subfamilies, which includes 15 unique members. 13 of these channels (excluding TWIK-1 and TWIK-2 homomers) are affected by general anesthetics. While it has not been determined that general anesthetics bind directly to these channels, nor is it clear how these drugs affect K~2P~ conductance, electrophysiological studies have shown that certain general anesthetics result in K~2P~ channel activation. This drug-elicited channel activation has been shown to be dependent upon specific amino-acids within certain K~2P~ channels (i.e. TREK-1 and TASK channels). In the case of TREK-1, activation was shown through an anesthetic perturbation to membrane lipid clusters and activation of phospholipase D2; direct binding of anesthetics to purified reconstituted TREK-1 had no effect on conductance. The effects of certain general anesthetics are less pronounced in K~2P~ knock-out mice, as compared to their wild-type counterparts. Cumulatively, TASK-1, TASK-3, and TREK-1 are particularly well supported as playing a role in the induction of general anesthesia. ### Others - Opioid receptor agonists are primarily utilized for their analgesic effects. These drugs, however, can also elicit sedation. This effect is mediated by opioid actions on both opioid and acetylcholine receptors. While these drugs can lead to decreased arousal, they do not elicit a loss of consciousness. For this reason, they are often used in parallel with other general anesthetics to help maintain a state of general anesthesia. Such drugs include morphine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, and remifentanil. - Administration of the alpha2 adrenergic receptor agonist dexmedetomidine leads to sedation that resembles non-REM sleep. It is used in parallel with other general anesthetics to help maintain a state of general anesthesia, in an off-label capacity. Notably, patients are easily aroused from this non-REM sleep state. - Dopamine receptor antagonists have sedative and antiemetic properties. Previously, they were used in parallel with opioids to elicit neuroleptic anesthesia (catalepsy, analgesia, and unresponsiveness). They are no longer used in the context, because patients experiencing neuroleptic anesthesia were frequently aware of the medical procedures being performed, but could not move or express emotion. Such drugs include haloperidol and droperidol. ## Stages of anesthesia {#stages_of_anesthesia} During administration of an anesthetic, the receiver goes through different stages of behavior ultimately leading to unconsciousness. This process is accelerated with intravenous anesthetics, so much so that it is negligible to consider during their use. The four stages of anesthesia are described using Guedel\'s signs, signifying the depth of anesthesia. These stages describe effects of anesthesia mainly on cognition, muscular activity, and respiration. ### Stage I: Analgesia {#stage_i_analgesia} The receiver of the anesthesia primarily feels analgesia followed by amnesia and a sense of confusion moving into the next stage.
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# General anaesthetic ## Stages of anesthesia {#stages_of_anesthesia} ### Stage II: Excitement {#stage_ii_excitement} Stage II is often characterized by the receiver being delirious and confused, with severe amnesia. Irregularities in the patterns of respiration are common at this stage of anesthesia. Nausea and vomiting are also indicators of Stage II anesthesia. Struggling and panic can sometimes occur as a result of delirium. ### Stage III: Surgical Anesthesia {#stage_iii_surgical_anesthesia} Normal breathing resumes at the beginnings of Stage III. Nearing the end of the stage, breathing ceases completely. Indicators for stage III anesthesia include loss of the eyelash reflex as well as regular breathing. Depth of stage III anesthesia can often be gauged by eye movement and pupil size. ### Stage IV: Medullary Depression {#stage_iv_medullary_depression} No respiration occurs in stage IV. This is shortly followed by circulatory failure and depression of the vasomotor centers. Death is common at this stage of anesthesia if no breathing and circulatory support is available.
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# General anaesthetic ## Physiological side effects {#physiological_side_effects} Aside from the clinically advantageous effects of general anesthetics, there are a number of other physiological consequences mediated by this class of drug. Notably, a reduction in blood pressure can be facilitated by a variety of mechanisms, including reduced cardiac contractility and dilation of the vasculature. This drop in blood pressure may activate a reflexive increase in heart rate, due to a baroreceptor-mediated feedback mechanism. Some anesthetics, however, disrupt this reflex. Patients under general anesthesia are at greater risk of developing hypothermia, as the aforementioned vasodilation increases the heat lost via peripheral blood flow. By and large, these drugs reduce the internal body temperature threshold at which autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms are triggered in response to cold. (On the other hand, the threshold at which thermoregulatory mechanisms are triggered in response to heat is typically increased.) Anesthetics typically affect respiration. Inhalational anesthetics elicit bronchodilation, an increase in respiratory rate, and reduced tidal volume. The net effect is decreased respiration, which must be managed by healthcare providers, while the patient is under general anesthesia. The reflexes that function to alleviate airway obstructions are also dampened (e.g. gag and cough). Compounded with a reduction in lower esophageal sphincter tone, which increases the frequency of regurgitation, patients are especially prone to asphyxiation while under general anesthesia. Healthcare providers closely monitor individuals under general anesthesia and utilize a number of devices, such as an endotracheal tube, to ensure patient safety. General anesthetics also affect the chemoreceptor trigger zone and brainstem vomiting center, eliciting nausea and vomiting following treatment. ## Pharmacokinetics ### Intravenous general anesthetics {#intravenous_general_anesthetics} #### Induction Intravenously delivered general anesthetics are typically small and highly lipophilic molecules. These characteristics facilitate their rapid preferential distribution into the brain and spinal cord, which are both highly vascularized and lipophilic. It is here where the actions of these drugs lead to general anesthesia induction. #### Elimination Following distribution into the central nervous system (CNS), the anesthetic drug then diffuses out of the CNS into the muscles and viscera, followed by adipose tissues. In patients given a single injection of drug, this redistribution results in termination of general anesthesia. Therefore, following administration of a single anesthetic bolus, duration of drug effect is dependent solely upon the redistribution kinetics. The half-life of an anesthetic drug following a prolonged infusion, however, depends upon both drug redistribution kinetics, drug metabolism in the liver, and existing drug concentration in fat. When large quantities of an anesthetic drug have already been dissolved in the body\'s fat stores, this can slow its redistribution out of the brain and spinal cord, prolonging its CNS effects. For this reason, the half-lives of these infused drugs are said to be context-dependent. Generally, prolonged anesthetic drug infusions result in longer drug half-lives, slowed elimination from the brain and spinal cord, and delayed termination of general anesthesia.
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# General anaesthetic ## Pharmacokinetics ### Inhalational general anesthetics {#inhalational_general_anesthetics} Minimal alveolar concentration (MAC) is the concentration of an inhalational anesthetic in the lungs that prevents 50% of patients from responding to surgical incision. This value is used to compare the potencies of various inhalational general anesthetics and impacts the partial-pressure of the drug utilized by healthcare providers during general anesthesia induction and/or maintenance. #### Induction {#induction_1} Induction of anesthesia is facilitated by diffusion of an inhaled anesthetic drug into the brain and spinal cord. Diffusion throughout the body proceeds until the drug\'s partial pressure within the various tissues is equivalent to the partial pressure of the drug within the lungs. Healthcare providers can control the rate of anesthesia induction and final tissue concentrations of the anesthetic by varying the partial pressure of the inspired anesthetic. A higher drug partial pressure in the lungs will drive diffusion more rapidly throughout the body and yield a higher maximum tissue concentration. Respiratory rate and inspiratory volume will also affect the promptness of anesthesia onset, as will the extent of pulmonary blood flow. The partition coefficient of a gaseous drug is indicative of its relative solubility in various tissues. This metric is the relative drug concentration between two tissues, when their partial pressures are equal (gas:blood, fat:blood, etc.). Inhalational anesthetics vary widely with respect to their tissue solubilities and partition coefficients. Anesthetics that are highly soluble require many molecules of drug to raise the partial pressure within a given tissue, as opposed to minimally soluble anesthetics which require relatively few. Generally, inhalational anesthetics that are minimally soluble reach equilibrium more quickly. Inhalational anesthetics that have a high fat:blood partition coefficient, however, reach equilibrium more slowly, due to the minimal vascularization of fat tissue, which serves as a large, slowly-filling reservoir for the drug. #### Elimination {#elimination_1} Inhaled anesthetics are eliminated via expiration, following diffusion into the lungs. This process is dependent largely upon the anesthetic blood:gas partition coefficient, tissue solubility, blood flow to the lungs, and patient respiratory rate and inspiratory volume. For gases that have minimal tissue solubility, termination of anesthesia generally occurs as rapidly as the onset of anesthesia. For gases that have high tissue solubility, however, termination of anesthesia is generally context-dependent. As with intravenous anesthetic infusions, prolonged delivery of highly soluble anesthetic gases generally results in longer drug half-lives, slowed elimination from the brain and spinal cord, and delayed termination of anesthesia. Metabolism of inhaled anesthetics is generally not a major route of drug elimination. ## History ### Ethanol While most research focuses on the intoxicating effects of ethanol, it can also produce a general anesthesia. Since antiquity, prior to the development of modern agents, alcohol was used as a general anaesthetic
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# Gerard Hengeveld **Gerard Hengeveld** (December 7, 1910, in Kampen -- October 28, 2001, in Bergen, North Holland) was a Dutch classical pianist, music composer and educationalist. He is especially known for his compositions of study material for piano. Other compositions include two piano concertos, a violin sonata, and a sonata for cello. Hengeveld was an able interpreter and performer of the music of Bach for piano and harpsichord. He gave regular concerts in the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam. Some of his concerts were captured on record. Hengeveld was a professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Amongst his students was Dutch pianist and musicologist Frans Bouwman. Hengeveld died in 2001 at the age of 90, in Bergen. His closest living relative is Nicholas Hengeveld of Allentown, Pennsylvania
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# George William, Elector of Brandenburg **George William** (*Georg Wilhelm*; 13 November 1595 -- 1 December 1640), of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was Margrave and Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia from 1619 until his death. His reign was marked by ineffective governance during the Thirty Years\' War. He was the father of Frederick William, the \"Great Elector\". ## Biography Born in Cölln on the Spree (today part of Berlin), George William was the son of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg and Anna of Prussia. His maternal grandfather was Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia. In 1616, he married Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. Their only son Frederick William would later be known as the \"Great Elector\". Of his two daughters, the eldest, Louise Charlotte, married Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland, and the younger, Hedwig Sophie, married William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. In 1619, George William inherited the Margravate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia, then a vassal of the Polish--Lithuanian Commonwealth, although his ownership was not confirmed by Sigismund III Vasa until September 1621. He proved a weak and ineffective ruler in a very difficult period of history; possession of Prussia involved him in the 1621 to 1625 Polish--Swedish War, since Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was married to his sister Maria Eleonora. During the Thirty Years\' War, the Calvinist George William tried to remain neutral in the contest between the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II, and his mostly Lutheran opponents. When the war shifted to northern Germany in 1625, this did not protect his lands from being looted by Imperial troops, and he was forced to take sides when Gustavus intervened in the Empire in 1630. However, this simply replaced one set of plunderers with another; Gustavus could not support so large an army, and his unpaid and unfed troops became increasingly mutinous and ill-disciplined. After Gustavus was killed at Lützen in November 1632, George William joined the Swedish-backed Heilbronn League, until defeat at Nördlingen on 6 September 1634. Following the 1635 Peace of Prague, the League was dissolved, although by now Brandenburg\'s population had been decimated by the war. Leaving his Catholic and pro-Imperial chief minister Schwarzenberg to run the government, George William withdrew in 1637 to the relatively untouched region of Prussia, where he lived in retirement until his death at Königsberg in 1640. He was succeeded by his far more accomplished son Frederick William
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# Great Rift Valley The **Great Rift Valley** (*Bonde la ufa*) is a series of contiguous geographic depressions, approximately 6,000 or 7000 km in total length, the definition varying between sources, that runs from the southern Turkish Hatay Province in Asia, through the Red Sea, to Mozambique in Southeast Africa. While the name remains in some usages, it is rarely used in geology where the term \"**Afro-Arabian Rift System**\" is preferred. This valley extends southward from Western Asia into the eastern part of Africa, where several deep, elongated lakes, called ribbon lakes, exist on the rift valley floor, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika being two such examples. The region has a unique ecosystem and contains a number of Africa\'s wildlife parks. The term Great Rift Valley is most often used to refer to the valley of the East African Rift, the divergent plate boundary which extends from the Afar triple junction southward through eastern Africa, and is in the process of splitting the African plate into two new and separate plates. Geologists generally refer to these evolving plates as the Nubian plate and the Somali plate. ## Theoretical extent {#theoretical_extent} Today these rifts and faults are seen as distinct, although connected. Originally, the Great Rift Valley was thought to be a single feature that extended from Lebanon`{{dubious |See talk-page: no, starting at the Marash triple junction in Hatay! |date= December 2024}}`{=mediawiki} in the north to Mozambique in the south, where it constitutes one of two distinct physiographic provinces of the East African mountains. It included what today is called the Lebanese section`{{dubious |Same problem as previous dubious tag. |date= December 2024}}`{=mediawiki} of the Dead Sea Transform (Turkey to Straits of Tiran`{{dubious |Turkey to Sinai ain't Lebanon. |date= December 2024}}`{=mediawiki}), the Jordan Rift Valley (geographic term for section including entire course of the Jordan River, the Dead Sea, and the Arabah Valley), Red Sea Rift, and the East African Rift. These rifts and faults are considered to having been formed 35 million years ago. ## Asia The northernmost part of the Rift corresponds to the central`{{dubious |Same problem as previous dubious tags. |date= December 2024}}`{=mediawiki} section of what is today called the Dead Sea Transform (DST) or Rift. This midsection of the DST forms the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon, separating the Mount Lebanon range from the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Further south it is known as the Hula Valley separating the Galilee mountains and the Golan Heights.`{{failed verification|date=September 2024}}`{=mediawiki}`{{clarify|Pls go to talk-page.|date=September 2024}}`{=mediawiki} The Jordan River begins here and flows southward through Lake Hula into the Sea of Galilee in Israel. The Rift then continues south through the Jordan Rift Valley into the Dead Sea, on the Israeli-Jordanian border. From the Dead Sea southwards, the Rift is occupied by the Wadi Arabah, then the Gulf of Aqaba, and then the Red Sea. Off the southern tip of Sinai in the Red Sea, the Dead Sea Transform meets the Red Sea Rift which runs the length of the Red Sea. The Red Sea Rift comes ashore to meet the East African Rift and the Aden Ridge, in the Afar Depression of East Africa. The junction of these three rifts is called the Afar triple junction.
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# Great Rift Valley ## Africa The East African Rift follows the Red Sea to the end before turning inland into the Ethiopian highlands, dividing the country into two large and adjacent but separate mountainous regions. In Kenya, Uganda, and the fringes of South Sudan, the Great Rift runs along two separate branches that are joined to each other only at their southern end, in Southern Tanzania along its border with Zambia. The two branches are called the Western Rift Valley and the Eastern Rift Valley. The Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift, is bordered by some of the highest mountains in Africa, including the Virunga Mountains, Mitumba Mountains, and Ruwenzori Range. It contains the Rift Valley lakes, which include some of the deepest lakes in the world (up to 1470 m deep at Lake Tanganyika). Much of this area lies within the boundaries of national parks, such as Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwenzori National Park and Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda, and Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda. Lake Victoria is considered to be part of the rift valley system although it actually lies between the two branches. All of the African Great Lakes were formed as the result of the rift, and most lie in territories within the rift. In Kenya, the valley is deepest to the north of Nairobi. As the lakes in the Eastern Rift have no output to the sea and tend to be shallow, they have a high mineral content as the evaporation of water leaves the salts behind. For example, Lake Magadi has high concentrations of soda (sodium carbonate) and Lake Elmenteita, Lake Bogoria, and Lake Nakuru are all strongly alkaline, while the freshwater springs supplying Lake Naivasha are essential to support its current biological variety. The southern section of the Rift Valley includes Lake Malawi, the third-deepest freshwater body in the world, which reaches 706 m in depth and separates the Nyassa plateau of Northern Mozambique from Malawi. The rift extends southwards from Lake Malawi as the valley of the Shire River, which flows from the lake into the Zambezi River. The rift continues south of the Zambezi as the Urema Valley of central Mozambique
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# Gustav Radbruch **Gustav Radbruch** (`{{IPA|de|ˈʁaːtbʁʊx|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 21 November 1878 -- 23 November 1949) was a German legal scholar and politician. He served as Minister of Justice of Germany during the early Weimar period. Radbruch is also regarded as one of the most influential legal philosophers of the 20th century. ## Life Born in Lübeck, Radbruch studied law in Munich, Leipzig and Berlin. He passed his first bar exam (\"Staatsexamen\") in Berlin in 1901, and the following year he received his doctorate with a dissertation on \"The Theory of Adequate Causation\". This was followed in 1903 by his qualification to teach criminal law in Heidelberg. In 1904, he was appointed Professor of criminal and trial law and legal philosophy at Heidelberg. In 1914 he accepted a call to a professorship in Königsberg, and later that year assumed a professorship at Kiel. Radbruch was a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), and held a seat in the Reichstag from 1920 to 1924. In 1921--22 and throughout 1923, he was minister of justice in the cabinets of Joseph Wirth and Gustav Stresemann. During his time in office, a number of important laws were implemented, such as those giving women access to the justice system, and, after the assassination of Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau, the Law for the Protection of the Republic, which increased the punishments for politically motivated acts of violence and banned organizations that opposed the \"constitutional republican form of government\" along with their printed matter and meetings. In 1926, Radbruch accepted a renewed call to lecture at Heidelberg where he delivered his inaugural lecture entitled \"*Der Mensch im Recht* (Law\'s Image of the Human)\" as the newly appointed Professor of Criminal Law on 13 November 1926. After the Nazi seizure of power in January 1933, Radbruch, as a former Social Democratic politician, was dismissed from his university post under the terms of the so-called \"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service\" (\"Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums\", as universities, similar to public bodies, were subject to civil service laws and regulations. Despite the employment ban in Nazi Germany, during 1935/36 he was able to spend a year in England, at University College, Oxford. An important practical outcome of this was his book, *Der Geist des englischen Rechts* (The Spirit of English Law), although this could be published only in 1945. During the Nazi period, he devoted himself primarily to cultural-historical work. Immediately after the end of the Second World War in 1945, he resumed his teaching activities, but died in Heidelberg in 1949 without being able to complete his planned updated edition of his textbook on legal philosophy. In September 1945, Radbruch published a short paper \"Fünf Minuten Rechtsphilosophie\" (Five Minutes of Legal Philosophy), which was influential in shaping the jurisprudence of values (*Wertungsjurisprudenz*), prevalent in the aftermath of World War II as a reaction against legal positivism.
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# Gustav Radbruch ## Work Radbruch\'s legal philosophy derived from neo-Kantianism, which assumes that a categorical cleavage exists between \"is\" (*sein*) and \"ought\" (*sollen*). According to this view, \"should\" can never be derived from \"Being.\" Indicative of the Heidelberg school of neo-Kantianism to which Radbruch subscribed was that it interpolated the value-related cultural studies between the explanatory sciences (being) and philosophical teachings of values (should). In relation to the law, this triadism shows itself in the subfields of legal sociology, legal philosophy and legal dogma. Legal dogma assumes a place in between. It posits itself in opposition to positive law, as the latter depicts itself in social reality and methodologically in the objective \"should-have\" sense of law, which reveals itself through value-related interpretation. The core of Radbruch\'s legal philosophy consists of his tenets the concept of law and the idea of law. The idea of law is defined through a triad of justice, utility and certainty. Radbruch thereby had the idea of utility or usefulness spring forth from an analysis of the idea of justice. Upon this notion was based the Radbruch formula, which is still vigorously debated today. The concept of law, for Radbruch, is \"nothing other than the given fact, which has the sense to serve the idea of law.\" Hotly disputed is the question whether Radbruch was a legal positivist before 1933 and executed an about-face in his thinking due to the advent of Nazism, or whether he continued to develop, under the impression of Nazi crimes, the relativistic values-teaching he had already been advocating before 1933. The problem of the controversy between the spirit and the letter of the law, in Germany, has been brought back to public attention due to the trials of former East German soldiers who guarded the Berlin Wall---the so-called necessity of following orders. Radbruch\'s theories are posited against the positivist \"pure legal tenets\" represented by Hans Kelsen and, to some extent, also from Georg Jellinek. In sum, Radbruch\'s formula argues that where statutory law is incompatible with the requirements of justice \"to an intolerable degree\", or where statutory law was obviously designed in a way that deliberately negates \"the equality that is the core of all justice\", statutory law must be disregarded by a judge in favour of the justice principle. Since its first publication in 1946 the principle has been accepted by Germany\'s Federal Constitutional Court in a variety of cases. Many people partially blame the older German legal tradition of legal positivism for the ease with which Hitler obtained power in an outwardly \"legal\" manner, rather than by means of a coup. Arguably, the shift to a concept of natural law ought to act as a safeguard against dictatorship, an untrammeled State power and the abrogation of civil rights
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# Gate A **gate** or **gateway** is a point of entry to or from a space enclosed by walls. The word is derived from Proto-Germanic *\*gatan*, meaning an opening or passageway. Synonyms include yett (which comes from the same root word) and portal. The concept originally referred to the gap or hole in the wall or fence, rather than a barrier which closed it. Gates may prevent or control the entry or exit of individuals, or they may be merely decorative. The moving part or parts of a gateway may be considered \"doors\", as they are fixed at one side whilst opening and closing like one. A gate may have a latch that can be raised and lowered to both open a gate or prevent it from swinging. Gate operation can be either automated or manual. Locks are also used on gates to increase security. Larger gates can be used for a whole building, such as a castle or fortified town. Doors can also be considered gates when they are used to block entry as prevalent within a gatehouse. ## Purpose-specific types of gate {#purpose_specific_types_of_gate} - Baby gate: a safety gate to protect babies and toddlers - Badger gate: gate to allow badgers to pass through rabbit-proof fencing - City gate of a walled city - Hampshire gate (a.k.a. New Zealand gate, wire gate, etc.) - Kissing gate on a footpath - Lychgate with a roof - Mon *Japanese:* gate. The religious torii compares to the Chinese pailou (paifang), Indian torana, Indonesian Paduraksa and Korean hongsalmun. *Mon* are widespread in Japanese gardens. - Portcullis of a castle - Race gate used for checkpoints on race tracks - Slip gate on footpaths - Turnstile - Watergate of a castle by navigable water - Slalom skiing gates - Wicket gate
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# Gate ## Image gallery {#image_gallery} <File:Shankharacharya,Gate,Birgunj.jpg%7CShankharacharya,Gate>,Birgunj, is main entry Point of Nepal from India <File:Gate> ajar.jpg\|This gate and massive gateposts has no locks---a gate marks a borderline in ownership/use and can allow passage. <File:Garden> Gate.JPG\|A small, elegant gate to a meadow path <File:Pergamonmuseum> Babylon Ischtar-Tor.jpg\|Ishtar Gate is the oldest city gate in existence <File:Wringin> Lawang, Trowulan.jpg\|Wringin Lawang, a 14th-century Majapahit split gate, called *\"Candi bentar\"*, in Trowulan, Java, Indonesia <File:Ubud> temple entrance.jpg\|Richly decorated Indonesian Balinese temple gate called Paduraksa <File:Mahmoud> Ahmadinejad at Columbia 8 by David Shankbone.jpg\|This gate at Columbia University was closed to prevent entry of protesters <File:Finlayson> gate1.jpg\|The gate of Finlayson factory in Tampere, Finland <File:Kansai> University,1923.jpg\|A gate at Kansai University, built in 1923 <File:MalKingsPalaceGate.jpg%7CMalaysian> King\'s Palace Gate, Kuala Lampur <File:Ohrid> Upper Gate close-up.jpg\|Medieval ironclad city gate, from the Upper Gate in the old town of Ohrid <File:Chinese> type gate from kerala.jpg\|Chinese traditional type gate (iron gate in front of house) in Kerala, India <File:MuscatRoadGate.jpg%7CGates> decorate routes in the entrance of Muscat, Oman <File:Kuwaitgate.jpg%7CKuwait> Gate, historically surrounded Kuwait City, built in 1929 <File:Royal> Military College of Canada front gates.jpg\|Royal Military College of Canada front gates and gatehouse <File:Ernst> Rudolph By the Entrance.jpg\|Ernst Rudolph, *By the Entrance* <File:Nivala.vaakuna.svg%7CA> wooden gate pictured in the coat of arms of Nivala <File:Royal> Mint Melbourne.jpg\|Decorative emblems of state are also fixed on gates to public buildings, old Royal Melbourne Mint <File:Shri> Swaminarayan Mandir gate.jpg\|Gate of Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Bhavnagar, India <File:Dr>. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University gate on the eve of Namvistar Din celebrations.png\|Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University gate on the eve of Namvistar Din celebrations reflects Ajanata art <File:Michael's> Gate and tower-Bratislava-Slovakia.JPG\|Michael\'s Gate in Bratislava, Slovakia <File:St> Louis Gateway Arch.jpg\|St. Louis Gateway Arch <File:Shunfeng> Park Paifang (night).jpg\|A Chinese Paifang at Foshan, China <File:Warszawa>, ul. Krakowskie Przedmieście 26-28 20170516 001.jpg\|Warsaw University main gate, Poland <File:Gate> of Farm Gunsteling in Namibia (2017).jpg\|Gate of Farm *Gunsteling* in Namibia (2017) <File:Ancient> gate of Suandok temple , Chiangmai , Thailand.jpg\|Thai Temple (wat) gate at Wat Suan Dok, Chiang Mai <File:Ariyalai> Mahamari Amman Kovil (அரியாலை மகாமாரி அம்மன் கோவில்).jpg\|A gopuram, Hindu temple gate tower, in Sri Lanka <File:Eiheiji35nt3200.jpg%7CA> Japanese temple gate (mon) at Eiheiji <File:Puerta> Torre de los siete suelos Alhambra Granada Spain.jpg\|A Moorish architecture gate in Alhambra, Granada, Spain <File:Gate> of the Thai Embassy in Paris.jpg\|A French-manner gate of the embassy of Thailand in Paris <File:Embassy> of South Korea in Moscow, gates.jpg\|Adapted-Korean-manner gate of the embassy of South Korea in Moscow <File:Iron> Gates-Osgoode Hall National Historic Site of Canada-Toronto-Ontario-HPC4258-20221201.jpg\|The Iron Gates of Osgoode Hall, Toronto File: Waterson k51p sample4-2.jpg\|Beachside gate with a self-latching device and a higher than 54" release mechanism
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# George Abbot (author) **George Abbot** or **Abbott** (1604 -- 2 February 1649) was an English lay writer, known as \"The Puritan\", and a politician who sat in the House of Commons in two periods between 1640 and 1649. He is known also for his part in defending Caldecote House against royalist forces in the early days of the English Civil War. ## Life Abbott was the son of George Abbott of York (died 1607) and his wife Joan Penkeston. While *Alumni Cantabrigienses* states that he matriculated at King\'s College, Cambridge in 1622, the *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* discounts the identification, for lack of evidence. He owned property in Baddesley Clinton, Warwickshire, and was a good friend of Richard Vines, minister at Caldecote some way to the east. In April 1640, he was elected as a member of parliament (MP) for Tamworth in the Short Parliament. In the English Civil War, Abbot worked closely in Warwickshire with his stepfather William Purefoy, and made a notable defence, with his mother Joan, of the Purefoy house at Caldecote, Warwickshire, gaining the family coverage in the London press. On 15 August 1642, with eight men, his mother and maids, he held out for a time against Prince Rupert of the Rhine, with about 18 troops of horses and dragoons. In the aftermath of the Battle of Edgehill, in October of the same year, Richard Baxter moved to Coventry, and Abbot was one of those hearing him preach there. Baxter in writing on the Sabbath referred to \"my dear friend Mr. George Abbot\". In his memoirs *Reliquiæ Baxterianæ*, Baxter placed Abbot\'s defence of Caldecote House, where barns were burnt, in local context: royalists under Spencer Compton, 2nd Earl of Northampton were attacking Warwick Castle, defended by John Bridges, and Coventry, defended by John Barker. Abbot was re-elected MP for Tamworth in 1645 for the Long Parliament and held the seat until his death in 1649. He died unmarried in his 44th year, and was buried in Caldecote church where his monument describes his defence of Caldecote. ## Legacy By his will, Abbot endowed a free school at Caldecote. It was supported by land left to it at Baddesley Ensor. ## Works Abbot was a lay theologian and scholar. His *Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to understand* (1640), was written in a terse style, and his *Vindiciae Sabbathi* (1641) influenced the Sabbatarian controversy. His *The Whole Book of Psalms Paraphrased* (1650) was published posthumously by Richard Vines, and dedicated to Joan Purefoy, his mother. ## Mistaken identifications {#mistaken_identifications} Abbot has been confused with others of the same name and has been described as a clergyman, which he never was. His writings have been incorrectly attributed in some bibliographical authorities to a relation of George Abbot the archbishop of Canterbury. One of the sons of Sir Morris Abbot called George was also an MP in the Long Parliament but for the constituency of Guildford
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# GnuCash **GnuCash** is an accounting program that implements a double-entry bookkeeping system. It was initially aimed at developing capabilities similar to Intuit, Inc.\'s Quicken application, but also has features for small business accounting. Recent development has been focused on adapting to modern desktop support-library requirements. GnuCash is part of the GNU Project, and runs on Linux, GNU, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, Solaris, macOS, and other Unix-like platforms. A Microsoft Windows (2000 or newer) port was made available starting with the 2.2.0 series. GnuCash includes scripting support via Scheme, mostly used for creating custom reports. ## History Programming on GnuCash began in 1997, and its first stable release was in 1998. Small Business Accounting was added in 2001. A Mac installer became available in 2004. A Windows port was released in 2007. ## GnuCash for Android and GnuCash Mobile {#gnucash_for_android_and_gnucash_mobile} GnuCash for Android was initially developed as part of a Google Summer of Code Project. This was an expense-tracking companion app for GnuCash, as opposed to a stand-alone accounting package, and is now discontinued. Currently, there are more than 100,000 downloads on the Play Store. In 2022 a companion version dubbed GnuCash Mobile is also available on the App Store and Play Store and unlike previous iterations was released under the MIT License. GnuCash Mobile is developed using Flutter. Beyond mentoring the original GnuCash for Android developer and providing some publicity there was no connection between Gnucash for Android and the GnuCash project, nor is there any for the current so-called GnuCash Mobile app. ## Backwards compatibility issues {#backwards_compatibility_issues} GnuCash maintains the ability to read older data files between major releases, as long as major releases are not skipped. If a user wishes to access historical data saved in old GnuCash files, they must install intermediate versions of GnuCash. For example, upgrading from 2.2 to 4.1 may not be possible; the user should upgrade from 2.2.9 to 2.4.15, then to 2.6.21, then 3.11, then 4.1. The other alternative is for users to export transactions files to a CSV format prior to upgrading GnuCash. Exporting of the account tree must be done as a separate step. ## Features - Double-entry bookkeeping - Scheduled Transactions - Mortgage and Loan Repayment Assistant - Small Business Accounting Features - OFX, QIF Import, CSV Import - HBCI Support - Transaction-Import Matching Support - SQL Support - VAT/GST tracking and reporting - Multi-Currency Transaction Handling - Stock/Mutual Fund Portfolios - Online Stock and Mutual Fund Quotes - Built-in and custom reports and charts - Budget - Bank and Credit Card reconciliation - Check printing ### Small business accounting features {#small_business_accounting_features} - Invoicing and Credit Notes (Credit note functionality was added with version 2.6) - Accounts Receivable (A/R) - Accounts Payable (A/P) including bills due reminders - Employee expense voucher - Limited Payroll Management through the use of A/Receivable and A/Payable accounts. - Depreciation - Mapping to income tax schedules and TXF export for import into tax prep software (US) - Setting up tax tables and applying sales tax on invoices ## Technical design {#technical_design} GnuCash is written primarily in C, with a small fraction in Scheme. One of the available features is pure fixed-point arithmetic to avoid rounding errors which would arise with floating-point arithmetic. This feature was introduced with version 1.6. ## Users Users on the GnuCash mailing list have reported using it for the United States 501(c)(3) non-profit organizations successfully. However, the reports need to be exported and edited. In April 2011, the Minnesota State Bar Association made their GnuCash trust accounting guide freely available in PDF format.
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# GnuCash ## Download statistics {#download_statistics} As of July 2018, SourceForge shows a count of over 6.3 million downloads of the stable releases starting from November 1999 Also, SourceForge shows that current downloads are running at \~7,000 per week. This does not include other software download sites as well as Linux distributions that provide download from their own repositories. ## Project status {#project_status} Open Hub\'s analysis based on commits up to May 2018 (noninclusive) concluded that the project has a mature, well-established code base with increasing year-over-year development activity. Moreover, \"Over the past twelve months, 51 developers contributed new code to GnuCash. This is one of the largest open-source teams in the world, and is in the top 2% of all project teams on Open Hub
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# George Robert Aberigh-Mackay **George Robert Aberigh-Mackay** (25 July 1848`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}12 January 1881) was a British educationalist and writer resident in India during his short adult life. ## Biography George Robert Aberigh-Mackay was the son of the Reverend James Aberigh-Mackay D.D., B.D. and his first wife Lucretia Livingston née Reed. He was educated privately in Scotland, and then at Magdalen College School, Oxford and St Catharine\'s College, Cambridge. Entering the Indian education department in the North-Western Provinces in 1870, he became professor of English literature in Delhi College in 1873, tutor to the Raja of Rutlam in 1876, and principal of the Rajkumar College at Indore in 1877. He was appointed fellow of Calcutta University in 1880. He wrote a number of educational works, and extensive manuals giving first-hand data about the princely states and their rulers. He also wrote, mainly for *The Pioneer* newspaper, but also for other English and Indian papers, including letters in the Bombay Gazette under the nom de plume \"The Political Orphan\". He is best known for his book *Twenty-one Days in India* (1878--1879), a satire upon Anglo-Indian society and modes of thought. This book gave promise of a successful literary career, but the author died at the age of thirty-three. On 8 January 1881 he developed symptoms of tetanus after playing polo and tennis on the previous 2 days, and died on 12 January 1881 in Indore. ## Family George Robert Aberigh-Mackay married Mary Ann Louisa Cherry on 13 October 1873 at Simla, Bengal, India; their children were: 1. Mary Livingston (*Miss Patty*) Aberigh-Mackay (1874--1952) 2. Frances Lilian Aberigh-Mackay (1875--?) 3. Beatrice Georgiana Aberigh-Mackay (1878--1948) 4. Katharine Madeline Aberigh-Mackay (1879--1945) married 1st Montague Tharp 2nd James Herbert Everett Evans
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# Gulf of Oman The **Gulf of Oman** or **Sea of Oman** (*خليج عمان* *khalīj ʿumān*; *دریای عمان* *daryâ-ye omân*), also known as **Gulf of Makran** or **Sea of Makran** (*خلیج مکران* *khalīj makrān*; *دریای مکران* *daryâ-ye makrān*), is a gulf in the Indian Ocean that connects the Arabian Sea with the Strait of Hormuz, which then runs to the Persian Gulf. It borders Iran and Pakistan on the north, Oman on the south, and the United Arab Emirates on the west. ## Extent The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Gulf of Oman as follows: ## Exclusive economic zone {#exclusive_economic_zone} Exclusive economic zones in Gulf of Oman: Number Country Area (Km^2^) -------- --------------------------- -------------- 1 **`{{OMA}}`{=mediawiki}** 108,779 2 **`{{IRI}}`{=mediawiki}** 65,850 3 **`{{UAE}}`{=mediawiki}** 4,371 4 **`{{PAK}}`{=mediawiki}** 2,000 Total **Gulf of Oman** **181,000** ## Bordering countries {#bordering_countries} Coastline length of bordering countries: 1. \- 850 km coastline 2. \- 750 km coastline 3. \- 50 km coastline 4. \- 50 km coastline ## Alternative names {#alternative_names} Further information: Makran, Makran Trench, Makran Division, Makran (princely state), History of Oman#Late 19th and early 20th centuries The Gulf of Oman historically and geographically has been referred to by different names by Arabian, Iranian, Indian, Pakistani, and European geographers and travelers, including Makran Sea and Akhzar Sea. 1. Makran Sea 2. Akhzar Sea 3. Persian Sea (consists of the whole of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman) Until the 18th century, it was known as Makran Sea and is also visible on historical maps and museums. ## Major ports {#major_ports} - Port of Fujairah, Fujairah, United Arab Emirates - Khor Fakkan Container Terminal, Khor Fakkan, United Arab Emirates - Port of Chabahar, Chabahar, Iran - Port Sultan Qaboos, Muttrah, Oman ## International trade {#international_trade} The Western side of the gulf connects to the Strait of Hormuz, a strategic route through which a third of the world\'s liquefied natural gas and 20% of global oil consumption passes from Middle East producers. ## Ecology In 2018, scientists confirmed the Gulf of Oman contains one of the world\'s largest marine dead zones, where the ocean contains little or no oxygen and marine wildlife cannot exist. The dead zone encompasses nearly the entire 63700 sqmi Gulf of Oman and equivalent to the size of Florida, United States of America. The cause is a combination of increased ocean warming and increased runoff of nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizers. ## International underwater rail tunnel {#international_underwater_rail_tunnel} In 2018, a rail tunnel under the sea was suggested to link the UAE with the western coast of India. The bullet train tunnel would be supported by pontoons and be nearly 2000 km in length. ## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture} In the *Battlefield* video game series, the Gulf of Oman is a map used in *Battlefield 2*, *Battlefield 3*, *Battlefield Play4Free* and *Battlefield 4* with the United States Marines Corps (USMC) invading the shore of Oman with the fictional Middle Eastern Coalition (MEC) defending it in Battlefield 2, and with Russian Ground Forces defending it in Play4Free, Battlefield 3 and Battlefield 4
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# Grammatical conjugation `{{Grammatical categories}}`{=mediawiki} In linguistics, **conjugation** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ɒ|n|dʒ|ᵿ|ˈ|ɡ|eɪ|ʃ|ən}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|con|juug|AY|shən}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn|{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/conjugation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182042/https://www.lexico.com/definition/conjugation |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-03-22 |title=conjugation |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} }}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|access-date=2016-01-26|conjugation}}}}`{=mediawiki}) is the creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection (alteration of form according to rules of grammar). For instance, the verb *break* can be conjugated to form the words *break*, *breaks*, and *broke*. While English has a relatively simple conjugation, other languages such as French and Arabic or Spanish are more complex, with each verb having dozens of conjugated forms. Some languages such as Georgian and Basque (some verbs only) have highly complex conjugation systems with hundreds of possible conjugations for every verb. Verbs may inflect for grammatical categories such as person, number, gender, case, tense, aspect, mood, voice, possession, definiteness, politeness, causativity, clusivity, interrogatives, transitivity, valency, polarity, telicity, volition, mirativity, evidentiality, animacy, associativity, pluractionality, and reciprocity. Verbs may also be affected by agreement, polypersonal agreement, incorporation, noun class, noun classifiers, and verb classifiers. Agglutinative and polysynthetic languages tend to have the most complex conjugations, although some fusional languages such as Archi can also have extremely complex conjugation. Typically the principal parts are the root and/or several modifications of it (stems). All the different forms of the same verb constitute a lexeme, and the canonical form of the verb that is conventionally used to represent that lexeme (as seen in dictionary entries) is called a lemma. The term conjugation is applied only to the inflection of verbs, and not of other parts of speech (inflection of nouns and adjectives is known as declension). Also it is generally restricted to denoting the formation of finite forms of a verb -- these may be referred to as *conjugated forms*, as opposed to non-finite forms, such as an infinitive, gerund, or participle which respectively comprise their own grammatical categories. *Conjugation* is also the traditional term for a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language (a *verb class*). For example, Latin is said to have four conjugations of verbs. This means that any regular Latin verb can be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood, and voice by knowing which of the four conjugation groups it belongs to, and its principal parts. A verb that does not follow all of the standard conjugation patterns of the language is said to be an irregular verb. The system of all conjugated variants of a particular verb or class of verbs is called a **verb paradigm**; this may be presented in the form of a **conjugation table**.
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# Grammatical conjugation ## Verbal agreement {#verbal_agreement} **Verbal agreement**, or **concord**, is a morpho-syntactic construct in which properties of the subject and/or objects of a verb are indicated by the verb form. Verbs are then said to agree with their subjects (resp. objects). Many English verbs exhibit subject agreement of the following sort: whereas *I go*, *you go*, *we go*, *they go* are all grammatical in standard English, *he go* is not (except in the subjunctive, as \"They requested that *he go* with them\"). Instead, a special form of the verb *to go* has to be used to produce *he goes*. On the other hand *I goes*, *you goes* etc. are not grammatical in standard English. (Things are different in some English dialects that lack agreement.) A few English verbs have no special forms that indicate subject agreement (*I may*, *you may*, *he may*), and the verb *to be* has an additional form *am* that can only be used with the pronoun *I* as the subject. Verbs in written French exhibit more intensive agreement morphology than English verbs: *je suis* (I am), *tu es* (\"you are\", singular informal), *elle est* (she is), *nous sommes* (we are), *vous êtes* (\"you are\", plural), *ils sont* (they are). Historically, English used to have a similar verbal paradigm. Some historic verb forms are used by Shakespeare as slightly archaic or more formal variants (*I do*, *thou dost*, *he doth*) of the modern forms. Some languages with verbal agreement can leave certain subjects implicit when the subject is fully determined by the verb form. In Spanish, for instance, subject pronouns do not need to be explicitly present, but in French, its close relative, they are obligatory. The Spanish equivalent to the French *je suis* (I am) can be simply *soy* (lit. \"am\"). The pronoun *yo* (I) in the explicit form *yo soy* is used only for emphasis or to clear ambiguity in complex texts. Some languages have a richer agreement system in which verbs agree also with some or all of their objects. Ubykh exhibits verbal agreement for the subject, direct object, indirect object, benefaction and ablative objects (*a.w3.s.xe.n.t\'u.n*, *you gave it to him for me*). Basque can show agreement not only for subject, direct object and indirect object but it also can exhibit agreement for the listener as the implicit benefactor: *autoa ekarri digute* means \"they brought us the car\" (neuter agreement for the listener), but *autoa ekarri ziguten* means \"they brought us the car\" (agreement for feminine singular listener). Languages with a rich agreement morphology facilitate relatively free word order without leading to increased ambiguity. The canonical word order in Basque is subject--object--verb, but all permutations of subject, verb and object are permitted. ### Nonverbal person agreement {#nonverbal_person_agreement} In some languages, predicative adjectives and copular complements receive a form of person agreement that is distinct from that used on ordinary predicative verbs. Although that is a form of conjugation in that it refers back to the person of the subject, it is not \"verbal\" because it always derives from pronouns that have become clitic to the nouns to which they refer. An example of nonverbal person agreement, along with contrasting verbal conjugation, can be found from Beja (person agreement affixes in bold): - , "you (fem.) are big" - , "you (masc.) are a sheik" - , "he flees" Another example can be found from Ket: - , "I am a Tungus" - , "I am standing" In Turkic, and a few Uralic and Australian Aboriginal languages, predicative adjectives and copular complements take affixes that are identical to those used on predicative verbs, but their negation is different. For example, in Turkish: - "you are running" - "you are a sergeant" Under negation, that becomes (negative affixes in bold): - "you are not running" - "you are not a sergeant" Therefore, the person agreement affixes used with predicative adjectives and nominals in Turkic languages are considered to be nonverbal in character. In some analyses, they are viewed as a form of verbal takeover by a copular strategy. ## Factors that affect conjugation {#factors_that_affect_conjugation} These common grammatical categories affect how verbs can be conjugated: - Finite verb forms: - Grammatical person - Grammatical number - Grammatical gender - Grammatical tense - Grammatical aspect - Grammatical mood - Grammatical voice - Non-finite verb forms. Here are other factors that may affect conjugation: - Degree of formality (see T--V distinction, Honorific speech in Japanese, Korean speech levels) - Clusivity (of personal pronouns) - Transitivity - Valency
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# Grammatical conjugation ## Examples Indo-European languages usually inflect verbs for several grammatical categories in complex paradigms, although some, like English, have simplified verb conjugation to a large extent. Below is the conjugation of the verb *to be* in the present tense (of the infinitive, if it exists, and indicative moods), in English, German, Yiddish, Dutch, Afrikaans, Icelandic, Faroese, Swedish, Norwegian, Latvian, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Polish, Slovenian, Macedonian, Urdu or Hindi, Bengali, Persian, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Albanian, Armenian, Irish, Ukrainian, Ancient Attic Greek and Modern Greek. This is usually the most irregular verb. The similarities in corresponding verb forms may be noticed. Some of the conjugations may be disused, like the English *thou*-form, or have additional meanings, like the English *you*-form, which can also stand for second person singular or be impersonal. +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Branch | Language | Present\ | Present indicative | | | | infinitive | | +==================+================================+=======================================================================================+====================+ | Singular persons | | | Plural persons | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Germanic | Proto-Germanic | | \*immi | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Anglo-Saxon | | eom | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | English | | am | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | German | | bin | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Yiddish\ | \ | בין\ | | | *transliterated* | `{{transliteration|yi|zayn}}`{=mediawiki} | *bin* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Luxembourgish | | sinn | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Dutch | | ben | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Afrikaans | | is | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Old Norse | \ | em | | | | `{{wikt-lang|non|vera}}`{=mediawiki} | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Icelandic | | er | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Faroese | | eri | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Norwegian | ^3^ (Bokmål)\ | er | | | | `{{wikt-lang|no|vera}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{wikt-lang|no|vere}}`{=mediawiki}^4^ (Nynorsk) | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Danish | | er | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Swedish | | är | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Italic | Latin | esse | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Italian | | sono | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | French | | suis | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Catalan | \ | sóc | | | | `{{wikt-lang|ca|ser}}`{=mediawiki} | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Lombard | | *(a)* son | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Venetian | | son | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Spanish | | soy | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Galician | | son | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Portuguese | | sou | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Sardinian (LSC) | | so | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Friulian | | soi | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Neapolitan | | songo, so | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Romanian | a `{{wikt-lang|ro|fi}}`{=mediawiki} | sunt | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Celtic | Irish | bheith | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Welsh (standard form) | | rydw | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Breton | | on | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Greek | Ancient^6^\ | \ | \ | | | *transliterated* | *eînai* | *eimí* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Modern\ | όντας^7^\ | είμαι\ | | | *transliterated* | *óntas* | *eímai* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Albanian | | *me qenë* | jam | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Armenian | Western\ | \ | \ | | | *transliterated* | ĕllal | *em* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Eastern\ | \ | \ | | | *transliterated* | *linel* | *em* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Slavic | Czech | | jsem | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Slovak | | som | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Polish | | jestem | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Russian\ | \ | есть\ | | | *transliterated* | *byt*\' | *yest*\' | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Ukrainian\ | \ | є\ | | | *transliterated* | *buty* | *ye* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Serbo-Croatian*strong* | biti | jesam | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Serbo-Croatian*clitic* | *none* | sam | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Slovenian | biti | sem | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Bulgarian\ | *none* | \ | | | *transliterated* | | *săm* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Macedonian\ | *none* | \ | | | *transliterated* | | *sum* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Baltic | Latvian | | esmu | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Lithuanian | | esu | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Indo-Iranian | Persian*\ | \ | \ | | | transliterated* | *budan* | *æm* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Sanskrit\ | \ | अस्मि\ | | | *transliterated* | *`{{Transliteration|sa|asti}}`{=mediawiki}* | *asmi* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Hindustani\ | \ | हूँ\ | | | *Devanagari Script*\ | *ہونا}}*\ | *ہوں}}*\ | | | *Perso-Arabic Script*\ | `{{Transliteration|hi|honā}}`{=mediawiki} | *hūm̥* | | | *transliterated* *(ISO 15819)* | | | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Marathi\ | \ | आहे\ | | | *transliterated (ISO 15819)* | `{{Transliteration|mr|asṇe}}`{=mediawiki} | *āhe* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Gujarati\ | \ | છું\ | | | *transliterated (ISO 15819)* | `{{Transliteration|gu|hovũ}}`{=mediawiki} | *chũ* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Bengali\ | \ | হই\ | | | *transliterated (ISO 15819)* | `{{Transliteration|bn|hôoā}}`{=mediawiki} | *hoi* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | | Assamese\ | \ | হওঁ\ | | | *transliterated (ISO 15819)* | `{{Transliteration|as|hüa}}`{=mediawiki} | *hoü̃* | +------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ : \|\"To be\" in several Indo-European languages : ^1^ Archaic, poetical; used only with the pronoun \'thou\'. : ^2^ In Flemish dialects. : ^3^ In the bokmål written standard. : ^4^ In the nynorsk written standard. *vera* and *vere* are both alternate forms. : ^5^ Archaic : ^6^ Attic. : ^7^ \'eínai\' is only used as a noun (\"being, existence\"). : ^8^ Ptc: `{{wikt-lang|sq|qenë}}`{=mediawiki}. : ^9^ In the Tosk and Geg dialects, respectively. : ^10^ Existential: هست (hæst) has another meaning. Usage of (*æ*) is considered to be colloquial, now. See, Indo-European copula : ^11^ With the Singular they 3rd person pronoun. : ^12^ Bengali verbs are further conjugated according to formality. There are three verb forms for 2nd person pronouns: হও (*hôo*, familiar), হোস (*hoś*, very familiar) and হন (*hôn*, polite). Also two forms for 3rd person pronouns: হয় (*hôy*, familiar) and হন (*hôn*, polite). Plural verb forms are exact same as singular. : ^13^ Valencian. : ^14^ Western varieties only.
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# Grammatical conjugation ## Conjugation classes {#conjugation_classes} ### Pama-Nyungan languages {#pama_nyungan_languages} One common feature of Pama--Nyungan languages, the largest family of Australian Aboriginal languages, is the notion of conjugation classes, which are a set of groups into which each lexical verb falls. They determine how a verb is conjugated for Tense--aspect--mood. The classes can but do not universally correspond to the transitivity or valency of the verb in question. Generally, of the two to six conjugation classes in a Pama-Nyungan language, two classes are open with a large membership and allow for new coinages, and the remainder are closed and of limited membership. #### Wati In Wati languages, verbs generally fall into four classes: - **l** class - **∅** class - **n** class - **ng** class They are labelled by using common morphological components of verb endings in each respective class in infinitival forms. In the Wanman language these each correspond to ***la*, *ya*, *rra*,** and ***wa*** verbs respectively. Class Past Present Future Imperative Past Continuous Habitual --------- ------------- --------------- ------------ ------------ ----------------- ------------ **LA** -rna -npa/-rni -nku -la -rninya la *waka-rna* *waka-rni* *waka-nku* *waka-la* *waka-rninya* *waka-la* speared is spearing will spear spear it! used to spear spears **YA** -nya -manyi -ku -∅/-ya -minya -∅/-ya *wanti-nya* *wanti-manyi* *wanti-ku* *wanti-ya* *wanti-minya* *wanti-ya* stayed is staying will stay stay! used to stay stays **RRA** -na -npa -nku -rra -ninya -rra *ya-na* *ya-npa* *ya-nku* *ya-rra* *ya-ninya* *ya-rra* went is going will go go! used to go goes **WA** -nya -nganyi -ngku -wa -nganyinya -wa *pi-nya* *pi-nganyi* *pi-ngku* *pi-wa* *pi-nganyinya* *pi-wa* hit is hitting will hit hit it! used to hit hits : Example Verb Conjugations in Warnman See also a similar table of verb classes and conjugations in Pitjantjatjara, a Wati language wherein the correlating verb classes are presented below also by their imperative verbal endings **-la, -∅, -ra** and **-wa** respectively Class Past Present Future Imperative Past Continuous Habitual -------- ------------ ------------- ------------ -------------- ----------------- -------------- **LA** -nu -ni -lku -la -ningi -lpai *kati-nu* *kati-ni* *kati-leu* *kati-la* *kati-ningi* *kati-lpai* took is taking will take take it! used to take takes **∅** -ngu -nyi -ku -∅ -ngi -pai *tawa-ngu* *tawa-nyi* *tawa-ku* *tawa-**∅*** *tawa-ngi* *tawa-pai* dug is digging will dig dig! used to dig digs **RA** -nu -nangi -nkuku -ra -nangi -nkupai *a-nu* *a-nangi* *a-nkuku* a-ra *a-nangi* *a-nkupai* went is going will go go! used to go goes **WA** -ngu -nganyi -nguku -wa -ngangi -ngkupai *pu-ngu* *pu-nganyi* *pu-nguku* *pu-wa* *pu-ngangi* *pu-ngkupai* hit is hitting will hit hit it! used to hit hits : Example Verb Conjugations in Pitjantjatjara #### Ngayarta Ngarla, a member of the Ngayarda sub-family of languages has a binary conjugation system labelled: - **l** class - **∅** class In the case of Ngarla, there is a notably strong correlation between conjugation class and transitivity, with transitive/ditransitive verbs falling in the **l**-class and intransitive/semi-transitive verbs in the **∅-**class. Class Present Remote Past Past Past Continuous Habitual Future Speculative Purposive Optative Present Contrafactual Past Contrafactual Anticipatory ------- ------------- -------------------- ------------- ----------------- --------------- ----------- -------------------- ------------------ --------------- ----------------------- -------------------- ------------------ **L** -rri -rnta -rnu -yinyu -yirnta -n -mpi -lu -nmara -rrima -nmarnta -rnamarta *jaa-rri* *jaa-rnta* *jaa-rnu* *jaa-yinyu* *jaa-yirnta* *jaa-n* *jaa-mpi* *jaa-lu* *jaa-nmara* *jaa-rrima* *jaa-nmarnta* *jaa-rnmarta* is chopping chopped (long ago) chopped used to chop chops will chop could have chopped in order to chop ought to chop were *x* chopping had *x* chopped should *x* chop **∅** -yan -rnta -nyu -yanu -yanta -Ø -mpi -kura -mara -yanma -marnta -nyamarta *warni-yan* *warni-rnta* *warni-nyu* *warni-yanu* *warni-yanta* *warni-Ø* *warni-rnpi* *warni-kura* *warni-mara* *warni-yanma* *warni-marnta* *warni-nyamarta* is falling fell (long ago) fell used to fall falls will fall could have fallen in order to fall ought to fall were *x* falling had *x* fallen should *x* fall : Example Verb Conjugations in Ngarla These classes even extend to how verbs are nominalized as instruments with the **l-**class verb including the addition of an */l/* before the nominalizing suffix and the blank class remaining blank: **l-class example:** **∅-class example** #### Yidiny Yidiny has a ternary verb class system with two open classes and one closed class (\~20 members)
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# Gegenschein **Gegenschein** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|eɪ|ɡ|ən|ˌ|ʃ|aɪ|n}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{IPA|de|ˈɡeːɡn̩ˌʃaɪn|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{literal translation|counter-shine}}`{=mediawiki}) or **counterglow** is a faintly bright spot in the night sky centered at the antisolar point. The backscatter of sunlight by interplanetary dust causes this optical phenomenon, being a zodiacal light and part of its zodiacal light band. ## Explanation Like zodiacal light, gegenschein is sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust. Most of this dust orbits the Sun near the ecliptic plane, with a possible concentration of particles centered at the `{{L2}}`{=mediawiki} point of the Earth--Sun system. Gegenschein is distinguished from zodiacal light by its high angle of reflection of the incident sunlight on the dust particles. It forms a slightly brighter elliptical spot of 8--10° across directly opposite the Sun within the dimmer band of zodiacal light and zodiac constellation. The intensity of the gegenschein is relatively enhanced because each dust particle is seen at full phase, having a difficult to measure apparent magnitude of +5 to +6, with a very low surface brightness in the +10 to +12 magnitude range. ## History It is commonly stated that the gegenschein was first described by the French Jesuit astronomer and professor `{{Interlanguage link multi|Esprit Pézenas|fr}}`{=mediawiki} (1692--1776) in 1730. Further observations were supposedly made by the German explorer Alexander von Humboldt during his South American journey from 1799 to 1803. It was Humboldt who first used the German term *Gegenschein*. However, research conducted in 2021 by Texas State University astronomer and professor Donald Olson discovered that the Danish astronomer Theodor Brorsen was actually the first person to observe and describe one in 1854, although Brorsen had thought that Pézenas had observed it first. Olson believes what Pézenas actually observed was an auroral event, as he described the phenomenon as having a red glow; Olson found many other reports of auroral activity from around Europe and Asia on the same date Pézenas made his observation. Humboldt\'s report instead described glowing triangular patches on both the western and eastern horizons shortly after sunset, while true gegenschein is most visible near local midnight when it is highest in the sky. Brorsen published the first thorough investigations of the gegenschein in 1854. T. W. Backhouse discovered it independently in 1876, as did Edward Emerson Barnard in 1882. In modern times, the gegenschein is not visible in most inhabited regions of the world due to light pollution
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# Gauss–Legendre algorithm The **Gauss--Legendre algorithm** is an algorithm to compute the digits of `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki}. It is notable for being rapidly convergent, with only 25 iterations producing 45 million correct digits of `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki}. However, it has some drawbacks (for example, it is computer memory-intensive) and therefore all record-breaking calculations for many years have used other methods, almost always the Chudnovsky algorithm. For details, see Chronology of computation of `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki}. The method is based on the individual work of Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777--1855) and Adrien-Marie Legendre (1752--1833) combined with modern algorithms for multiplication and square roots. It repeatedly replaces two numbers by their arithmetic and geometric mean, in order to approximate their arithmetic-geometric mean. The version presented below is also known as the **Gauss--Euler**, **Brent--Salamin** (or **Salamin--Brent**) **algorithm**; it was independently discovered in 1975 by Richard Brent and Eugene Salamin. It was used to compute the first 206,158,430,000 decimal digits of `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki} on September 18 to 20, 1999, and the results were checked with Borwein\'s algorithm. ## Algorithm 1. Initial value setting: $a_0 = 1\qquad b_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\qquad p_0 = 1\qquad t_0 = \frac{1}{4}.$ 2. Repeat the following instructions until the difference between $a_{n+1}$ and $b_{n+1}$ is within the desired accuracy: \\begin{align} a\_{n+1} & = \\frac{a_n + b_n}{2}, \\\\ `                     \\` b\_{n+1} & = \\sqrt{a_n b_n}, \\\\ `                     \\` p\_{n+1} & = 2p_n, \\\\ `                     \\` t\_{n+1} & = t_n - p_n(a\_{n+1}-a\_{n})\^2. \\\\ `       \end{align}` 1. is then approximated as: $\pi \approx \frac{(a_{n+1}+b_{n+1})^2}{4t_{n+1}}.$ The first three iterations give (approximations given up to and including the first incorrect digit): $$3.140\dots$$ $$3.14159264\dots$$ $$3.1415926535897932382\dots$$ $$3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419711\dots$$ $$3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197169399375105820974944592307816406286208998625\dots$$ The algorithm has quadratic convergence, which essentially means that the number of correct digits doubles with each iteration of the algorithm. ## Mathematical background {#mathematical_background} ### Limits of the arithmetic--geometric mean {#limits_of_the_arithmeticgeometric_mean} The arithmetic--geometric mean of two numbers, a~0~ and b~0~, is found by calculating the limit of the sequences $$\begin{align} a_{n+1} & = \frac{a_n+b_n}{2}, \\[6pt] b_{n+1} & = \sqrt{a_n b_n}, \end{align}$$ which both converge to the same limit.\ If $a_0=1$ and $b_0=\cos\varphi$ then the limit is ${\pi \over 2K(\sin\varphi)}$ where $K(k)$ is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind $$K(k) = \int_0^{\pi/2} \frac{d\theta}{\sqrt{1-k^2 \sin^2\theta}}.$$ If $c_0 = \sin\varphi$, $c_{i+1} = a_i - a_{i+1}$, then $$\sum_{i=0}^\infty 2^{i-1} c_i^2 = 1 - {E(\sin\varphi)\over K(\sin\varphi)}$$ where $E(k)$ is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind: $$E(k) = \int_0^{\pi/2}\sqrt {1-k^2 \sin^2\theta}\; d\theta$$ Gauss knew of these two results. ### Legendre's identity {#legendres_identity} Legendre proved the following identity: : $K(\cos \theta) E(\sin \theta ) + K(\sin \theta ) E(\cos \theta) - K(\cos \theta) K(\sin \theta) = {\pi \over 2},$ for all $\theta$. ### Elementary proof with integral calculus {#elementary_proof_with_integral_calculus} The Gauss-Legendre algorithm can be proven to give results converging to $\pi$ using only integral calculus. This is done here and here
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# Georgian architecture **Georgian architecture** is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is named after the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover, George I, George II, George III, and George IV, who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The Georgian cities of the British Isles were Edinburgh, Bath, pre-independence Dublin, and London, and to a lesser extent York and Bristol. The style was revived in the late 19th century in the United States as Colonial Revival architecture and in the early 20th century in Great Britain as **Neo-Georgian architecture**; in both it is also called **Georgian Revival architecture**. In the United States, the term *Georgian* is generally used to describe all buildings from the period, regardless of style; in Britain it is generally restricted to buildings that are \"architectural in intention\", and have stylistic characteristics that are typical of the period, though that covers a wide range. The Georgian style is highly variable, but marked by symmetry and proportion based on the classical architecture of Greece and Rome, as revived in Renaissance architecture. Ornament is also normally in the classical tradition, but typically restrained, and sometimes almost completely absent on the exterior. The period brought the vocabulary of classical architecture to smaller and more modest buildings than had been the case before, replacing English vernacular architecture (or becoming the new vernacular style) for almost all new middle-class homes and public buildings by the end of the period. Georgian architecture is characterized by its proportion and balance; simple mathematical ratios were used to determine the height of a window in relation to its width or the shape of a room as a double cube. Regularity, as with ashlar (uniformly cut) stonework, was strongly approved, imbuing symmetry and adherence to classical rules: the lack of symmetry, where Georgian additions were added to earlier structures remaining visible, was deeply felt as a flaw, at least before John Nash began to introduce it in a variety of styles. Regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. Until the start of the Gothic Revival in the early 19th century, Georgian designs usually lay within the Classical orders of architecture and employed a decorative vocabulary derived from ancient Rome or Greece.
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# Georgian architecture ## Characteristics In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, and rows of identical terraced houses became the norm. Even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house. There was an enormous amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world, and the standards of construction were generally high. Where they have not been demolished, large numbers of Georgian buildings have survived two centuries or more, and they still form large parts of the core of cities such as London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Newcastle upon Tyne and Bristol. The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession; before the mid-century \"the high-sounding title, \'architect\' was adopted by anyone who could get away with it\". This contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. But most buildings were still designed by builders and landlords together, and the wide spread of Georgian architecture, and the Georgian styles of design more generally, came from dissemination through pattern books and inexpensive suites of engravings. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny (active 1723--1755) had editions in America as well as Britain. A similar phenomenon can be seen in the commonality of housing designs in Canada and the United States (though of a wider variety of styles) from the 19th century through the 1950s, using pattern books drawn up by professional architects that were distributed by lumber companies and hardware stores to contractors and homebuilders. From the mid-18th century, Georgian styles were assimilated into an architectural vernacular that became part and parcel of the training of every architect, designer, builder, carpenter, mason and plasterer, from Edinburgh to Maryland.
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# Georgian architecture ## Styles Georgian succeeded the English Baroque of Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh, Thomas Archer, William Talman, and Nicholas Hawksmoor with a transition running into the 1720s, overlapping with the more restrained Georgian style. The architect James Gibbs was a transitional figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century, but he adjusted his style after 1720. Major architects to promote the change in direction from Baroque were Colen Campbell, author of the influential book *Vitruvius Britannicus* (1715--1725); Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington and his protégé William Kent; Isaac Ware; Henry Flitcroft and the Venetian Giacomo Leoni, who spent most of his career in England. Other prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the Elder. The European Grand Tour became very common for wealthy patrons in the period, and Italian influence remained dominant, though at the start of the period Hanover Square, Westminster (1713 on), developed and occupied by Whig supporters of the new dynasty, seems to have deliberately adopted German stylistic elements in their honour, especially vertical bands connecting the windows. The styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture---and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking world\'s equivalent of European Rococo. From the mid-1760s a range of Neoclassical modes were fashionable, associated with the British architects Robert Adam, James Gibbs, Sir William Chambers, James Wyatt, George Dance the Younger, Henry Holland and Sir John Soane. John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as Regency style, he was responsible for designing large areas of London. Greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800. Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke. In Britain, brick or stone are almost invariably used; brick is often disguised with render. The Georgian terraces of Dublin are noted for their almost uniform use of red brick, for example, whereas equivalent terraces in Edinburgh are constructed from stone. In America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable. Raked roofs were mostly covered in earthenware tiles until Richard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn led the development of the slate industry in Wales from the 1760s, which by the end of the century had become the usual material.
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# Georgian architecture ## Types of buildings {#types_of_buildings} ### Houses Versions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture. Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance. The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided. In grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a *piano nobile* or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were. Typically the basement area or \"rustic\", with kitchens, offices and service areas, as well as male guests with muddy boots, came some way above ground, and was lit by windows that were high on the inside, but just above ground level outside. A single block was typical, with perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court. Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid; this was partly to minimize window tax, which was in force throughout the period in Great Britain. Some windows were subsequently bricked-in. Their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable. Before this the internal plan and function of the rooms can generally not be deduced from the outside. To open these large windows the sash window, already developed by the 1670s, became very widespread. Corridor plans became universal inside larger houses. Internal courtyards became more rare, except beside the stables, and the functional parts of the building were placed at the sides, or in separate buildings nearby hidden by trees. The views to and from the front and rear of the main block were concentrated on, with the side approaches usually much less important. The roof was typically invisible from the ground, though domes were sometimes visible in grander buildings. The roofline was generally clear of ornament except for a balustrade or the top of a pediment. Columns or pilasters, often topped by a pediment, were popular for ornament inside and out, and other ornament was generally geometrical or plant-based, rather than using the human figure. Inside ornament was far more generous, and could sometimes be overwhelming. The chimneypiece continued to be the usual main focus of rooms, and was now given a classical treatment, and increasingly topped by a painting or a mirror. Plasterwork ceilings, carved wood, and bold schemes of wallpaint formed a backdrop to increasingly rich collections of furniture, paintings, porcelain, mirrors, and objets d\'art of all kinds. Wood-panelling, very common since about 1500, fell from favour around the mid-century, and wallpaper included very expensive imports from China. Smaller houses in the country, such as vicarages, were simple regular blocks with visible raked roofs, and a central doorway, often the only ornamented area. Similar houses, often referred to as \"villas\" became common around the fringes of the larger cities, especially London, and detached houses in towns remained common, though only the very rich could afford them in central London. In towns even most better-off people lived in terraced houses, which typically opened straight onto the street, often with a few steps up to the door. There was often an open space, protected by iron railings, dropping down to the basement level, with a discreet entrance down steps off the street for servants and deliveries; this is known as the \"area\". This meant that the ground floor front was now removed and protected from the street and encouraged the main reception rooms to move there from the floor above. Often, when a new street or set of streets was developed, the road and pavements were raised up, and the gardens or yards behind the houses remained at a lower level, usually representing the original one. Town terraced houses for all social classes remained resolutely tall and narrow, each dwelling occupying the whole height of the building. This contrasted with well-off continental dwellings, which had already begun to be formed of wide apartments occupying only one or two floors of a building; such arrangements were only typical in England when housing groups of batchelors, as in Oxbridge colleges, the lawyers in the Inns of Court or the Albany after it was converted in 1802. In the period in question, only in Edinburgh were working-class purpose-built tenements common, though lodgers were common in other cities. A curving crescent, often looking out at gardens or a park, was popular for terraces where space allowed. In early and central schemes of development, plots were sold and built on individually, though there was often an attempt to enforce some uniformity, but as development reached further out schemes were increasingly built as a uniform scheme and then sold. The late Georgian period saw the birth of the semi-detached house, planned systematically, as a suburban compromise between the terraced houses of the city and the detached \"villas\" further out, where land was cheaper. There had been occasional examples in town centres going back to medieval times. Most early suburban examples are large, and in what are now the outer fringes of Central London, but were then in areas being built up for the first time. Blackheath, Chalk Farm and St John\'s Wood are among the areas contesting being the original home of the semi. Sir John Summerson gave primacy to the Eyre Estate of St John\'s Wood. A plan for this exists dated 1794, where \"the whole development consists of *pairs of semi-detached houses*, So far as I know, this is the first recorded scheme of the kind\". In fact the French Wars put an end to this scheme, but when the development was finally built it retained the semi-detached form, \"a revolution of striking significance and far-reaching effect\". ### Churches Until the Church Building Act 1818, the period saw relatively few churches built in Britain, which was already well-supplied, although in the later years of the period the demand for Non-conformist and Roman Catholic places of worship greatly increased. Anglican churches that were built were designed internally to allow maximum audibility, and visibility, for preaching, so the main nave was generally wider and shorter than in medieval plans, and often there were no side-aisles. Galleries were common in new churches. Especially in country parishes, the external appearance generally retained the familiar signifiers of a Gothic church, with a tower or spire, a large west front with one or more doors, and very large windows along the nave, but all with any ornament drawn from the classical vocabulary. Where funds permitted, a classical temple portico with columns and a pediment might be used at the west front. Interior decoration was generally chaste; however, walls often became lined with plaques and monuments to the more prosperous members of the congregation. In the colonies new churches were certainly required, and generally repeated similar formulae. British Non-conformist churches were often more classical in mood, and tended not to feel the need for a tower or steeple. The archetypal Georgian church is St Martin-in-the-Fields in London (1720), by Gibbs, who boldly added to the classical temple façade at the west end a large steeple on top of a tower, set back slightly from the main frontage. This formula shocked purists and foreigners, but became accepted and was very widely emulated, at home and in the colonies, for example at St Andrew\'s Church, Chennai in India. And in Dublin, the extremely similar St. George\'s Church, Dublin. The 1818 Act allocated some public money for new churches required to reflect changes in population, and a commission to allocate it. Building of Commissioners\' churches gathered pace in the 1820s, and continued until the 1850s. The early churches, falling into the Georgian period, show a high proportion of Gothic Revival buildings, along with the classically inspired.
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# Georgian architecture ## Types of buildings {#types_of_buildings} ### Public buildings {#public_buildings} Public buildings generally varied between the extremes of plain boxes with grid windows and Italian Late Renaissance palaces, depending on budget. Somerset House in London, designed by Sir William Chambers in 1776 for government offices, was as magnificent as any country house, though never quite finished, as funds ran out. Barracks and other less prestigious buildings could be as functional as the mills and factories that were growing increasingly large by the end of the period. But as the period came to an end many commercial projects were becoming sufficiently large, and well-funded, to become \"architectural in intention\", rather than having their design left to the lesser class of \"surveyors\".
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# Georgian architecture ## Colonial Georgian architecture {#colonial_georgian_architecture} Georgian architecture was widely disseminated in the English colonies during the Georgian era. American buildings of the Georgian period were very often constructed of wood with clapboards; even columns were made of timber, framed up, and turned on an oversized lathe. At the start of the period the difficulties of obtaining and transporting brick or stone made them a common alternative only in the larger cities, or where they were obtainable locally. Dartmouth College, Harvard University and the College of William and Mary offer leading examples of Georgian architecture in the Americas. Unlike the Baroque style that it replaced, which was mostly used for palaces and churches, and had little representation in the British colonies, simpler Georgian styles were widely used by the upper and middle classes. Perhaps the best remaining house is the pristine Hammond-Harwood House (1774) in Annapolis, Maryland, designed by the colonial architect William Buckland and modelled on the Villa Pisani at Montagnana, Italy as depicted in Andrea Palladio\'s *I quattro libri dell\'architettura* (\"The Four Books of Architecture\"). After independence, in the former American colonies, Federal-style architecture represented the equivalent of Regency architecture, with which it had much in common. In Canada, the United Empire Loyalists embraced Georgian architecture as a sign of their fealty to Britain, and the Georgian style was dominant in the country for most of the first half of the 19th century. The Grange, for example, is a Georgian manor built in Toronto in 1817. In Montreal, English-born architect John Ostell worked on a significant number of remarkable constructions in the Georgian style such as the Old Montreal Custom House and the Grand séminaire de Montréal. In Australia, the Old Colonial Georgian residential and non-residential styles were developed in the period from c. 1810.
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# Georgian architecture ## Post-Georgian developments {#post_georgian_developments} After about 1840, Georgian conventions were slowly abandoned as a number of revival styles, including Gothic Revival, that had originated in the Georgian period, developed and contested in Victorian architecture, and in the case of Gothic became better researched, and closer to their originals. Neoclassical architecture remained popular, and was the opponent of Gothic in the Battle of the Styles of the early Victorian period. In the United States the Federalist Style contained many elements of Georgian style, but incorporated revolutionary symbols. In the early decades of the twentieth century when there was a growing nostalgia for its sense of order, the style was revived and adapted and in the United States came to be known as the Colonial Revival. The revived Georgian style that emerged in Britain during the same period is usually referred to as **Neo-Georgian**; the work of Edwin Lutyens and Vincent Harris includes some examples. The British town of Welwyn Garden City, established in the 1920s, is an example of *pastiche* or Neo-Georgian development of the early 20th century in Britain. Versions of the Neo-Georgian style were commonly used in Britain for certain types of urban architecture until the late 1950s, Bradshaw Gass & Hope\'s Police Headquarters in Salford of 1958 being a good example. Architects such as Raymond Erith, and Donald McMorran were among the few architects who continued the neo-Georgian style into the 1960s. Both in the United States and Britain, the Georgian style is still employed by architects like Quinlan Terry, Julian Bicknell, Ben Pentreath, Robert Adam Architects, and Fairfax and Sammons for private residences. A debased form in commercial housing developments, especially in the suburbs, is known in the UK as **mock-Georgian**. ## Gallery <File:Ditchleyfront2.jpg>\|Ditchley House in Oxfordshire, a country house. James Gibbs, 1722 <File:Connecticut> Hall, Yale University.jpg\|Connecticut Hall at Yale University, a relatively unornamented iteration of the Georgian style (1750) <File:Sutton> Lodge, Brighton Rd, SUTTON, Surrey, Greater London (4).jpg\|Sutton Lodge, Sutton, London, once used by the Prince Regent, George IV of the United Kingdom <File:Georgian> House at Pery Square,Limerick.jpg\|alt=\|Georgian period townhouses in Pery Square, Newtown Pery, Limerick, Ireland, after 1769 <File:Kedleston> Hall 20080730-04.jpg\|Kedleston Hall by Matthew Brettingham and Robert Adam, begun 1769, a large English country house <File:Pulteney> Bridge, Bath 2.jpg\|One of Robert Adam\'s masterpieces, in a largely Georgian setting: Pulteney Bridge, Bath, 1774 <File:CarpentersHall00.jpg>\|Carpenters\' Hall in Philadelphia by Robert Smith, 1775 example of American colonial architecture <File:City> Hall, Dublin-5198644 fc442a39.jpg\|Royal Exchange, Dublin, 1779 <File:Guildhall2>, Dunfermline.jpg\|A former guildhall in Dunfermline, Scotland built between 1805 and 1811 <File:University> Hall (Harvard University) - east facade.JPG\|University Hall of Harvard University by Charles Bulfinch (1815), exemplary of Georgian ornamental restraint <File:Western> side of Bryanston Square - geograph.org.uk - 1046267.jpg\|Western side of Bryanston Square, London, with its gardens. 1810--15 <File:The> west curve of Park Crescent, London - geograph.org.uk - 1524047.jpg\|Late Georgian Regency; the west curve of Park Crescent, London, by John Nash, 1806--21 <File:The> Grange, Toronto, Ontario (1817).jpg\|The Grange, a Georgian manor in Toronto built for D\'Arcy Boulton in 1817 <File:St> James Anglican Church - Sydney NSW (12865646023).jpg\|St James\' Church, Sydney in Colonial Georgian architecture, built in 1824 <File:Town> Hall , Chesterfield (3659529763).jpg\|Neo-Georgian - Chesterfield Town Hall (1938), Derbyshire, by Bradshaw Gass & Hope <File:Georgian> Terrace facing North Inch (geograph 4891241)
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# Gram-positive bacteria In bacteriology, **gram-positive bacteria** are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall. The Gram stain is used by microbiologists to place bacteria into two main categories, gram-positive (+) and gram-negative (−). Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan within the cell wall, and gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycan. Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet stain used in the test, resulting in a purple color when observed through an optical microscope. The thick layer of peptidoglycan in the bacterial cell wall retains the stain after it has been fixed in place by iodine. During the decolorization step, the decolorizer removes crystal violet from all other cells. Conversely, gram-negative bacteria cannot retain the violet stain after the decolorization step; alcohol used in this stage degrades the outer membrane of gram-negative cells, making the cell wall more porous and incapable of retaining the crystal violet stain. Their peptidoglycan layer is much thinner and sandwiched between an inner cell membrane and a bacterial outer membrane, causing them to take up the counterstain (safranin or fuchsine) and appear red or pink. Despite their thicker peptidoglycan layer, gram-positive bacteria are more receptive to certain cell wall--targeting antibiotics than gram-negative bacteria, due to the absence of the outer membrane. ## Characteristics In general, the following characteristics are present in gram-positive bacteria: 1. Cytoplasmic lipid membrane 2. Thick peptidoglycan layer 3. Teichoic acids and lipoids are present, forming lipoteichoic acids, which serve as chelating agents, and also for certain types of adherence. 4. Peptidoglycan chains are cross-linked to form rigid cell walls by a bacterial enzyme DD-transpeptidase. 5. A much smaller volume of periplasm than that in gram-negative bacteria. Only some species have a capsule, usually consisting of polysaccharides. Only some species are flagellates, and those with flagella have just two basal body rings for support, in contrast to the four found in gram-negative bacteria. Both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria commonly have a surface layer called an S-layer. In gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the peptidoglycan layer. Gram-negative bacteria\'s S-layer is attached directly to the outer membrane. Specific to gram-positive bacteria is the presence of teichoic acids in the cell wall. Some of these are lipoteichoic acids, which have a lipid component in the cell membrane that can assist in anchoring the peptidoglycan. ## Classification Along with cell shape, Gram staining is a rapid method used to differentiate bacterial species. Such staining, together with growth requirement and antibiotic susceptibility testing, and other macroscopic and physiologic tests, forms a basis for practical classification and subdivision of the bacteria (e.g., see figure and pre-1990 versions of *Bergey\'s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology*). Historically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based primarily on Gram staining: Bacillota (positive in staining), Gracilicutes (negative in staining), Mollicutes (neutral in staining) and Mendocutes (variable in staining). Based on 16S ribosomal RNA phylogenetic studies of the late microbiologist Carl Woese and collaborators and colleagues at the University of Illinois, the monophyly of the gram-positive bacteria was challenged, with major implications for the therapeutic and general study of these organisms. Based on molecular studies of the 16S sequences, Woese recognised twelve bacterial phyla. Two of these were gram-positive and were divided on the proportion of the guanine and cytosine content in their DNA. The high G + C phylum was made up of the Actinobacteria, and the low G + C phylum contained the Firmicutes. The Actinomycetota include the *Corynebacterium*, *Mycobacterium*, *Nocardia* and *Streptomyces* genera. The (low G + C) Bacillota, have a 45--60% GC content, but this is lower than that of the Actinomycetota.
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# Gram-positive bacteria ## Importance of the outer cell membrane in bacterial classification {#importance_of_the_outer_cell_membrane_in_bacterial_classification} Although bacteria are traditionally divided into two main groups, gram-positive and gram-negative, based on their Gram stain retention property, this classification system is ambiguous as it refers to three distinct aspects (staining result, envelope organization, taxonomic group), which do not necessarily coalesce for some bacterial species. The gram-positive and gram-negative staining response is also not a reliable characteristic as these two kinds of bacteria do not form phylogenetic coherent groups. However, although Gram staining response is an empirical criterion, its basis lies in the marked differences in the ultrastructure and chemical composition of the bacterial cell wall, marked by the absence or presence of an outer lipid membrane. All gram-positive bacteria are bound by a single-unit lipid membrane, and, in general, they contain a thick layer (20--80 nm) of peptidoglycan responsible for retaining the Gram stain. A number of other bacteria---that are bound by a single membrane, but stain gram-negative due to either lack of the peptidoglycan layer, as in the mycoplasmas, or their inability to retain the Gram stain because of their cell wall composition---also show close relationship to the gram-positive bacteria. For the bacterial cells bound by a single cell membrane, the term *monoderm bacteria* has been proposed. In contrast to gram-positive bacteria, all typical gram-negative bacteria are bound by a cytoplasmic membrane and an outer cell membrane; they contain only a thin layer of peptidoglycan (2--3 nm) between these membranes. The presence of inner and outer cell membranes defines a new compartment in these cells: the periplasmic space or the periplasmic compartment. These bacteria have been designated as diderm bacteria. The distinction between the monoderm and diderm bacteria is supported by conserved signature indels in a number of important proteins (viz. DnaK, GroEL). Of these two structurally distinct groups of bacteria, monoderms are indicated to be ancestral. Based upon a number of observations including that the gram-positive bacteria are the major producers of antibiotics and that, in general, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to them, it has been proposed that the outer cell membrane in gram-negative bacteria (diderms) has evolved as a protective mechanism against antibiotic selection pressure. Some bacteria, such as *Deinococcus*, which stain gram-positive due to the presence of a thick peptidoglycan layer and also possess an outer cell membrane are suggested as intermediates in the transition between monoderm (gram-positive) and diderm (gram-negative) bacteria. The diderm bacteria can also be further differentiated between simple diderms lacking lipopolysaccharide, the archetypical diderm bacteria where the outer cell membrane contains lipopolysaccharide, and the diderm bacteria where outer cell membrane is made up of mycolic acid. ### Exceptions In general, gram-positive bacteria are monoderms and have a single lipid bilayer whereas gram-negative bacteria are diderms and have two bilayers. Exceptions include: - Some taxa lack peptidoglycan (such as the class Mollicutes, some members of the Rickettsiales, and the insect-endosymbionts of the Enterobacteriales) and are gram-indeterminate. - The Deinococcota have gram-positive stains, although they are structurally similar to gram-negative bacteria with two layers. - The Chloroflexota have a single layer, yet (with some exceptions) stain negative. Two related phyla to the Chloroflexi, the TM7 clade and the Ktedonobacteria, are also monoderms. Some Bacillota species are not gram-positive. The class Negativicutes, which includes *Selenomonas*, are diderm and stain gram-negative. Additionally, a number of bacterial taxa (viz. Negativicutes, Fusobacteriota, Synergistota, and Elusimicrobiota) that are either part of the phylum Bacillota or branch in its proximity are found to possess a diderm cell structure. However, a conserved signature indel (CSI) in the HSP60 (GroEL) protein distinguishes all traditional phyla of gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonadota, Aquificota, Chlamydiota, Bacteroidota, Chlorobiota, \"Cyanobacteria\", Fibrobacterota, Verrucomicrobiota, Planctomycetota, Spirochaetota, Acidobacteriota, etc.) from these other atypical diderm bacteria, as well as other phyla of monoderm bacteria (e.g., Actinomycetota, Bacillota, Thermotogota, Chloroflexota, etc.). The presence of this CSI in all sequenced species of conventional LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-containing gram-negative bacterial phyla provides evidence that these phyla of bacteria form a monophyletic clade and that no loss of the outer membrane from any species from this group has occurred.
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# Gram-positive bacteria ## Pathogenicity In the classical sense, six gram-positive genera are typically pathogenic in humans. Two of these, *Streptococcus* and *Staphylococcus*, are cocci (sphere-shaped). The remaining organisms are bacilli (rod-shaped) and can be subdivided based on their ability to form spores. The non-spore formers are *Corynebacterium* and *Listeria* (a coccobacillus), whereas *Bacillus* and *Clostridium* produce spores. The spore-forming bacteria can again be divided based on their respiration: *Bacillus* is a facultative anaerobe, while *Clostridium* is an obligate anaerobe. Also, *Rathybacter*, *Leifsonia*, and *Clavibacter* are three gram-positive genera that cause plant disease. Gram-positive bacteria are capable of causing serious and sometimes fatal infections in newborn infants. Novel species of clinically relevant gram-positive bacteria also include *Catabacter hongkongensis*, which is an emerging pathogen belonging to Bacillota. ## Bacterial transformation {#bacterial_transformation} Transformation is one of three processes for horizontal gene transfer, in which exogenous genetic material passes from a donor bacterium to a recipient bacterium, the other two processes being conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact) and transduction (injection of donor bacterial DNA by a bacteriophage virus into a recipient host bacterium). In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium. As of 2014 about 80 species of bacteria were known to be capable of transformation, about evenly divided between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; the number might be an overestimate since several of the reports are supported by single papers. Transformation among gram-positive bacteria has been studied in medically important species such as *Streptococcus pneumoniae*, *Streptococcus mutans*, *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Streptococcus sanguinis* and in gram-positive soil bacteria *Bacillus subtilis* and *Bacillus cereus*. ## Orthography: capitalization {#orthography_capitalization} The adjectives *gram-positive* and *gram-negative* derive from the surname of Hans Christian Gram; as eponymous adjectives, their initial letter *G* can be either a capital or lower-case, depending on which style guide (e.g., that of the CDC), if any, governs the document being written
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# Gram-negative bacteria **Gram-negative bacteria** are bacteria that, unlike gram-positive bacteria, do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation. Their defining characteristic is that their cell envelope consists of a thin peptidoglycan cell wall sandwiched between an inner (cytoplasmic) membrane and an outer membrane. These bacteria are found in all environments that support life on Earth. Within this category, notable species include the model organism *Escherichia coli*, along with various pathogenic bacteria, such as *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, *Chlamydia trachomatis*, and *Yersinia pestis*. They pose significant challenges in the medical field due to their outer membrane, which acts as a protective barrier against numerous antibiotics (including penicillin), detergents that would normally damage the inner cell membrane, and the antimicrobial enzyme lysozyme produced by animals as part of their innate immune system. Furthermore, the outer leaflet of this membrane contains a complex lipopolysaccharide (LPS) whose lipid A component can trigger a toxic reaction when the bacteria are lysed by immune cells. This reaction may lead to septic shock, resulting in low blood pressure, respiratory failure, reduced oxygen delivery, and lactic acidosis. Several classes of antibiotics have been developed to target gram-negative bacteria, including aminopenicillins, ureidopenicillins, cephalosporins, beta-lactam-betalactamase inhibitor combinations (such as piperacillin-tazobactam), folate antagonists, quinolones, and carbapenems. Many of these antibiotics also cover gram-positive bacteria. The antibiotics that specifically target gram-negative organisms include aminoglycosides, monobactams (such as aztreonam), and ciprofloxacin. ## Characteristics Conventional gram-negative (LPS-diderm) bacteria display `{{nowrap|the following characteristics}}`{=mediawiki}: - An inner cell membrane is present (cytoplasmic) - A thin peptidoglycan layer is present (this is much thicker in gram-positive bacteria) - Has outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides (LPS, which consists of lipid A, core polysaccharide, and O antigen) in its outer leaflet and phospholipids in the inner leaflet - Porins exist in the outer membrane, which act like pores for particular molecules - Between the outer membrane and the cytoplasmic membrane there is a space filled with a concentrated gel-like substance called periplasm - The S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane rather than to the peptidoglycan - If present, flagella have four supporting rings instead of two - Teichoic acids or lipoteichoic acids are absent - Lipoproteins are attached to the polysaccharide backbone - Some contain Braun\'s lipoprotein, which serves as a link between the outer membrane and the peptidoglycan chain by a covalent bond - Most, with few exceptions, do not form spores However, the LPS-diderm group (corresponding to kingdom Pseudomonadati, formerly \"Hydrobacteria\") is not the only type of bacteria that stain negative. *Mycobacterium* (or rather most of Mycobacteriales), which does not belong in the group, have independently evolved an outer cell membrane, with a cell wall made of mycolic acid. This gives it very different structure and features. In many gram-negative bacteria, the IgaA membrane protein negatively regulates the Rcs phosphorelay system, a key envelope stress response pathway that helps maintain cell envelope integrity. ## Classification Along with cell shape, Gram staining is a rapid diagnostic tool and once was used to group species at the subdivision of Bacteria. Historically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based on Gram staining: Firmicutes (+), Gracillicutes (−), Mollicutes (0) and Mendocutes (var.). Since 1987, the monophyly of the gram-negative bacteria has been disproven with molecular studies. Current knowledge divides the gram-negatives into two large groups and some straddlers. The more \"conventional\" gram-negatives with an LPS outer membrane do share a common ancestor and are grouped in kingdom Pseudomonadati. The less conventional ones are, as mentioned above, the order Mycobacteriales, have a mycolic acid cell wall and an outer membrane. The kingdom and the order are each monophyletic (or rather, not holyphyletic), but the \"LPS-diderm\" and \"mycolic-diderm\" groups are not, because some bacteria in the kingdom and the order do not, in fact, stain gram negative. They will be discussed in the next section.
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# Gram-negative bacteria ## Taxonomy Bacteria are traditionally classified based on their Gram-staining response into the gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Having just one membrane, the gram-positive bacteria are also known as monoderm bacteria, while gram-negative bacteria, having two membranes, are also known as **diderm bacteria**. It was traditionally thought that the groups represent lineages, i.e., the extra membrane only evolved once, such that gram-negative bacteria are more closely related to one another than to any gram-positive bacteria. While this is often true, the classification system breaks down in some cases, with lineage groupings not matching the staining result. Thus, Gram staining cannot be reliably used to assess familial relationships of bacteria. Nevertheless, staining often gives reliable information about the composition of the cell membrane, distinguishing between the presence or absence of an outer lipid membrane. Of these two structurally distinct groups of prokaryotic organisms, monoderm prokaryotes are thought to be ancestral. Based upon a number of different observations, including that the gram-positive bacteria are the most sensitive to antibiotics and that the gram-negative bacteria are, in general, resistant to antibiotics, it has been proposed that the outer cell membrane in gram-negative bacteria (diderms) evolved as a protective mechanism against antibiotic selection pressure. Some bacteria such as *Deinococcus*, which stain gram-positive due to the presence of a thick peptidoglycan layer, but also possess an outer cell membrane are suggested as intermediates in the transition between monoderm (gram-positive) and diderm (gram-negative) bacteria. The conventional LPS-*diderm* group of gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonadota, Aquificota, Chlamydiota, Bacteroidota, Chlorobiota, \"Cyanobacteria\", Fibrobacterota, Verrucomicrobiota, Planctomycetota, Spirochaetota, Acidobacteriota) are uniquely identified by a few conserved signature indel (CSI) in the HSP60 (GroEL) protein. The presence of this CSI in all sequenced species of conventional lipopolysaccharide-containing gram-negative bacterial phyla provides evidence that these phyla of bacteria form a monophyletic clade and that no loss of the outer membrane from any species from this group has occurred. They have accordingly been assigned a kingdom Pseudomonadati (formerly \"Hydrobacteria\"). The difficulty lies in the other taxa that also have a diderm structure. - The first group is paraphyletic. It includes a number of taxa (including Negativicutes, Fusobacteriota, Synergistota, and Elusimicrobiota) that are either part of the phylum Bacillota (a monoderm group) or branches in its proximity. They lack the GroEL CSI signature, which is proof that they do not belong in the former group. Some members are likely monoderm, just with a very thin layer of LPS to not appear on the stain. Others have more convoluted structures. - The second group are the clinically-relevant *Mycobacterium*, expanding to most of its encompassing order of Mycobacteriales. They do not have the CSI, and their cell wall is made of a different substance: mycolic acid. ### Example species {#example_species} The proteobacteria are a major superphylum of gram-negative bacteria, including *E. coli*, *Salmonella*, *Shigella*, and other Enterobacteriaceae, *Pseudomonas*, *Moraxella*, *Helicobacter*, *Stenotrophomonas*, *Bdellovibrio*, acetic acid bacteria, *Legionella* etc. Other notable groups of gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, and green sulfur bacteria. Medically-relevant gram-negative diplococci include the four types that cause a sexually transmitted disease (*Neisseria gonorrhoeae*), a meningitis (*Neisseria meningitidis*), and respiratory symptoms (*Moraxella catarrhalis*, A coccobacillus *Haemophilus influenzae* is another medically relevant coccal type. Medically relevant gram-negative bacilli include a multitude of species. Some of them cause primarily respiratory problems (*Klebsiella pneumoniae*, *Legionella pneumophila*, *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*), primarily urinary problems (*Escherichia coli*, *Proteus mirabilis*, *Enterobacter cloacae*, *Serratia marcescens*), and primarily gastrointestinal problems (*Helicobacter pylori*, *Salmonella enteritidis*, *Salmonella typhi*). Gram-negative bacteria associated with hospital-acquired infections include *Acinetobacter baumannii*, which cause bacteremia, secondary meningitis, and ventilator-associated pneumonia in hospital intensive-care units.
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# Gram-negative bacteria ## Bacterial transformation {#bacterial_transformation} Transformation is one of three processes for horizontal gene transfer, in which exogenous genetic material passes from one bacterium to another, the other two being conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact) and transduction (injection of foreign DNA by a bacteriophage virus into the host bacterium). In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium. As of 2014 about 80 species of bacteria were known to be capable of transformation, about evenly divided between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; the number might be an overestimate since several of the reports are supported by single papers. Transformation has been studied in medically important gram-negative bacteria species such as *Helicobacter pylori*, *Legionella pneumophila*, *Neisseria meningitidis*, *Neisseria gonorrhoeae*, *Haemophilus influenzae* and *Vibrio cholerae*. It has also been studied in gram-negative species found in soil such as *Pseudomonas stutzeri*, *Acinetobacter baylyi*, and gram-negative plant pathogens such as *Ralstonia solanacearum* and *Xylella fastidiosa*. ## Role in disease {#role_in_disease} One of the several unique characteristics of gram-negative bacteria is the structure of the bacterial outer membrane. The outer leaflet of this membrane contains lipopolysaccharide (LPS), whose lipid A portion acts as an endotoxin. If gram-negative bacteria enter the circulatory system, LPS can trigger an innate immune response, activating the immune system and producing cytokines (hormonal regulators). This leads to inflammation and can cause a toxic reaction, resulting in fever, an increased respiratory rate, and low blood pressure. That is why some infections with gram-negative bacteria can lead to life-threatening septic shock. The outer membrane protects the bacteria from several antibiotics, dyes, and detergents that would normally damage either the inner membrane or the cell wall (made of peptidoglycan). The outer membrane provides these bacteria with resistance to lysozyme and penicillin. The periplasmic space (space between the two cell membranes) also contains enzymes which break down or modify antibiotics. Drugs commonly used to treat gram negative infections include amino, carboxy and ureido penicillins (ampicillin, amoxicillin, pipercillin, ticarcillin). These drugs may be combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to combat the presence of enzymes that can digest these drugs (known as beta-lactamases) in the peri-plasmic space. Other classes of drugs that have gram negative spectrum include cephalosporins, monobactams (aztreonam), aminoglycosides, quinolones, macrolides, chloramphenicol, folate antagonists, and carbapenems. ## Orthography: capitalization {#orthography_capitalization} The adjectives *gram-positive* and *gram-negative* derive from the surname of Hans Christian Gram, a Danish bacteriologist; as eponymous adjectives, their initial letter *G* can be either capital or lower-case, depending on which style guide (e.g., that of the CDC), if any, governs the document being written. This is further explained at *Gram staining § Orthographic note*
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# Grigory Barenblatt **Grigory Isaakovich Barenblatt** (*Григо́рий Исаа́кович Баренблат*; 10 July 1927 -- 22 June 2018) was a Russian mathematician. ## Education Barenblatt graduated in 1950 from Moscow State University, Department of Mechanics and Mathematics. He received his Ph.D. in 1953 from Moscow State University under the supervision of A. N. Kolmogorov. ## Career and research {#career_and_research} Barenblatt also received a D.Sc. from Moscow State University in 1957. He was an emeritus Professor in Residence at the Department of Mathematics of the University of California, Berkeley and Mathematician at Department of Mathematics, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. He was G. I. Taylor Professor of Fluid Mechanics at the University of Cambridge from 1992 to 1994 and he was Emeritus G. I. Taylor Professor of Fluid Mechanics. His areas of research were: 1. Fracture mechanics 2. The theory of fluid and gas flows in porous media 3. The mechanics of a non-classical deformable solids 4. Turbulence 5. Self-similarities, nonlinear waves and intermediate asymptotics. ## Awards and honors {#awards_and_honors} - 1975 -- Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences - 1984 -- Foreign Member, Danish Center of Applied Mathematics & Mechanics - 1988 -- Foreign Member, Polish Society of Theoretical & Applied Mechanics - 1989 -- Doctor of Technology Honoris Causa at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden - 1992 -- Foreign Associate, U.S. National Academy of Engineering - 1993 -- Fellow, Cambridge Philosophical Society - 1993 -- Member, Academia Europaea - 1994 -- Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; (since 1999, Honorary Fellow) - 1995 -- Lagrange Medal, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei - 1995 -- Modesto Panetti Prize and Medal - 1996 - Visiting Miller Professorship - University of California Berkeley - 1997 -- Foreign Associate, U.S. National Academy of Sciences - 1999 -- G. I. Taylor Medal, U.S. Society of Engineering Science - 1999 -- J. C. Maxwell Medal and Prize, International Congress for Industrial and Applied Mathematics - 2000 -- Foreign Member, Royal Society of London - 2005 -- Timoshenko Medal, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, \"for seminal contributions to nearly every area of solid and fluid mechanics, including fracture mechanics, turbulence, stratified flows, flames, flow in porous media, and the theory and application of intermediate asymptotics
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# Grammatical tense In grammar, **tense** is a category that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns. The main tenses found in many languages include the past, present, and future. Some languages have only two distinct tenses, such as past and nonpast, or future and nonfuture. There are also tenseless languages, like most of the Chinese languages, though they can possess a future and nonfuture system typical of Sino-Tibetan languages. In recent work Maria Bittner and Judith Tonhauser have described the different ways in which tenseless languages nonetheless mark time. On the other hand, some languages make finer tense distinctions, such as remote vs recent past, or near vs remote future. Tenses generally express time relative to the moment of speaking. In some contexts, however, their meaning may be relativized to a point in the past or future which is established in the discourse (the moment being spoken about). This is called *relative* (as opposed to *absolute*) tense. Some languages have different verb forms or constructions which manifest relative tense, such as pluperfect (\"past-in-the-past\") and \"future-in-the-past\". Expressions of tense are often closely connected with expressions of the category of aspect; sometimes what are traditionally called tenses (in languages such as Latin) may in modern analysis be regarded as combinations of tense with aspect. Verbs are also often conjugated for mood, and since in many cases the three categories are not manifested separately, some languages may be described in terms of a combined tense--aspect--mood (TAM) system. ## Etymology The English noun *tense* comes from Old French *tens* \"time\" (spelled *temps* in modern French through deliberate archaization), from Latin *tempus*, \"time\". It is not related to the adjective *tense*, which comes from Latin *tensus*, the perfect passive participle of *tendere*, \"stretch\".
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# Grammatical tense ## Uses of the term {#uses_of_the_term} In modern linguistic theory, tense is understood as a category that expresses (grammaticalizes) time reference; namely one which, using grammatical means, places a state or action in time. Nonetheless, in many descriptions of languages, particularly in traditional European grammar, the term \"tense\" is applied to verb forms or constructions that express not merely position in time, but also additional properties of the state or action -- particularly aspectual or modal properties. The category of aspect expresses how a state or action relates to time -- whether it is seen as a complete event, an ongoing or repeated situation, etc. Many languages make a distinction between perfective aspect (denoting complete events) and imperfective aspect (denoting ongoing or repeated situations); some also have other aspects, such as a perfect aspect, denoting a state following a prior event. Some of the traditional \"tenses\" express time reference together with aspectual information. In Latin and French, for example, the imperfect denotes past time in combination with imperfective aspect, while other verb forms (the Latin perfect, and the French *\[\[passé composé\]\]* or *\[\[passé simple\]\]*) are used for past time reference with perfective aspect. The category of mood is used to express modality, which includes such properties as uncertainty, evidentiality, and obligation. Commonly encountered moods include the indicative, subjunctive, and conditional. Mood can be bound up with tense, aspect, or both, in particular verb forms. Hence, certain languages are sometimes analysed as having a single tense--aspect--mood (TAM) system, without separate manifestation of the three categories. The term *tense*, then, particularly in less formal contexts, is sometimes used to denote any combination of tense proper, aspect, and mood. As regards English, there are many verb forms and constructions which combine time reference with continuous and/or perfect aspect, and with indicative, subjunctive or conditional mood. Particularly in some English language teaching materials, some or all of these forms can be referred to simply as tenses (see below). Particular tense forms need not always carry their basic time-referential meaning in every case. For instance, the historical present is a use of the present tense to refer to past events. The phenomenon of *fake tense* is common crosslinguistically as a means of marking counterfactuality in conditionals and wishes.
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# Grammatical tense ## Possible tenses {#possible_tenses} Not all languages have tense: tenseless languages include Chinese and Dyirbal. Some languages have all three basic tenses (the past, present, and future), while others have only two: some have past and nonpast tenses, the latter covering both present and future times (as in Arabic, Japanese, and, in some analyses,`{{which|date=February 2021}}`{=mediawiki} English), whereas others such as Greenlandic, Quechua, and Nivkh have future and nonfuture. Some languages have four or more tenses, making finer distinctions either in the past (e.g. remote vs. recent past) or in the future (e.g. near vs. remote future). The six-tense language Kalaw Lagaw Ya of Australia has the remote past, the recent past, the today past, the present, the today/near future and the remote future. Some languages, like the Amazonian Cubeo language, have a historical past tense, used for events perceived as historical. Tenses that refer specifically to \"today\" are called hodiernal tenses; these can be either past or future. Apart from Kalaw Lagaw Ya, another language which features such tenses is Mwera, a Bantu language of Tanzania. It is also suggested that in 17th-century French, the *passé composé* served as a hodiernal past. Tenses that contrast with hodiernals, by referring to the past before today or the future after today, are called pre-hodiernal and post-hodiernal respectively. Some languages also have a crastinal tense, a future tense referring specifically to tomorrow (found in some Bantu languages); or a hesternal tense, a past tense referring specifically to yesterday (although this name is also sometimes used to mean pre-hodiernal). A tense for after tomorrow is thus called post-crastinal, and one for before yesterday is called pre-hesternal. Another tense found in some languages, including Luganda, is the persistive tense, used to indicate that a state or ongoing action is still the case (or, in the negative, is no longer the case). Luganda also has tenses meaning \"so far\" and \"not yet\".`{{dubious|reason=These sound like aspects.|date=February 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Some languages have special tense forms that are used to express relative tense. Tenses that refer to the past relative to the time under consideration are called *anterior*; these include the pluperfect (for the past relative to a past time) and the future perfect (for the past relative to a future time). Similarly, *posterior* tenses refer to the future relative to the time under consideration, as with the English \"future-in-the-past\": *(he said that) he **would go**.* Relative tense forms are also sometimes analysed as combinations of tense with aspect: the perfect aspect in the anterior case, or the prospective aspect in the posterior case. Some languages, such as Nez perce or Cavineña also have periodic tense markers that encode that the action occurs in a recurrent temporal period of the day (\"in the morning\", \"during the day\", \"at night\", \"until dawn\" etc) or of the year (\"in winter\"). Some languages have cyclic tense systems. This is a form of temporal marking where tense is given relative to a reference point or reference span. In Burarra, for example, events that occurred earlier on the day of speaking are marked with the same verb forms as events that happened in the far past, while events that happened yesterday (compared to the moment of speech) are marked with the same forms as events in the present. This can be thought of as a system where events are marked as prior or contemporaneous to points of reference on a timeline.
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# Grammatical tense ## Tense marking {#tense_marking} ### Morphology of tense {#morphology_of_tense} Tense is normally indicated by the use of a particular verb form -- either an inflected form of the main verb, or a multi-word construction, or both in combination. Inflection may involve the use of affixes, such as the *-ed* ending that marks the past tense of English regular verbs, but can also entail stem modifications, such as ablaut, as found as in the strong verbs in English and other Germanic languages, or reduplication. Multi-word tense constructions often involve auxiliary verbs or clitics. Examples which combine both types of tense marking include the French *passé composé*, which has an auxiliary verb together with the inflected past participle form of the main verb; and the Irish past tense, where the proclitic *do* (in various surface forms) appears in conjunction with the affixed or ablaut-modified past tense form of the main verb. As has already been mentioned, indications of tense are often bound up with indications of other verbal categories, such as aspect and mood. The conjugation patterns of verbs often also reflect agreement with categories pertaining to the subject, such as person, number and gender. It is consequently not always possible to identify elements that mark any specific category, such as tense, separately from the others. Languages that do not have grammatical tense, such as most Sinitic languages, express time reference chiefly by lexical means -- through adverbials, time phrases, and so on. (The same is done in tensed languages, to supplement or reinforce the time information conveyed by the choice of tense.) Time information is also sometimes conveyed as a secondary feature by markers of other categories, as with the aspect markers *了* *le* and *過* *guò*, which in most cases place an action in past time. However, much time information is conveyed implicitly by context -- it is therefore not always necessary, when translating from a tensed to a tenseless language, say, to express explicitly in the target language all of the information conveyed by the tenses in the source. #### Nominal Tense {#nominal_tense} A few languages have been shown to mark tense information (as well as aspect and mood) on nouns. This may be called **nominal tense**, or more broadly **nominal TAM** which includes nominal marking of aspect and mood as well. ### Syntax of tense {#syntax_of_tense} The syntactic properties of tense have figured prominently in formal analyses of how tense-marking interacts with word order. Some languages (such as French) allow an adverb (Adv) to intervene between a tense-marked verb (V) and its direct object (O); in other words, they permit \[Verb-**Adverb**-Object\] ordering. In contrast, other languages (such as English) do not allow the adverb to intervene between the verb and its direct object, and require \[Adverb-**Verb**-Object\] ordering. Tense in syntax is represented by the category label T, which is the head of a TP (tense phrase).
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# Grammatical tense ## Tenseless language {#tenseless_language} In linguistics, a **tenseless language** is a language that does not have a grammatical category of tense. Tenseless languages can and do refer to time, but they do so using lexical items such as adverbs or verbs, or by using combinations of aspect, mood, and words that establish time reference. Examples of tenseless languages are Burmese, Dyirbal, most varieties of Chinese, Malay (including Indonesian), Thai, Maya (linguistic nomenclature: \"Yukatek Maya\"), Vietnamese and in some analyses Greenlandic (Kalaallisut) and Guaraní. ## In particular languages {#in_particular_languages} The study of modern languages has been greatly influenced by the grammar of the Classical languages, since early grammarians, often monks, had no other reference point to describe their language. Latin terminology is often used to describe modern languages, sometimes with a change of meaning, as with the application of \"perfect\" to forms in English that do not necessarily have perfective meaning, or the words *Imperfekt* and *Perfekt* to German past tense forms that mostly lack any relationship to the aspects implied by those terms. ### Latin Latin is traditionally described as having six verb paradigms for tense (the Latin for \"tense\" being *tempus*, plural *tempora*): - Present *(praesēns)* - Future *(futūrum)* - Imperfect *(praeteritum imperfectum)* ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - Perfect *(praesēns perfectum)* - Future perfect *(futūrum perfectum)* - Pluperfect *(plūs quam perfectum, praeteritum perfectum)* Imperfect tense verbs represent a past process combined with so called imperfective aspect, that is, they often stand for an ongoing past action or state at a past point in time (see secondary present) or represent habitual actions (see Latin tenses with modality) (e.g. \'he was eating\', \'he used to eat\'). The perfect tense combines the meanings of a simple past (\'he ate\') with that of an English perfect tense (\'he has eaten\'), which in ancient Greek are two different tenses (aorist and perfect). The pluperfect, the perfect and the future perfect may also realise relative tenses, standing for events that are past at the time of another event (see secondary past): for instance, *mortuus erat*, *mortuus est*, *mortuus erit* may stand for respectively \'*he had died*\', \'*he has died*\' and \'*he will have died*\'. Latin verbs are inflected for tense and aspect together with mood (indicative, subjunctive, infinitive, and imperative) and voice (active or passive). Most verbs can be built by selecting a verb stem and adapting them to endings. Endings may vary according to the speech role, the number and the gender of the subject or an object. Sometimes, verb groups function as a unit and supplement inflection for tense (see Latin periphrases). For details on verb structure, see Latin tenses and Latin conjugation. ### Ancient Greek {#ancient_greek} The paradigms for tenses in Ancient Greek are similar to the ones in Latin, but with a three-way aspect contrast in the past: the aorist, the perfect and the imperfect. Both aorist and imperfect verbs can represent a past event: through contrast, the imperfect verb often implies a longer duration (e.g. \'they urged him\' vs. \'they persuaded him\'). The aorist participle represents the first event of a two-event sequence and the present participle represents an ongoing event at the time of another event. Perfect verbs stood for past actions if the result is still present (e.g. \'I have found it\') or for present states resulting from a past event (e.g. \'I remember\'). ### English English has only two morphological tenses: the present (or non-past), as in *he **goes***, and the past (or preterite), as in *he **went***. - The non-past usually references the present, but sometimes references the future (as in *the bus **leaves** tomorrow*). In special uses such as the historical present it can talk about the past as well. These morphological tenses are marked either with a suffix (*walk(s)* \~ *walked*) or with ablaut (*sing(s)* \~ *sang*). In some contexts, particularly in English language teaching, various tense--aspect combinations are referred to loosely as tenses. Similarly, the term \"future tense\" is sometimes loosely applied to cases where modals such as *will* are used to talk about future points in time.
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# Grammatical tense ## In particular languages {#in_particular_languages} ### Other Indo-European languages {#other_indo_european_languages} Proto-Indo-European verbs had present, perfect (stative), imperfect and aorist forms -- these can be considered as representing two tenses (present and past) with different aspects. Most languages in the Indo-European family have developed systems either with two morphological tenses (present or \"non-past\", and past) or with three (present, past and future). The tenses often form part of entangled tense--aspect--mood conjugation systems. Additional tenses, tense--aspect combinations, etc. can be provided by compound constructions containing auxiliary verbs. The Germanic languages (which include English) have present (non-past) and past tenses formed morphologically, with future and other additional forms made using auxiliaries. In standard German, the compound past *(Perfekt)* has replaced the simple morphological past in most contexts. The Romance languages (descendants of Latin) have past, present and future morphological tenses, with additional aspectual distinction in the past. French is an example of a language where, as in German, the simple morphological perfective past *(passé simple)* has mostly given way to a compound form *(passé composé)*. Irish, a Celtic language, has past, present and future tenses (see Irish conjugation). The past contrasts perfective and imperfective aspect, and some verbs retain such a contrast in the present. Classical Irish had a three-way aspectual contrast of simple--perfective--imperfective in the past and present tenses. Modern Scottish Gaelic on the other hand only has past, non-past and \'indefinite\', and, in the case of the verb \'be\' (including its use as an auxiliary), also present tense. Persian, an Indo-Iranian language, has past and non-past forms, with additional aspectual distinctions. Future can be expressed using an auxiliary, but almost never in non-formal context. Colloquially the perfect suffix *-e* can be added to past tenses to indicate that an action is speculative or reported (e.g. \"it seems that he was doing\", \"they say that he was doing\"). A similar feature is found in Turkish. (For details, see Persian verbs.) Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), an Indo-Aryan language, has indicative perfect past and indicative future forms, while the indicative present and indicative imperfect past conjugations exist only for the verb *honā* (to be). The indicative future is constructed using the future subjunctive conjugations (which used to be the indicative present conjugations in older forms of Hind-Urdu) by adding a future future suffix -*gā* that declines for gender and the number of the noun that the pronoun refers to. The forms of *gā* are derived from the perfective participle forms of the verb \"to go,\" *jāna*. The conjugations of the indicative perfect past and the indicative imperfect past are derived from participles (just like the past tense formation in Slavic languages) and hence they agree with the grammatical number and the gender of noun which the pronoun refers to and not the pronoun itself. The perfect past doubles as the perfective aspect participle and the imperfect past conjugations act as the copula to mark imperfect past when used with the aspectual participles. Hindi-Urdu has an overtly marked tense-aspect-mood system. Periphrastic Hindi-Urdu verb forms (aspectual verb forms) consist of two elements, the first of these two elements is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense-mood marker. Hindi-Urdu has 3 grammatical aspectsː *Habitual*, *Perfective*, and *Progressive*; and 5 grammatical moodsː *Indicative*, *Presumptive*, *Subjunctive*, *Contrafactual*, and *Imperative*. (Seeː *Hindi verbs*) In the Slavic languages, verbs are intrinsically perfective or imperfective. In Russian and some other languages in the group, perfective verbs have past and \"future tenses\", while imperfective verbs have past, present and \"future\", the imperfective \"future\" being a compound tense in most cases. The \"future tense\" of perfective verbs is formed in the same way as the present tense of imperfective verbs. However, in South Slavic languages, there may be a greater variety of forms -- Bulgarian, for example, has present, past (both \"imperfect\" and \"aorist\") and \"future tenses\", for both perfective and imperfective verbs, as well as perfect forms made with an auxiliary (see Bulgarian verbs). However it doesn\'t have real future tense, because the future tense is formed by the shortened version of the present of the verb hteti (ще) and it just adds present tense forms of person suffixes: -m (I), -š (you), -ø (he,she,it), -me (we), -te (you, plural), -t (they). ### Other languages {#other_languages} Finnish and Hungarian, both members of the Uralic language family, have morphological present (non-past) and past tenses. The Hungarian verb *van* (\"to be\") also has a future form. Turkish verbs conjugate for past, present and future, with a variety of aspects and moods. Arabic verbs have past and non-past; future can be indicated by a prefix. Korean verbs have a variety of affixed forms which can be described as representing present, past and future tenses, although they can alternatively be considered to be aspectual. Similarly, Japanese verbs are described as having present and past tenses, although they may be analysed as aspects. Some Wu Chinese languages, such as Shanghainese, use grammatical particles to mark some tenses. Other Chinese languages and many other East Asian languages generally lack inflection and are considered to be tenseless languages, although they often have aspect markers which convey certain information about time reference. For examples of languages with a greater variety of tenses, see the section on possible tenses, above. Fuller information on tense formation and usage in particular languages can be found in the articles on those languages and their grammars.
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# Grammatical tense ## In particular languages {#in_particular_languages} ### Austronesian languages {#austronesian_languages} #### Rapa Rapa is the French Polynesian language of the island of Rapa Iti. Verbs in the indigenous Old Rapa occur with a marker known as TAM which stands for tense, aspect, or mood which can be followed by directional particles or deictic particles. Of the markers there are three tense markers called: Imperfective, Progressive, and Perfective. Which simply mean, Before, Currently, and After. However, specific TAM markers and the type of deictic or directional particle that follows determine and denote different types of meanings in terms of tenses. **Imperfective:** denotes actions that have not occurred yet but will occur and expressed by TAM e. **Progressive:** Also expressed by TAM e and denotes actions that are currently happening when used with deictic **na**, and denotes actions that was just witnessed but still currently happening when used with deictic **ra**. **Perfective:** denotes actions that have already occurred or have finished and is marked by TAM ka. In Old Rapa there are also other types of tense markers known as Past, Imperative, and Subjunctive. **Past** TAM i marks past action. It is rarely used as a matrix TAM and is more frequently observed in past embedded clauses **Imperative** The imperative is marked in Old Rapa by TAM a. A second person subject is implied by the direct command of the imperative. For a more polite form rather than a straightforward command imperative TAM a is used with adverbial kānei. Kānei is only shown to be used in imperative structures and was translated by the French as \"please\". It is also used in a more impersonal form. For example, how you would speak toward a pesky neighbor. **Subjunctive** The subjunctive in Old Rapa is marked by kia and can also be used in expressions of desire #### Tokelau The Tokelauan language is a tenseless language. The language uses the same words for all three tenses; the phrase E liliu mai au i te Aho Tōnai literally translates to Come back / me / on Saturday, but the translation becomes \'I am coming back on Saturday\'. #### Wuvulu-Aua {#wuvulu_aua} Wuvulu-Aua does not have an explicit tense, but rather tense is conveyed by mood, aspect markers, and time phrases. Wuvulu speakers use a realis mood to convey past tense as speakers can be certain about events that have occurred. In some cases, realis mood is used to convey present tense --- often to indicate a state of being. Wuvulu speakers use an irrealis mood to convey future tense. Tense in Wuvulu-Aua may also be implied by using time adverbials and aspectual markings. Wuvulu contains three verbal markers to indicate sequence of events. The preverbal adverbial *loʔo* \'first\' indicates the verb occurs before any other. The postverbal morpheme *liai* and *linia* are the respective intransitive and transitive suffixes indicating a repeated action. The postverbal morpheme *li* and *liria* are the respective intransitive and transitive suffixes indicating a completed action.
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# Grammatical tense ## In particular languages {#in_particular_languages} ### Mortlockese Mortlockese uses tense markers such as *mii* and to denote the present tense state of a subject, *aa* to denote a present tense state that an object has changed to from a different, past state, *kɞ* to describe something that has already been completed, *pɞ* and *lɛ* to denote future tense, *pʷapʷ* to denote a possible action or state in future tense, and *sæn/mwo* for something that has not happened yet. Each of these markers is used in conjunction with the subject proclitics except for the markers *aa* and *mii*. Additionally, the marker *mii* can be used with any type of intransitive verb
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# OpenGL Utility Toolkit The **OpenGL Utility Toolkit** (**GLUT**) is a library of utilities for OpenGL programs, which primarily perform system-level I/O with the host operating system. Functions performed include window definition, window control, and monitoring of keyboard and mouse input. Routines for drawing a number of geometric primitives (both in solid and wireframe mode) are also provided, including cubes, spheres and the Utah teapot. GLUT also has some limited support for creating pop-up menus. GLUT was written by Mark J. Kilgard, author of *OpenGL Programming for the X Window System* and *The Cg Tutorial: The Definitive Guide to Programmable Real-Time Graphics*, while he was working for Silicon Graphics Inc. The two aims of GLUT are to allow the creation of rather portable code between operating systems (GLUT is cross-platform) and to make learning OpenGL easier. Getting started with OpenGL programming while using GLUT often takes only a few lines of code and does not require knowledge of operating system--specific windowing APIs. All GLUT functions start with the `glut` prefix (for example, `glutPostRedisplay` marks the current window as needing to be redrawn). ## Implementations The original GLUT library by Mark Kilgard supports the X Window System (GLX) and was ported to Microsoft Windows (WGL) by Nate Robins. Additionally, macOS ships with a GLUT framework that supports its own NSGL/CGL. Kilgard\'s GLUT library is no longer maintained, and its license did not permit the redistribution of modified versions of the library. This spurred the need for free software or open source reimplementations of the API from scratch. The first such library was FreeGLUT, which aims to be a reasonably close reproduction, though introducing a small number of new functions to deal with GLUT\'s limitations. OpenGLUT, a fork of FreeGLUT, adds a number of new features to the original API, but work on it ceased in May 2005. Mark Kilgard has a GitHub repository for GLUT. The glut.h header file contains the following license: `/* Copyright (c) Mark J. Kilgard, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2006, 2010. */`\ \ `/* This program is freely distributable without licensing fees  and is`\ `  provided without guarantee or warrantee expressed or  implied. This`\ `  program is -not- in the public domain. */` ## Limitations Some of GLUT\'s original design decisions made it hard for programmers to perform desired tasks. This led many to create non-canon patches and extensions to GLUT.[1](http://www.mathies.com/glfaq/GLToolkitFAQ.html#II) Some free software or open source reimplementations also include fixes. Some of the more notable limitations of the original GLUT library include: - The library requires programmers to call `glutMainLoop()`, a function which never returns. This makes it hard for programmers to integrate GLUT into a program or library which wishes to have control of its own event loop. A common patch to fix this is to introduce a new function, called `glutCheckLoop()` (macOS) or `glutMainLoopEvent()` (FreeGLUT/OpenGLUT), which runs only a single iteration of the GLUT event loop. Another common workaround is to run GLUT\'s event loop in a separate thread, although this may vary by operating system, and also may introduce synchronization issues or other problems: for example, the macOS GLUT implementation requires that `glutMainLoop()` be run in the main thread. - The fact that `glutMainLoop()` never returns also means that a GLUT program cannot exit the event loop. FreeGLUT fixes this by introducing a new function, `glutLeaveMainLoop()`. - The library terminates the process when the window is closed; for some applications this may not be desired. Thus, many implementations include an extra callback, such as `glutWMCloseFunc()`. Since it is no longer maintained (essentially replaced by the open source FreeGLUT) the above design issues are still not resolved in the original GLUT
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# German Navy *Pandoc failed*: ``` Error at (line 148, column 1): unexpected '{' {{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Navies/OF/Blank}} ^ ``
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# Gambler's fallacy The **gambler\'s fallacy**, also known as the **Monte Carlo fallacy** or the **fallacy of the maturity of chances**, is the belief that, if an event (whose occurrences are independent and identically distributed) has occurred less frequently than expected, it is more likely to happen again in the future (or vice versa). The fallacy is commonly associated with gambling, where it may be believed, for example, that the next dice roll is more likely to be six than is usually the case because there have recently been fewer than the expected number of sixes. The term \"Monte Carlo fallacy\" originates from an example of the phenomenon, in which the roulette wheel spun black 26 times in succession at the Monte Carlo Casino in 1913. ## Examples ### Coin toss {#coin_toss} The gambler\'s fallacy can be illustrated by considering the repeated toss of a fair coin. The outcomes in different tosses are statistically independent and the probability of getting heads on a single toss is `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} (one in two). The probability of getting two heads in two tosses is `{{sfrac|1|4}}`{=mediawiki} (one in four) and the probability of getting three heads in three tosses is `{{sfrac|1|8}}`{=mediawiki} (one in eight). In general, if *A~i~* is the event where toss *i* of a fair coin comes up heads, then: $$\Pr\left(\bigcap_{i=1}^n A_i\right)=\prod_{i=1}^n \Pr(A_i)={1\over2^n}$$. If after tossing four heads in a row, the next coin toss also came up heads, it would complete a run of five successive heads. Since the probability of a run of five successive heads is `{{sfrac|1|32}}`{=mediawiki} (one in thirty-two), a person might believe that the next flip would be more likely to come up tails rather than heads again. This is incorrect and is an example of the gambler\'s fallacy. The event \"5 heads in a row\" and the event \"first 4 heads, then a tails\" are equally likely, each having probability `{{sfrac|1|32}}`{=mediawiki}. Since the first four tosses turn up heads, the probability that the next toss is a head is: $$\Pr\left(A_5|A_1 \cap A_2 \cap A_3 \cap A_4 \right)=\Pr\left(A_5\right)=\frac{1}{2}$$. While a run of five heads has a probability of `{{sfrac|1|32}}`{=mediawiki} = 0.03125 (a little over 3%), the misunderstanding lies in not realizing that this is the case *only before the first coin is tossed*. After the first four tosses in this example, the results are no longer unknown, so their probabilities are at that point equal to 1 (100%). The probability of a run of coin tosses of any length continuing for one more toss is always 0.5. The reasoning that a fifth toss is more likely to be tails because the previous four tosses were heads, with a run of luck in the past influencing the odds in the future, forms the basis of the fallacy. ### Why the probability is `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} for a fair coin {#why_the_probability_is_for_a_fair_coin} If a fair coin is flipped 21 times, the probability of 21 heads is 1 in 2,097,152. The probability of flipping a head after having already flipped 20 heads in a row is `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki}. Assuming a fair coin: - The probability of 20 heads, then 1 tail is 0.5^20^ × 0.5 = 0.5^21^ - The probability of 20 heads, then 1 head is 0.5^20^ × 0.5 = 0.5^21^ The probability of getting 20 heads then 1 tail, and the probability of getting 20 heads then another head are both 1 in 2,097,152. When flipping a fair coin 21 times, the outcome is equally likely to be 21 heads as 20 heads and then 1 tail. These two outcomes are equally as likely as any of the other combinations that can be obtained from 21 flips of a coin. All of the 21-flip combinations will have probabilities equal to 0.5^21^, or 1 in 2,097,152. Assuming that a change in the probability will occur as a result of the outcome of prior flips is incorrect because every outcome of a 21-flip sequence is as likely as the other outcomes. In accordance with Bayes\' theorem, the likely outcome of each flip is the probability of the fair coin, which is `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki}. ### Other examples {#other_examples} The fallacy leads to the incorrect notion that previous failures will create an increased probability of success on subsequent attempts. For a fair 16-sided die, the probability of each outcome occurring is `{{sfrac|1|16}}`{=mediawiki} (6.25%). If a win is defined as rolling a 1, the probability of a 1 occurring at least once in 16 rolls is: $$1-\left[\frac{15}{16}\right]^{16} \,=\, 64.39\%$$ The probability of a loss on the first roll is `{{sfrac|15|16}}`{=mediawiki} (93.75%). According to the fallacy, the player should have a higher chance of winning after one loss has occurred. The probability of at least one win is now: $$1-\left[\frac{15}{16}\right]^{15} \,=\, 62.02\%$$ By losing one toss, the player\'s probability of winning drops by two percentage points. With 5 losses and 11 rolls remaining, the probability of winning drops to around 0.5 (50%). The probability of at least one win does not increase after a series of losses; indeed, the probability of success *actually decreases*, because there are fewer trials left in which to win. The probability of winning will eventually be equal to the probability of winning a single toss, which is `{{sfrac|1|16}}`{=mediawiki} (6.25%) and occurs when only one toss is left. ## Reverse position {#reverse_position} After a consistent tendency towards tails, a gambler may also decide that tails has become a more likely outcome. This is a rational and Bayesian conclusion, bearing in mind the possibility that the coin may not be fair; it is not a fallacy. Believing the odds to favor tails, the gambler sees no reason to change to heads. However, it is a fallacy that a sequence of trials carries a memory of past results which tend to favor or disfavor future outcomes. The inverse gambler\'s fallacy described by Ian Hacking is a situation where a gambler entering a room and seeing a person rolling a double six on a pair of dice may erroneously conclude that the person must have been rolling the dice for quite a while, as they would be unlikely to get a double six on their first attempt.
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# Gambler's fallacy ## Retrospective gambler\'s fallacy {#retrospective_gamblers_fallacy} Researchers have examined whether a similar bias exists for inferences about unknown past events based upon known subsequent events, calling this the \"retrospective gambler\'s fallacy\". An example of a retrospective gambler\'s fallacy would be to observe multiple successive \"heads\" on a coin toss and conclude from this that the previously unknown flip was \"tails\". Real world examples of retrospective gambler\'s fallacy have been argued to exist in events such as the origin of the Universe. In his book *Universes*, John Leslie argues that \"the presence of vastly many universes very different in their characters might be our best explanation for why at least one universe has a life-permitting character\". Daniel M. Oppenheimer and Benoît Monin argue that \"In other words, the \'best explanation\' for a low-probability event is that it is only one in a multiple of trials, which is the core intuition of the reverse gambler\'s fallacy.\" Philosophical arguments are ongoing about whether such arguments are or are not a fallacy, arguing that the occurrence of our universe says nothing about the existence of other universes or trials of universes. Three studies involving Stanford University students tested the existence of a retrospective gamblers\' fallacy. All three studies concluded that people have a gamblers\' fallacy retrospectively as well as to future events. The authors of all three studies concluded their findings have significant \"methodological implications\" but may also have \"important theoretical implications\" that need investigation and research, saying \"\[a\] thorough understanding of such reasoning processes requires that we not only examine how they influence our predictions of the future, but also our perceptions of the past.\" ## Childbirth In 1796, Pierre-Simon Laplace described in *A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities* the ways in which men calculated their probability of having sons: \"I have seen men, ardently desirous of having a son, who could learn only with anxiety of the births of boys in the month when they expected to become fathers. Imagining that the ratio of these births to those of girls ought to be the same at the end of each month, they judged that the boys already born would render more probable the births next of girls.\" The expectant fathers feared that if more sons were born in the surrounding community, then they themselves would be more likely to have a daughter. This essay by Laplace is regarded as one of the earliest descriptions of the fallacy. Likewise, after having multiple children of the same sex, some parents may erroneously believe that they are due to have a child of the opposite sex. ## Monte Carlo Casino {#monte_carlo_casino} An example of the gambler\'s fallacy occurred in a game of roulette at the Monte Carlo Casino on August 18, 1913, when the ball fell in black 26 times in a row. This was an extremely unlikely occurrence: for any given sequence of 26 spins, the probability of either red or black occurring 26 times in a row on a single zero roulette wheel is `{{math|2×({{sfrac|18|37}})<sup>26</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} or around 1 in 68.4 million, assuming the mechanism is unbiased. Gamblers lost millions of francs betting against black, reasoning incorrectly that the streak was causing an imbalance in the randomness of the wheel, and that it had to be followed by a long streak of red.
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# Gambler's fallacy ## Non-examples {#non_examples} ### Non-independent events {#non_independent_events} The gambler\'s fallacy does not apply when the probability of different events is not independent. In such cases, the probability of future events can change based on the outcome of past events, such as the statistical permutation of events. An example is when cards are drawn from a deck without replacement. If an ace is drawn from a deck and not reinserted, the next card drawn is less likely to be an ace and more likely to be of another rank. The probability of drawing another ace, assuming that it was the first card drawn and that there are no jokers, has decreased from `{{sfrac|4|52}}`{=mediawiki} (7.69%) to `{{sfrac|3|51}}`{=mediawiki} (5.88%), while the probability for each other rank has increased from `{{sfrac|4|52}}`{=mediawiki} (7.69%) to `{{sfrac|4|51}}`{=mediawiki} (7.84%). This effect allows card counting systems to work in games such as blackjack. ### Bias In most illustrations of the gambler\'s fallacy and the reverse gambler\'s fallacy, the trial (e.g. flipping a coin) is assumed to be fair. In practice, this assumption may not hold. For example, if a coin is flipped 21 times, the probability of 21 heads with a fair coin is 1 in 2,097,152. Since this probability is so small, if it happens, it may well be that the coin is somehow biased towards landing on heads, or that it is being controlled by hidden magnets, or similar. In this case, the smart bet is \"heads\" because Bayesian inference from the empirical evidence --- 21 heads in a row --- suggests that the coin is likely to be biased toward heads. Bayesian inference can be used to show that when the long-run proportion of different outcomes is unknown but exchangeable (meaning that the random process from which the outcomes are generated may be biased but is equally likely to be biased in any direction) and that previous observations demonstrate the likely direction of the bias, the outcome which has occurred the most in the observed data is the most likely to occur again. For example, if the *a priori* probability of a biased coin is say 1%, and assuming that such a biased coin would come down heads say 60% of the time, then after 21 heads the probability of a biased coin has increased to about 32%. The opening scene of the play *Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead* by Tom Stoppard discusses these issues as one man continually flips heads and the other considers various possible explanations. ### Changing probabilities {#changing_probabilities} If external factors are allowed to change the probability of the events, the gambler\'s fallacy may not hold. For example, a change in the game rules might favour one player over the other, improving his or her win percentage. Similarly, an inexperienced player\'s success may decrease after opposing teams learn about and play against their weaknesses. This is another example of bias.
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# Gambler's fallacy ## Psychology ### Origins The gambler\'s fallacy arises out of a belief in a law of small numbers, leading to the erroneous belief that small samples must be representative of the larger population. According to the fallacy, streaks must eventually even out in order to be representative. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first proposed that the gambler\'s fallacy is a cognitive bias produced by a psychological heuristic called the representativeness heuristic, which states that people evaluate the probability of a certain event by assessing how similar it is to events they have experienced before, and how similar the events surrounding those two processes are. According to this view, \"after observing a long run of red on the roulette wheel, for example, most people erroneously believe that black will result in a more representative sequence than the occurrence of an additional red\", so people expect that a short run of random outcomes should share properties of a longer run, specifically in that deviations from average should balance out. When people are asked to make up a random-looking sequence of coin tosses, they tend to make sequences where the proportion of heads to tails stays closer to 0.5 in any short segment than would be predicted by chance, a phenomenon known as insensitivity to sample size. Kahneman and Tversky interpret this to mean that people believe short sequences of random events should be representative of longer ones. The representativeness heuristic is also cited behind the related phenomenon of the clustering illusion, according to which people see streaks of random events as being non-random when such streaks are actually much more likely to occur in small samples than people expect. The gambler\'s fallacy can also be attributed to the mistaken belief that gambling, or even chance itself, is a fair process that can correct itself in the event of streaks, known as the just-world fallacy. Other researchers believe that belief in the fallacy may be the result of a mistaken belief in an internal locus of control. When a person believes that gambling outcomes are the result of their own skill, they may be more susceptible to the gambler\'s fallacy because they reject the idea that chance could overcome skill or talent. ### Variations Some researchers believe that it is possible to define two types of gambler\'s fallacy: type one and type two. Type one is the classic gambler\'s fallacy, where individuals believe that a particular outcome is due after a long streak of another outcome. Type two gambler\'s fallacy, as defined by Gideon Keren and Charles Lewis, occurs when a gambler underestimates how many observations are needed to detect a favorable outcome, such as watching a roulette wheel for a length of time and then betting on the numbers that appear most often. For events with a high degree of randomness, detecting a bias that will lead to a favorable outcome takes an impractically large amount of time and is very difficult, if not impossible, to do. The two types differ in that type one wrongly assumes that gambling conditions are fair and perfect, while type two assumes that the conditions are biased, and that this bias can be detected after a certain amount of time. Another variety, known as the retrospective gambler\'s fallacy, occurs when individuals judge that a seemingly rare event must come from a longer sequence than a more common event does. The belief that an imaginary sequence of die rolls is more than three times as long when a set of three sixes is observed as opposed to when there are only two sixes. This effect can be observed in isolated instances, or even sequentially. Another example would involve hearing that a teenager has unprotected sex and becomes pregnant on a given night, and concluding that she has been engaging in unprotected sex for longer than if we hear she had unprotected sex but did not become pregnant, when the probability of becoming pregnant as a result of each intercourse is independent of the amount of prior intercourse.
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# Gambler's fallacy ## Psychology ### Relationship to hot-hand fallacy {#relationship_to_hot_hand_fallacy} Another psychological perspective states that gambler\'s fallacy can be seen as the counterpart to basketball\'s hot-hand fallacy, in which people tend to predict the same outcome as the previous event - known as positive recency - resulting in a belief that a high scorer will continue to score. In the gambler\'s fallacy, people predict the opposite outcome of the previous event - negative recency - believing that since the roulette wheel has landed on black on the previous six occasions, it is due to land on red the next. Ayton and Fischer have theorized that people display positive recency for the hot-hand fallacy because the fallacy deals with human performance, and that people do not believe that an inanimate object can become \"hot.\" Human performance is not perceived as random, and people are more likely to continue streaks when they believe that the process generating the results is nonrandom. When a person exhibits the gambler\'s fallacy, they are more likely to exhibit the hot-hand fallacy as well, suggesting that one construct is responsible for the two fallacies. The difference between the two fallacies is also found in economic decision-making. A study by Huber, Kirchler, and Stockl in 2010 examined how the hot hand and the gambler\'s fallacy are exhibited in the financial market. The researchers gave their participants a choice: they could either bet on the outcome of a series of coin tosses, use an expert opinion to sway their decision, or choose a risk-free alternative instead for a smaller financial reward. Participants turned to the expert opinion to make their decision 24% of the time based on their past experience of success, which exemplifies the hot-hand. If the expert was correct, 78% of the participants chose the expert\'s opinion again, as opposed to 57% doing so when the expert was wrong. The participants also exhibited the gambler\'s fallacy, with their selection of either heads or tails decreasing after noticing a streak of either outcome. This experiment helped bolster Ayton and Fischer\'s theory that people put more faith in human performance than they do in seemingly random processes. ### Neurophysiology While the representativeness heuristic and other cognitive biases are the most commonly cited cause of the gambler\'s fallacy, research suggests that there may also be a neurological component. Functional magnetic resonance imaging has shown that after losing a bet or gamble, known as riskloss, the frontoparietal network of the brain is activated, resulting in more risk-taking behavior. In contrast, there is decreased activity in the amygdala, caudate, and ventral striatum after a riskloss. Activation in the amygdala is negatively correlated with gambler\'s fallacy, so that the more activity exhibited in the amygdala, the less likely an individual is to fall prey to the gambler\'s fallacy. These results suggest that gambler\'s fallacy relies more on the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for executive, goal-directed processes, and less on the brain areas that control affective decision-making. The desire to continue gambling or betting is controlled by the striatum, which supports a choice-outcome contingency learning method. The striatum processes the errors in prediction and the behavior changes accordingly. After a win, the positive behavior is reinforced and after a loss, the behavior is conditioned to be avoided. In individuals exhibiting the gambler\'s fallacy, this choice-outcome contingency method is impaired, and they continue to make risks after a series of losses.
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# Gambler's fallacy ## Psychology ### Possible solutions {#possible_solutions} The gambler\'s fallacy is a deep-seated cognitive bias and can be very hard to overcome. Educating individuals about the nature of randomness has not always proven effective in reducing or eliminating any manifestation of the fallacy. Participants in a study by Beach and Swensson in 1967 were shown a shuffled deck of index cards with shapes on them, and were instructed to guess which shape would come next in a sequence. The experimental group of participants was informed about the nature and existence of the gambler\'s fallacy, and were explicitly instructed not to rely on run dependency to make their guesses. The control group was not given this information. The response styles of the two groups were similar, indicating that the experimental group still based their choices on the length of the run sequence. This led to the conclusion that instructing individuals about randomness is not sufficient in lessening the gambler\'s fallacy. An individual\'s susceptibility to the gambler\'s fallacy may decrease with age. A study by Fischbein and Schnarch in 1997 administered a questionnaire to five groups: students in grades 5, 7, 9, 11, and college students specializing in teaching mathematics. None of the participants had received any prior education regarding probability. The question asked was: \"Ronni flipped a coin three times and in all cases heads came up. Ronni intends to flip the coin again. What is the chance of getting heads the fourth time?\" The results indicated that as the students got older, the less likely they were to answer with \"smaller than the chance of getting tails\", which would indicate a negative recency effect. 35% of the 5th graders, 35% of the 7th graders, and 20% of the 9th graders exhibited the negative recency effect. Only 10% of the 11th graders answered this way, and none of the college students did. Fischbein and Schnarch theorized that an individual\'s tendency to rely on the representativeness heuristic and other cognitive biases can be overcome with age. Another possible solution comes from Roney and Trick, Gestalt psychologists who suggest that the fallacy may be eliminated as a result of grouping. When a future event such as a coin toss is described as part of a sequence, no matter how arbitrarily, a person will automatically consider the event as it relates to the past events, resulting in the gambler\'s fallacy. When a person considers every event as independent, the fallacy can be greatly reduced. Roney and Trick told participants in their experiment that they were betting on either two blocks of six coin tosses, or on two blocks of seven coin tosses. The fourth, fifth, and sixth tosses all had the same outcome, either three heads or three tails. The seventh toss was grouped with either the end of one block, or the beginning of the next block. Participants exhibited the strongest gambler\'s fallacy when the seventh trial was part of the first block, directly after the sequence of three heads or tails. The researchers pointed out that the participants that did not show the gambler\'s fallacy showed less confidence in their bets and bet fewer times than the participants who picked with the gambler\'s fallacy. When the seventh trial was grouped with the second block, and was perceived as not being part of a streak, the gambler\'s fallacy did not occur. Roney and Trick argued that instead of teaching individuals about the nature of randomness, the fallacy could be avoided by training people to treat each event as if it is a beginning and not a continuation of previous events. They suggested that this would prevent people from gambling when they are losing, in the mistaken hope that their chances of winning are due to increase based on an interaction with previous events.
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# Gambler's fallacy ## Users ### Types of users {#types_of_users} Within a real-world setting, numerous studies have uncovered that for various decision makers placed in high stakes scenarios, it is likely they will reflect some degree of strong negative autocorrelation in their judgement. #### Asylum judges {#asylum_judges} In a study aimed at discovering if the negative autocorrelation that exists with the gambler\'s fallacy existed in the decision made by U.S. asylum judges, results showed that after two successive asylum grants, a judge would be 5.5% less likely to approve a third grant. #### Baseball umpires {#baseball_umpires} In the game of baseball, decisions are made every minute. One particular decision made by umpires which is often subject to scrutiny is the \'strike zone\' decision. Whenever a batter does not swing, the umpire must decide if the ball was within a fair region for the batter, known as the strike zone. If outside of this zone, the ball does not count towards outing the batter. In a study of over 12,000 games, results showed that umpires are 1.3% less likely to call a strike if the previous two balls were also strikes. #### Loan officers {#loan_officers} In the decision making of loan officers, it can be argued that monetary incentives are a key factor in biased decision making, rendering it harder to examine the gambler\'s fallacy effect. However, research shows that loan officers who are not incentivised by monetary gain are 8% less likely to approve a loan if they approved one for the previous client. #### Lottery players {#lottery_players} Lottery play and jackpots entice gamblers around the globe, with the biggest decision for hopeful winners being what numbers to pick. While most people will have their own strategy, evidence shows that after a number is selected as a winner in the current draw, the same number will experience a significant drop in selections in the following lottery. A popular study by Charles Clotfelter and Philip Cook investigated this effect in 1991, where they concluded bettors would cease to select numbers immediately after they were selected, ultimately recovering selection popularity within three months. Soon after, a 1994 study was constructed by Dek Terrell to test the findings of Clotfelter and Cook. The key change in Terrell\'s study was the examination of a pari-mutuel lottery in which, a number selected with lower total wagers placed on it will result in a higher pay-out. While this examination did conclude that players in both types of lotteries exhibited behaviour in-line with the gambler\'s fallacy theory, those who took part in pari-mutuel betting seemed to be less influenced. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------- Numbers drawn 14 April 1988 April Winner Numbers 11 244 12 504 13 718 14 323 15 640 16 957 Average percentage of players selecting previously winning numbers compared to day of draw -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------- : Table 1. Percentage change in numbers selected by lottery players based on Clotfelter, Cook (1991) The effect the of gambler\'s fallacy can be observed as numbers are chosen far less frequently soon after they are selected as winners, recovering slowly over a two-month period. For example, on the 11th of April 1988, 41 players selected 244 as the winning combination. Three days later only 24 individuals selected 244, a 41.5% decrease. This is the gambler\'s fallacy in motion, as lottery players believe that the occurrence of a winning combination in previous days will decrease its likelihood of occurring today. #### Video game players {#video_game_players} Several video games feature the use of loot boxes, a collection of in-game items awarded on opening with random contents set by rarity metrics, as a monetization scheme. Since around 2018, loot boxes have come under scrutiny from governments and advocates on the basis they are akin to gambling, particularly for games aimed at youth. Some games use a special \"pity-timer\" mechanism, that if the player has opened several loot boxes in a row without obtaining a high-rarity item, subsequent loot boxes will improve the odds of a higher-rate item drop. This is considered to feed into the gambler\'s fallacy since it reinforces the idea that a player will eventually obtain a high-rarity item (a win) after only receiving common items from a string of previous loot boxes
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# Gilbert Plains **Gilbert Plains** is an unincorporated urban community in the Gilbert Plains Municipality, Manitoba, Canada, that was classified as a town prior to January 1, 2015. It is situated on the Valley River, in the Parkland Region between Riding Mountain National Park and Duck Mountain Provincial Park. Gilbert Plains was featured during season 3 of the CBC program *Still Standing*. The episode originally aired on September 5, 2017. ## History Incorporated in 1906, the original townsite was some miles to the south. The community was named for Gilbert Ross, a Métis man who was living in the region when the first European settler, Glenlyon Campbell, arrived. On 1 January 2015, the **Town of Gilbert Plains** relinquished its town status when it amalgamated with the Rural Municipality of Gilbert Plains to form the Gilbert Plains Municipality. ## Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Gilbert Plains had a population of 773 living in 356 of its 407 total private dwellings, a change of `{{percentage|{{#expr:773-785}}`{=mediawiki}\|785\|1}} from its 2016 population of 785. With a land area of 2.74 km2, it had a population density of `{{Pop density|773|2.74|km2|sqmi|prec=1}}`{=mediawiki} in 2021. ## Media A local newspaper, *The Exponent*, serviced both Gilbert Plains and its neighboring town, Grandview. *The Exponent* closed on 24 February 2017, after 117 years of operation. A weekly non-profit newspaper, *The Plain View,* published its first issue on 5 June 2018, and has been running ever since. It serves both Gilbert Plains and Grandview. ## Transportation The community is located on Highway 5 and the CN railway line between Dauphin and Grandview, approximately 250 mi northwest of Winnipeg. Gilbert Plains railway station receives Via Rail service. The community previously had an airport
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# Gasparo Contarini **Gasparo Contarini** (16 October 1483 -- 24 August 1542) was an Italian diplomat, cardinal, and Bishop of Belluno. He advocated for dialogue with Protestants during the Reformation. Born in Venice, he served as the Republic\'s ambassador to Charles V during its war with him. He was the first to explain the time discrepancy in the Magellan--Elcano circumnavigation due to Earth\'s rotation. He participated in diplomatic efforts and reconciliations, and became a cardinal, even though he was initially a layman. Contarini was a leader in the reform movement within the Roman Catholic Church. He played a role in the papal approval of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). He was also involved in attempts to restore religious unity in Germany. Contarini\'s work, *De magistratibus et republica venetorum*, praised the Venetian government system for its harmony, fairness, and stability. He described the electoral process, particularly the lottery system for choosing officials, emphasizing fairness and equality. Contarini\'s depiction of the Doge, Venice\'s leader, highlighted the balance between symbolic monarchy and the power of civic institutions. He portrayed the Doge as both a regal figure and a representative of the city\'s republican governance. Contarini\'s writings aimed to glorify the republican nature of Venice while showcasing its ceremonial and symbolic elements. ## Biography He was born in Venice, the eldest son of Alvise Contarini, of the ancient noble House of Contarini, and his wife Polissena Malpiero. After a thorough scientific and philosophical training at the University of Padua, he began his career in the service of his native city. From September 1520 to August 1525 he was the Republic\'s ambassador to Charles V, with whom Venice was soon at war, instructed to defend the Republic\'s alliance with Francis I of France. Though he participated at the Diet of Worms, April 1521, he never saw or spoke with Martin Luther. He accompanied Charles in the Netherlands and Spain. Contarini was in Spain when the Magellan--Elcano circumnavigation returned in 1522, bringing with them a cargo of spices from the East as well as a scientific curiosity. Although the sailors had carefully recorded every day of the three-year journey since they left Seville, the ship\'s log was one day earlier than the actual date when they returned to Seville. Contarini was the first European to give a correct explanation of this phenomenon. Since the ship had sailed westward around the world, in the same direction as the apparent motion of the sun in the sky, the sailors had experienced one fewer sunrise than a stationary observer. He participated at the Congress of Ferrara in 1526 as the Republic\'s representative; at the Congress the League of Cognac was formed against the Emperor, allying France with Venice and several states of Italy. Later, after the Sack of Rome (1527), he assisted in reconciling the emperor with Clement VII, whose release he had obtained, and with the Republic of Bologna. Upon his return to Venice, he was made a senator and a member of the Great Council. ### Spirituality According to historian Constance Furey, Contarini \"was representative of a European-wide phenomenon associated with names such as Erasmus, Thomas More and Lefèvre d\'Étaples, people who combined an Erasmian critique of the established church and ritualism with an interest in biblical scholarship as a means of cultivating internal piety,\" each with no thought of leaving the Catholic church. In a letter to encourage a missed friend who had become a hermit, Contarini late recounted an event in 1511 where, following Confession with a wise and holy monk, he had a peace-giving epiphany that reliance on penances and heroic asceticism was not necessary for salvation, instead of simple faith, hope and charity: Christ\'s passion was \"more than sufficient.\" This has been likened by some historians as a similar event to Luther\'s \"tower experience\" and some historians even ascribe Lutheran views to Contarini, however the parallels are disputed by other historians.
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# Gasparo Contarini ## Biography ### Cardinalate In 1535, Paul III unexpectedly made the secular diplomat a cardinal in order to bind an able man of evangelical disposition to the Roman interests. Contarini accepted, but in his new position did not exhibit his former independence. At the time he was promoted to cardinal, May 21, 1535, he was still a layman. However, already in October 1536 he was appointed Bishop of Belluno. One of the fruits of his diplomatic activity is his *De magistratibus et republica Venetorum*. As Cardinal, Contarini figured among the most prominent of the *Spirituali*, the leaders of the movement for reform within the Roman church. In April 1536 Paul III appointed a commission to devise ways for a reformation, with Contarini presiding. Paul III received favorably Contarini\'s *Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia*, which was circulated among the cardinalate, but it remained a dead letter. Contarini in a letter to his friend Cardinal Reginald Pole (dated 11 November 1538) says that his hopes had been wakened anew by the pope\'s attitude. He and his friends, who formed the Catholic evangelical movement of the Spirituali, thought that all would have been done when the abuses in church life had been put away. What Contarini had to do with it is shown by his letters to the pope in which he complained of the schism in the church, of simony and flattery in the papal court, and the dangers of a papal *fiat* monarchy, its least grateful passages. Paul\'s successor Paul IV, once a member on the same 1536 commission and fellow *spirituali*, put it on the new *Index Librorum Prohibitorum*. In 1541 Cardinal Contarini was papal legate at the Conference of Regensburg, the diet and religious debate marking the culmination of attempts to restore religious unity in Germany by means of conferences. There everything was unfavorable; the Catholic states were bitter, the Evangelicals were distant. Contarini\'s instructions though apparently free were in fact full of papal reservations. But the papal party had gladly sent him, thinking that through him a union in doctrine could be brought about, while the interest of Rome could be attended to later. Though the princes stood aloof, the theologians and the emperor were for peace, so the main articles were put forth in a formula, Evangelical in thought and Catholic in expression. The papal legate had revised the Catholic proposal and assented to the formula agreed upon. All gave their approval, even Johann Eck, though he later regretted it. Contarini\'s theological advisor was Tommaso Badia; his own position is shown in a treatise on justification, composed at Regensburg, which in essential points is Evangelical, differing only in the omission of the negative side and in being interwoven with the teaching of Aquinas. Meanwhile, the papal policy had changed, and Contarini chose to follow this. He advised the emperor, after the conference had broken up, not to renew it, but to submit everything to the pope. Ignatius Loyola acknowledged that Cardinal Contarini was largely responsible for the papal approbation of the Society of Jesus, on September 27, 1540. Meanwhile, Rome had drifted further into reaction, and Contarini died while legate at Bologna, at a time when the Inquisition had driven many of his friends and fellows in conviction into exile.
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# Gasparo Contarini ## The Commonwealth and Government of Venice {#the_commonwealth_and_government_of_venice} Contarini\'s book *De magistratibus et republica venetorum* (Paris, 1543) is an important source for the study of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Venice\'s unique system of government. It was published in an English translation in 1599. This magisterial work, written during his time as an ambassador to Charles V, extols the various institutions of the Venetian state in a manner designed to emphasize harmony, fairness and serenity. Historians have demonstrated that this text represents Contarini\'s idealization of Venetian reality. Probably written for a foreign, courtly audience, this work functions as the source for the everlasting propagation of the \"myth of Venice\" as a stable, unchanging and prosperous society. His depiction of how members of the council were elected to the senate, for example, aimed to emphasise the way the electoral system prevented factionalism from occurring, instead making sure that "public benefits are largely extended among the citizens" rather than narrowly amongst "one family" . An elaborate lottery is described as giving the maximum amount of chance in appointing patricians to particular offices, and care is taken to point out if two of one family are standing for similar posts. Fairness is further emphasised in Contarini\'s constant references to the equality the members of the council enjoyed. They "sit down where it pleases them, for there is no place appointed to any", and they "with oath promise to do their utmost diligence, that the laws may be observed" . He creates an image of disparate individuals, with factions broken up by the guiding hand of the law, working to ensure those in positions of importance are fairly chosen from their number and without the capacity to serve the interests of a smaller group. Contarini\'s depiction of the Doge lucidly demonstrates the way in which this figure embodies both the conscious illusion of a resplendent monarchical ruler and an equally conscious demonstration of a regime that wishes to portray itself as ruled by many limiting the powers of one. This calculated duality means that Contarini\'s doge, which the second book of De magistratibus is almost entirely devoted to discussing, represents the closest point in his text to what actually occurred, because the Doge served as a literal embodiment of the idealisation of the reality of Venetian politics. For Contarini, this duality almost defines the greatness of the Venetian constitution. The Doge is the "heart", under which "all are comprised" . Contarini places him in the centre of his body metaphor, making him synecdochical for the city and the people that reside within it. This means he is to ensure that the disparate, competing interests of the city beat in time with one another, creating in the process the "perfection of civil agreement". His job as a conductor, rather than a ruler, means therefore that the role takes on the aspect of representative of the entire city. Contarini\'s description of his vestments, privileges and rituals can therefore be compared to Marin Sanudo's description of the physical spaces of Venice in his essay *In Praise of Venice*. Both are designed to extol the virtues of the entire city by describing representative parts. This is apparent in the way both authors treat the chapel of St. Mark. Patron saints were hugely important in terms of civic self-identification in renaissance Italy . Contarini emphasizes this, saying that he is "with exceeding honour solemnized of the Venetians" . His description of the Doge\'s close relationship with the saint, through the "solemn pomp" with which he attends mass at the saint\'s chapel, attaches him to the aforementioned "exceeding honour", in a similar fashion to the way in which Sanudo glorifies Venice as a whole by constantly referring to the beauty and worth of St. Mark\'s square and chapel as part of his panoramic praise of the city. At the same time, however, Contarini\'s overall purpose is, of course, the glorification of the republican nature of his city. Therefore, he cannot avoid referring to "the other side" of the Doge\'s figure when discussing his "royal appearing show" . Things like the "kingly ornaments" which were "always purple garments or cloth of gold", both very ostentatious assertions of wealth and power, were to ensure he was "recompensed" for his "limitation of authority" . Contarini thus openly concludes that the Doge is a combination of myth and reality, saying that "in everything you may see the show of a king, but his authority is nothing" . Indeed, as Edward Muir points out, "by the sixteenth century virtually every word, gesture and act that the doge made in public was subject to legal and ceremonial regulation" . He could not buy expensive jewels, own property outside Venice or the Veneto, display his insignia outside the Ducal Palace, decorate his apartment as he wanted, receive people in his ducal dress, send official letters, or have close ties with guilds, amongst a great many other restrictions. Legally, therefore, power in Venice came from the numerous councils, not the figurehead. The Doge thus becomes a brazen republican statement. Venice drew attention to a princely, magnificently adorned figurehead, only to direct most executive power to councils of her citizens
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# Geiger counter *Geiger Counter* (album)}} `{{Infobox laboratory equipment |name = Geiger–Müller counter |image = geiger counter.jpg |caption = A "two-piece" bench-type Geiger–Müller counter using a cylindrical end-window detector connected to an electronics module with analogue readout |acronym = |other_names = Geiger Counter |inventor = [[Hans Geiger]],<br />[[Walther Müller]] |manufacturer = |model = |related = [[Geiger–Müller tube]]}}`{=mediawiki} A **Geiger counter** (`{{IPAc-en|'|g|ai|g|@r}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{respell|GY|gər}}`{=mediawiki}; also known as a **Geiger--Müller counter** or **G-M counter**) is an electronic instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation with the use of a Geiger--Müller tube. It is widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental physics and the nuclear industry. \"Geiger counter\" is often used generically to refer to any form of dosimeter (or, *radiation-measuring device*), but scientifically, a Geiger counter is only one specific type of dosimeter. It detects ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays using the ionization effect produced in a Geiger--Müller tube, which gives its name to the instrument. In wide and prominent use as a hand-held radiation survey instrument, it is perhaps one of the world\'s best-known radiation detection instruments. The original detection principle was realized in 1908 at the University of Manchester, but it was not until the development of the Geiger--Müller tube in 1928 that the Geiger counter could be produced as a practical instrument. Since then, it has been very popular due to its robust sensing element and relatively low cost. However, there are limitations in measuring high radiation rates and the energy of incident radiation. The Geiger counter is one of the first examples of data sonification.
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# Geiger counter ## Principle of operation {#principle_of_operation} thumb\|upright=1.2\|Diagram of a Geiger counter using an \"end window\" tube for low-penetration radiation. A loudspeaker is also used for indication. *Main article: Geiger--Müller tube* A Geiger counter consists of a Geiger--Müller tube (the sensing element which detects the radiation) and the processing electronics, which display the result. The Geiger--Müller tube is filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon, or argon at low pressure, to which a high voltage is applied. The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when high energy particles or gamma radiation make the gas conductive by ionization. The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the Townsend discharge effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to the processing and display electronics. This large pulse from the tube makes the Geiger counter relatively cheap to manufacture, as the subsequent electronics are greatly simplified. The electronics also generate the high voltage, typically 400--900 volts, that has to be applied to the Geiger--Müller tube to enable its operation. This voltage must be carefully selected, as too high a voltage will allow for continuous discharge, damaging the instrument and invalidating the results. Conversely, too low a voltage will result in an electric field that is too weak to generate a current pulse. The correct voltage is usually specified by the manufacturer. To help quickly terminate each discharge in the tube a small amount of halogen gas or organic material known as a quenching mixture is added to the fill gas. ### Readout There are two types of detected radiation readout: counts and radiation dose. - The counts display is the simplest, and shows the number of ionizing events detected, displayed either as a count rate, such as \"counts per minute\" or \"counts per second\", or as a total number of counts over a set time period (an integrated total). The counts readout is normally used when alpha or beta particles are being detected. - More complex to achieve is a display of radiation dose rate, displayed in units such as the sievert, which is normally used for measuring gamma or X-ray dose rates. A Geiger--Müller tube can detect the presence of radiation, but not its energy, which influences the radiation\'s ionizing effect. Consequently, instruments measuring dose rate require the use of an energy compensated Geiger--Müller tube, so that the dose displayed relates to the counts detected. The electronics will apply known factors to make this conversion, which is specific to each instrument and is determined by design and calibration. The readout can be analog or digital, and modern instruments offer serial communications with a host computer or network. There is usually an option to produce audible clicks representing the number of ionization events detected. This is the distinctive sound associated with handheld or portable Geiger counters. The purpose of this is to allow the user to concentrate on manipulation of the instrument while retaining auditory feedback on the radiation rate. ### Limitations There are two main limitations of the Geiger counter: 1. Because the output pulse from a Geiger--Müller tube is always of the same magnitude (regardless of the energy of the incident radiation), the tube cannot differentiate between radiation types or measure radiation energy, which prevents it from correctly measuring dose rate. 2. The tube is less accurate at high radiation rates, because each ionization event is followed by a \"dead time\", an insensitive period during which any further incident radiation does not result in a count. Typically, the dead time will reduce indicated count rates above about 10^4^ to 10^5^ counts per second, depending on the characteristic of the tube being used. While some counters have circuitry which can compensate for this, for measuring very high dose rates, ion chamber instruments are preferred for high radiation rates.
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# Geiger counter ## Types and applications {#types_and_applications} The intended detection application of a Geiger counter dictates the tube design used. Consequently, there are a great many designs, but they can be generally categorized as \"end-window\", windowless \"thin-walled\", \"thick-walled\", and sometimes hybrids of these types. ### Particle detection {#particle_detection} The first historical uses of the Geiger principle were to detect α- and β-particles, and the instrument is still used for this purpose today. For α-particles and low energy β-particles, the \"end-window\" type of a Geiger--Müller tube has to be used, as these particles have a limited range and are easily stopped by a solid material. Therefore, the tube requires a window which is thin enough to allow as many as possible of these particles through to the fill gas. The window is usually made of mica with a density of about 1.5--2.0 mg/cm^2^. α-particles have the shortest range, and to detect these the window should ideally be within 10 mm of the radiation source due to α-particle attenuation. However, the Geiger--Müller tube produces a pulse output which is the same magnitude for all detected radiation, so a Geiger counter with an end window tube cannot distinguish between α- and β-particles. A skilled operator can use varying distance from a radiation source to differentiate between α- and high energy β-particles. The \"pancake\" Geiger--Müller tube is a variant of the end-window probe, but designed with a larger detection area to make checking quicker. However, the pressure of the atmosphere against the low pressure of the fill gas limits the window size due to the limited strength of the window membrane. Some β-particles can also be detected by a thin-walled \"windowless\" Geiger--Müller tube, which has no end-window, but allows high energy β-particles to pass through the tube walls. Although the tube walls have a greater stopping power than a thin end-window, they still allow these more energetic particles to reach the fill gas. End-window Geiger counters are still used as a general purpose, portable, radioactive contamination measurement and detection instrument, owing to their relatively low cost, robustness and relatively high detection efficiency; particularly with high energy β-particles. However, for discrimination between α- and β-particles or provision of particle energy information, scintillation counters or proportional counters should be used. Those instrument types are manufactured with much larger detector areas, which means that checking for surface contamination is quicker than with a Geiger counter. ### Gamma and X-ray detection {#gamma_and_x_ray_detection} Geiger counters are widely used to detect gamma radiation and X-rays, collectively known as photons, and for this the windowless tube is used. However, detection efficiency is low compared to alpha and beta particles. The article on the Geiger--Müller tube carries a more detailed account of the techniques used to detect photon radiation. For high energy photons, the tube relies on the interaction of the radiation with the tube wall, usually a material with a high atomic number such as stainless steel of 1--2 mm thickness, to produce free electrons within the tube wall, due to the photoelectric effect. If these migrate out of the tube wall, they enter and ionize the fill gas. This effect increases the detection efficiency because the low-pressure gas in the tube has poorer interaction with higher energy photons than a steel tube. However, as photon energies decrease to low levels, there is greater gas interaction, and the contribution of direct gas interaction increases. At very low energies (less than 25 keV), direct gas ionisation dominates, and a steel tube attenuates the incident photons. Consequently, at these energies, a typical tube design is a long tube with a thin wall which has a larger gas volume, to give an increased chance of direct interaction of a particle with the fill gas. Above these low energy levels, there is a considerable variance in response to different photon energies of the same intensity, and a steel-walled tube employs what is known as \"energy compensation\" in the form of filter rings around the naked tube, which attempts to compensate for these variations over a large energy range. A steel-walled Geiger--Müller tube is about 1% efficient over a wide range of energies. ### Neutron detection {#neutron_detection} A variation of the Geiger tube can be used to exclusively measure radiation dosage from neutrons rather than from gammas by the process of neutron capture. The tube, which can contain the fill gas boron trifluoride or helium-3, is surrounded by a plastic moderator that reduces neutron energies prior to capture. When a capture occurs in the fill gas, the energy released is registered in the detector. ### Gamma measurement---personnel protection and process control {#gamma_measurementpersonnel_protection_and_process_control} While \"Geiger counter\" is practically synonymous with the hand-held variety, the Geiger principle is in wide use in installed \"area gamma\" alarms for personnel protection, as well as in process measurement and interlock applications. The processing electronics of such installations have a higher degree of sophistication and reliability than those of hand-held meters.
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# Geiger counter ## Types and applications {#types_and_applications} ### Physical design {#physical_design} For hand-held units there are two fundamental physical configurations: the \"integral\" unit with both detector and electronics in the same unit, and the \"two-piece\" design which has a separate detector probe and an electronics module connected by a short cable. In the 1930s a mica window was added to the cylindrical design allowing low-penetration radiation to pass through with ease. The integral unit allows single-handed operation, so the operator can use the other hand for personal security in challenging monitoring positions, but the two piece design allows easier manipulation of the detector, and is commonly used for alpha and beta surface contamination monitoring where careful manipulation of the probe is required or the weight of the electronics module would make operation unwieldy. A number of different sized detectors are available to suit particular situations, such as placing the probe in small apertures or confined spaces. Gamma and X-Ray detectors generally use an \"integral\" design so the Geiger--Müller tube is conveniently within the electronics enclosure. This can easily be achieved because the casing usually has little attenuation, and is employed in ambient gamma measurements where distance from the source of radiation is not a significant factor. However, to facilitate more localised measurements such as \"surface dose\", the position of the tube in the enclosure is sometimes indicated by targets on the enclosure so an accurate measurement can be made with the tube at the correct orientation and a known distance from the surface. There is a particular type of gamma instrument known as a \"hot spot\" detector which has the detector tube on the end of a long pole or flexible conduit. These are used to measure high radiation gamma locations whilst protecting the operator by means of distance shielding. Particle detection of alpha and beta can be used in both integral and two-piece designs. A pancake probe (for alpha/beta) is generally used to increase the area of detection in two-piece instruments whilst being relatively light weight. In integral instruments using an end window tube there is a window in the body of the casing to prevent shielding of particles. There are also hybrid instruments which have a separate probe for particle detection and a gamma detection tube within the electronics module. The detectors are switchable by the operator, depending the radiation type that is being measured. ### Guidance on application use {#guidance_on_application_use} In the United Kingdom the National Radiological Protection Board issued a user guidance note on selecting the best portable instrument type for the radiation measurement application concerned. This covers all radiation protection instrument technologies and includes a guide to the use of G-M detectors.
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# Geiger counter ## History In 1908 Hans Geiger, under the supervision of Ernest Rutherford at the Victoria University of Manchester (now the University of Manchester), developed an experimental technique for detecting alpha particles that would later be used to develop the Geiger--Müller tube in 1928. This early counter was only capable of detecting alpha particles and was part of a larger experimental apparatus. The fundamental ionization mechanism used was discovered by John Sealy Townsend between 1897 and 1901, and is known as the Townsend discharge, which is the ionization of molecules by ion impact. It was not until 1928 that Geiger and Walther Müller (a PhD student of Geiger) developed the sealed Geiger--Müller tube which used basic ionization principles previously used experimentally. Small and rugged, not only could it detect alpha and beta radiation as prior models had done, but also gamma radiation.See: - H. Geiger and W. Müller (1928), \"Elektronenzählrohr zur Messung schwächster Aktivitäten\" (Electron counting tube for the measurement of the weakest radioactivities), *Die Naturwissenschaften* (The Sciences), vol. 16, no. 31, pages 617--618. - Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1928) \"Das Elektronenzählrohr\" (The electron counting tube), *Physikalische Zeitschrift*, **29**: 839-841. - Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1929) \"Technische Bemerkungen zum Elektronenzählrohr\" (Technical notes on the electron counting tube), *Physikalische Zeitschrift*, **30**: 489-493. - Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1929) \"Demonstration des Elektronenzählrohrs\" (Demonstration of the electron counting tube), *Physikalische Zeitschrift*, **30**: 523 ff. Now a practical radiation instrument could be produced relatively cheaply, and so the Geiger counter was born. As the tube output required little electronic processing, a distinct advantage in the thermionic valve era due to minimal valve count and low power consumption, the instrument achieved great popularity as a portable radiation detector. Modern versions of the Geiger counter use halogen quench gases, a technique invented in 1947 by Sidney H. Liebson. Halogen compounds have superseded the organic quench gases because of their much longer life and lower operating voltages; typically 400-900 volts. ## Gallery <File:Transuranic> waste casks.jpg\|Use of a \"hot spot\" detector on a long pole to survey waste casks. <File:RM-80> GM with LCD-90 Micro Controller and Wireless Bluetooth.jpg\|G-M pancake detector (right) feeding a microcontroller data-logger (left) sending data to a PC via bluetooth. A radioactive rock was placed on the detector causing the graph (in background) to rise. <File:Cosmos> 954 - Recovery 001
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# General Synod The **General Synod** is the title of the governing body of some church organizations. ## Anglican Communion {#anglican_communion} The General Synod of the Church of England, which was established in 1970 replacing the Church Assembly, is the legislative body of the Church of England. The equivalent In the Episcopal Church in the United States is the General Convention. Several other churches in the Anglican Communion also have General Synods: - Anglican Church of Australia - Anglican Church of Canada - Church of Ireland - Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia - Scottish Episcopal Church - Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (Anglican Church in Hong Kong) ## Other churches {#other_churches} The United Church of Christ, based in the United States, also calls its main governing body a General Synod. It meets every two years and consists of over 600 delegates from various congregations and conferences. The Missionary Baptist Conference of the USA calls their main governing body a General Synod. It meets annually to set the theological and missional direction for the denomi-network. The Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP) has the General Synod as its highest church court. The ARP General Synod meets yearly and in recent years has, almost without exception, been held at the Bonclarken in North Carolina. The delegates to the General Synod consists of the elder representatives elected from each church\'s session and all ministers from all presbyteries that comprise the Church (excluding ministers and elders from the independent ARP Synods of Mexico and Pakistan). The Evangelical Church of Augsburg and Helvetic Confession in Austria and the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany each call their main legislative bodies *Generalsynode*. The legislative body In the Evangelical Church in Prussia was called *Generalsynode* between 1846 and 1953. The governing body of the Reformed Church in America, a Calvinist denomination in the United States and Canada, is known as the General Synod. , the governing body of the Church of Norway, is normally translated as General Synod. It convenes once a year, and consists of 85 representatives, of whom seven or eight are sent from each of the dioceses. The Batak Christian Protestant Church (BPCP), or *Huria Kristen Batak Protestan* (abbreviated HKBP), held a twice-a-year General Synod (Sinode Godang), to discuss about matters in HKBP, and to elect the new *Ephorus* (or Board) for the HKBP. The first General Synod of HKBP was held in 1922. ## Other uses {#other_uses} In North America, the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States of North America, often referred to as the General Synod, was a Lutheran church body that existed from 1820 to 1918
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# Glasgow City Chambers The **City Chambers** or **Municipal Buildings** in Glasgow, Scotland, has functioned as the headquarters of Glasgow City Council since 1996, and of preceding forms of municipal government in the city since 1889. It is located on the eastern side of the city\'s George Square. It is a Category A listed building. ## History The need for a new city chambers had been apparent since the 18th century, with the old Glasgow Tolbooth at Glasgow Cross becoming insufficient for the purposes of civic government in a growing town with greater political responsibilities. In 1814, the tolbooth was sold -- with the exception of the steeple, which still remains -- and the council chambers moved to the public buildings in the Saltmarket, near Glasgow Green. A subsequent move took the city council to the city and county buildings between Wilson Street and Ingram Street in 1844. In the early 1880s, City Architect John Carrick was asked to identify a suitable site for a purpose-built City Council Chambers. Carrick identified the east side of George Square, which was then bought. Following a design competition, the building was designed by the Scottish architect William Young in the Victorian style and construction started in 1882. The building was inaugurated by Queen Victoria in August 1888 and the first council meeting held within the chambers took place in October 1889. An extension connected by pairs of archways across John Street was completed in 1912 and Exchange House in George Street was completed in the mid-1980s. The new City Chambers initially housed Glasgow Town Council from 1888 to 1895, when that body was replaced by Glasgow Corporation. It remained the corporation\'s headquarters until it was replaced by Glasgow District Council under the wider Strathclyde Regional Council in May 1975. It then remained the Glasgow District Council headquarters until the abolition of the Strathclyde Region led to the formation of Glasgow City Council in April 1996.
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# Glasgow City Chambers ## Architecture ### Exterior The building is in the Beaux arts style, an interpretation of Renaissance Classicism incorporating Italianate styles with a vast range of ornate decoration, used to express the wealth and industrial export-led economic prosperity of the Second City of the Empire. The exterior sculpture, by James Alexander Ewing, included the central Jubilee Pediment as its centrepiece. Although originally intended to feature a figure symbolising Glasgow \'with the Clyde at her feet sending her manufactures to all the world\', the Pediment was redesigned to celebrate Queen Victoria\'s Golden Jubilee. It depicts Victoria enthroned, surrounded by emblematic figures of Scotland, England, Ireland and Wales, alongside the colonies of the British Empire (mostly British India). Ewing also designed the apex sculptures of Truth, Riches, and Honour, and the statues of The Four Seasons on the Chamber\'s tower. The central apex figure of Truth is popularly known as Glasgow\'s Statue of Liberty, because of its close resemblance to the similarly posed, but very much larger, statue in New York harbour. ### Interior The entrance hall of the Chambers displays a mosaic of the city\'s coat of arms on the floor, which dates from the 1950s when the city\'s coat of arms was last modified. The arms reflect legends about Glasgow\'s patron saint, Saint Mungo, and include four emblems -- the bird, tree, bell, and fish -- as remembered in the following verse: : *Here\'s the Bird that never flew* : *Here\'s the Tree that never grew* : *Here\'s the Bell that never rang* : *Here\'s the Fish that never swam* The ornate banqueting hall, which is 33.5 m long by 14.6 m wide and 15.8 m high, is decorated with huge murals by the Glasgow Boys. The decoration was co-ordinated by architect William Leiper. The room hosted Nelson Mandela and Sir Alex Ferguson when they received the Freedom of the City in 1993 and 1999, respectively. In March 2015, it hosted the medal ceremony for Bob Fulton, Robert Somerville and John Keenan, three retired Rolls-Royce factory workers, honoured for their boycott against the Chilean Air Force during the dictatorship of General Pinochet of Chile. The ceremony is part of the documentary Nae Pasaran. The Council Chamber is clad in Spanish mahogany panelling and its windows are made of Venetian stained glass. ## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture} The building was used as a stand in for the British Embassy in Moscow in the film *An Englishman Abroad* in 1983, and as the Vatican in *Heavenly Pursuits* in 1986. It was also used for the film *The House of Mirth* in 2000 and featured more recently in the television series *Outlander*. ## Gallery <File:Glasgow> City Chambers The Council Chamber.jpg\|The Council Chambers <File:Glasgow> City Chambers The Banqueting Hall.jpg\|The Banqueting Hall <File:Glasgow> City Chambers Staircase.jpg\|The Staircase <File:Glasgow> City Chambers interior.jpg\|Mosaic ceiling of the ground floor Loggia <File:Scotland> - Glasgow City Chambers - 20141112102601
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Glasgow City Chambers
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