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Angelic Conflict part 159: Human history (Sabbath) – Heb 4:9-12; Joh 6:63; Lev 25:8-12; 1Ti 4:1-5; 1Co 10:14-22; Num 16:22: 27:15-16.
Class Outline:
Title: Angelic Conflict part 159: Human history (Sabbath) - HEB 4:9-12; JOH 6:63; LEV 25:8-12; 1TI 4:1-5; 1CO 10:14-22; NUM 16:22: 27:15-16 .
LEV 26:34
They were too absorbed with earthly profit to do God's will in resting the land and releasing the slaves. Hence, they missed the true profit in life.
JOH 6:63
Jubilee Year - the year after 7 Sabbatical years (50th year) was another year of no planting, all slaves were released, and all property was remitted back to their original owners.
So the year of Jubilee was a second Sabbath year. The land would rest for two years. All slaves, including non-Jews were released, and if a person sold his property it was returned to him or his heir if he was not alive.
The Jubilee Year revealed that God owned the land and everything on it.
It also regulated price and made sure that families would not lose all. The different tribes would retain their land so that one tribe or family would not conquer the entire land.
This restores liberty and possession and destroys permanent indentured slave population within the nation.
God owns all things, including men, and all have been given the possibility of liberty through faith in God's covenant promises. This strikes right at the heart of anxiety over things and circumstances.
This was not observed all the time as was the case with the Sabbath and the Sabbath year.
ISA 5:8
Woe to those who add house to house and join field to field,,
Until there is no more room,,
MIC 2:2
They covet fields and then seize them,
And houses, and take them away.
They rob a man and his house,
A man and his inheritance.
In both of these passages God warns of the calamity that will come upon those who operate in this greed and fail to obey God's law.
Sabbath rest meant a gracious attitude while Sabbath rest violation revealed a greedy, covetous, cheap, stingy attitude.
HEB 4:9 There remains [left behind] therefore a Sabbath rest for the people of God.
"Sabbath rest" - sabbatismo,j[sabbatismos] = an uninterrupted sabbath rest for God's people who live in communion with God the Father, Son, and HS.
It is the context that gives this word the meaning of being uninterrupted since today we must hear His voice and not harden our hearts. This is not just a Saturday or Sunday observance for there are no rituals for the Church outside of the Lord's Supper.
If the mature believer has rested from his works and God also has, then who's working? No one; for it was finished before the foundation of the world!
This is a truth and not just an empty euphemism. God has rested from His works and He asks us to do the same. This means that what God has accomplished is unfolding in human history. This is not deism, which states that a supreme being set the universe in motion like a clock and is uninvolved in its unwinding. God is very involved and all present and all powerful as the Father planned and the Lord Jesus Christ intervenes, and the Holy Spirit convicts, but all of this was already done a very long time ago, before the foundation of the earth. The hard thing for us is our entrapment in time and God's absolute freedom from time. He created time and therefore is not subject to it. He sees the end from the beginning. To Him, a billion years is but a snapshot, and even that's too long. Our finite minds must comprehend the fact that it is finished and was finished before the earth was made and all those infinite number of footsteps that we cannot see (unfathomable) must be believed by faith.
2PE 3:8
ECC 3:11
ISA 46:10
Declaring the end from the beginning
And from ancient times things which have not been done,
Saying,'My purpose will be established,
And I will accomplish all My good pleasure';
REV 22:13
Divine good works have already been worked out by God in eternity past. We enter into them. We don't create them, EPH 2:10.
EPH 2:10
Even in sin the believer claims the finished work of Christ. Grace covers the consequences (curse turned to blessing) and grace makes corrections through love in the form of divine discipline.
The example is the Exodus generation who would not mix the word they heard with faith because of their hard hearts.
The process of hardening a heart begins when the emotions take over the soul.
This is a failure to control oneself through choosing the new spirit and its influencer, God the Holy Spirit. When the flesh rules too often then the emotions become the aggressor.
Emotions are to respond to the thoughts from the heart. Therefore the heart is the right man and the emotions the right woman. The man is to initiate and the woman is to respond.
Just like a husband will eventually become bitter if he allows his wife to assume authority over him in the marriage so the heart becomes hardened when the emotions assume authority over the soul.
While the believer is commanded to persist, or to be diligent to enter God's rest, there are certain attitudes, moods, status of soul, that hinder persistence or become antagonistic toward persistence.
"Let us be diligent" - spouda,zw[spoudazo; aorist active subjunctive] = hasten to do a thing, labor, endeavor, to do something with intense effort, and to make haste.
The aorist tense points to that time when you recognize that you are outside of God's rest and you realize that you must do whatever it takes to get your head [soul, spirit, heart, mind] to enter it. Listen to doctrine, go to God in prayer, take some time out to examine yourself. This takes mental strength: hence the verse:
MAR 12:29-30
That's not muscle but a strength of will that desires to enter God's rest.
The antagonists against diligence are disillusion, boredom, discouragement, self-pity, loneliness, frustration, bitterness, jealousy.
These antagonists rob the soul of the rest that God has left behind and then the believer finds himself frantically searching for a happiness and contentment that is outside God's plan of doctrine and the filling, or influencing of the Spirit.
It is not at all unusual nor abnormal to suddenly discover in your life these enemies of positive volition, yet to cater to them is abnormal.
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Tom The Bully
by Tan Ting En (P3 2020)
“Rise and shine, Jerry!” Jerry’s mother exclaimed as she drew the curtains. Jerry walked to the washroom and brushed his teeth. He then tried to adjust his hair. However, it was difficult because Jerry had a strange hairline. Tom, the notorious bully, had ripped his hair out a week ago. Jerry recalled the terrible incident with tears in his eyes.
Jerry was a shy and generous boy. During recess that day, he was reading books in class quietly while the other students were eating in the canteen. Suddenly, Tom appeared. Tom grabbed and ripped Jerry’s book.
“Only losers read!” Tom bellowed. Jerry felt horrified but remained calm. “Why aren’t you talking?” Tom asked in confusion. “Oh, I know. Are you too scared to talk? Scaredy-cat!” Tom and his friends laughed evilly. However, Jerry still stayed silent. Tom’s plan had backfired.
“Still not talking?” Tom asked as he grabbed a tuft of Jerry’s hair. “Not painful enough?” Tom questioned as he threw a punch. Tom felt as mad as a hornet as he spewed vulgarities. Terror gripped Jerry who was trembling like a leaf.
Their classmates who were playing outside heard the commotion, ran into the classroom and witnessed the bullying incident. Some stared with their mouths agape while others encouraged it. One student, Jerry’s best friend, Lucas, decided to inform their form teacher, Mrs Lim. As fast as lightning, Lucas bolted to the staffroom to look for Mrs Lim. When they returned to the classroom, Mrs Lim got in between Tom and Jerry and separated them.
“What happened?” Mrs Lim asked sternly. All of Jerry’s classmates were animatedly answering her at the same time. However, in the middle of the chaos, Mrs Lim heard a word she was not expecting: Bullying. “Stop! I heard the word ‘Bullying’. Did I hear that right?” Mrs Lim asked the students who quickly nodded. Mrs Lim stood with arms crossed and her eyes glowed red. “Tom and Jerry, bullying is not tolerated in our school. Bullies are not welcomed, understand?” Mrs Lim informed them.
At that moment, the principal, Ms Tan, who had been passing by, quickly entered the room. Immediately, Tom told Mrs Lim, “Jerry started it,” pointing a finger at Jerry. However, Jerry pointed at his hair and his wounds without saying a word. Ms Tan and Mrs Lim looked at Jerry and agreed that Tom was the one who had bullied Jerry.
“You’ll have to clean all the tables in your classroom for a week,” Ms Tan informed Tom of his punishment.
“Fine!” Tom shouted.
“Tom, now, I would like you to apologise to Jerry,” Ms Tan ordered.
“Sorry Jerry,” Tom mumbled. However, even after Tom apologised, Tom and Jerry were still like cats and dogs. Tom did not learn his lesson. He continued bullying students and did not turn over a new leaf.
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Typing symbols in Wolfram Alpha?
Posted 1 year ago
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Hello Wolfram|Alpha Community!
I am desperately looking for a way to type for example this, and similar expressions, into the input box of Wolfram|Alpha:
{n ∈ N} ∩ {k ∈ Z | k ≤ n}
In words:
{n is a natural number} intersected with {k is a whole number and k is smaller or as big as n}
As a result I get "Interpreting as: ≤ n". I would like to get a simplified set expression, if possible.
I really searched for hours now and I just don't find anything that helps me with it. The main reason probably is, that English is not my language and I am not sure what exactly I should be looking for. Most examples about set theory or domains seem to be much too complex or don't really fit my case. I am also new to Mathematics, new to Wolfram|Alpha and it is all very difficult because our teacher wants us to use Wolfram|Alpha to check if our solutions were correct.
Another simple example:
{x ∈ N | x/2 ∈ N} ∩ {x ∈ N | x/7 ∈ N}
The "solution" would be:
{x ∈ N | x/14 ∈ N}
I would love to know how to type this, or what topics in English I should be looking for in the examples of Wolfram|Alpha.
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Group Abstract Group Abstract
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In Context: Regional Economy
All Detroiters should be able to fully and fairly participate in all aspects of the region’s economic life.
Explore Other Categories:
Overview: Economic growth in Detroit region was steadily improving prior to COVID-19.
Economic growth in the region will not, in and of itself, improve the situation for Detroiters. The impact of systemic racism, segregation, discriminatory hiring practices, and exclusionary zoning has prevented Detroiters from equitably benefiting from the growth in the region. However, the strength of the region’s economy is a key foundational support for achieving economic equity in Detroit. The region’s economy plays a crucial role in driving economic equity for the city.
Select an Indicator:
Total payroll generation per capita
Jobs per working age residentJob GrowthMiddle Wage JobsTotal payroll generation per capita
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Rust in Water: Where Does It Come From and How Can You Remove it From Your Tap Water?
Water is supposed to be a clear liquid. So why is it that in some homes, tap water leaves red, yellow or brown stains on toilets and plumbing fixtures? Usually, rust in the tap water is to blame. Today we’re going to talk about how rust gets into water and what you can do to remove it from the water in your home!
How does rust get into water?
Rust is formed when iron comes into contact with oxygen in the air or water. Iron is a naturally occurring element that can be found in rocks and soil, so it might be present in your water if your source water contains high levels of iron. This is especially true for homes with well water, because iron is often present underground.
If your home has an aging plumbing system, especially with galvanized pipes, rust can leech off of your pipes and flow into the water that comes out of your taps. This also happens in towns with aging water infrastructures, which is common in many places around the country.
What are the effects of rust in water?
How can you remove rust in your home’s water supplies?
The proper method for removing rust from your drinking water depends on the source of the rust. If the problem comes from old pipes in your home, your best bet is to install new pipes. If the rust comes from high levels of iron in your water supplies, installing a whole house filtration system will remove the iron and rust from your water before that water flows through any of the pipes in your home.
If you have any questions about rust in your water, or if you’d like a plumbing system serviced or installed in your home, contact Cabrillo, your Bay Area plumbing, heating and air conditioning contractor.
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Sem categoria
The word “celibacy” is normally always refer to a voluntary choice to be single or to avoid engaging in any sexual intercourse, usually for religious explanations.
Even though the phrase celibacy is usually used in reference simply to people just who choose to stays unmarried as an ailment of sacred religious vows or beliefs, it can also connect with the voluntary abstinence from all sexual activity unconditionally. While they’re frequently put interchangeably, celibacy, abstinence, and chastity are not the exact same.
Search Terms
• Celibacy try a voluntary alternatives to remain unmarried or take part in any form of sexual intercourse, often to be able to satisfy a religious vow. Somebody who tactics celibacy is alleged to be “celibate.”
• Abstinence can also be labeled as “continence” and it is the often-temporary tight prevention of all types of intercourse unconditionally.
• Chastity, from Latin keyword castitas, meaning “purity,” embraces abstinence as a praiseworthy advantage according to the prevailing personal expectations of morality.
Celibacy is usually recognized as a voluntary solution to stay unmarried or engage in any kind of sexual intercourse, usually being meet a spiritual promise. Inside feeling, one can possibly accurately end up being considered to be doing sexual abstinence as a condition of their vow of celibacy.
Abstinence — also called continence — refers to the frequently short-term rigorous elimination of types of sex for any reason.
Chastity was a voluntary living which involves far more than abstaining from sex. Coming from the Latin word castitas, indicating “purity,” chastity embraces abstinence from intercourse as a praiseworthy and virtuous top quality according to the criteria of morality held by a person’s specific traditions, culture, or faith. Today, chastity happens to be connected with sexual abstinence, specially before or beyond marriage and other version of exclusively committed connection.
Celibacy and Intimate Orientation
The idea of celibacy as a choice to keep unmarried applies to both old-fashioned and same-sex relationships. In the same way, the life-style limitations implied by conditions abstinence and chastity refer to both heterosexual and gay sex.
In the context of celibacy pertaining to religion, some gay group prefer to get celibate consistent with her religion’s lessons or doctrine on homosexual connections.
In a modification adopted in 2014, the American relationship of Christian advisors prohibited the publicity regarding the largely discredited procedure for transformation treatments for homosexual individuals, motivating the practice of celibacy alternatively.
Celibacy in Religion
Relating to religion, celibacy try used differently. Many familiar of these is the compulsory celibacy of male and female members of the active clergy and monastic devotees. While most female religious celibates today is Catholic nuns staying in residential cloisters, there’s been distinguished individual celibate feminine numbers, this type of the anchoress — a lady hermit — Dame Julian of Norwich, created in 1342. Also, religious celibacy is sometimes practiced by laypersons or clergy users in a faith maybe not needing it of devotion or to allow them to carry out specific spiritual providers.
Brief Reputation For Religiously-Motivated Celibacy
Based on the Latin word caelibatus, meaning “state to be single,” the thought of celibacy might recognized by most major religions throughout history. But never assume all religions bring recognized they favorably.
Historical Judaism highly denied celibacy. Similarly, very early Roman polytheistic religions, used between about 295 B.C.E. and 608 C.E., used that it is an aberrant conduct and imposed serious fines against it. The emergence of Protestantism around 1517 CE noticed a rise for the approval of celibacy, although the Eastern Orthodox Catholic chapel never followed they.
The perceptions of this Islamic religions concerning celibacy have also been combined. Whilst the Prophet Muhammad denounced celibacy and suggested marriage as a commendable deed, some Islamic sects embrace they now.
In Buddhism, most ordained monks and nuns decide to live-in celibacy assuming that it is the requirements to reaching enlightenment.
Many men relate religious celibacy with Catholicism, the Catholic chapel actually imposed no element celibacy on the clergy the very first 1,000 years of the records. Wedding remained a matter of option for Catholic bishops, priests, and deacons till the Second Lateran Council of 1139 mandated celibacy for several members of the clergy. Due to the Council’s decree, partnered priests are necessary to give up either their unique relationship or their own priesthood. Up against this possibility, lots of priests remaining the church.
While celibacy continues to be a necessity for Catholic clergy today, approximately 20percent of Catholic priests global is Kod promocyjny reveal thought to be legally married. More married priests are found within the Catholic church buildings of Eastern countries just like the Ukraine, Hungary, Slovakia, and also the Czech Republic. While these churches acknowledge the expert associated with the Pope while the Vatican, their rituals and traditions a lot more closely stick to that from the Eastern Orthodox Church, which had never welcomed celibacy.
Good reasons for Religious Celibacy
How do religions justify mandatory celibacy? No matter what they are known as in certain religion, the “priest” was specifically trustworthy to execute the sacred purpose of connecting the needs of the folks to Jesus or any other heavenly electricity. The efficacy of the priesthood is dependant on the congregation’s trust that priest was correctly expert and has the routine love essential to talk to God for the kids. Religions that require it of their clergy consider celibacy to be a prerequisite for these types of routine love.
In this context, religious celibacy probably will were derived from ancient taboos that seen sexual power as competing with spiritual power, in addition to sex work itself since creating a polluting effect on priestly purity.
Good reasons for Non-Religious Celibacy
For many individuals that do very, choosing a celibate traditions has actually small or nothing to do with an organized religion. Some may feel that reducing the demands of intimate interactions enables them to much better focus on more vital areas of their particular schedules, like career advancement or knowledge. Other people could have found their particular earlier intimate relations for become especially unfulfilling, harmful, and sometimes even painful. However others elect to abstain from intercourse from their special private beliefs of what is “proper attitude.” Eg, people may want to follow the morality-based tradition of abstaining from sex beyond matrimony.
Beyond personal thinking, different celibates consider abstinence from sex are the only downright method of preventing sexually-transmitted conditions or unplanned pregnancies.
Outside religious vows and duties, celibacy or abstinence are an issue of private selection. Although some may give consideration to a celibate way of life intense, others may ponder over it liberating or empowering.
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Philosophy Afrterlife Reformation Essay
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The ancient philosophers of Greek and Rome by and large believed the universe to be ageless.
significance. that the universe had no beginning. and therefore. it can ne’er hold an terminal. excessively. The people who had pondered about the beginnings of life here on Earth. and about life after this present being terminals.
have been segregated into many religious orders and classs.For the Stoics [ 1 ] our existence undergoes the shifting classs of enlargement and contraction in sempiternity – from fire the universe expands into ice chest and denser signifiers. contracts once more in order to go fire. and so on in an ageless manner. To the followings of Aristotle. harmonizing the writer Leopold Sulmner in his bookWhat Students of Philosophy Should Know. “this universe of ours has ever existed and ever will.
and God did non make this universe. ” (90) Yet. even the followings of Aristotle. were divided every bit far as their sentiments went.
Jostein Gaarder provides every bit much inSophie’s Worldby bespeaking that to a choice figure of these Aristotelians the universe “…is like a large clockwork machine in which after a really long interval all the parts come back to the same places. and the same sequence of events so happens once more. over and over everlastingly; human existences and their actions are portion of the clockwork.
so everything in human history has already happened an infinite figure of times already. and will go on once more an infinite figure of times in the hereafter. ” (67)Still in Gaarder’sSophies World.we read that the early Christians and their religion in the sacred Scriptures believed that their.
“God created the universe a comparatively short clip ago. exercisings continual Providence in human history. and will finally stop it.
possibly in the non excessively distant hereafter. and carry on a expansive accounting. Life after decease will travel on for of all time. but life on Earth takes topographic point within a fixed and comparatively short timeframe. with a beginning. in-between. and an terminal.
” (72) There is a Christian saint in the individual of St. Augustine who. “…scorned the Stoic construct of the happy life as unequal. and proclaimed that in the following life true felicity will be found. ” (45)But. harmonizing to St. Augustine.
“they did non state much about what it would be like. ” (46) St. Augustine went on farther to compose that.
“…it is as if they were content to go forth it to God – we can be certain that whatever is required to do human existences happy will be provided. ” (57) The Stoics. in the sentiment of the said Christian saint. “were non much interested in speculating about felicity in this life.
because non everyone can accomplish it. it is non of import to accomplish. it is non of much significance in comparing with the felicity of the following life. ” (93)In Robert Longman’s.Medieval Aristoteleans. the writer writes that the medieval Aristotelians. “theorized about the felicity of the following life.
accommodating Aristotle’s thoughts for the intent: the felicity of heaven consists of intuitive cognition of God himself. ” (385) Last. in St.
Augustine’s ainCity of God. St. Augustine postulates that “the chosen are those who are predestined to happiness in the following life. ” (990)The philosopher. Rene Descartes immortalized the philosophical dogma of.“I think.
hence. I am. ”In Dan Kaufman’sDivine Simplicity and the Eternal Truths in Descartes. we come to hold a greater understanding about the position of Descartes sing the hereafter of adult male. For Descartes.
there is a God who is thecomposerand adult male who is thecomposedandcomposite. [ 2 ] Descartes philosophizes that. “… man’s life. decease.
and life after decease is dependent on the will. intellect and understanding of God. ” (14) Hence. if this is so.
for Rene Descartes. if God is thecauseof adult male. so adult male depends on God besides. even in the affair of man’s decease.
Rene Descartes had studied the nature of adult male and he had stressed the world behind man’sdivisibility.We can state that if. for Descartes. adult male is: head and organic structure.
thought and extension. and a corporeal being who is believed to be person who knows that he exists if he is inclined to the procedure of thought; so. it can be derived that man’s decease comes when adult male ceases to believe. The ‘I’ can non believe. the ‘I’ does non believe. the ‘I’ [ as already mentioned ] ceases to believe.
so. the ‘I’ can no longer think—most importantly- and the ‘I’ can no longer declare. “ Therefore. I am”. And so. from this surcease of idea.
the position quo of man’s being becomes of this. “…he does non believe. hence. he is non. ” (99) In fact. philosophically.
the ‘he’ is no longer. an ‘I’ .Life after decease. we can derive from reading the plants of Descartes.
would be. harmonizing to this philosopher. a province of being that is wholly dependent on God’s will. Man no thirster has a say in it.
for he is no longer capable of thought.John Hobbes’sLeviathanbears a dichotomy of natured features which stamp it with the grade of mastermind. Leopold Sulmner in his bookWhat Students of Philosophy Should Knowdiscusses the Leviathan. at length. by depicting it in this manner. “In the first topographic point.
it is a work of great inventive power.which shows how the whole cloth of human life and society is built up out of simple elements.And. in the 2nd topographic point. it is distinguished by a singular logical consecutiveness. so that there are really few topographic points in which any deficiency of coherency can be detected in the idea.
” (1001) Sulmner writes how it. “is true that the societal order. as Hobbes presents it. produces an feeling of artificiality; but this is barely an expostulation. for it was his deliberate purpose to demo the ruse by which it had been constructed and the danger which lay in any intervention with the mechanism.
” (1024)The writer goes on farther to include that. “It is true. besides. that the province of nature and the societal contract are fictions passed off as facts; but.
even to this expostulation. an reply might be made from within the bounds of his [ Hobbes’s ] theory. It is in his premises. non in his logical thinking.
that the mistake lies. If human nature were as selfish and lawless as he represents it. so morality and the political order could originate and boom merely by its restraint. and the option would be. as he describes it.
between complete insecurity and absolute power. But. if his position of adult male be mistaken. so the whole cloth of his idea crumbles.When we recognize that the person is neither existent nor apprehensible apart from his societal beginning and traditions.
and that the societal factor influences his idea and motivations. the resistance between ego and others becomes less cardinal. the disconnected options of Hobbes’s ideas lose their cogency and it is possible to see morality and the province as showing the ideal and domain of human activity. and non as merely the ironss by which man’s unruly passions are kept in cheque.
” (1037)For Hobbes. harmonizing to Sulmner. “for every bit long as the province of nature endures. life is insecure and deplorable. Man can non better this province.but he can acquire out of it; therefore.
the cardinal jurisprudence of nature is to seek peace and follow it; and. from this. emerges the 2nd jurisprudence. that. for the interest of peace. a adult male should be willing to put down his right to all things.
when other work forces are. besides. willing to make so. From these two are derived all the Torahs of nature of the moralists.
The Torahs of nature are changeless and ageless. ” (1048). And so. for after decease. would be the experience of absolute flight from his present province of life here on Earth.
Jostein Gaarder provides a chapter inSophie’s Worldon how. “John Locke opened a new manner for English doctrine. ” (261) Locke had patterned his doctrines from those of Francis Bacon.
Hobbes. and the other sires of modern doctrine.Sophie’s Worldnowadayss how. “Bacon had done more: he had found dangers and defects in the natural working of men’s heads. and had devised agencies to rectify them.But Locke went a measure farther. and set about a systematic probe of the human apprehension with a position to finding something else—namely.
the truth and certainty of cognition. and the evidences of belief. on all affairs about which work forces are in the wont of doing averments. ” (262) In his mode. Locke introduced a new method of philosophical question. which is.
“now known as a theory of cognition. or epistemology; and. in this regard. he was the precursor of Kant and anticipated what Kant called the critical method. ” (279)Sophie’s Worldbesides provides us with this cognition of how. “we have Locke’s ain history of the beginning of the job in his head. He struck out a new manner because he found the old waies blocked.
Five or six friends were discoursing in his room. likely in London and in the winter of 1670–1. “on a capable really remote from this”; the topic. as we learn from another member of the party.
was the “principles of morality and revealed religion”; but troubles arose on every side. and no advancement was made. Then.
he goes on to state. it came into my ideas that we took a incorrect class. and that before we set ourselves upon inquires of that nature.
it was necessary to analyze our ain abilities. and see what objects our apprehensions were. or were non.
fitted to cover with. ” (262)Again. Leopold Sulmner in his bookWhat Students of Philosophy Should Knowwrites about Locke. “At the petition of his friends. Locke agreed to put down his ideas on this inquiry against their following meeting; and he expected that a individual sheet of paper would do for the intent. So small did he recognize the magnitude of the issues which he raised and which were to busy his leisure for about twenty old ages. ” (2765)Sulmner informs by foregrounding.
“Locke’s involvement centres in the traditional problems—the nature of ego. the universe and God. and the evidences of our cognition of them. We reach these inquiries merely in the 4th and last book of the Essay. But to them the question of the first three books is preliminary.
though it has. and Locke saw that it had. an importance of its ain. His introductory sentences make this field: Since it is the understanding that sets adult male above the remainder of reasonable existences.
and gives him all the advantage and rule which he has over them; it is surely a topic. even for its nobility. worth our labour to ask into.The apprehension. like the oculus.
while it makes us see and comprehend all other things. takes no notice of itself; and it requires art and strivings to put it at a distance and do it its ain object. But whatever be the troubles that lie in the manner of this enquiry; whatever it be that keeps us so much in the dark to ourselves; certain I am that all the visible radiation we can allow in upon our heads. all the familiarity we can do with our ain apprehensions. will non merely be really pleasant. but bring us great advantage.
indirecting our ideas in the hunt of other things.“ (2766)What Students of Philosophy Should Knowconcludes for us that. “Locke will non ‘meddle with the physical consideration of the mind’ ;he has no theory about its kernel or its relation to the organic structure; at the same clip. he has no uncertainty that. if due strivings be taken. the apprehension can be studied like anything else: we can detect its objects and the ways in which it operates upon them.
All the objects of the apprehension are described as thoughts. and thoughts are spoken of asbeing in the head. Locke’s first job. therefore. is to follow the beginning and history of thoughts. and the ways in which the apprehension operates upon them.
in order that he may be able to see what cognition is and how far it reaches. ” (2800)In Sulmner’s book. we can read that. “This broad usage of the term “idea” is inherited from Descartes. The term in modern psychological science which corresponds with it most about is “presentation. ” But presentation is. purely.
merely one assortment of Locke’s thought. which includes. besides. representation and image.
percept. and concept or impression. His use of the term therefore differs so widely from the old Platonic significance that the danger of confusion between them is non great.It suited the author’s intent.
besides. from being a familiar word in ordinary discourse every bit good as in the linguistic communication of philosophers. Herein. nevertheless. put a danger from which he did non get away.
In common use “idea” carries with it a suggestion of contrast with world; and the resistance which the “new manner of ideas” excited was due to the uncertainty which it seemed to project on the claim of cognition to be ‘a cognition of existent things’. (2817)Possibly. for Locke. life after decease.
is something that can be located in man’s head.This is what we can garner from surveies of philosophers. throughout history. about life after decease: 1.)in the following life true felicity will be found.
2.)the felicity of heaven consists of intuitive cognition of God himself. 3.)a province of being that is wholly dependent on God’s will. 4.)life after decease.
would be the experience of absolute flight from his present province of life here on Earth. and eventually. 5.)something that can be located in man’s head.And as for the affair. of which would be true amongst these theories? Well.
we shall see which. but in the following life.WORKS CITEDDe Torre. Joseph M.The Humanism of Modern Philosophy.
3d erectile dysfunction.Capital of spains: Solaris Press. 1999.
Gaarder. Jostein.Sophie’s World.London: Phoenix Books. 1996 ;Reprint. Phoenix Books.
1998.Kaufmann. Dan.
Divine Simplicity and the Eternal TruthsIn Descartes.British Journal for the History of Philosophy: UK. Vol. twoIssue 4. 2003.Longman. Robert.
Medieval Aristotelians.Translated by Thomas Charles. New York:Random House Publishing. 1992.Sulmner. Leopold.What Students of DoctrineShould Know.
Singapore: Allyn and Bacon. 1996.[ 1 ] De Torre. Joseph M.The Humanism of Modern Philosophy.
3d erectile dysfunction.Capital of spains: Solaris Press. 1999.[ 2 ] Man in being composed [ composite ]. has external parts and a psyche. He is divisible. harmonizing to his parts.
And he is created by God. the composer.
Brandon Johnson
Author: Brandon Johnson
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Why did the Ukraine come to Canada?
When did Ukrainians move to Canada?
The first recorded Ukrainian settlers arrived in Canada in 1891 when two immigrants, Vasyl Eleniak and Ivan Pylypiw, from the Galicia province of the Austro-Hungarian Empire landed in Montreal. Within the years that followed, tens of thousands of Ukrainians arrived in Canada.
Why did immigrants want to come to Canada?
Many motivations brought immigrants to Canada: greater economic opportunity and improved quality of life, an escape from oppression and persecution, and opportunities and adventures presented to desirable immigrant groups by Canadian immigration agencies.
How did Ukrainians travel to Canada?
The first Ukrainians came to Canada in the early-1890s. Between 1896 and 1914, 170,000 Ukrainians made the trip from the overpopulated Austrian provinces of Galicia and Bukovyna to Canada. Many left their homelands to settle on the western prairies.
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Why did Ukrainian immigrants come to America?
Following the Russian takeover of Ukraine, many Ukrainians fled to the United States. These migrants came for political reasons, while earlier Ukrainians had migrated for economic ones. Ukrainian migration also occurred in the years immediately following World War II.
What happened to several Ukrainian immigrants to Canada in 1915?
The Ukrainian Canadian internment was part of the confinement of “enemy aliens” in Canada during and for two years after the end of the First World War, lasting from 1914 to 1920, under the terms of the War Measures Act. Canada was at war with Austria-Hungary.
How many Slavs are in Canada?
Russian Canadians comprise Canadian citizens of Russian heritage or Russians who emigrated to and reside in Canada. According to the 2016 Census, there were 622,445 Canadians who claimed full or partial Russian ancestry.
Number of Russian Canadians.
hide Percent
Yukon 2.3%
Northwest Territories 1.2%
Nunavut 0.3%
Why were Europeans attracted to Canada?
People were needed to clear the land, build roads and railways, and establish farms to feed a growing population. European immigrants were actively encouraged by the Canadian government to come to Canada until 1914, when the First World War broke out and immigration rates radically declined due to wartime conditions.
Why did Romanian immigrants come to Canada?
Most of the early immigrants were peasants motivated by a desire to escape living under a foreign government, to own land, and to improve their general economic conditions. By 1895 Romanians were arriving by the thousands. In 1914 there were 8301 Romanians in Canada; in 1921 the number was 13, 470.
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Why did Pioneers come to Canada?
Settlers worked together to build roads, to attract tradesmen and small industry, and to promote the prosperity of their district. Pioneers on fur-trading, lumbering, mining and ranching frontiers were usually single men. But women joined in the settlement of New France in the 17th and 18th centuries.
What are the largest ethnic groups in Canada?
What religion is the Ukraine?
Religion. The predominant religion in Ukraine, practiced by almost half the population, is Eastern Orthodoxy. Historically, most adherents belonged to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church–Kyiv Patriarchate, though the Ukrainian Orthodox Church–Moscow Patriarchate was important as well.
Where are the Ukrainian settlers from?
What US city has the most Ukrainians?
The New York City Metropolitan Area contains by far the largest Ukrainian community in the United States, due to historically receiving the highest number of Ukrainian immigrants. The total number of people born in Ukraine is more than 275,155 residents.
Where do most Ukrainians immigrate to?
After the independence of Ukraine, many Ukrainians have emigrated to Portugal, Spain, the Czech Republic, Russia, and Italy due to the uncertain economic and political situation at home. Many Ukrainians live in Russia either along the Ukrainian border or in Siberia.
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Does Ukraine accept refugees?
Asylum-seekers can be housed in temporary refugee shelters, according to the State Migration Service of Ukraine (SMS). … Figures by the UN Refugee Agency UNHCR in Ukraine show that 2,255 recognized refugees and persons in need of additional protection were based in the country as of January 1, 2021.
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This site is intended for health professionals only
Study suggests limited long-term benefit of sleep medication
Treatments for sleep are only recommended for short-term although little is known about the effectiveness of such treatments when taken over longer periods of time.
Disturbances to sleep are a common problem that present in at least three different ways, e.g., difficulties in getting to sleep, remaining asleep or early morning awakening. Treatment of sleep disturbance can be achieved with prescription medicines including benzodiazepines, Z-drugs (e.g., zopiclone, zolpidem) and sedating antidepressants such as trazodone. Although only licensed for short-term use, given the chronic nature of the condition, continued use of such treatments, either intermittently or regularly, invariably occurs among a subset of patients for extended periods of time. In an effort to examine the effects of sleep medicines on patient-reported measures of sleep disturbance, a team from the Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Brigham and Women’s hospital, Boston, US, set out to examine the impact of sleep medicines among a cohort of midlife women. Eligible participants were drawn from the Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN), which is an ongoing longitudinal study examining the biological and psychological changes that occur during the menopause transition. On an annual basis, women were asked to self-report on three aspects of sleep: difficulty initiating, frequent awakening and early morning awakening and anyone who reported on these disturbances at least once, were eligible for inclusion in the study. Women were asked about their sleep medication during each study visit and women were asked, using a 5-point Likert scale, to report their level of difficulty to each of the three sleep aspects and the authors also included a matched cohort of non-sleep medicine users. Furthermore, as sleep disturbances may arise because of depression, anxiety and pain, individuals also completed questionnaires to identify the impact of each of these factors.
The study included 238 women who had an initial prescription for sleep medication and who were matched to 447 non-users. There were no significant differences between the two groups with respect to depression, anxiety or pain scores. The mean age of those using sleep medicines was 49.5 years and at baseline, the mean score for initiating sleep was 2.7, waking frequently 3.8 and early morning wakening 2.8. Among non-users, the corresponding mean values were similar; 2.6, 3.7 and 2.7 respectively. After 1 year of use, the mean scores among sleep medicine users were 2.6 (initiating sleep) vs 2.3 (non-users), 3.6 (frequent wakening) vs 3.5 (non-users) and 2.8 (early morning wakening) vs 2.5 (non-users) and none of these differences were statistically significant. In addition, there was no difference in mean scores between the two main classes of sleep medicines, benzodiazepines and Z-drugs compared with non-users for the same three aspects of sleep. Furthermore, there were also no important differences between sleep medicine users/non-users after 2 years of follow-up. A further finding was how none of the patients in either group, reported a worsening of sleep disturbance over the two year follow-up period.
Commenting on these results, the authors noted that over the longer term, no sleep medicines were associated with a reduction in the three main aspects of sleep disturbance compared to those who did not use such treatments. They concluded that while sleep medicines are often used off-license, over longer periods of time, the results of the study demonstrate little benefit from continued use.
Soloman DH et al. Prescription medication for sleep disturbances among midlife women during 2 years of follow-up: a SWAN retrospective cohort study. BMJ Open 2021
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Why Do Cooking Pans Have Metal Handles
by iupilon
Pans with metal handles are expensive, but they are considered the most flexible cookware. Aside from its prolonged durability, you can quickly transform your cookware into bakeware—reducing extra steps.
It’s common for panhandles to come off because metal is the most robust material for a handle. A low-cost pan usually made from plastic handles attached to a metal pan is the cheapest, but it will melt through time. In addition, there is some confusion about how certain materials conduct heat, so some people ask, “why do pans have wooden handles?” or “can I put a pan with a rubber handle in the oven?
If you’re looking for cookware that will endure a long time or even a lifetime, you should use metal handles. You won’t have to be bothered about the handles of your pans popping off while you’re transporting a scorching hot batch of soup or fried meat if they are made of pure metal.
When using pans with metal handles, take extra precautions to avoid burning yourself. Even if they’re a little on the heated side, they fulfill their purpose admirably. Ensure that your hands are always covered.
Stainless steel, iron, or carbon steel are the most common metals used in the construction of metal handles. Tubular stainless-steel handles are strong and oven safe. If you’re using a tiny skillet, the stick handle will heat up faster than if you’re using a large sauté pan or a tall saucepan since the handle is closer to the heat source.
However, not all metal handles are the same. Riveted metal handles are the most durable. Also, the rivets on this handle are robust and permanent, so you won’t have to worry about tightening them ever again.
Why Do Cooking Pans Have Metal Handles?
Cooking panhandles come in various materials, including metal, which is the most popular. Metal is a good heat conductor, making it ideal for stove-to-oven cooking because of its better temperature resistance.
Metals are a good heat conductor because they’re made of metal. To put it another way: if you possess an aluminum handle on a metal pot, you risk burning your hands.
One of the benefits of metal handles on a pan is that they will last longer. Furthermore, metal handles are more durable than plastic or wooden ones because of their strength and sturdiness.
Metal handles’ only problem is that they get hot when cooking. Oven mitts are required to contact the pan’s grip if you want to lift it barehanded.
Additionally, metal handles are better at coping with high temperatures because they are more heat resistant. If your pan has metal handles, you may easily place it in the oven to bake.
Stainless steel handles are the best metal handles. This is since stainless steel heats up far more slowly than iron or carbon steel handles.
To determine how quickly the handle of your pan heats up, you need to know what kind of metal it is. Cast-iron, carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum are the most common metals used to make metal handles. Their ability to dissipate heat is deficient in all three of these materials.
It is also essential to consider the design of the handle when determining how quickly the temperature of a metal handle increases. For example, it is possible to weld a metal handle to a hot pan with minimal contact, which will reduce heat transfer.
Why Do Cooking Pans Not Have Metal Handles?
As an effective heat insulator, plastic handles are frequently used on frying pans since they do not conduct heat as metal ones do. The heat will be absorbed and become unbearably hot if we use a heat conductor such as a metal handle.
The capacity of wooden handles to remain excellent for long durations is one of their most appealing features. As a result, you won’t have to worry about burning yourself on your pan’s wooden handles when lifting it.
The biggest drawback of a pan with wooden handles is that it cannot be used in the oven because of the handles. Even though wood doesn’t catch fire until it reaches 800 degrees Fahrenheit, it’s still dangerous to use in a range.
At higher temperatures, wooden handles produce harmful flammable vapors. As a result of these gases, an oven explosion is possible, so an oven’s wooden handles should never be used.
Wooden handles also have the drawback of not being dishwasher safe. Wooden handles placed inside a dishwasher can readily absorb water. This water evaporates when the handles heat up, causing the wood to decompose.
Plastic handles, like wooden handles, are incredibly convenient and comfortable for pans because they don’t get hot. Metal handles, meanwhile, have a much greater ability to conduct heat. It’s because of this that they’re incredibly safe to cook with.
Even if a stove’s next burner’s flame mistakenly hits the plastic handles, the handles will begin to melt. This means that plastic handles are much less durable than metal handles. So if you’re using a pan with plastic handles, keep this in mind to avoid melting them.
Why Are Pan Handles Hollow?
Panhandles made with plastic are hollow for a reason: it provides a lightweight grip while allowing heat to escape faster than denser materials. In addition, using a recessed panhandle will reduce strain from your end.
Tubular handles made of stainless steel are strong and can be used in the oven. The stainless steel has been shaped into a tubular shape to create an airflow up the handle. As a result, heat from the heated pan is dissipated more slowly.
Generally, long stick handles are more likely to remain remarkable than shorter handles. If you’re using a tiny skillet, the stick handle will heat up faster than if you’re using a large sauté pan or tall saucepan because the handle is closer to the heat source.
The diffusion of heat through the pan can be slowed down using plastic. Plastic is not an excellent heat conductor, so this is the case. Plastic handles, which have a more excellent surface than the pan attached, make it difficult for heat particles to travel through.
Insulation in panhandles is widespread. When it comes to heat-insulating materials, wood and plastic are beautiful choices. However, if you use the best plastic for the handles of your saucepans, your cookware will be more durable due to thermosetting plastic’s better heat-resistance qualities.
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The Ultimate OpenCV with Raspberry Pi Tutorial
OpenCV Introduction
OpenCV is an instrumental library in real-time computer vision. Aside from its image processing functions, it is also open-source and free to use – a perfect partner for a board like Raspberry Pi. In this tutorial, you will learn how to install, operate, and create OpenCV projects using the Raspberry Pi. We will tackle all the fundamental functions and methods to work confidently with its framework.
Computer Vision is a field (commonly placed under Artificial Intelligence) that trains computers to see and understand digital images. The area seeks to replicate tasks the human visual system does, including object detection, tracking, and recognition. These are easily implemented using OpenCV. And while OpenCV works better with more powerful systems than the Raspberry Pi, a credit-card sized computer, the Pi remains the first choice in DIY embedded solutions.
Installing OpenCV
There are two ways you can install OpenCV to the Raspberry Pi. First, using pip. Another is by manually building OpenCV from the source.
First Method
For a simple and fast solution, you can use pip to install OpenCV. Simply enter the following to the terminal.
pip install opencv-python
pip install opencv-contrib-python
Note that opencv-python and opencv-python-contrib are both unofficial pre-built binaries of OpenCV. This means some modules will not be available compared to when OpenCV is built from the source. Also, opencv-python only contains the OpenCV library’s main modules while opencv-python-contrib includes both main and contrib modules. If you’re saving space and don’t need additional functionalities that came with the contrib package, I suggest installing the first option. Otherwise, install opencv-python-contrib.
This whole process will take less than 5 seconds on a Raspberry Pi 4.
Second Method
For a more efficient installation, you can manually build OpenCV from the official source. This method is far from the one-liner code in the first method. This will take almost 3 hours to implement but will make the library more tailored to the Raspberry Pi, making it significantly faster to run.
Install the Dependencies
1. Like any other installations, update your Raspberry Pi first.
sudo apt update
sudo apt upgrade
2. Next, install OpenCV’s dependencies. There are a lot of them so we will install them in chunks so we can monitor what gets installed and what throws an error. The first chunk are packages we need to compile OpenCV.
sudo apt install cmake build-essential pkg-config git
3. Next are packages that will add support for different image and video formats to OpenCV.
sudo apt install libjpeg-dev libtiff-dev libjasper-dev libpng-dev libwebp-dev libopenexr-dev
sudo apt install libavcodec-dev libavformat-dev libswscale-dev libv4l-dev libxvidcore-dev libx264-dev libdc1394-22-dev libgstreamer-plugins-base1.0-dev libgstreamer1.0-dev
4. Then, the packages that the OpenCV interface needs.
sudo apt install libgtk-3-dev libqtgui4 libqtwebkit4 libqt4-test python3-pyqt5
5. Next packages are crucial for OpenCV to run at a decent speed on the Raspberry Pi.
sudo apt install libatlas-base-dev liblapacke-dev gfortran
6. Then, packages related to the Hierarchical Data Format (HDF5) that OpenCV uses to manage data.
sudo apt install libhdf5-dev libhdf5-103
7. Lastly, the python-related packages.
sudo apt install python3-dev python3-pip python3-numpy
Upsizing the Swap Space
The swap space is a portion of a computer’s main memory used by the operating system when the device runs out of physical RAM. It is a lot slower than RAM but we need it to help the process of compiling OpenCV to the Raspberry Pi. Enter the following command to access the swap file – the file that configures the swap space.
sudo nano /etc/dphys-swapfile
2. Now replace the line
Save and exit.
3. Lastly, restart the service on your Raspberry Pi to implement the changes without rebooting the system.
sudo systemctl restart dphys-swapfile
Congratulations, you now changed your swap space from 100MB to 2GB.
Cloning the OpenCV Repositories
At last, we are now ready to get the actual OpenCV files. Enter the following commands to clone the OpenCV repositories from GitHub to your computer. Hopefully, your present working directory is your home directory. It’s not required, but I suggest cloning it there, so it’s easily accessible. These files are also large, so depending on your internet connection, this may take a while.
git clone
git clone
Compiling OpenCV
1. You can see both repositories on your home directory after you successfully cloned them. Now, let’s create a subdirectory called “build” inside the OpenCV folder to contain our compilation.
mkdir ~/opencv/build
cd ~/opencv/build
2. Next, generate the makefile to prepare for compilation. Enter the following command:
-D CMAKE_INSTALL_PREFIX=/usr/local \
-D OPENCV_EXTRA_MODULES_PATH=~/opencv_contrib/modules \
3. Once the make file is done, we can now proceed to compile. The argument j$(nproc) tells the compiler to run using the available processors. So for example, nproc is 4, it will be -j4. This will take the longest time out of all the steps. For reference, a newly set up Raspberry Pi 4 with 8GB RAM takes more than an hour to execute this command.
make -j$(nproc)
4. Hopefully, the compilation didn’t take more than 2 hours of your life. We now proceed to install the compiled OpenCV software.
sudo make install
5. Finally, we regenerate the Pi’s library link cache. The Raspberry Pi won’t be able to find OpenCV without this step.
sudo ldconfig
Reverting the Swap Space
1. Now that we are done installing OpenCV, we don’t need to have such a large swap space anymore. Access the swap space again with the following command.
sudo nano /etc/dphys-swapfile
2. Change the line
Save and Exit.
3. Lastly, restart the service to implement the changes.
sudo systemctl restart dphys-swapfile
1. The easiest way to confirm our installation is by bringing up an interactive shell and try to import cv2 (OpenCV’s library name). Open python.
2. Now, it doesn’t matter what version you are using, if you followed the steps before, OpenCV should already be accessible in both Python 2 and Python 3. Try to import it using the line:
import cv2
3. If the import line returned nothing, then congratulations! Additionally, you can verify the OpenCV version you have in you computer using the following command:
Now that we have OpenCV in our Raspberry Pi, let us proceed with learning how to use its essential functions.
Image Input
Firstly, we need input. Image processing needs an image to work on, after all. There are 3 types of image input: Still image, Video, and Video Stream.
Still Image
Figure 1: Image Input
To use a still image, we use the imread function. It simply loads an image from a specified file path and returns it. If the image cannot be read, it will return an empty matrix.
Furthermore, to show the image, we use the imshow function. It displays the image in a window which automatically fits with the image size. The first argument of the function is the window name, while the second argument is the image source, which is the variable img.
We also need the waitKey function to display the image indefinitely. It has an argument of time in milliseconds. If the value is 0, it will wait until a keyboard button is pressed. If you press a key while waitKey is active, your program continues to the next lines.
import cv2
img = cv2.imread("Resources/picture.png")
For video, we first use the VideoCapture function to create a video object. Its argument is the device index, the pathname to a video file, or the streaming URL of your camera. A device index is a number that specifies the camera device in your system. For instance, you write 0 to use the built-in webcam on your laptop. If you’re using an IP camera that streams to a specific IP address in your home network, you can use VideoCapture to get that stream to OpenCV. Just write the URL of the camera instead of a device index or a video file path.
After creating a video object, you can then read the frames from it using read(). It also returns a boolean that tells you True if the frame is read correctly or False if not.
Similarly to still images, we use imshow and waitKey to display the video output. However, you need to tweak the time argument on the waitKey function to play the video in its native framerate. For instance, if the video is 30 frames per second. You must convert it first to milliseconds by dividing 30 by 1000. The following line 0XFF ==ord('q') makes the code stop if the q key is pressed.
import cv2
cap = cv2.VideoCapture("Resources/video.mp4")
while True:
success, img =
cv2.imshow("Video", img)
if cv2.waitKey(30) & 0XFF ==ord('q'):
Camera Stream
Meanwhile, with video streams, you need to replace the video file’s pathname with your camera device’s index. Additionally, you can set the dimensions of the video using the set function. The waitKey argument can be set to any value depending on your preference.
import cv2
cap = cv2.VideoCapture(0)
while True:
success, img =
cv2.imshow("Video", img)
if cv2.waitKey(1) & 0XFF ==ord('q'):
The cv2.VideoCapture() function works only for USB cameras, not for CSI cameras. That is why if you want to use the Raspberry Pi camera, you need to import an additional Python library called picamera.
To install picamera simply enter the following in the terminal:
sudo pip install picamera
The code is pretty similar with the previous examples. It just slightly differs with some notations and labels. See the code below.
from picamera.array import PiRGBArray
from picamera import PiCamera
import cv2
camera = PiCamera()
camera.resolution = (320, 240)
camera.framerate = 30
camera.brightness = 65
raw_capture = PiRGBArray(camera, size=(320,240))
for frame in camera.capture_continuous(raw_capture, format="bgr", use_video_port=True):
img = frame.array
cv2.imshow("Original Image", img)
Now that we have the image input, we can now use OpenCV’s magic for image processing.
Basic Methods and Functions
Figure 2: Basic Functions
It’s debatable what functions are to be considered as basic and essential to OpenCV’s framework. I chose the following functions based on the tutorials I read and watched over the past few weeks. These functions are commonly used for pre-processing images for computer vision.
Figure 3: Grayscale
First, cvtColor. It converts an image from one color space to another. Note that the default color format in OpenCV is BGR (the bytes are reversed compared to standard RGB). We often use this method to convert images to Grayscale or HSL for pre-processing. It requires at least 2 parameters, which are the image src and the color space conversion code. In our example, we use the code COLOR_BGR2GRAY to convert the image to grayscale as a prep for edge detection.
Figure 4: Gaussian Blur
Gaussian Blur
Next is GaussianBlur. This function blurs an input image using a Gaussian filter. It requires at least 3 parameters: img src, kernel size, and sigmaX. The kernel size must always be positive and odd. The kernel standard deviation in the x direction sigmaX, also determines sigmaY if only sigmaX is defined. If both are given as zeros, they are calculated from the kernel size. This function is commonly used in removing Gaussian noise from an image and image smoothening.
Figure 5: Canny Edge Detection
Canny Edge Detection
Third is the Canny function. It finds edges in an input image using Canny algorithm. It requires at least 3 parameters: img src, minVal, and maxVal. minVal is used for edge linking while maxVal is used to find initial segments of strong edges.
Figure 6: Dilation
Penultimate one is dilate. It exaggerates the features of an image using a specific structuring element. It requires at least 3 parameters: image src, kernel, and iteration number. The kernel is the structuring element for dilation. On the sample code, we use numpy to create a 5×5 matrix of ones as a kernel for dilate. The iteration number is the number of times dilation is applied.
Figure 7: Erosion
Last is the sister function of dilate, erode. It chisels or cuts down the image using a specific structuring element. It also requires at least 3 parameters: image src, kernel, and iteration number. We use the same kernel from dilate to cut down and reveal the individual elements and joining disparate elements in an image. Both dilate and erode works as a pair to remove noise and isolate intensity bumps or holes in an image.
import cv2
import numpy as np
img = cv2.imread("Resources/picture.png")
kernel = np.ones((5,5), np.uint8)
imgGray = cv2.cvtColor(img, cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)
imgBlur = cv2.GaussianBlur(imgGray, (11,11), 0)
imgCanny = cv2.Canny(img, 120, 120)
imgDilate = cv2.dilate(imgCanny, kernel, iterations=1)
imgErode = cv2.erode(imgDilate, kernel, iterations=1)
cv2.imshow("Original Image", img)
cv2.imshow("Gray Image", imgGray)
cv2.imshow("Blurred Image", imgBlur)
cv2.imshow("Edge Detection", imgCanny)
cv2.imshow("Image Dilation", imgDilate)
cv2.imshow("Image Erosion", imgErode)
Crop and Resize
In OpenCV, the convention for images is that (0,0) is in the top left most corner of a photo. Given point A(100, 140), it would be 100 pixels to the left and 140 pixels downward. Now to confuse us even further, to crop an image, you indicate 2 ranges, y first then x. For instance if we want to crop variable img from the 200th to the 300th x pixel and 0 to the 100th y pixel, we must write img[0:100,200:300].
Thankfully, resizing isn’t a problem anymore as we can always use resize(). It only requires 2 parameters: image src and target size. If the target dimensions aren’t proportional to your image’s actual dimensions, your output image will be deformed.
import cv2
import numpy as np
img = cv2.imread("Resources/picture.png")
imgResize = cv2.resize(img, (300,300))
imgCrop = imgResize[0:100,200:300]
cv2.imshow("Output", img)
cv2.imshow("Resized Output", imgResize)
cv2.imshow("Cropped Output", imgCrop)
Shapes and Texts
You need to learn how to create shapes and texts to emphasize the objects you detect in your image. It’s one thing to detect faces and objects, creating a bounding rectangle for your detections is another.
Figure 8: Shapes and Text
For our example, we will not use imread to load an image. Instead, we will create a blank canvas using a NumPy function called zeros. This will create 3 channels with a 512 x 512 array filled with zeros. We then set the maximum value of the elements in the array to 255 using uint8 to emulate a standard RGB/BGR image. Since all the values are zeros, the image will be a black square.
Now we draw a line using line(). You need to enter at least 5 parameters: the image src, the starting and ending coordinates, the color in BGR, and the thickness. In our example, we cut the square horizontally in half by a starting point of (0,256) and ending point of (512,256). The color values, which I entered arbitrarily, produced light blue while the thickness is 2.
Next is rectangle(). To draw a rectangle, you also need at least 5 parameters: image src, the top left, the bottom right coordinates, the color, and the thickness. All works the same with line.
Third is circle(). You need at least 5 parameters for this function: image src, the center of the circle, the radius, the color, and the thickness. Additionally, you can create a filled circle by entering a negative thickness value.
Finally we write text using putText() function. To write a specified text, you need to enter at least 7 parameters: image src, text string, the bottom left starting coordinate of the text, the font face, the scale, the color, and the scale. The font face is the font type. The available styles are in this link. Moreover, the scale is just a factor that is multiplied by the font-specific base size.
import cv2
import numpy as np
img = np.zeros((512,512,3),np.uint8)
cv2.rectangle(img, (0,0),(250,350),(213,123,23),2),(400,50),30,(14,29,195),5)
cv2.putText(img, "Toilet", (300,100), cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_COMPLEX,3,(0,213,51),1)
cv2.imshow("Output", img)
Now that we have shape and text creating under our belt, we can proceed on more advanced functionalities like warp perspective.
Warp Perspective
Figure 9: Warp Perspective
Warp perspective lets you change the perspective on your images. For example, you have a piece of paper captured in your video. This function enables you to have a bird’s eye view of that piece of paper to read it better, especially when paired with other image processing techniques. We usually use this for document scanning and optical mark recognition.
Warp perspective does not change the image content but deforms the pixel grid and maps this deformed grid to the destination image. To do that, you need 2 sets of four pairs of points. The first set determines the corners of the object in the source image, while the second set determines the points of the corresponding quadrangle vertices in the destination image. Since we want the corners of the object to lay on the edges of the new image, we use the second image’s extreme coordinates, such as [0,0] and [width, height].
After we set the 2 arrays, we use getPerspectiveTransform() to retrieve a matrix map of the transformed image. Then, use warpPerspective() to implement the matrix to the source image.
import cv2
import numpy as np
img = cv2.imread("Resources/box.jpg")
width, height = 500, 300
points1 = np.float32([[109,155],[714,51],[75,560],[890,424]])
points2 = np.float32([[0,0],[width,0],[0,height],[width,height]])
matrix = cv2.getPerspectiveTransform(points1,points2)
imgOutput = cv2.warpPerspective(img, matrix, (width, height))
cv2.imshow("Original", img)
cv2.imshow("Output", imgOutput)
In our example, we set the corners manually by indicating the coordinates in an array. But we can also use another function to detect the corners automatically. We will discuss this in a later part of the article.
Color Detection
Figure 10: Warp Detection
Color detection is the process of detecting a specific color in an image. This may be herculean of a task with other frameworks, but it is pretty simple with OpenCV – you just need track bars and a good set of eyes.
First, we create a window using namedWindow() to house all of our trackbars. We then resize it using resizeWindow() depending on the number of trackbars we will add, in our case, 6.
Next, we create the trackbars using createTrackbar(). You need at least 5 parameters: the trackbar name, the specified window, the initial value, the maximum value, and a function that activates when the slider is used. The initial value is an integer, which reflects the position of the slide upon creation. Unfortunately, the function is required even if you don’t need your slider to activate anything. Hence, we create an empty function that does nothing besides fulfilling this odd requirement.
For the main loop, we endlessly read the target image using imread(), convert it to HSV using cvtColor(), and update the trackbar positions using getTrackbarPos().
HSV (hue, saturation, value) colorspace is an alternative model of RGB. Since the hue channel models the color type, it is instrumental in color filtering and detection. Meanwhile, saturation goes from unsaturated to represent shades of gray and fully saturated (no white component). The value channel defines the intensity or brightness of the color. We associate the corresponding HSV values to a track bar of its own, namely Hue Minimum and Maximum, Saturation Minimum and Maximum, and Value Minimum and Maximum.
Figure 11: Trackbars
Next, we use inRange() to check if the current trackbar positions lie between the elements of lower and upper boundaries. This will create an image wherein white represents the values between the lower and upper boundaries and black otherwise – extracting the region of interest. We then use bitwise_and() to exclude all values in the image except the ones inside the region of interest.
import cv2
import numpy as np
def empty(a):
path = "Resources/box.jpg"
cv2.namedWindow("Track Bars")
cv2.resizeWindow("Track Bars",(640,240))
cv2.createTrackbar("Hue Min", "Track Bars", 34, 179, empty)
cv2.createTrackbar("Hue Max", "Track Bars", 55, 179, empty)
cv2.createTrackbar("Sat Min", "Track Bars", 160, 255, empty)
cv2.createTrackbar("Sat Max", "Track Bars", 255, 255, empty)
cv2.createTrackbar("Value Min", "Track Bars", 34, 255, empty)
cv2.createTrackbar("Value Max", "Track Bars", 255, 255, empty)
while True:
img = cv2.imread(path)
imgHSV = cv2.cvtColor(img,cv2.COLOR_BGR2HSV)
hmin = cv2.getTrackbarPos("Hue Min","Track Bars")
hmax = cv2.getTrackbarPos("Hue Max", "Track Bars")
smin = cv2.getTrackbarPos("Sat Min", "Track Bars")
smax = cv2.getTrackbarPos("Sat Max", "Track Bars")
vmin = cv2.getTrackbarPos("Value Min", "Track Bars")
vmax = cv2.getTrackbarPos("Value Max", "Track Bars")
lower = np.array([hmin,smin,vmin])
upper = np.array([hmax,smax,vmax])
mask = cv2.inRange(imgHSV,lower,upper)
imgResult = cv2.bitwise_and(img,img,mask=mask)
cv2.imshow("Original Image", img)
cv2.imshow("HSV Image", imgHSV)
cv2.imshow("Mask", mask)
cv2.imshow("Final Output", imgResult)
Contour Detection
Figure 12: Contour Detection
Contour detection is the process of joining all the continuous points along an object’s boundary. Contours are necessary for object detection, recognition, and shape analysis.
We start by duplicating our original image using the method copy. This way, we draw the contours on a separate image rather than writing on the actual image itself. Next, we proceed with the pre-processing. First, convert it to Grayscale to ease up edge detection. Then, we use Gaussian blur to smooth out the edges. Finally, use Canny to detect the edges.
Now that we have a binary image courtesy of Canny, we use it as an input to findContours(), which retrieves contours from binary images. Contours are the raw shapes that enclose the objects detected in your image. This function requires at least 3 parameters: image src, mode, and method. The contour retrieval mode defines the contour retrieval algorithm. We specifically use RETR_EXTERNAL because it retrieves only the extreme outer contours. See all retrieval modes here. On the other hand, the method defines the contour approximation algorithm. The CHAIN_APPROX_NONE method that we used stores absolutely all the contour points, creating an enclosing shape on the object. For reference, there’s also the CHAIN_APPROX_SIMPLE method that stores only the corners of the object.
We now use a loop to validate the detected contours and draw on them. For every detected contour, we get the area using contourArea(). If the area is larger than an explicit number (change this according to your image size), then the contour is valid. We now draw on it using drawContours(). This function requires at least 5 parameters: the image src, the particular contour, the contour index, color, and thickness. The index of the contour indicates the contour to be drawn. If it is -1, all the contours are drawn.
Other additional functions commonly associated with contours are arcLength() and approxPolyDP(). You can use them to obtain the perimeter and the number of corners of the object, respectively.
import cv2
import numpy as np
path = "Resources/shapes.png"
img = cv2.imread(path)
imgContour = img.copy()
imgGray = cv2.cvtColor(img,cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)
imgBlur = cv2.GaussianBlur(imgGray, (7,7), 1)
imgCanny = cv2.Canny(imgBlur,100,100)
contours, hierarchy = cv2.findContours(imgCanny,cv2.RETR_EXTERNAL,cv2.CHAIN_APPROX_NONE)
for cnt in contours:
area = cv2.contourArea(cnt)
print("area: " + str(area))
if area>500:
cv2.drawContours(imgContour, cnt, -1, (0, 255, 0), 3)
para = cv2.arcLength(cnt,True)
print("perimeter: " + str(para))
approx = cv2.approxPolyDP(cnt,0.02*para,True)
print("approximate points: " + str(len(approx)))
cv2.imshow("Contour Detection",imgContour)
Object Detection using Cascades
Figure 13: Haarcascade Face Detection
For our finale, we will use a haar cascade to detect a face in an input image. This must sound daunting at first, but take a peek at the code and see how short it is. This is the magic of machine learning.
Haar Cascade is a machine learning object detection algorithm used to identify faces and objects in an image based on the concept proposed by Paul Viola and Michael Jones in 2001. Since then, Haar Cascades have been widely used in many academic papers and computer vision applications, including OpenCV. Don’t worry; we don’t need to know how the intricacies of the model work. We just need to know how to use it with OpenCV.
First, download the haar cascade optimized for frontal face detection on OpenCV’s GitHub page. Load it using CascadeClassifier(). Then prep the image by converting it to grayscale. Next, we use detectMultiScale() to detect objects of different sizes within the input image. The detected objects are returned as a list of bounding rectangles. This function needs 3 parameters: image src, scale factor, and the number of minimum neighbors. The scale factor defines how much the image size is reduced at each image scale, while the number of minimum neighbors indicates how many neighbors each candidate rectangle should have to retain it. You can tweak both these parameters to adjust the sensitivity of the object detection algorithm.
After detecting the faces, just like the contour example, we use a loop to draw rectangles and labels on it.
import cv2
faceCascade = cv2.CascadeClassifier("Resources/haarcascade_frontalface_default.xml")
img = cv2.imread("Resources/picture.png")
imgGray = cv2.cvtColor(img,cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)
faces = faceCascade.detectMultiScale(imgGray,1.1,39)
cv2.putText(img, "LEO",(x,y-5),cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_COMPLEX, 0.6, (0,255,0),1)
cv2.imshow("Face Detection",img)
As a bonus, here’s a code that uses your computer’s webcam to detect faces in real-time. I think almost all webcam software has this already, but it is still fun to know that you can code it yourself, and it actually works.
import cv2
import numpy as np
cap = cv2.VideoCapture(0)
faceCascade = cv2.CascadeClassifier("Resources/haarcascade_frontalface_default.xml")
while True:
success, img =
imgGray = cv2.cvtColor(img,cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)
faces = faceCascade.detectMultiScale(imgGray,1.1,39)
cv2.putText(img, "TOILET",(x,y-10),cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_COMPLEX, 0.6, (0,255,0),1)
This was honestly longer than I anticipated. I initially wanted to write just for the Raspberry Pi, but it turned out a fully-fledged OpenCV article. If you managed to get down here, congrats! You now have a solid understanding of how OpenCV works. The thing is pretty impressive, really. I hope you learned as much I did. See you in the next article!
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rescripting meaning in Hindi
rescripting sentence in Hindi
• पुनर्लेखन
Download Hindlish App
1. Siegel cautions against the use of violence in rescripting.
2. Rehearsal involves putting rescripting to the test.
3. It consists of what he calls the four R's : reassurance, rescripting, rehearsal and resolution.
4. In the case of trauma, imagery rescripting involves a reworking of the emotional memories in the direction of meeting needs such as safety.
5. This involves a process called " imagery rescripting " through which painful memories are revised in ways that allow for the patient to meet their needs.
6. Lustig has also become known for his clever post-modern rescripting of panels from old romance comic pages previously published by Charlton Comics under the banner Last Kiss.
7. Pasko was unimpressed with King Kobra, feeling it to be a throwaway idea churned out by Kirby as he was preparing to leave DC, and tried to make the best of the assignment by whiting out all of Kirby's original dialogue, rescripting the issue, and having Pablo Marcos redraw some of the art.
More: Next
Related Words
1. rescinnamine
2. rescission
3. rescission bond
4. rescission of contract
5. rescript
6. rescripts
7. rescue
8. rescue and sundry appliances
9. rescue apparatus
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• Theresa Babb’s Photographs of Friendship (ca. 1898) – The Public Domain Review
In The Social Sex: A History of Female Friendship, Marilyn Yalom describes the rise of the “new woman” in the late-nineteenth century, whose education, race, and class position created “a new model of friendship” that was “to last for much of the twentieth century”. She quotes a woman interviewed during this rise: “We live for our friends, and at bottom for no other reason.” Babb’s portraits do not fall neatly into this history, but certainly share the quoted sentiment. The groups of women she photographed are neither fully focused on the ennobling, moral uplift associated with “the serious New Woman” nor anticipatory of the “carefree flapper” that was to follow. Instead, we find joyful depictions of friendship among women, often on countryside outings, during a decade in US history remembered as “the gay nineties”. In the image above, Babb and three friends drink, heads thrown back, while lounging on a rocky shore. A fifth woman stares off toward the water, either comically posed in feigned disapproval or simply lost in thought. Several other images continue the theme, reflecting the pleasures of posing in groups. In a photograph captioned “Camping crowd at Ogier Point”, four women lean on each other, pulling faces for the camera; another image depicts friends and family of Babbs stacked on a ladder, with her sister, Grace Parker, on top.
The activities are numerous: dancing, picnicking, dog walking, dinner parties, photography, bicycling, child care, hammocking, and naps on the beach are all represented. Spending time with these images, we start to feel as if we know Theresa Babb. And yet, in terms of biographical information, we know very little. Her husband was the treasurer of Knox Woolen Mill, Charles W. Babb, and her son, Charles Jr., succeeded in the family business, becoming President of the mill. On the envelopes that house the negatives of these photographs, Theresa Babb wrote detailed captions, small missives to some future onlooker.
#Domaine_public #Femmes #Photographie
• Emma Willard’s Maps of Time
In the 21st-century, infographics are everywhere. In the classroom, in the newspaper, in government reports, these concise visual representations of complicated information have changed the way we imagine our world. Susan Schulten explores the pioneering work of Emma Willard (1787–1870), a leading feminist educator whose innovative maps of time laid the groundwork for the charts and graphics of today.
We live in an age of visual information. Infographics flood the web, driven by accessible platforms that instantly translate information into a variety of graphic forms. News outlets routinely harvest large data sets like the census and election returns into maps and graphs that profile everything from consumer preferences to the political landscape. The current proliferation of visual information mirrors a similar moment in the early nineteenth century, when the advent of new printing techniques coincided with the rapid expansion of education. Schoolrooms from the Atlantic seaboard to the Mississippi frontier made room for the children of farmers as well as merchants, girls as well as boys. Together, these shifts created a robust and highly competitive market for school materials, including illustrated textbooks, school atlases, and even the new genre of wall maps.
No individual exploited this publishing opportunity more than Emma Willard, one of the century’s most influential educators. From the 1820s through the Civil War, Willard’s history and geography textbooks exposed an entire generation of students to her deeply patriotic narratives, all of which were studded with innovative and creative pictures of information that sought to translate big data into manageable visual forms.
When Willard began publishing textbooks in the 1820s, she knew the competition was fierce, full of sharp-elbowed authors who routinely accused one another of plagiarizing ideas and text. To build her brand, she designed cutting-edge graphics that would differentiate her work and catch the attention of the young. Take, for instance, her “Perspective Sketch of the Course of Empire” of 1835.
By the nineteenth century, timelines had become relatively common, an innovation of the eighteenth century designed to feed growing public interest in ancient as well as modern history. First developed by Jacques Barbeu-Dubourg in the 1750s, early timelines generally charted the lives of individuals on a chronological grid, reflecting the Enlightenment assumption that history could be measured against an absolute scale of time, moving inexorably onward from zero. In 1765, Joseph Priestley drew from calendars, chronologies, and geographies to plot the lives of two thousand men between 1200 BC and 1750 AD in his popular Chart of Biography.
After Priestley, timelines flourished, but they generally lacked any sense of the dimensionality of time, representing the past as a uniform march from left to right. By contrast, Emma Willard sought to invest chronology with a sense of perspective, presenting the biblical Creation as the apex of a triangle that then flowed forward in time and space toward the viewer. Commenting on her visual framework in 1835, Willard noted that individuals experience the past relative to their own lives, for “events apparently diminish when viewed through the vista of departed years.”1 In “Perspective Sketch of the Course of Empire”, she found striking ways to represent this dimensionality of time. The birth of Christ, for example, is marked with a bright light, marking the end of the first third of human history. The discovery of America separated the second (middle) from the third (modern) stage. Each “civilization” is situated not according to its geography, as on a traditional map, but according to its connection and relation to other civilizations. Some of these societies are permeable, flowing into others, while others, such as China, are firmly demarcated to denote their isolation. By studying this map, students were encouraged to see human history as a rise and fall of civilizations — an “ancestry of nations”.
Moreover, as time flows forward the stream widens, demonstrating that history became more relevant as it unfolds and approaches the student’s own life. Historical time is not uniform but dimensional. On the one hand, this reflected her sense that time itself had accelerated through the advent of steam and rail. Traditional timelines, she found, were only partially capable of representing change in an era of rapid technological progress. Time was not absolute, but relative. On the other hand, Willard’s approach reflected her own deep nationalism, for it asked students to recognize the emergence of the United States as the culmination of human history and progress.
Willard aggressively marketed her “Perspective Sketch” to American educators, believing it to be a crucial break with other materials on the market. As she confidently expressed to a friend in 1844, “In history I have invented the map”.3 She also advocated for her “map of time” as a teaching device because she strongly believed the visual preceded the verbal — that information presented to students in graphic terms would facilitate memorization, attaching images to the mind through the eyes.
Willard’s devotion to visual mnemonics shaped much of her work. In the 1840s, she published another elaborate visual device, named the “Temple of Time”. Here, she attempted to integrate chronology with geography: the stream of time she had charted in the previous decade now occupied the floor of the temple, whose architecture she used to magnify perspective through a visual convention. Centuries — represented by pillars printed with the names of the era’s most prominent statesmen, poets, and warriors —diminished in size as they receded in time, turning the viewer’s attention toward recent history, as in the “Course of Empire”. But in the Temple of Time, the one-point perspective also invited students in to inhabit the past, laying out information in a kind of memory palace that would help them form a larger, coherent picture of world history. Readers, in other words, were invited into the palace, so they too could stand at moments in world history.
The Temple of Time is complicated, and more than a little contrived. Yet Willard reminds readers that traditional cartography relies on the same basic conceit:
In a map, great countries made up of plains, mountains, seas, and rivers, are represented by what is altogether unlike them; viz., lines, shades, and letters, on a flat piece of paper; but the divisions of the map enable the mind to comprehend, by proportional space and distance, what is the comparative size of each, and how countries are situated with respect to each other. So this picture made on paper, called a Temple of Time, though unlike duration, represents it by proportional space. It is as scientific and intelligible, to represent time by space, as it is to represent space by space.4
A map, in other words, is an arrangement of symbols into a system of meaning — and we use maps because we understand the language of signs that undergirds them. If the mapping of space was a human invention, she explained, one could also invent a means of mapping time.
Willard’s creative efforts to “map time” stemmed from personal experience. Born just after the Revolution, she was part of the first generation of American women to be educated outside the home, and she chafed at the way “female education” kept more than a few areas of knowledge off limits. One of the few subjects considered suitable for both boys and girls in that era was geography, yet Willard remembered with frustration the degree to which her textbooks lacked maps. It makes sense, then, that as a young teacher in the 1810s Willard became passionate about having her pupils draw maps — not copying them (a common practice in schools for young women at the time) but rather reproducing them in rough terms from memory to demonstrate a grasp of geographical relationships.
Willard’s own artistic creativity as a mapmaker was evident from the start. Her first textbook — a geography written with William Woodbridge and published in 1824 — includes a metaphorical map of the Amazon River and its tributaries which illustrates the evolution of the Roman Empire. (One can see in this early effort the prototype for her elaborate “Perspective Sketch” of the 1830s.)
Willard’s creativity as an educator was equally immense. In 1819 she published a plan to publicly fund the improvement of female education, which met with more than a little resistance. Two years later, she began to implement this vision by founding the Troy Female Seminary in New York—an institution that quickly became a preeminent school for future teachers and one of the most highly regarded schools for women in the country. At Troy, Willard assumed that females were capable of studying the same subjects as their male counterparts and incorporated “masculine studies”, such as science and history, into the curriculum. Her administration of Troy, and her intensive teaching in the decade prior to and after its foundation, convinced her of the multiple failures of contemporary pedagogy and textbooks.
In 1828, Willard issued the first edition of her History of the United States, or The Republic of America, a textbook so popular it would remain in print until the 1860s. One key element of the book’s success was the atlas that accompanied the text — a series of maps of the eastern US that Willard designed and executed with a former female student. In this series, each map marked particular moments or eras that either led toward or resulted from nationhood, including the landing on Plymouth Rock, the Treaty of Paris, or the late War of 1812 against Britain. Perhaps the most remarkable of these was the “introductory map”, which identified indigenous tribes through a series of geographic migrations, collapsing centuries of movement into a single image. In naming this the “introductory” map, however, Willard situated Native Americans in a prehistorical era antedating the ostensibly more significant events of European settlement. The single image she created was innovative and powerful, but it also rendered the violence of Native displacement as an inevitable prelude that gave way to the real drama of colonialism and the inevitable realization of national independence.
Willard’s commitment to creative cartography, combined with her nationalism, inspired her to create a simplified American Temple of Time in the late 1840s, which revealed a firm belief in Manifest Destiny: the providential progression from the European discovery of North America in the fifteenth century to a continental empire in the present. The concept of the American Temple was interactive, framing the chronological and geographical outlines of American history to aid memorization. Students were to identify the eight geographical entities that made up the continental United States: the original thirteen colonies, New France, the Northwest Territory, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Oregon, and the area ceded by Mexico in the 1848 treaty that ended the Mexican–American War. Students were then instructed to locate each state and territory in time by shading its existence as it became part of the country (shading the colonies as they were settled, and the states as they joined the union). If the Temple were drawn large enough, there would also be enough space along the “floor” to identify important battles. The design is complex and unwieldy, but the goal is intriguing: an interactive exercise for students to integrate history and geography in order to understand how the past had—quite literally—taken place.
Willard’s final contribution to visual knowledge was perhaps the most straightforward, a “Tree of Time” that presented American history as a coherent, organic whole. There is, of course, a long tradition of presenting time as a tree (family trees being the most enduring), but Willard used the image not to represent ancestors as trunks and descendants as branches, but — rather oddly — to represent time arcing from left to right, like a timeline. She was so fond of the Tree of Time she used it to introduce all subsequent editions of her popular textbook History of the United States and even issued it on a much larger scale to be hung in classrooms.
Like the Temple, the Tree presented an encompassing history of the nation that reached back past 1789 to 1492. All of North America’s colonial history merely formed the backstory to the preordained rise of the United States. The tree also strengthened a sense of coherence, organizing the chaotic past into a series of branches that spelled out the national meaning of the past. Above all, the Tree of Time conveyed to students a sense that history moved in a meaningful direction. Imperialism, dispossession, and violence was translated, in Willard’s representation, into a peaceful and unified picture of American progress.
Ironically, it was the cataclysms of the Civil War that challenged Willard’s harmonious picture of history in the Tree of Time. In the 1844 edition of the Tree, President Harrison’s death marched the last branch of history. Twenty years later, Willard added a new branch marking the end of the US war against Mexico and the subsequent Compromise of 1850, seismic events which both raised and temporarily settled the sectional divisions over slavery. Even though the Civil War was well underway by the time she issued her last edition of tree, she marked the last branch as “1860”, with no mention of the bloody conflict that had engulfed the entire nation. Her accompanying narrative in Republic of America brought American history to the brink of war, but no further. Willard had come up against history itself.
#Emma_Willard #cartographie_historique #cartographie #peuples_autochtones #infographie #femme_géographe #femme_cartographe
voir aussi :
ajouté au fil de discussion sur les femmes géographes :
ping @visionscarto @reka
• Clouds of Unknowing : Edward Quin’s Historical Atlas (1830)
“Now when I was a little chap I had a passion for maps”, says the seafaring raconteur #Charles_Marlow in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1899) (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm). “At that time there were many blank spaces on the earth, and when I saw one that looked particularly inviting on a map (but they all look that) I would put my finger on it and say, ’When I grow up I will go there.’” Of course, these “blank spaces” were anything but. The no-man’s-lands that colonial explorers like #Marlow found most inviting (the Congo River basin, #Tasmania, the #Andaman_Islands) were, in fact, richly populated, and faced devastating consequences in the name of imperial expansion.
Not much is known about Edward Quin, the Oxford graduate, London barrister, and amateur cartographer whose Atlas was published two years after his death at the age of thirty-four. We learn, thanks to Walter Goffart’s research into historical atlases, that Quin’s images were more popular than his words. The well-regarded cartographer William Hughes rescaled the maps for a new edition in 1846, discarding their artist’s accompanying text. The Atlas’ enduring technical advancement, which influenced subsequent cartographers, can be found in its ingenious use of negative space. Emma Willard’s Atlas to Accompany a System of Universal History, for instance, features cloudy borders that seem very much indebted to Quin.
#cartographie_historique #cartographie #connu #inconnu #géographie_du_vide #vide #histoire #Tasmanie #fleuve_Congo #colonisation #colonialisme #Edward_Quin #atlas
ping @reka @visionscarto
via @isskein
• On the Road : The Woman and the Car (1909) – The Public Domain Review
In the early twentieth century, Dorothy Levitt, née Elizabeth Levi (1882-1922) was “the premier woman motorist and botorist [motorboat driver] of the world”. The first Englishwoman to drive in a public competition, she triumphed during races in the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, defeated all challengers at the Championship of the Seas in Trouville, and set the women’s world record in the Brighton Speed Trials: a whopping 79.75 miles per hour — lightspeed, circa 1905.
In Levitt’s “little handbook”, we find a similar hunger for the fraught freedom of the road that would eventually preoccupy the mid-century American imagination — exploited in novels like On the Road and Lolita, and in films such as Easy Rider — and which continues to provide a mesh of mechanist escapism in the British television program Top Gear:
There may be pleasure in being whirled around the country by your friends and relatives, or in a car driven by your chauffeur; but the real, the intense pleasure, the actual realisation of the pastime comes only when you drive your own car.
Above all else, The Woman and the Car endures as a pamphlet of petro-feminist empowerment:
You may be afraid, as I am, of driving in a hansom through the crowded streets of town—you may be afraid of a mouse, or so nervous that you are startled at the slightest of sudden sounds—yet you can be a skilful motorist, and enjoy to the full delights of this greatest of out-door pastimes, if you possess patience —the capacity for taking pains.
She ends her treatise with a reflection on recent historical progress. “Twenty or thirty years ago, two of the essentials to a motorist—some acquaintance with mechanics and the ability to understand local topography—were supposed to be beyond the capacity of a woman’s brain.” Levitt was not only instrumental in advancing equality behind the steering wheel, she also forever altered the automobile form. Decades before rearview mirrors became standard issue, she recommended that ladies carry a hand mirror, for holding up to the landscape receding in their dusty tracks.
#Pétro-féminisme #Automobile #Féminisme #Domaine_public
• Loie Fuller and the Serpentine | Rhonda K. Garelick
With her “serpentine dance” — a show of swirling silk and rainbow lights — Loie Fuller became one of the most celebrated dancers of the fin de siècle. Rhonda K. Garelick explores Fuller’s unlikely stardom and how her beguiling art embodied the era’s newly blurred boundaries between human and machine. Source: The Public Domain Review
• Fungi, Folklore, and Fairyland – The Public Domain Review
« Mangez-moi, Mangez-moi
C’est le chant du Psylo... »
The first recorded mushroom trip in Britain took place in London’s Green Park on October 3, 1799. Like many such experiences before and since, it was accidental. A man identified in the subsequent medical report as “J. S.” was in the habit of gathering small field mushrooms from the park on autumn mornings and cooking them up into a breakfast broth for his wife and young family. But this particular morning, an hour after they had finished it, everything began to turn very strange. J. S. noticed black spots and odd flashes of colour interrupting his vision; he became disorientated and had difficulty in standing and moving around. His family were complaining of stomach cramps and cold, numb extremities. The notion of poisonous toadstools leapt to his mind, and he staggered out into the streets to seek help, but within a hundred yards he had forgotten where he was going, or why, and was found wandering in a confused state.
By chance a physician named Everard Brande was passing through this part of town, and he was summoned to treat J. S. and his family. The scene he witnessed was so unusual that he wrote it up at length and published it in The Medical and Physical Journal a few months later.1 The family’s symptoms were rising and falling in giddy waves, their pupils dilated, their pulses fluttering, and their breathing laboured, periodically returning to normal before accelerating into another crisis. All were fixated on the fear that they were dying except for the youngest, the eight-year-old son named as “Edward S.”, whose symptoms were the strangest of all. He had eaten a large portion of the mushrooms and was “attacked with fits of immoderate laughter” which his parents’ threats could not subdue. He seemed to have been transported into another world, from which he would only return under duress to speak nonsense: “when roused and interrogated as to it, he answered indifferently, yes or no, as he did to every other question, evidently without any relation to what was asked”.
Dr Brande diagnosed the family’s condition as the “deleterious effects of a very common species of agaric [mushroom], not hitherto suspected to be poisonous”. Today, we can be more specific: this was intoxication by liberty caps (Psilocybe semilanceata), the “magic mushrooms” that grow plentifully across the hills, moors, commons, golf courses, and playing fields of Britain every autumn. The botanical illustrator James Sowerby, who was working on the third volume of his landmark Coloured Figures of English Fungi or Mushrooms (1803), interrupted his schedule to visit J. S. and identify the species in question. Sowerby’s illustration includes a cluster of unmistakable liberty caps, together with a similar-looking species (now recognised as a roundhead of the Stropharia genus). In his accompanying note, Sowerby emphasises that it was the pointy-headed variety (“with the pileus acuminated”) that “nearly proved fatal to a poor family in Piccadilly, London, who were so indiscreet as to stew a quantity” for breakfast.
Alors là, la ressemblance entre le bonnet phrygien et les psylos dans les champs... je ne l’avais encore jamais lue. Et la médaille de Benjamin franklin ne laisse pourtant aucun doute.
During the nineteenth century, the liberty cap took on a different set of associations, derived not from its visionary properties but its distinctive appearance. Samuel Taylor Coleridge seems to have been the first to suggest its common name in a short piece published in 1812 in Omniana, a miscellany co-written with Robert Southey. Coleridge was struck by that “common fungus, which so exactly represents the pole and cap of Liberty that it seems offered by Nature herself as the appropriate emblem of Gallic republicanism”.3 The cap of Liberty, or Phrygian cap, a peaked felt bonnet associated with the similar-looking pileus worn by freed slaves in the Roman empire, had become an icon of political freedom through the revolutionary movements of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. William of Orange included it as a symbol on a coin struck to celebrate his Glorious Revolution in 1688; the anti-monarchist MP John Wilkes holds it, mounted on its pole, in William Hogarth’s devilish caricature of 1763. It appears on a medal designed by Benjamin Franklin to commemorate July 4, 1776, under the banner LIBERTAS AMERICANA, and it was adopted during the French Revolution by the sans-culottes as their signature bonnet rouge. It was these associations — rather than its psychoactive properties, of which he shows no knowledge — that led Coleridge to celebrate it as the “mushroom Cap of Liberty”, a name that percolated through the many reprints of Omniana into nineteenth-century British culture, folklore, and botany.
In parallel to a growing scientific interest in toxic and hallucinogenic fungi, a vast body of Victorian fairy lore connected mushrooms and toadstools with elves, pixies, hollow hills, and the unwitting transport of subjects to fairyland, a world of shifting perspectives seething with elemental spirits. The similarity of this otherworld to those engendered by plant psychedelics in New World cultures, where psilocybin-containing mushrooms have been used for millennia, is suggestive. Is it possible that the Victorian fairy tradition, beneath its innocent exterior, operated as a conduit for a hidden tradition of psychedelic knowledge? Were the authors of these fantastical narratives — Alice in Wonderland, for example — aware of the powers of certain mushrooms to lead unsuspecting visitors to enchanted lands? Were they, perhaps, even writing from personal experience?
Despite its ubiquity, and occasional and tentative association with nature spirits, the mushroom that became the distinctive motif of fairyland was not the liberty cap but rather the spectacular red-and-white fly agaric (Amanita muscaria). The fly agaric is psychoactive but unlike the liberty cap, which delivers psilocybin in reliable doses, it contains a mix of alkaloids — muscarine, muscimol, ibotenic acid — which generate an unpredictable and toxic cocktail of effects. These can include wooziness and disorientation, drooling, sweats, numbness in the lips and extremities, nausea, muscle twitches, sleep, and a vague, often retrospective sense of liminal consciousness and waking dreams. At lower doses, none of these may manifest; at higher doses they may lead to coma and, on rare occasions, death.
Let us turn now to the most famous and frequently-debated conjunction of fungi, psychedelia, and fairy-lore: the array of mushrooms and hallucinatory potions, mind-bending and shapeshifting motifs in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865). Do Alice’s adventures represent first-hand knowledge of hallucinogenic mushrooms?
The scenes in question could hardly be better known. Alice, down the rabbit hole, meets a caterpillar sitting on a mushroom, who tells her in a “languid, sleepy voice” that the mushroom is the key to navigating through her strange journey: “one side will make you grow taller, the other side will make you grow shorter”. Alice takes a chunk from each side of the mushroom and begins a series of vertiginous transformations of size, shooting up into the clouds before learning to maintain her normal size by eating alternate bites. Throughout the rest of the book she continues to take the mushroom: entering the house of the Duchess, approaching the domain of the March Hare, and, climactically, before entering the hidden garden with the golden key.
Nevertheless, it seems unlikely that Alice’s mind-expanding journeys owed anything to the actual drug experiences of their author. Although Carroll — in daily life the Reverend Charles Dodgson — was a moderate drinker and, to judge by his library, opposed to alcohol prohibition, he had a strong dislike of tobacco smoking and wrote sceptically in his letters about the pervasive presence in syrups and soothing tonics of powerful narcotics like opium — the “medicine so dexterously, but ineffectually, concealed in the jam of our early childhood”.8 Yet Alice’s adventures may have their roots in a psychedelic mushroom experience. The scholar Michael Carmichael has demonstrated that, a few days before he began writing the story, Carroll made his only ever visit to Oxford’s Bodleian library, where a copy of Mordecai Cooke’s recently-published drug survey The Seven Sisters of Sleep (1860) had been deposited.9 The Bodleian copy of this book still has most of its pages uncut, with the exception of the contents page and the chapter on the fly agaric, entitled “The Exile of Siberia”. Carroll was particularly interested in Russia: it was the only country he ever visited outside Britain. And, as Carmichael puts it, Carroll “would have been immediately attracted to Cooke’s Seven Sisters of Sleep for two more obvious reasons: he had seven sisters and he was a lifelong insomniac”.
If so, he was neither a secret drug initiate nor a Victorian gentleman entirely innocent of the arcane knowledge of drugs. In this sense, Alice’s otherworld experiences seem to hover, like much of Victorian fairy literature and fantasy, in a borderland between naïve innocence of such drugs and knowing references to them. We read them today from a very different vantage point, one in which magic mushrooms are consumed far more widely than in the Victorian or indeed any previous era. In our thriving psychedelic culture, fly agaric is only to be encountered at the distant margins; by contrast, psilocybin mushrooms are a global phenomenon, grown and consumed in virtually every country on earth and even making inroads into clinical psychotherapy. Today the liberty cap is an emblem of a new political struggle: the right to “cognitive liberty”, the free and legal alteration of one’s own consciousness.
#Domaine_public #Champignons_hallucinogènes #Amanite_Tue-mouches #Psylocybine #Alice_au_pays_des_merveilles #Lewis_Caroll #Contes_de_fées
• Public Domain Backgrounds for Zoom – The Public Domain Review
In these days of social distancing and lockdown measures we may find ourselves on video chat screens a little more than we’d like. So we thought we’d provide you with some images to brighten up your backdrops — from a dreamy Bosch landscape to a 70’s space colony, from an operatic “Hall of Stars” to an Antarctic expedition. We’ve prepped them for Zoom as regards dimensions, but they are sure to be useful for other video conferencing/chat tools that you may be into.
You can browse this first batch of fifteen images below (we’re planning to do another next month). To download the full-res version (1920 x 1080 pixels) use the link beneath each image. Or if you wanted to download a ZIP file (49 mb) containing all the images, just click this link here.
#Domaine_public #Zoom
• “A Very Speedy Way to Be Besotted”: How the English Found Cannabis | Benjamin Breen
In the 17th century, English travelers, merchants, and physicians were first introduced to cannabis, particularly in the form of bhang, an intoxicating edible which had been getting Indians high for millennia. Benjamin Breen charts the course of the drug from the streets of Machilipatnam to the scientific circles of London. Source: The Public Domain Review
• The Cubies’ ABC (1913) – The Public Domain Review
Trop fun cet abécédaire anti-cubiste.
We tend to forget, now that the Cubists and Futurists have become as integral to the history of art as the painters of the Dutch Golden Age and the Italian Renaissance, how hostile most people — even most artists — felt toward the non-representational innovations of the artists on display at the Armory.
For every open-minded viewer like William Carlos Williams, who later said he was “tremendously stirred” by what the show represented, there were dozens who felt more like the anonymous American quoted above — or like Mary Mills and Earl Harvey Lyall, who immortalized their disgust with “the Cubies”, stars of a novel alphabet book published sometime before the end of 1913.
The mean-spirited, if sometimes hilarious, text of The Cubies’ ABC was composed by Mary (1879–1963), about whom nothing is known. The equally mean-spirited, if somewhat cutesy, illustrations were done by her architect husband, Earl (1877–1932).
#Domaine_public #Cubisme
• Gustav Wunderwald’s Paintings of Weimar Berlin – The Public Domain Review
Gustav Wunderwald’s Paintings of Weimar Berlin
The Berlin of the 1920s is often associated with a certain excess and decadence, but it was a quite different side of the city — the “sobriety and desolation” of its industrial and working-class districts — which came to obsess the painter Gustav Wunderwald. Mark Hobbs explores.
#Gustav_Wunderwald #peinture #art #berlin #weimar
• Je ne le connaissait pas encore, alors #merci de me l’a fait découvrir !
et surtout
Brücke über die Ackerstraße Berlin Nord
L’attribution géographique dans le titre est erronée - il s’agit de la Gartenstraße, le regard du peintre est orienté vers l’ouest . Le mur sur la gauche fait partie de l’enceinte de la gare Stettiner Bahnhof . En 1961 les bâtisseur du mur de Berlin l’ont incorporé dans leur fortification antifasciste. On peut le regarder dans le film Lola rennt juste avant la disparition des signes de cette époque désormais historique. Le pont derrière le pont sur le tableau est tombé en ruines entre 1961 et 1990 au point où seulement le train militaire francais entre Tegel et Strasbourg l’empruntait encore une fois par semaine.
En 2019 les maisons de la Gartenstraße à droite ont disparu après les bombardements de 1944/45 et la déstruction des anciens immeubles pendant la modernisation du quartier à partir des années 1960. A l’endroit de l’immeuble sur la droite se trouve une tour d’habitation et l’immeuble au coin de la Scheringstraße a fait place au point rond qui a remplacé le carrefour.
Ehemaliger Bezirk Nr. 1-27, 87-115 Mitte, Nr. 37-65 Wedding
Alte Namen Hamburger Landwehr (Mitte 18. Jh.- 1801)
Name seit 18.2.1801
Nach den ausländischen Gärtnerfamilien, die hier auf Befehl König Friedrichs II. nach 1770 angesiedelt wurden.
Am 21.4.1770 befahl König Friedrich II., der Große, daß hier ausländische Gärtnerfamilien angesiedelt werden sollen. Durch Grundbriefe vom 25.3.1772, ausgestellt von der Kurmärkischen Kriegs- und Domänenkammer und vom König selbst bestätigt, erhielten zuerst zehn Gärtnerfamilien je ein Haus und vier Morgen (etwa einen Hektar) Land.
Die Straße wurde, wie die Acker-, die Berg-, die Brunnen- und die Invalidenstraße, um 1752 angelegt. Sie hieß ab Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts Hamburger Landwehr. 1801 erbaten Anwohner vom Polizei-Direktorium die offizielle Benennung der Straßen in der Rosenthaler Vorstadt, die auch erfolgte. Am 6. April 1833 wurde die Verlängerung der Gartenstraße ebenfalls Gartenstraße benannt. 1881 forderten Anwohner den Namen Humboldt-Straße. Dieser Antrag wurde jedoch abgelehnt.
Gartenstraße (Berlin-Mitte) – Wikipedia
Bei der Besiedlung des Gebietes wurde neben der Brunnenstraße, der Ackerstraße und der Bergstraße auch die Gartenstraße angelegt, damals nur ein Sandweg, der zunächst als Hamburger Landwehr bezeichnet wurde. Im Jahr 1772 ließ der König im Gebiet der Gartenstraße zehn Gärtnerfamilien aus Sachsen ansiedeln, die unentgeltlich Haus, Hof und vier Morgen Land erhielten, jedoch mit der Verpflichtung, die Sandwüste zu begrünen und Obstkulturen anzulegen. Ihren Namen erhielt die Straße am 18. Februar 1801, der sich auf die hier nun wohnenden Gärtnersfamilien bezog.
#Berlin #Gesundbrunnen #Gartenstraße #Ackerstraße #Liesenstraße #Scheringstraße #S-Bahn #mur
• Lustucru: From Severed Heads to Ready-Made Meals
Jé Wilson charts the migration of the Lustucru figure through the French cultural imagination — from misogynistic blacksmith bent on curbing female empowerment, to child-stealing bogeyman, to jolly purveyor of packaged pasta.
via https://www.metafilter.com/181455/Lustucru-From-Severed-Heads-to-Ready-Made-Meals
• Wahoo quelle histoire !
The sign of the shop, hanging at upper left, displays a decapitated woman’s body above the words “Tout en est bon”, from the saying, “Une femme sans tête: tout en est bon”, meaning “A woman without a head: everything is good”. To make the message absolutely clear, the block of text encourages men to bring their difficult wives to this head doctor, where their brains will be reforged and purged of all screechy, angry, lunatic, obstinate, rebellious, willful, and lazy ways. Any woman with a mind of her own is guaranteed a graphically brutal straightening out.
As sexist satire goes, this is dark. Even darker is the fact that, as soon as the image appeared, the head-pounding blacksmith “became all the rage” in France.2 Publishers began to churn out stand-alone broadsheets of his image in order to feed a demand for cheap copies, and versions of him in his forge spread from France to Germany and Italy.3 An entire almanac calendar for 1660 was dedicated to Lustucru.4 He was written into the latest comic plays and poems, and his image was even stamped on tokens or “jetons” (metal coins used mainly as counters in the age before calculators). In today’s terms, he went viral.
His name, Lustucru, comes from a slurring of “L’eusses-tu-cru?”, a stock phrase used in that period by theatrical fools, which meant, “Would you have believed it?” or in this case, “Would you have thought a woman’s head could be fixed?” According to the seventeenth-century French writer Gédéon Tallemant des Réaux, Lustucru was born from a desire for male revenge.
Je me demande bien de quelle revenche contre les femmes auraient les hommes de cette époque et dont parle ce Gédéon Tallemant.
Male anxiety regarding the growing influence and power of women was generally on the rise in France during the 1650s. Women had begun to gain some standing in the literary arts and were established enough to have been satirized as “les précieuses”, a type of clever woman who frequented Parisian salons, wrote books, and favored an elegantly refined (or, to other minds, affected and pretentious) speaking and writing style.
Les femmes n’ont pas gagné en puissance vers 1650, c’est même tout l’inverse, c’est la période de la création de l’académie française, institution dont le but principale est de baillonner les femmes et excisé la langue de toute trace de féminin qui ne soit pas humiliant. C’est aussi la période de la chasse aux sorcière, des interdictions de reprendre le commerce familial en cas de veuvage,
#séduction_à_la_française #inversion_patriarcale #blâmer_la_victime #misogynie #féminicide #domination_masculine #mégèrisme #histoire #marque #cannibalisme #lobotomie #hystérie #femmes #guerre_des_sexes #couple #amour #hétérosexualité #domination_masculine #chirurgie #violences_médicale #patriarcat #matriarcat
• Ogawa Kazumasa’s Hand-Coloured Photographs of Flowers (1896) – The Public Domain Review
The stunning floral images featured here are the work of Ogawa Kazumasa, a Japanese photographer, printer, and publisher known for his pioneering work in photomechanical printing and photography in the Meiji era. Studying photography from the age of fifteen, Ogawa moved to Tokyo aged twenty to further his study and develop his English skills which he believed necessary to deepen his technical knowledge. After opening his own photography studio and working as an English interpreter for the Yokohama Police Department, Ogawa decided to travel to the United States to learn first hand the advance photographic techniques of the time. Having little money, Ogawa managed to get hired as a sailor on the USS Swatara and six months later landed in Washington. For the next two years, in Boston and Philadelphia, Ogawa studied printing techniques including the complicated collotype process with which he’d make his name on returning to Japan.
In 1884, Ogawa opened a photographic studio in Tokyo and in 1888 established a dry plate manufacturing company, and the following year, Japan’s first collotype business, the “K. Ogawa printing factory”. He also worked as an editor for various photography magazines, which he printed using the collotype printing process, and was a founding member of the Japan Photographic Society.
The exquisite hand-coloured flower collotypes shown here were featured in the 1896 book Some Japanese Flowers (of which you can buy a 2013 reprint here), and some were also featured the following year in Japan, Described and Illustrated by the Japanese (1897) edited by Francis Brinkley.
• Grandville, Visions, and Dreams – The Public Domain Review
The poet Charles Baudelaire greatly admired the graphic arts, writing several essays about the major caricaturists and illustrators of his day. He found something positive to say about each of them with one exception, the artist Jean-Ignace-Isidore Gérard, known simply as Grandville (1803–1847). And yet, despite Baudelaire’s antipathy, Grandville is arguably the most imaginative graphic artist of the nineteenth century, as well as the most influential on subsequent generations. Baudelaire was well aware of Grandville’s gifts, but his aversion was that of a true classicist:
There are superficial people whom Grandville amuses, but as for me, he frightens me. When I enter into Grandville’s work, I feel a certain discomfort, like in an apartment where disorder is systematically organized, where bizarre cornices rest on the floor, where paintings seem distorted by an optic lens, where objects are deformed by being shoved together at odd angles, where furniture has its feet in the air, and where drawers push in instead of pulling out.1
Baudelaire’s comments were perceptive: these are the very characteristics that, while making him uncomfortable, appealed to the next century’s surrealist artists and writers who saw in Grandville a kindred spirit who shared their interest in the uncanny, in the dream state, and in the world of imagination.
The work of a graphic artist was always collaborative, undertaken at the behest of a publisher. Graphic artists worked mostly on commission; paid by the piece, they considered themselves fortunate if contracted to produce all the drawings for one of the richly illustrated editions that were so popular with nineteenth-century audiences. The standard procedure was that the artist provided the drawing, which would then be translated into an incised wood engraving, printed and hand-colored by specialists. Grandville did his share of these commissioned works, producing illustrations for Don Quixote, Gulliver’s Travels, and Robinson Crusoe, among others, but because of this expensive and time-consuming production process, graphic artists were rarely allowed to follow their own inclinations. Nonetheless, Grandville’s most inventive work did just that, departing from the conventional understanding of illustration as subservient to text; Grandville’s drawings stand alone.
#Domaine_public #Grandville #Illustration
• rapport McKinsey : automatisation : 375 millions de personnes forcées de changer d’emploi d’ici 2030 ?
Dans une étude, le cabinet McKinsey estime que l’automatisation pourrait avoir des conséquences sur 60% des emplois dans le monde. Face à ces mutations, les experts recommandent aux Etats d’investir dans la formation des travailleurs pour qu’ils acquièrent de nouvelles compétences rapidement.
Selon la dernière étude du cabinet McKinsey, l’automatisation du travail pourrait avoir des conséquences sur une large part de la population active mondiale d’ici 2030. D’après des estimations évoquées dans le rapport intitulé « Emplois perdus, emplois gagnés : l’évolution des forces de travail au moment de l’automatisation », entre 400 et 800 millions d’actifs pourraient être touchés par cette transformation alors que la population active mondiale est estimée à 2,6 milliards selon des chiffres cités dans le document.
Emplois : vers une automatisation totale sous 120 ans ?
• Class of 2016 | The Public Domain Review | Otto Neurath est monté dans le domaine public l’année dernière...
Top Row (left to right): Le Corbusier; Malcolm X; Winston Churchill
Middle Row (left to right): Paul Valéry; Käthe Kollwitz; Béla Bartók; Blind Willie Johnson
Bottom Row (left to right): T. S. Eliot; Lorraine Hansberry; Martin Buber; #Otto_Neurath
• To New Horizons (1940) | The Public Domain Review
The film is just amazing.
Promotional film from General Motors created to champion their “Highways and Horizons” exhibit at the 1939-40 New York World’s Fair. The film presents a vision of the future, namely of 1960 seen through the eyes of those living in 1940, and imagines the world of tomorrow which the narrator describes as “A greater world, a better world, a world which always will grow forward”. The 1939-40 New York World’s Fair was the first to focus on the future and the General Motors’s Futurama exhibit consisted of a ride carrying 552 people at a time and showing a diorama designed by Norman Bel Geddes wherein the roads and city planning of the future include elevated pedestrian walkways as well as highways with 7 lanes for cars traveling at different speeds. The exhibit was a hit and easily became the most popular event among the visitors as the promise of a brighter future was welcomed by the Americans who had experienced the Great Depression. Of course, the next five years — which saw war rage across the world on an unprecedented scale — would bring anything but this utopian vision.
• Gustav Wunderwald’s Paintings of #Weimar #Berlin | The Public Domain Review
Je viens de découvrir cet artiste magnifique, je partage l’émotion.
#art #peinture #Gustav_Wunderwald
• Partis pour Croatan : Artifacts show Lost Colony settlers moved to Hatteras Island, lived with natives, historian says
Les dessins de John White
In 1585 the Englishman John White, governor of one of the very first North American colonies, made a series of exquisite watercolour sketches of the native Algonkin people alongside whom the settlers would try to live. Benjamin Breen explores the significance of the sketches and their link to the mystery of what became known as the “Lost Colony”.
À l’école primaire on a appris aux Américains que les premières colonies de Roanoke avaient échoué ; les colons disparurent, ne laissant derrière eux que ce message cryptique : « Partis pour Croatan ». Des récits ultérieurs d’« indiens-aux-yeux-gris » furent classés légendes. Les textes laissent supposer que ce qui se passa véritablement, c’est que les indiens massacrèrent les colons sans défense. Pourtant « Croatan » n’était pas un Eldorado, mais le nom d’une tribu voisine d’indiens amicaux. Apparemment la colonie fut simplement déplacée de la côte vers le Grand Marécage Lugubre et absorbée par cette tribu. Les indiens-aux-yeux-gris étaient réels - ils sont toujours là et s’appellent toujours les Croatans.
Ainsi - la toute première colonie du Nouveau Monde choisit de renoncer à son contrat avec Prospero (Dee/Raleigh/l’Empire) et de suivre Caliban chez l’Homme Sauvage. Ils désertèrent. Ils devinrent « Indiens », « s’indigénèrent » et préférèrent le chaos aux effroyables misères de la servitude, aux ploutocrates et intellectuels de Londres.
— Hakim Bey in Taz
#histoire #procrastination #colonisation #amériques
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By Alex Clark
The Bizarre History Of Nintendo Before It Was Today's Nintendo
There are likely only a handful of people on the entire planet who’ve yet to learn of Nintendo. In fact, these people would have somehow managed to never have come into contact with much of the technological world we live in.
That’s not to say it isn’t possible. North Sentinel Island, for example, has remained largely isolated from the modern world and the people there have probably never even heard of soda, let alone video games. There are a few other isolated societies who can claim a similar status. For the rest of us, we’ve likely grown up owning a Nintendo system or two.
Nintendo has had massive cultural impacts across the globe. The Pokemon phenomenon has now survived over twenty years and the Super Mario franchise continues to grow and expand to this day including legendary titles such as:
• The Legend of Zelda
• Donkey Kong
• Super Smash Bros
• Kirby
• Animal Crossing
In this article, we’ll be taking a brief look into how Nintendo was established and some of the significant turning points that led it to become the giant it is today.
(No, this won’t simply be a list of hit games. We’re going back back.)
The Origin of Nintendo
Nintendo was originally established as Yamauchi Nintendo in September of 1889 by the original founder Fusajiro Yamauchi. The original purpose of the company was the production and marketing of Hanafuda, translated as “flower cards”, a type of playing card used for a variety of games in Japan.
These cards were produced completely by hand. They quickly gained popularity, initially in Kyoto but eventually throughout all of Japan. As a result, expansion was required in order to continue meeting demand.
Interestingly, Fusajiro Yamauchi had no son to pass his business onto as his retirement approached. Following Japanese custom, he adopted his son-in-law Sekiryo Kaneda, who would later expand the company into the production and distribution of a variety of card types.
Not the Start Most Would Expect
It's obvious that Nintendo is an incredibly old company if you consider all of its iterations. I was surprised to find out that the company was established in the 19th century. It’s currently more than thirteen decades old and showing no sign of slowing down.
Originating as a card company, Nintendo would actually continue down this track until Hiroshi Yamauchi would inherit the seat of president in 1949. Change was not immediate. In fact, the inspiration for change would only strike in 1956, when Hiroshi Yamauchi paid a visit to the United States Playing Card Company.
During his visit, Hiroshi was struck by how incredibly small the offices were for the biggest playing card company in the world. To him, this revealed the limited possibilities of continuing along the rather unidimensional path of playing card production, which were primarily used as tools for gambling.
The Pivot that Shifted Nintendo Forever
Arguably the biggest change in the company’s history was its 1959 deal with Disney that allowed for the use of Disney characters on Nintendo’s playing cards.
In a genius pivot, Nintendo would also create books that would explain the various games that Japanese households could play with the new Disney cards. Making them a near instant hit. In fact, the new cards got so popular that they sold more than 600,000 units in the first year.
This year of massive success and the success that would follow is what gave birth to the Nintendo we know today. In 1962, the company was taken public as a direct result of its massive growth and in 1963, it was officially redubbed “Nintendo” instead of “Nintendo Playing Card Co., Ltd.”
The Ups and Downs that Followed
Following the massive injection of capital from the success of its new playing cards and going public, Nintendo began to expand its horizons as a company. Between 1963 and 1968, Nintendo would start and shutter a few business ventures including:
• A “Love Hotel’ line
• An Instant rice food company
• A Taxi service
• A vacuum Cleaner (pictured below)
Alongside all of these ventures, Nintendo began experimenting with making toys and given current societal context, only toymaking managed to survive.
Despite the economic boom happening throughout Japan, Nintendo’s stock would unfortunately take a massive hit in 1964, dropping from 900 Yen to 60 Yen. The playing card market would simply become oversaturated with products and households soon began to stop purchasing new decks.
The Final Major turning Point
Despite how bleak things looked, hope would be around the next bend for Nintendo. One day while carrying out an inspection of a Hanafuda factory owned by Nintendo, Yamauchi noticed an extending arm created by Gunpei Yokoi.
Gunpei had been hired as a maintenance technician for the assembly line and had constructed the arm for his own enjoyment. Yamauchi instructed Yokoi to redesign the arm to be suitable for release as a Christmas toy and this decision would be Nintendo’s next big hit.
The “Ultra Hand” would go on to sell over a million units and Yokoi would be taken on as a product developer where he would go on to create several other blockbuster hits for Nintendo, including the Nintendo Beam Gun game, which was developed in collaboration with Masayuki Uemura from Sharp. The success of the Ultra Arm gave Yamauchi the insight into the novelty of electronic toys that would eventually lead them into video game console production.
Following the success of the Beam Gun in Japan, Nintendo would sign a deal with Magnavox to produce the “Shooting Gallery”, a light gun accessory to their Magnavox Odyssey, the first ever commercially available gaming console. Following this, Nintendo found massive success with Laser Clay Shooting systems, which became so popular that they rivaled bowling as a major pastime in Japan.
The success of the Magnavox Odyssey taught Nintendo an important lesson on the success of video games and would lead them to not only produce successful arcade games based around the light gun and other systems, but would lead them to develop the Nintendo Entertainment System and the Game and Watch Handheld device. These were arguably the two most pivotal releases in their history, since these systems gave rise to cartridge-based gaming and gave birth to all of the series that we know and love today.
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How Nut Bread Benefits the Brain
— As a child growing up in rural North Dakota, a nut-based diet was all I knew about.
I ate nuts in a peanut butter sandwich, a big bowl of cereal, and a little piece of cheese to keep it together.
My parents were always nut-free, and I remember getting my first box of nuts from a store in Fargo, North Dakota.
I was hooked.
But now, nearly four decades later, I’ve found out that a healthy diet of nuts is as much about the nutrients found in the nuts themselves as it is about the nuts they’re cooked in.
I eat nuts all the time.
I have nut-milk chocolate bars.
I even make my own nut-oil from coconut oil.
I grew up in a small town in Montana and never heard of any nuts or peanut butter.
Now I’m an avid nut fan and the new edition of my new cookbook, Nut Bread, is filled with recipes that incorporate nuts in everything from soups and stews to salads and desserts.
Nuts are essential in a healthy and satisfying diet, and the health benefits they provide are real.
A healthy diet that includes nuts has many health benefits.
It can lower cholesterol, protect against heart disease, help protect against cancer, lower blood pressure and prevent diabetes.NUT BREAD IS A BIG HITNut bread is a big hit in the United States, according to the Nutritional Information Network.
Nearly three-quarters of U.S. households have at least one type of nut bread.
Many Americans have their own recipe and have it in their pantry.
The nutritional information below is based on a review of data from the U.K. government’s National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (NNBR), published in the U-K.
Nut bread flour is made from whole wheat flour and can be used to make almost any type of bread.
A variety of nut varieties, including cashews, almonds, cashews-flavored coconut and pecans, can also be used in baking.NANOMOTIONAL INFORMATION FOR NUT BEEFNuts, like many nuts, are high in calories, sugar, salt and fat.
They are also high in sodium and protein, making them high in health risks for people with diabetes and heart disease.
The NNBR database shows that people with high blood pressure, high cholesterol, high blood sugar and diabetes, and people with a history of obesity are most likely to have low levels of nut fiber.
Nut flour is also rich in vitamin C and other minerals, which help to keep bones healthy.
NUT FEDERATION NUT FOODSNuts and nuts can help people lose weight and improve their health, according the American Heart Association.
Nut butter is a good source of healthy fats that can help reduce your risk of heart disease and stroke.
And nut milks, which are high-fiber milks made from plant proteins, are a great source of calcium, potassium and magnesium.
NANOMOTEEN FARMINGNuts have a lot of nutrients, like fiber and calcium.
They can also help people absorb vitamins and minerals, and help keep the body working efficiently.
For example, nuts contain fiber and vitamin B12.
Nuts also contain vitamin C, potassium, iron, zinc and selenium.NAPALM, a type of nuts, is a rich source of vitamin B-12 and other nutrients.
NAPALMI, a kind of nut, has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.
NICE BREADSNuggets are often served with chips and dip and as a dip for desserts.
NANCY’S POTATOES are the most popular nuts in the world and they’re easy to make, especially if you can get them from an Asian grocery store.NANCY BREAD is one of the most nutritious nuts around, the Nutrient Data Network says.
Its high fiber, vitamin C content and vitamins C and E make it an excellent source of fiber and other nutrient-rich foods.
The Nutrient Facts Database also lists niacin, an essential nutrient, as a nutrient for health.NATSUPPER TALESNut butter and butter products like the nut butter at the breakfast buffet are also good sources of fat and protein.
But nuts also contain healthy fats and vitamins.
Nut oil can also make an excellent alternative to vegetable oils, and nuts have a healthy amount of protein, calcium and magnesium, the National Nutritional Database for Systematic Reviews (NNSR) says.
It also reports that nuts contain magnesium, phosphorus and potassium, and have more than 100 dietary fiber, fiber and magnesium than any other nut.THE BEEFIRENuts contain the protein and fat that are essential for healthy bone health, and they are low in calories and sugar, the NNNBR says.
The database also reports a
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the task is to visually translate technical data in several ways to determine the most effective means of communicating statistical trends to a political candidate by whom you are employed you are challenged to analyze the data in meaningful ways as well
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Immigration laws and the effects of illegal immigration on U.S. communities have recently been the focus of several hot political debates. In California — the state arguably affected by illegal immigration more than any other — this issue has provided such intense political discussion at state and local levels that it thrust the issue into the national spotlight. The political hot button of immigration, however, certainly predates recent debates in California and elsewhere.
Since the 1880s, American immigration policy has worked to limit and control the increasing trend of people seeking to locate in the United States. The historic Foran Act in 1885, for example, prohibited businesses and individuals from recruiting unskilled labor from outside the U.S. with advance contracts. From 1890 to the mid-1920s, new literacy requirements further restricted immigration. In fact, the first Immigration Act in 1917 required literacy for immigrants over the age of 16. Many sociologists and political scientists contend that the restrictionist policies associated with immigration since the late 1800s have largely emerged from socially and politically sanctioned racism and a protectionist attitude among native-born American citizens.
Two important pieces of legislation are relevant here. The first is the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. Signed into law by Ronald Reagan in November 1986, the bill contains the following noteworthy provisions:
â— Employers would be forbidden to hire illegal aliens. The ban would apply to all employers, even those with just a few employees.
â— Employers would have to ask all job applicants for documents, such as a passport or birth certificate and a driver’s license, to confirm that they were either citizens or aliens authorized to work in the United States. The employer would not be required to check the authenticity of the document.
â— The government would offer legal status to aliens who entered the United States illegally before January 1, 1982 and have resided here continuously since then. For five years, they would be ineligible for welfare, food stamps, and most other federal benefits, with some exceptions.
â— States would have to verify, through records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, the legal status of aliens seeking welfare benefits, Medicaid, unemployment compensation, food stamps, housing assistance, or college aid under federal programs.
â— Under a special program, illegal aliens who worked in American agriculture for at least 90 days in the period from May 1, 1985, to May 1, 1986, could become lawful temporarily residents in the United States. After two years of that status, they could become permanent residents, eligible for American citizenship after five more years.
â— Employers would be forbidden to discriminate against legal aliens because of their national origin or citizenship status. A new office would be established in the Justice Department to investigate complaints of such discrimination.
The second bill, the Immigration Act of 1990, was signed into law by President George Bush (the first Bush president), in November of that year. The new law placed tighter restrictions on the number of immigrants allowed to enter the U.S. annually. According to the act, the number of visas granted to immigrants (excluding refugees) would drop from the 1992-94 figure of 700,000 annually to 675,000 beginning in fiscal year 1995. The history of American political attention to immigration issues has varied widely across the decades since the late 1800s; however, the legislative trends have leaned toward tighter restrictions and attention to economic and social effects of immigrant populations on American communities.
The Situation and Your Role
You were hired just yesterday as a researcher and speechwriter for Brian Lindeman, candidate for U.S. Congress from Minneapolis, Minnesota. Lindeman is running as an Independent. New on the political scene, he has spent most of his career in higher education teaching political science and ethics. He cultivates his Washington “outsider” status and is just in the process of getting his campaign (and fundraising) off the ground. Though you have yet to meet Lindeman personally — you were hired by his chief of staff, Shaswana Bahktu — you feel strongly that this opportunity is a good chance to keep your professional communication skills polished as well as to enhance your portfolio. You have read most of what has been written about Lindeman (which is not much) and feel there is nothing in what Lindeman has articulated concerning his position on various issues with which you vehemently disagree, although your interest in politics is certainly secondary to your interest in professional communication.
On your first day of work, you are anxious to get started on a project and Shaswana, your immediate supervisor, does not disappoint you.
“We’re trying to get a handle on several issues that the media have targeted as most important in this election,” she explains as you sit down with her at her cluttered desk. “I think I’m going to get you started out with some research and see what it tells us.”
You’re a little disappointed because you hoped you’d start right away with some writing, but you nod. “What are we investigating?”
“We’re starting out with immigration,” she responds. “Immigration has been a hot national issue, but it is also important in Minnesota, and especially in Minneapolis/St. Paul. What we need is to collect some data and sift through it to see specifically what it tells us in terms of trends. I am speaking here of both legal and illegal immigration”
“For Minneapolis? The state? The nation? What kind of trends are we looking for?”
“Well, we’re starting sort of from ground zero here, so I can’t really tell you what sort of trends we’re looking for. The information we come up with will need to be organized and clearly articulated so that Brian can take a public stance on the issue if asked. We’re interested in what the immigration statistics can tell us about changes in the U.S. population, the implications-mostly economic and social effects-of both legal and illegal immigration, and any special focus you can find on this area, obviously, since we’re working to sell what we say to the voters here.Voters will obviously be interested in information about Minneapolis/St. Paul, and greater Minnesota, though we cannot ignore national trends.
You believe your assignment is really no different than creating a research database, so you feel confident that this is something you can accomplish. First, you will want to find pertinent data on this topic, and then analyze and interpret that data. Shaswana continues: “Then I think it would be good to briefly outline whatever arguments you feel like you can make, given the numbers you’ve uncovered.â€
“Obviously, not all of the numbers are going to be relevant to what Brian says about this issue, so you need to make this as accessible as possible for him. Tables are sometimes sort of hard to read, so figure out how to make your point quickly, so that I can glance at this and know what you’re trying to show. And simply gathering visuals from the Internet is not going to be terribly helpful – we’ve seen them numerous times. You can use whatever means feel right depending on the data and what it is you’re trying to show, but I would like to see this as your own work rather than just material you gather elsewhere. I’d like you to organize what you come up with and put it on my computer by the end of the day tomorrow — is that enough time?” Shaswana glances at her watch and begins searching her desk for something.
“Tomorrow? Well, sure,” you answer hesitantly. “Urh…”
She grabs a stack of folders and throws a purse over her shoulder. “I’ve got to be out of the office most of today, so if you have any questions, ask Greg Fait. He’s doing something similar with abortion and has been with us for several months.” She gestures to a bookcase with several large volumes in it. “You can use our resources for research, head to the library, or search the Internet. I don’t really care how you get the info; just make sure it’s correct information.”
With that, Shaswana quickly leaves the office, and you make your way back to your new desk. Just as you begin to write some notes about the project, Greg Fait wanders over to your desk.
He holds out his hand to shake. “Nice to meet you,” he says. “So you and I are working on similar projects, eh?”
You nod. “I’m working on immigration.”
Greg shakes his head. “That’s a toughie. Lindeman hasn’t made up his mind where he stands on that one, so you’re probably starting from scratch, aren’t you? At least with abortion, he already had an ideological stance figured out. My job has been easy enough just because I know what position to look for in the data. Need any help?”
“Well, I guess I need to collect some statistics first, but it might be good to know what Shaswana is looking for in my report tomorrow. She didn’t really have time to tell me.”
“She only gave you until tomorrow?” Greg laughs and shakes his head. “It’s the classic test. See how much the new kid can come up with in the shortest amount of time. Well, I can tell you that she’s going to look for you to understand what the trends in the statistics are saying. If I were you, I’d carve out three or four good arguments that you can back up with the numbers and have those outlined for her. You know, like welfare benefits in X community have risen proportionately with the rise in suspected illegal immigration, something like that. You will have to figure out what to say about legal immigration.”
“Wait!” You hold up your hand to stop him as you’re taking notes. “I don’t want to perpetuate stereotypes here. Are you suggesting that the arguments I’m making are going to be advice to Lindeman for his stance?”
“Not directly, but the research you do is the foundation on which he will base whatever stance he takes. My example was just off the cuff, really.”
You shake your head. “But if these arguments are the foundational research, how can Shaswana expect me to have this to her tomorrow?”
Greg laughs. “Aw, don’t worry about it. She’s not really expecting spit and polish or even a complete report. She wants to see what you can do in the time she’s given you. It’s indicative of what we’ll face once things come down to the wire around here. Anyway, I’d say she’s probably looking for evidence that you can write a good summary and create effective visuals and documents. Don’t mess around with a huge amount of detail.”
After a few more minutes of chatting, you and Greg talk about getting a pizza after work. When he leaves, you return to your notes. You are just getting ready to head to the library when Connie Reagan introduces herself to you as one of the head writers for Lindeman. She seems interested in your background and wants to chat, but you are feeling the pressure of time to get at the research as quickly as you can. After about 10 minutes of discussion about backgrounds and interests, you explain to Connie that you need to get started on your project for Shaswana. Connie asks you about what it is that you are researching.
“I’m doing some base research on immigration.”
“Ah,” she nods. “You’re on base detail, huh? Want some free advice?” she asks, smiling.
“Yes, of course. I can use any help I can get,” you answer, hoping she’ll give you the same insight into Shaswana’s preferences that Greg provided earlier.
“Present your information as economically as you can and focus as much as possible on the graphics and visuals that you create to make your point. Also, Shaswana’s a stickler for detail and completeness, so don’t bite off more than you can chew. When did she ask you to get it to her?”
Your heart sinks a little at the apparent contradiction you’ve just heard between Greg and Connie. “Late tomorrow.”
Connie smiles. “Hope you weren’t planning on getting any sleep tonight.”
Background Development
Consider the following exercises as a way to fine-tune your understanding of the case and its details. Answer the prompts in order to give yourself some background on the issues. Feel free to draw on your responses to inform any of the tasks that follow.
â— This case has asked you to research and assimilate some statistical data in order to form an argumentative stance on immigration issues. Such a challenge requires that you do background research. My suggestion is that you begin by scanning the Internet or accessing the U.S. Census Bureau’s website. You might also consider searching through statistical abstracts or census reports. When you have completed some preliminary research, think carefully about the information you have amassed. Scan the information for trends. Record at least five assumptions you feel you can make based on the data you have uncovered.
â— Because you must ultimately narrow your field of inquiry with this data, you must begin with some questions you are interested in answering with the data. Write down three or four questions pertaining to immigration that you would like to see if you can answer with the data.
â— Statistical data are sometimes difficult to talk about and even understand unless they are offered in a way that summarizes a primary argument. For example, if you are interested in knowing what the trends are in arrests made at three strategic border crossings over the past ten years, you will likely have to sift through a great deal of statistical data in order to get to your answer. As a result, making data accessible is often of chief concern to workplace communicators. Choose one of the trends you wish to highlight and think about how to simplify the information visually. Consult your text on visual strategies you may employ. Experiment with two or three different visual appeals (e.g., charts, graphs, lists). Then examine your work carefully for clarity, reading ease, and visual appeal.
Gathering Information
Based upon the statistics you uncover through your own research, write out a list of five questions you would like the data to answer and possible corresponding trends you feel are supported by the numbers. These are only to serve as personal notes, (not to be handed in), so you may use this task as a prewriting journal, if you wish.
Prewriting Task
Greg’s and Connie’s appraisals of what Shaswana is after for your report seem on the surface to conflict with one another. Make an outline for your report using your best judgment about what Shaswana is after and what would be most beneficial for the candidate as he creates a public statement. Again, this outline may be a part of your prewriting preparation and should not be handed in.
Writing Assignment – To be submitted to D2L as a single .doc or .docx file
You have decided to use a balanced approach to the final report Shaswana has assigned you, so you have determined to use approximately half visuals and half text. Design three or four visuals you believe would be most accessible and appropriate for communicating the trends from the statistical data you have uncovered and write complementary text summaries to accompany them.
Finalize your report (in memo form to Shaswana Bahktu) that discusses/explains the four or five visuals you have provided and that also explains the rationale you used to highlight the visuals. Your report should include an explanation of how the information you have provided can help Lindeman determine a political stance on the issue of immigration.
As you complete this writing assignment, pay very careful attention to allof the material you have read in the narrative part of this writing case. In other words, keep in mind what your supervisor, Shaswana Bahktu has asked you to do, as well as the seasoned advice of people like Greg Fait and Connie Reagan. All of the material above is important, but pay very special attention to the material that appears in red text.
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The Impact of Technology On The Automotive Industry
Impact of technology on automotive industry
Technology is a paramount force that drives progress in many industries, and the automotive industry is no exception. As technology advances, cars become more intelligent, comfortable, and energy-efficient.
The range of features and functionalities you can find in an average car model released in the past five years is astounding.
“With the advent of electric and self-driving cars, the landscape in the automotive industry has become even more diverse and interesting. ”
In this article, we’ll discuss the impact of technology on the automotive industry, analyzing current trends and directions.
Safety Improvements
Technology has played a fundamental role in accident prevention over the years. Car safety features include advanced tech. Some examples are antilock brakes, traction control, electronic stability control, brake assist, forward-collision warning, automatic emergency braking, adaptive cruise control, blind-spot warning, lane-departure warning, backup camera, and tire pressure sensors. Together, all these tech features create a powerful accident prevention system that has made the roads safer. Thus, technology contributes directly to saving lives.
Car Design
Technology has changed not just how our cars behave but also how they look. Current high-tech car designs suggest that the interior will be dominated in the future by a central control panel.
Thus, a large screen will control all of the car’s driving functions and features. Cars of the future will probably look minimalistic, with a broad, low, and lightweight configuration. Exterior cameras and powerful headlights will give the modern car a more aggressive look.
Increased Interest in Vintage Cars
Because modern cars are heavily reliant on high-tech gadgets, many car enthusiasts show an increased interest in vintage cars. Although they lack advanced software, vintage models give drivers more independence behind the wheel and allow more customization. Implementing custom design ideas on a vintage car has a more powerful effect.
You can use engine enamel to give bolder colors to engine components or artistically decorate the interior with a new headliner. The mainstream preference for technologically advanced cars has thus given rise to nostalgia among car enthusiasts. The interest in vintage cars is unlikely to fade, no matter how much automotive technology continues to evolve.
Energy-Efficiency and Low Emissions
Technology is also a valuable tool in the automotive industry’s transition towards energy efficiency and lower carbon emissions. Automobiles are responsible for a massive percentage of urban pollution.
Moreover, the combustion of fossil fuels poses severe risks to the environment, affecting human health. Since more and more cars are being sold worldwide, this increase in affordability can also lead to an increase in pollution and environmental damage. The advent of new environmentally-friendly technologies has pushed the automotive industry towards adopting new growth strategies focused on hybrid and electric cars and alternate fuels.
Autonomous Driving Technology
Current tech trends suggest that autonomous driving technology will have the most significant impact on the automotive industry. By eliminating the need for a human driver, self-driving systems transform cars into independent software machines able to make decisions.
The cruise control system uses cameras, radars, and sensors to create an autonomous driving experience with minimal need for a human driver’s input or feedback. Currently, there are self-driving systems in different stages of development. The achievements so far suggest that autonomous driving technology will completely change the automotive industry.
Key Takeaways
Technological advances have made vehicles safer, smarter, and more energy-efficient. New cars are packed with high-tech gadgets and features that make driving more comfortable and intuitive.
Now, the automotive industry is facing more drastic changes due to the overwhelming interest in electric and hybrid cars. Since environmental protection has become a public concern, the automotive industry relies on technology for a smooth transition to eco-friendlier automobiles.
As car concepts once considered futuristic are now closer to reality, many car enthusiasts return to vintage cars that feed their nostalgia and love for aesthetics and design. While some return to old classics, others eagerly await the mass production of self-driving, electric cars.
Major tech giants are investing in autonomous driving technology currently. Thus, there’s an increased competition between companies and brands to revolutionize our vehicles.
Technology has brought significant improvements in all areas of our lives, including communications, education, health care, and transportation. When looking at the impact of technology on the automotive industry, it’s evident that we’re living in an era of significant changes. The cars of the future will be more powerful than we imagine thanks to artificial intelligence and other tech advancements. They’ll make our lives easier, keep us safer on the road, and provide us with a rewarding experience behind the wheel.
Also Read, AI-Powered Transport
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Skilled Trades
How Skilled Trades Have Changed Due to COVID-19
Skilled TradesJanuary 08, 2021
To stay safe and socially distanced during the pandemic, All-State Career students transitioned to online instruction via a virtual classroom platform through much of 2020. Beyond doing much of their coursework remotely during the pandemic, students will face changes to procedures in the work place brought about by COVID-19 creating a “new normal” once students graduate and enter the workforce. The need for social distancing, in particular, has meant that some normal practices need to be modified to keep employees and homeowners safe.
1. Personal Protective Equipment
Technicians often wear booties to protect a homeowner’s flooring, but COVID-19 has introduced the addition of several other layers of personal protective equipment (PPE). Technicians should wear disposable masks, gloves, and protective glasses which can help control the spread of airborne virus particles. Disposable PPE items used throughout the day should be contained in a plastic bag and put in the company's trash daily to help prevent the spread of COVID-19.
2. Clean Surfaces with Disinfectant
The CDC recommends cleaning and disinfecting surfaces with a bleach- or alcohol-based solution. Technicians are expected to disinfect surfaces before they start their work when possible, especially if the item is exposed or involves air filtration. At the beginning and end of each shift, technicians should clean and disinfect tools, equipment, machines, and vehicles, and if possible, avoid tool sharing.
3. Maintain Social Distancing
Technicians need to keep six feet of space between themselves and the customer at all times. Social distancing should include coworkers, as well. It is advisable to limit the number of employees who travel to a job or share a vehicle. If a job site requires more than one person, it is suggested that a divider is used inside the van if separate transportation is not possible.
4. Frequent Hand Washing
Finally, technicians need to practice frequent handwashing with soap and water for at least 20 seconds. They should wash their hands after coughing or sneezing, using the restroom, touching surfaces, removing PPE, or touching items handled by coworkers, such as tools and equipment. Technicians should also wash or sanitize their hands before entering a customer’s home and then again upon leaving.
In most locations, these procedures have been in place for many months, but diligence is our friend, remember that keeping each other safe is the best customer service you can provide. If you enjoy being out in the field and working with your hands, a job in the skilled trades might be a good fit for you. All-State Career can help. Click here for more information or call us today at (855) 834-4580 and speak to one of our career counselors.
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The frequency content of continuous passive seismic recordings of hydraulic fracturing are sometimes used to gain information on the numerous microseismic events occurring during the fluid injection. In addition, resonance frequencies are frequently recorded as well. Resonances can be used in many ways due to their multiple origins possible. In every circumstance, all possible sources have to be reviewed to define their respective influence. We present two different experiments showing resonances with presumably different origins. For the first experiment, the low-frequency resonances (5-50 Hz) are only recorded by downhole geophones and broadband stations on the surface that are close to the injection well. For the second experiment, four resonances at 17, 35, 51 and 60 Hz are detected. The fluid injection being at approximately the same depth as the receivers, the path effect influence will be limited and the resonances coming from receiver effects are anticipated to be outside the frequency range of the observed resonances. A possible source would be the resonance of fluid-filled cracks. The size of a crack corresponding to a resonance of 17 Hz is calculated to be 17 m. These resonances would then correspond to mesoscale deformation of the reservoir.
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A Guide to the Crypto Assets
Crypto assets are the value of money that is not given by the central bank. It is a representation of the value of the money that can be traded and electronically owned and stored. It is the virtual value or the virtual value of the money a person has. Crypto assets are a new term previously this was called cryptocurrency because, over the years the crypto market grew from more than just money and grew into other aspects. Crypto assets are not governed by the government, which makes it more captivating to a lot of people.
Types of Crypto Assets
1) Cryptocurrencies
The very first cryptocurrency was Bitcoin and then other cryptocurrencies were launched. The prices kept fluctuating but still, investors managed to make their profit. In the start, it was difficult for people to invest money and predict the future. Today market research and analyses have been done which can predict future trends.
2) Platform Tokens
Platform tokens are coins that are backed up with safety like currency or assets. They are used for decentralized projects. They are operated by blockchain technology. It is largely based on Ethereum. Platform tokens give security to utility tokens.
3) Utility Token
Utility tokens are mostly used for transactions. Platform tokens and utility tokens are coordinated. Utility tokens are used as a mode of payment in exchange for products or services. Many companies have started the use of utility tokens in the form of digital cash.
4) Security Token
Security token acts as a share or stock of any company. They cannot be used as utility tokens. The security token of any company gives you the rights for sharing in stock, depending on the company to company. These security tokens are mostly governed by the law of the particular country you reside. It’s almost like shares; the price depends on the performance of the company. The price of your security token can rise or even fall spending on the company’s business.
How Does it Work?
Crypto assets are digital money. It is not controlled by any entity. Like normal money is controlled or monitored by banks. Crypto assets are not monitored by any banks or government. We don’t need any middlemen to do a transaction. A transaction can be done completely and individually by any bank or any app. It allows transparency and also gives a certain level of privacy.
Is Tax Paid on Crypto Assets?
Like with any other income, users will have to include their crypto assets or cryptocurrency and their profits and losses and have to pay tax accordingly. If the assets are held, then they are considered as capital assets for more than a year and according to the country, the tax has to be paid. The tax percentage to be paid is decided by the country you stay in.
Risk Factor of Crypto Assets
• The biggest risk factor is that the prices keep fluctuating and can fall to the extreme or the price can reach its highest. If you have a loss then it can cost you a lot as an investor. On the other hand, if the price rises you can have a huge profit.
• The cryptocurrency market is not being managed by a government, which might be the biggest disadvantage of crypto assets. If anything goes wrong there is no central bank or government that can save your money. There have been instances where crypto assets value has gone to complete zero.
• Cryptocurrencies are accepted in some countries while it is illegal in some others to trade in the cryptocurrency market. This makes it a risk for investing a huge amount in cryptocurrencies.
Final Words
Cryptocurrency is considered one of the biggest crypto assets. Try the Free demo account before investing in bitcoin. Apps can help to buy, sell or hold cryptocurrencies or tokens easily. Crypto market is like virtual assets, you need to be careful when you trade, study and research are important factors to consider. As a new investor, play safely in the starting by investing in stable coins and then taking risks. Crypto assets can be converted into cash easily so it’s a good asset in case of emergency liquidation, that’s a benefit for all.
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7 Ways to Recover Money from Debtors
Asking someone to pay you back the money they owe you can be very uncomfortable at times. But no matter how uncomfortable it might seem, it’s necessary to regain the money you had lent to somebody. Debt collection is a rapidly growing market, with an estimated size of $1.6 bn AUD in 2022.
If you have a debtor who refuses to pay back the due amount, it’s time to take matters into your own hands. Here are some ways to recover money from your debtors.
1. Send a polite reminder
You don’t need to threaten or be impolite the first time you ask your debtor to pay up. Initially, send a friendly and polite reminder to them via a phone call, mail, or even a letter.
Maybe your debtor had a genuine reason to forget about the payment or made a mistake and ended up paying somewhere else. So the first reminder should always be a simple and friendly one. In case you’re confused about what to write, you can refer to any reminder template online.
2. Reach out again
If the person concerned has ignored your message or simply hasn’t bothered to reply, it’s time to send them an overdue reminder. Mention the fact that you sent them a previous intimation (add a screenshot along, if possible) and that it was not replied to.
Give the customer another call or text, but be slightly more firm and strict this time. Ask them to repay you as soon as possible, since texting or mailing someone repeatedly can be an issue from both ends.
3. Send a final notice
This might get really tiring, but send a third and final notice, this time in the form of a warning. Don’t be rude or aggressive, but make sure you let your customer know that you are annoyed and dissatisfied with their behavior.
Politely tell them that if they refuse to answer, it might be time to contact an outsider’s help. A final notice can be slightly tricky to write, so refer to any final notice template on Google for your benefit.
4. Make a direct contact
If you know where your debtor lives, go and pay them a visit. Chances are, when they are caught off-guard, they won’t be able to make any excuses and will pay you back. But this will only work if you know where the person lives or works.
Visiting them in person can also strengthen your relationship with them that might come in handy later. Also, who knows, maybe your debtor lost their phone or had a problem with their bank account, which is why they couldn’t contact you.
5. Formal letter of demand
This is where things get official and tough. If all your attempts at contacting your debtor have failed, it’s now time to send a formal letter of demand. But this letter should only be given when there is no other way out; don’t use the letter right at the beginning.
Since a formal demand letter has the potential to sour or damage the relationship between you and your debtor, you must consider carefully before taking such a step.
6. Go to a debt-collecting agency
The next step here would be to go to a debt-collecting agency that will help you with your dispute. McMahon Fearnley Lawyers is a reputed agency dealing with services like debt collection through completely legal methods. McMahon will ensure that both parties abide by the necessary rules and you get your money back as soon as possible.
It will also help you draft a formal letter of demand, should you need one. In case the problem isn’t solved, and a higher authority is required, McMahon will help you through that too.
7. Get help from sources
Various sources like the Victorian Small Business Commission, Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal, and Consumer Affairs Victoria are specialized to solve consumer disputes and civil troubles. Consider going to them if you need assistance.
They all operate under Australian Law, so all their processes will be legal and trouble-free.
Over to you…
These are some of the steps you can take to collect money from your debtor. Remember not to resort to harsh methods right from the start as they can give a bad impression of you and cost your time and money.
But if things don’t improve, seek legal help from companies like McMahon Fearnley and ask them for advice.
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Best Passive Incomes for 2022
With the world still recovering from successive waves of the COVID pandemic, there’s reason for caution for investors and those who draw a significant amount of their wage from passive income. It’s still a little unclear whether the pandemic will end in 2022, as the WHO has suggested – and that means that the markets may yet be due some turbulence, with house prices and other asset classes fluctuating too. As such, this guide is about offering some reliable forms of passive income that you can turn to during what may turn out to be another challenging year.
While the markets have been topsy-turvy since the advent of the pandemic, house prices have been comparably stable. There has been some change in regional rent prices, with big cities vacated by those with a second home during some of the lockdowns. However, on the whole, the rising property price trend is continuing and is set to continue into 2022.
That’s not to say that you shouldn’t operate with caution when making property investments. Some regions may be due a fall in prices, and some neighbourhoods are more rosy investment opportunities than others. To make sure that you’re generating a good passive income from your property investments, consider working alongside Asset Academy investment managers, who’ll offer guidance and support to ensure your investments are always well informed.
There are some stocks that are due for another tumultuous year. Airlines are one fine example of a class of stocks that have been struggling to reach their former highs since March 2020 – and may well never recover if Warren Buffet is to be believed. Meanwhile, the stocks of the largest firms in the world – the likes of Google, Amazon, and Tesla – continue to deliver remarkable returns for their investors.
As such, the class of stocks that you should be interested in for 2022 should centre around the technology sphere. Whether you’re interested in financial technology companies or the kind of firms that enable our current digital lifestyles, these are the stocks that have reliably been paying out dividends and expanding in value for many years – including the two years of the pandemic itself.
With the art world turned upside down by the advent of NFTs last year, this is an interesting and exciting moment to start investing in art. Whether you’re keen to secure some NFT assets, or you’d rather stick to traditional art investment, there’s been a surge of investment and interest in art investments over the past couple of years, as those with disposable income have crowded online auction houses to secure a piece of work.
If you’re not familiar with the art world, hiring a consultant or advisor is an important step for you to take before heading to an auction. They’ll help you understand the valuation of each piece and which might be set to accrue in value in the months and years ahead. Again, this source of passive income can serve to bolster your investment portfolio come what may.
There you have it: three asset classes that are well worth investing in for the coming year.
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5 Ways to Enjoy Your Crypto
Okay, let us forget for a moment whether you like it or not, whether you agree with the practises involved in acquiring it or not. Cryptocurrency is a pretty big part of life these days, with more people and more companies being open to the idea of using them as a form of currency to trade for goods and services. Which, depending on the market, is an interesting gamble for both companies AND their customers. But why is that an interesting gamble, I hear you ask?
Cryptocurrency is considered a volatile asset, which effectively means the value of that asset is constantly changing and for the most part, in an unpredictable way. So let’s say companies like Tesla who announced a year or so ago that they will be accepting specific cryptocurrencies as a method for buying one of their cars. Now, since Cryptocurrency is a volatile asset, this could potentially pay out one of two ways. A way that benefits you or a way that benefits the company. As an example, say what you’re buying is valued at $45,000, at the time of writing that would be 1.27 Bitcoin, as they are currently priced at $35,411.60 per coin. Now you hand over your 1.27 (plus gas fees), you take your item, maybe it’s a car, maybe it’s something else. Within the next 24 hours, those Bitcoin could be worth, $40k? $50k? Maybe they peak up to $65k again like they did in November 2021. Or, the opposite could happen, they could drop to $30k, $25k or less.
HOWEVER, if you’ve been around the scene for a while, then you’ll likely already know the risks involved in getting into the crypto game. In which case, maybe you’ve made a few bucks, and you would just like to know some of the ways you can currently use your crypto, since it is an ever changing landscape. Maybe you want to use it as capital to make more money? Maybe you’re just wanting to trade anonymously for goods and services. Well you’re in luck since we’re going to cover some of your options here! So if we’re all about ready to get started, let’s get into it!
Okay so since we’ve already spoken about gambling, let’s talk about gambling some more. Like I mentioned earlier Crypto in and of itself is a gamble, you could make a boat load of money or you could lose out, when you assess the situation and approach it with a level head, checking all the facts and figures, you really can make it work for you, even with the risks included. But what if you’re wanting to take your money that you’ve invested in crypto, gamble it and potentially, while assessing risks of course, make some more money off of it, is to stake it at some sportsbooks.
If you’re already profiting off your crypto and you’re into your sport, as we have hinted at, one great way to utilize your crypto would be through legal online sports betting sites. Some of these sites allow users to exchange their cryptocurrencies, such as Betmgm sportsbook, a LOT of sports books these days are, getting with the times as it were and getting into accepting crypto as collateral I guess it’s kind of in the nature of it right? The sportsbooks taking a gamble too? But doing this you could potentially gain on any winnings too, through the fluctuations in crypto prices. You might win £200 tonight, but in the morning it could be £250. Remember the risks, your capital is at stake so gamble responsibly!
Next up is another risky venture, but something that has absolutely BLOWN UP in popularity in recent months, regardless how you feel about it, NFT’s (Non-Fungible Token) are a huge thing right now. Non-Fungible means that it’s “unique” so you own the only one, if your NFT is a picture of a specific animal for example, you’re the only person that owns THAT segment of information in the blockchain, of course there are memes regarding “right click, save as” etc but when it comes to the value of that particular item, you’re the only one who can really trade it, the same as owning a painting from a famous artist, there’s only one original right?
Shopping Who’d have thought?
Like I mentioned at the top of the show, a lot more retailers are beginning to accept cryptocurrency for their goods and services, there are a few reasons for this. Firstly, if you trade with Crypto, it is all done anonymously, so you don’t have to give a retailer your details, nothing is saved on record. Secondly there’s the excitement of potentially beating the system by actually picking up those goods and services for cheaper than you initially would’ve if the cost of your crypto tanks, of course that isn’t without it’s risk. Finally it shows that businesses are finally starting to move with the times. Which is a great thing, we’ve moved beyond the past for a reason, grandpa!
Money Transfers
While this one may not necessarily make sense, given you do have to pay for crypto transfers. Transferring money via crypto, specifically at low volumes, is one of the quickest and cheapest ways you can actually transfer. Since cryptocurrency is a peer to peer system, you can immediately transfer your funds without having to wait for an external source to look things over and approve it. You won’t have to pay any fees to a bank, you don’t have to pay any charges on any overdrafts or anything like that and again, like I mentioned earlier, you get to keep all of your details off the systems of big companies and banks alike.
Last but not least, the obvious one. Just like how your grandpa used to collect gold, or silver dollars or pretty much anything of the sort, these days people collect Cryptocurrency in the hopes that one day it will be worth something. This is why you see so many meme coins like $Doge and $Shib making headlines and skyrocketing in popularity. People like to jump on these with the dream of potentially becoming a millionaire from a small early investment. Imagine this, you’re looking at a new meme coin, let’s make something up (might already exist who knows) $42069bitz. Each one of those is worth $0,00.00001, so for $1 you can buy 10,000. Imagine, if by some crazy miracle, Elon Musk tweets about it or something and it raises in value, even if it becomes half a cent somehow, that’s $5000 from a buck. Is it likely? No. Is it possible, absolutely. Look at the history of $Doge as an outrageous example. That’s going to do it for this one! So, since you’re here, I take it you’ve delved into the Crypto world, how has your experience been? Have you been lucky? I personally made a little bit on Ethereum at the start of 2021, bought $225, went up to $850, I tried to hold out for $1000 before I dropped it and it tanked back to $450, after fees I think I made $190-200 profit, not a bad little turnaround but look at what it could’ve been! I just want to end by saying, if you haven’t and you’re interested in getting into cryptocurrency, or sportsbooks, or any form of gambling. Please gamble responsibly, don’t bet above your means and please don’t chase those wins. Good luck and take care everybody! Stay safe.
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8 Crazy Symptoms of Kidney Stones Developing In Your Body
3. Pain that coincides with vomiting and nausea
The body naturally tries to fix problems it has with itself. This is an imperfect process; which is why when our body gives us fevers to try to kill viruses, the body may end up overheating and cooking itself. The body is an imperfect mechanism, and this can be seen very clearly in the case of a kidney stone. When our body knows that we have a kidney stone, rather than having it pass through our intestines, the body tries to regurgitate it and thus we feel nauseous and we vomit from this. The pain will also usually be felt as if it were a sharp stinging sensation accompanied by pressure in areas of the body that are usually located slightly lower than the chest area.
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Standard MWH-3.3
MWH-3.3 Explain the role of Islam on the cultures of the Middle East, North Africa, and Asia, including its methods of expansion, its impact on religious diversity, and reactions to its expansion.
Grade(s): 9, 10, 11, 12
Subject(s): Social Studies
Year: 2011
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COSTA CONCORDIA Sinking is a Potential Environmental Disaster
COSTA CONCORDIA Sinking is a Potential Environmental Disaster
In the days since the COSTA CONCORDIA disaster, officials have focused most of their time and energy on caring for passengers and crew and searching for those still missing. Complications from the accident, however, do not end there. Oil, fuel and other pollutants from the tragic cruise ship accident off the Italian coast have the potential to create an environmental disaster in the waters where it is partially submerged.
Since the COSTA CONCORDIA, owned by Carnival Cruise Lines, had only been at sea for a few hours, it still held most of its fuel for the trip, around 2,500 tons of gas and oil. Many are now concerned about those fluids leaking into the clear waters surrounding Giglio, one of seven islands comprising the Tuscan Archipelago National Park. According to USA Today, the Italian Environmental Minister has warned that the fuel and oil pose a huge threat to the area, a diverse environment with unique wildlife and natural beauty.
The potential for such a leak to damage to local plants, animals and people brings to mind the massive oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. Carolyn Latti, a Boston maritime attorney, stated, “We learned a lot of lessons from the Gulf disaster. We need Carnival to step up its efforts to make sure that the fuel is removed from the ship as quickly and safely as possible.”
Luckily, the ship has so far shown no sign of leaked fuel, but conditions could change at any time. The COSTA CONCORDIA is lying in relatively shallow waters but continues to slide slowly against rocks, which could damage the fuel tanks. Weather forecasts indicate a storm could strike the area, which could disturb the waters enough to affect the ship.
Officials have hired a company based out of the Netherlands to remove the fuel from the ship safely, but oil is not the only concern. As the fuel is being removed careful consideration has to be taken into account of the bouyance, stability and structural integrity of the vessel in order to prevent the vessel from rolling or the hull even splitting which causing greater danger to the area, particularly the fragile coral reefs off the coast and cause a greater diawster. The cleanup could take months, and it is impossible to know the amount of damage the area will endure.
Latti is a Boston maritime trial lawyer and partner at Latti & Anderson. She has helped people all over the world who have been injured or wronged in a cruise ship accident. Maritime law allows cruise lines to dictate strict windows of time for issues relating to cruise ship accidents, so if you have suffered as a result of the COSTA CONCORDIA disaster, contact us as soon as possible.
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Article from the Backbenders Gazette of November, 2001
(Third Place winner in Adult Advanced Articles 2002 competition
American Federation of Mineralogical Societies)
The following is an article by the PMNS Curator
© 2001 Terrell William "Terry" Proctor, J.D.
How old is the fossil you found on your last field trip? How old is the Earth? How old is the Universe? You undoubtedly have read different accounts on these things, but it may be confusing to know the basis for the things you have read.
Regardless of which version of the Old Testament Bible you read, the very first Chapter and verse starts with something like "In the beginning" and then the scripture goes on to discuss that God created the heavens and the earth. All versions give the order as: the division between light and darkness; the division of the firmament (land and sky); the division of the land and water; creation of vegetation; creation of the sea and land animals; creation of the domestic animals; and finally creation of man and woman. There is not much disagreement between science and religion on the order of the creation of things or how they came about, whether you are a religious person or not. However, there is a lot of disagreement as to the time it took and the age of things.
To my understanding most Christians, Jews, Moslems and virtually all other religions which have any view on the age of the Earth and the Universe, there is not much of a problem with the scientifically established age of the Earth and Universe. To my understanding, the three major religions which believe in the Old Testament Bible, i.e. Jews, most Christians and Moslems, do not perceive of a conflict in the story of the Creation in the Old Testament Bible and that derived from science as to the age of creation.
The purported scientifically determined age of the Universe and the Earth has been extended dramatically in the past few several hundred years. Most earth scientists currently contend that the Earth is about 4,600,000,000 (4.6 billion) years old and the Universe is about 13,000,000,000 (13 billion) years old. The Hubble Telescope, satellite and other increases in the field of astronomy in recent years has greatly enhanced our ability to know about our Universe and its age. This includes newer terms and scientific conditions of things like "red shift", "doppler effect", gravitational pull of light waves by unseen dark objects, and many other fascinating things.
Some Christians, who are referred to as "sudden creationists" (and sometimes refer to themselves just as "creationists") believe something quite different. They believe that the Earth is 6,005 years old this year. In 1654 Archbishop Usher of Ireland declared that the Earth was created at 9:00 A.M. on October 26, 4004 B.C. For several hundred years, this was the accepted age of the Earth.
However, since 1654, the age of the Earth has been updated many times with new scientific data, tests and analysis. New findings of fossils, artifacts, minerals and changes in the Earth and its components, has made 6,005 years old for the Earth seem to be an incomprehensively short time for everything this planet has been through. Scientific research, tests, findings and studies have led to the conclusion that such a short time period for all that has happened on Earth, is simply impossible.
Although I consider myself active in the area of religion, it is not my purpose to teach or debate religion or to take issue with any group, but just to set out that there are differences in beliefs on the age of the Earth and the Universe, for different reasons, one of which is a religious basis. There is quite a bit of data to support that science has done a great deal to confirm and support religious beliefs held by many Christians, Jews and Islamic people.
While many rockhounds understand that science has ways of establishing dates of fossils, minerals and artifacts, there remains a lot of fuzziness over just how this is done. The question which often comes up "just how do scientists tell the age of things?". I don't profess to be an expert, but I do understand some things about scientific age determination (possibly just enough to get myself in trouble even discussing it). Therefore, for the benefit of those who may not understand quite as much as I have learned, from those who know a great deal more than I do, I will attempt to help explain.
There is not just one test for testing the age of certain artifacts, minerals, fossils and other things which one wishes to date (called "things" in this article), regardless of what the thing may be and how old it may be. There are many tests and more are being discovered. Additional means of testing is helpful, as it helps to correlate and corroborated other tests, lending authenticity to the various tests. In some cases, these newer tests may throw doubt on earlier testing, or show errors when tests do not support each other. This may mean getting rid of erroneous testing methods and/or help create more accurate tests by correcting procedures or correlation of results.
A great deal of the testing done for age of "things" is by radiometric dating. Many of today's tests are based upon what is called a "half life period". A half life period is the period of time during which half of a radioactive substance breaks down to a non-radioactive substance. The "half life" is the number of years which it takes half of the radioactive element to decay into the stable element which is the companion element. The initial element is called the "radioactive parent" and the decayed element is called the "stable daughter". The analogy has often been used to explain the "half life" period as if it were a frog which each time it jumped, the frog jumped half of the remaining distance from a given location toward a wall. The distance each time is only half of what it was before, but the frog will never get to the wall as it always has half the remaining distance left after each jump.
To give you some examples of half lives of radioactive elements, here are six showing the parent, daughter and half life (in length of half life order):
#1 Carbon 14 to Nitrogen 14 5,730
#2 Uranium 235 Lead 207 704,000,000
#3 Potassium 40 to Argon 40 1,250,000,000
#4 Uranium 238 Lead 106 4,470,000,000
#5 Thorium 232 Lead 108 14,000,000,000
#6 Rudidium 87 Strontium 87 48,800,000,000
So how does this translate to the age which can be tested using these elements?
Carbon 14 to nitrogen 14 = 0 to 40,000 years or using accelerator mass spectrometry = 0 to 50,000 years to maybe 70,000 years, (on minerals, shell, wood, bone, teeth, water)
Uranium series disequilibrium = 0 to 400,000 years
(on minerals, shell, bone, teeth, coral)
Potassium to argon = 10,000 to 3,000,000,000 years
(on minerals)
Uranium to lead = 1,000,000 to 4,500,000,000
(on minerals)
Rubidium to strontium = 60,000,000 to 4,500,000,000
(on minerals)
For an example, let us use carbon 14 to nitrogen 14. All atoms of every chemical element contain sub-atomic particles which comprise the atom. I won't go into all of the sub-atomic particles which have been discovered or hypothesized or believed to have been detected today such as positrons, muons, prions and others. For our purposes, we will concern ourselves with three basic components of an atom. The nucleus of any atom contains at least one proton, which carries a positive charge. With the exception of hydrogen, the nucleus of any atom contains at least one neutron which carries a neutral charge. Every atom also has at least one electron which circles the nucleus, but we need not concern ourselves with electrons at the moment.
Of importance in time dating is that a stable nucleus has an even number of protons and neutrons. Carbon 12 (regular carbon) has six protons and six neutrons. The six protons and six neutrons are added together, i.e. 6+6 = 12 and the element is called carbon 12, which is the common form of carbon. Carbon 12 is therefore stable and in balance.
When the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom are not the same as the number of protons, the substance is called an isotope. A carbon 14 isotope has 8 neutrons and 6 protons in its nucleus and the isotope is therefore an unstable atom and radioactive. This isotope occurs when a nitrogen atom is bombarded in space with subatomic particles from the Sun which change the nitrogen 14 into carbon 14. In the atmosphere the radioactive carbon 14 combines with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. This radioactive carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants in their photosynthesis process and from there goes into the food chain and carbon cycle.
All living things contain a constant ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 which is 1 part carbon 14 to 1,000,000,000,000 parts of carbon 12. At death, a formerly living thing (plant, animal or other) no longer accumulates any additional carbon 14 and the carbon 14 loses the extra two protons as it decays into carbon 12. This process is what sets up the half life of that element as being 5,730 years. Carbon 14 testing is essentially good only for archaeology and for dating up into the Pleistocene age.
There are other non-radioactive means to determine the age of a "thing". Here are some, but certainly not all, examples with the little I know, if anything, about each:
"Dendrochronology" which is the study of tree rings to determine the age of a tree and therefore those things around the tree and related to the tree's age. This is accurate only from 0 to about 12,000 years, which is an extremely short time in dating.
"Lichenometry" is the study of lichens which is even shorter and ranges from about 100 years to only about 9,000 years.
"Geomagnetic polarity" The North Pole has wandered about the top of the Earth for millions of years. Igneous rocks sometimes have some form of iron type minerals which polarize as they cool after being expelled from the Earth through volcanos or other means. As the igneous rock cools, the iron mineral polarize on the then current North Pole and are fixed for all time on that direction (subject to movements of the rock by other dynamic forces of the Earth later). Therefore, once the age of a given rock is determined, and the polarization is determined, then any other rock in which the iron mineralization points to the same North should be the same age as that already determined. Needless to say, the location of the rock being tested has to be carefully secured in order to determine where the iron mineral is pointing.
"Amino acid racemization" This is a procedure for dating by examining the proteins preserved in a formerly living "thing". The building blocks of proteins are amino acids and they can take either a left handed or right handed form. Left handed is the overwhelming favorite in nature, for reasons unknown. However, these can flip to the other form and this process is speeded up by heat. Adjustments must be done for known climatic changes over time, but in tests these results correlated with other methods.
"Obsidian hydration" Obsidian is natural glass and the amount of water in the glass is used in another test. There are a number of other means of testing age, not addressed here.
Not every substance can be tested for its age directly, but some age checking must be interpolated by other means. For instance a clay pot found in the ground may not be able to be tested by most methods of aging to determine its age, because it was never alive. However, if the pot has food particles still inside or there are other organic substances around which can be tested, then the age of the pot can be determined with reasonable certainty.
Another term you should know is "index fossils". One category of index fossils often used are the "foraminiferas". These are very small single-celled, amoeba-like, protozoans which form a shell (or test) from calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or from cemented grains of sand or other material such as sponge spicules. These are very small animals and the largest reach size up to only a few centimeters but most adults are only 1/5 to 1 millimeter, about the size of a pin head.
They are marine animals and found at every level in the oceans of the world in huge quantities and have been for many millions of years. Other index fossils are bivalves, gastropods and other marine and fresh water animals and plants.
Index fossils are generally called that because they are so widely disbursed at certain ages in the history of the Earth and so readily recognized. Therefore when they are found, you can date a formation you are in, by knowing the age of "index fossils" in that formation.
There is so much more which could be covered, but let me close with a few observations. Things do wind up in the wrong age on occasions, because the cataclysmic forces of nature are constantly upending formations, pushing them up and down, and waters wash things down to other locations, to mention only a few. Therefore, it takes care to determine that the "thing" you want to obtain a date upon is located where it really came to rest at death and has not been a vagabond from another age, heaved about by plate tectonics, rivers or other natural forces to come to rest in an older or younger formation.
Another observation is that over time some tests have been found to be unreliable and/or have needed clarification and correction. That is what science is all about. Science is to be constantly challenged and tested so that the known results become more accurate with time and more dependable, with the bad results jettisoned. Religion, on the other hand, is taken on faith and physical proof is not something which a believer seeks or would consider to prove or disprove a belief. Fortunately many folks do not find a conflict between their strong religious beliefs and the factual conclusions which science has used to determine the age of the Universe, the Earth and the "things" you and I find on our field trips.
I extend my appreciation to the following sources, which are some of those which I have read over the years and/or used currently in preparation of this article.
National Geographic, September 2001 issue "How Old Is It? Solving the Riddle of Ages"
Georgia Perimeter College's Georgia Geoscience Online, September 9, 2001 located at: http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102/age.htm and/or http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102/radioa.htm (NOTE July, 2003: this website is apparently no longer good)
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Science, Ltd., September 9, 2001 located at: http://www.gns.cri.nz/earthhist (New Zealand firm) {current note: this site is no longer on line apparently}
Material supplied over several years by Geochron Laboratories, Krueger Enterprises, Inc., 711 Concord Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138 (617) 876-3691 or http://www.geochronlabs.com
My special thanks to Geochron Laboratories who for a number of years have supplied members of the Houston Gem & Mineral Society with plastic cards showing the "Geological Time Scale" as adapted from DNAG, 1983.
Contact: Terrell William "Terry" Proctor, J.D. c/o T. W. Proctor & Associates
630 Uvalde Road, Houston, Texas 77015-3766
Phone: 713) 453-8338 FAX (713) 453-3232 Email: [email protected]
Other Websites: https://terryco.us and http://www.terrylaw.us.
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Nasa asteroid warning: Eiffel Tower-sized asteroid ‘narrowly’ missed earth in December
While it missed us this time, the asteroid is set to come back towards earth again on Valentine’s Day 2060
Earth has been lucky to avoid two massive asteroids in recent weeks, according to Nasa.
Space rock 7482 (1994 PC1), which is the same size as three Empire State Buildings, came within a mere whisker of our home planet earlier in January.
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It followed 4660 Nereus - an asteroid larger than Paris’ Eiffel Tower and The Shard in London - that’s set to come dangerously close to us once again on Valentine’s Day 2060.
As the recent Leonardo DiCaprio Netflix film Don’t Look Up showed, there’s nothing scarier than a monster space rock hurtling towards the earth.
But work on how to stop them hitting us is still very much in its infancy, with humanity’s first attempt to alter the orbit of an asteroid having only just blasted off.
So how close did 4660 Nereus come to earth, how did Nasa know about it - and what is the space agency doing to prevent an Don’t Look Up scenario?
Here’s what you need to know.
4660 Nereus is set to come within 2.4 million miles of the earth on 11 December (image: Shutterstock)
What did 4660 Nereus do?
On 11 December 2021, 330m-long asteroid 4660 Nereus rocketed past earth at a speed of 6.58 kilometres-per-second (14,719mph) at a distance of 2.4 million miles from earth.
While that might not seem particularly close - after all, you’d have to drive around the earth 100 times to travel that far - Nasa has classified the asteroid as a “potentially hazardous” near-earth object.
How big is the asteroid 4660 Nereus compared to famous landmarks? (graphic: Kim Mogg)
This is due to it being larger than 150m and its orbit meaning it passes our planet at less than half the distance from the earth to the sun (roughly 93 million miles).
It means any slight deviation in its orbit could put it on a collision course with earth in the future.
In fact, on Valentine’s Day in 2060, it will come within 745,000 miles of earth - just over twice the distance between the earth and the moon.
So it might be worth buying those flowers or getting that proposal done well in advance of that date, just in case.
How does Nasa track ‘dangerous’ asteroids?
Nasa tracks dangerous asteroids through its Centre for Near-Earth Object Studies.
Since 1968, it has tracked more than 1,000 asteroids that have passed close to our home planet using radar - a technique which allows the space agency to accurately map the orbit, size and shape of space rocks.
Through telescopes, Nasa has also managed to spot 27,323 asteroids that could endanger the earth.
Just under 10,000 of these are 140m or larger and 891 are more than a kilometre in size.
To put into perspective the potential impact these rocks could have if they hit the earth, the asteroid which caused the Chelyabinsk explosion in Russia in 2013 was just 20m in size.
When it exploded in the atmosphere, this space rock gave off up to 33 times as much energy as that which was released by the atomic bomb the US dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima in World War Two.
The shockwaves from this blast blew out windows in more than 3,600 apartment blocks and injured 1,200 people.
Some suffered skin and retinal burns due to the asteroid shining up to 30 times brighter than the sun as it burned up in the earth’s atmosphere.
Nasa says there is no “significant chance” any near-earth asteroids it has seen will hit earth within the next 100 years.
But it estimates it has spotted just half of the dangerous space rocks out there, as there are potentially 25,000 large near-earth objects in space.
By tracking them and finding out more about their size, shape, mass, structure and what they’re made of, the US space agency hopes to come up with ways of diverting one should it hurtle towards earth.
What is the Nasa Dart asteroid mission?
On 24 November 2021, Nasa launched its Double Asteroid Redirection Test (Dart) mission.
This one-way experimental voyage will see a spacecraft smash into an asteroid in a bid to alter the space rock’s course.
Should it prove successful, it could provide a way of protecting the earth from asteroids.
Dart will be heading to the 780-metre rock Didymos and a 160-metre asteroid which orbits it, called Dimorphos.
These asteroids have been chosen because they are easily traceable through earth-based telescopes, so any changes to their courses can be tracked accurately.
Neither of them are thought to be a danger to the earth.
When the spacecraft reaches the pair of space rocks at the end of September 2022, it will hit Dimorphos at four miles per second - a speed scientists think should be enough to change the rock’s path.
In four years’ time, a European Space Agency (ESA) spacecraft named Hera will arrive at the asteroids to inspect Dart’s crater and survey their respective masses.
What is an asteroid?
Asteroids are rocky fragments left over from the birth of the solar system 4.6 billion years ago.
They are different from comets in that they are mostly made up of metals, whereas comets contain ice, gases and fragments of rock.
Space rocks are believed to be the remnants of collisions between planets and moons.
Many of these rocks orbit the sun between Mars and Jupiter in a part of space known as the Asteroid Belt.
Scientists think there could be millions of asteroids in this part of space - some of which are hundreds of kilometres in size.
An even larger collection of massive asteroids can be found at the farthest reaches of the solar system, known as the Kuiper Belt.
Sometimes, these asteroids change their orbits if they are influenced by the gravitational tug of planets.
They can also collide with one another in events which can throw out smaller, but still potentially deadly, shards of space rock.
It is one such stray asteroid, believed to have measured around six miles (10km) in size, that wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago and led to mammals’ dominance of the planet.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background to the Study
Dietary control is vital in the management of diabetes. Reports from FAO (1998); WHO and FAO (2003) have shown that diets with low saturated fat, cholesterol and glycemic index as well as high contents of soluble fiber, vitamins and minerals are effective in the management of diabetes. Low glycemic foods contain sugars that digest and absorbed slowly into the blood and thus control blood sugar levels. The fiber-like substances such as gums and pectin reduced blood postprandial glucose levels (Jenkins et al., 1978; Ou et al., 2001) while diabetic subjects fed xanthan gum have lower fasting, postprandial serum glucose levels and total plasma cholesterol (Osilesi et al., 1985). Jenkins et al. (1978) reported that daily intake of 5–10 g of soluble fiber from different sources reduced serum cholesterol by 5–10%. Fruits serve as one of the best sources of dietary fiber, minerals, Vitamins A, C and E and frequent intake of vegetables and fruits have demonstrated a lowered risk of diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, stroke and cancer (Southon, 2000; Wargovich, 2000). Fruits supply carbohydrates in the form of soluble sugars, cellulose and starch (Nahar et al., 1998) and serve as source of nutrient, appetizer and food supplement in a world faced with problem of food scarcity.
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a worldwide endemic disease in terms of occurrence, cost of medical care, and general complications (King et al., 1998). The metabolism of protein, carbohydrate and fat are affected in diabetic conditions, resulting in hyperglycemia. DM complication is mainly associated with a high risk of coronary heart disease (Giugliano et al., 1996), atherosclerosis, stroke and peripheral vascular disease. The incidence of DM world wide, is projected to increase from 4% in 1995 to 5.4% by the year 2025 (Mohamed et al., 2006), with the utmost increases set to occur in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and South America (WHO, 2008).
According to WHO (1994) and American Diabetes Association (2008), diabetes mellitus can be classified into insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, IDDM (type 1 diabetes mellitus) and non- insulin- dependent diabetes mellitus, NIDDM (type 2 diabetes mellitus). Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus is caused by cellular-mediated autoimmune damage to beta cells of the pancreas, accounts for about 5% to 15% of diabetic cases and occurs mostly in children or adolescents (Ranjan and Ramanujam, 2002). Genetics and environmental factors are implicated in the formation of IDDM. Administration of exogenous insulin is thus required to avert ketosis and preserve life (Lokesh and Amit, 2006). Non- insulin- dependent diabetes mellitus starts as insulin resistance, accounts for 85-95% of cases globally and occurs usually in adults of 40 years and above (WHO Regional Office for the South-East Asia, 2009). It is associated with hyperglycemia and glycosuria. The risk factors increases with age, lack of physical activity, obesity and impaired glucose tolerance.
Insulin resistance occurs when glucose is not properly utilized by the cells leading to high blood glucose in circulation. To maintain blood glucose level, the kidney excretes exess blood glucose through the urine and glucosuria occurs with increased excretion of water and sodium when blood glucose level exceeds the renal threshold (160 - 180 mg/L). The failure to use glucose by the body cells, results to increase appetite (polyphagia) (Robinson et al., 1986). The summary of the symptoms of diabetes is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Overview of the most Significant Symptoms of Diabetes
Source: Cooke and Plotnick (2008)
Insulin resistance is associated with decreased glucose uptake and stimulation of muscle glycogen synthesis (Cline et al., 1999). In addition, alteration of enzymatic activities like increased phosphatase activity and/or seryl phosphorylation of the insulin receptor substrate by glycogen synthesis kinase 3 (GSK- 3), have also been reported in some cases of type 2 diabetes mellitus (Begum et al., 1991; Nadiv et al.,1994; Eldar-Finkelman and Krebs, 1997). Insulin resistance plays an important role in the etiology of many disorders including obesity, NIDDM, glucose intolerance, hypertension and other related disorders. It has been reported that autophosphorylation of insulin receptor kinase and subsequent phosphorylation of its principal substrate, IRS-1, are significantly lowered in insulin-responsive tissues of patient with severe obesity or NIDDM (Nadiv et al., 1992). Increased lipolysis and decreased lipogenesis occurred when there is a fall in circulated insulin leading to fatty acids release from adipose tissues and subsequently oxidized to ketone bodies in the liver. The rapid release of fatty acids into the blood leads to increase level of blood cholesterol and the formation of atherosclerosis (Khan and Ahmad, 1993). In diabetics, there is increase in excreted nitrogen through deamination, which is accompanied by cellular potassium excretion in urine when the muscle protein is broken down to support gluconeogenesis in the liver.
Of the several approaches applied, to lower and control the occurrence of diabetes, drug and diet therapies form the most popular approaches. The most common approach are the drug therapy with four distinct classes of oral hypoglycemic agents (biguanides, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors) currently being recommended for use to treat NIDDM. In dietary therapy, dietary modifications with adequate exercise are used to prevent excessive weight gain and obesity (Derek, 2001). Intake of diets with low total and saturated fat, limited protein with replacement by complex carbohydrate and/or mono unsaturated fatty acids are the recommended diets for type 2 diabetes patients. Controlled diets will improve the metabolic control in diabetic subject and lower the risk of diabetes complications (Griver and Henry, 1994).
A large number of plants with hypoglycemic activity have been reported in different animal models. Aloe vera, Acacia arabica, Allium sativum L., Bombax ceiba L., Allium cepa, Brassicajuncea (L.) Cassia auriculata L., Caesalpinia bonducella (L.) and Musa sapientum L. are some of the scientifically validated antidiabetic plants (Modak et al., 2007).
Plant of Study
Chrysophyllum albidum (Linn), commonly called African star apple is a forest tree species of Sapotaceae family (Figure 2). It is widely distributed in Nigeria, Niger Republic and Uganda (Bada, 1997). C. albidum has various ethno-medicinal uses (Dalziel, 1937; Amusa et al., 2003) and across Nigeria, it is locally called ‘‘agbalumo’’ in South Western Nigeria and “udara” in South Eastern Nigeria.
Figure 2: Chrysophyllum albidum Tree
Source: Orwa et al. (2009)
The fleshy pulp of C. albidum fruit is taken as snack, the seeds serve as a source of oil for various uses and the fruit is a good source of ascorbic acid (Adisa, 2000; Adepoju and Adeniji, 2012). C. albidum plants are rich in natural antioxidants and can thus support health by preventing oxidative stress related disease such as diabetics, cancer and coronary heart diseases (Burits and Bucar, 2002). The antioxidants content in vegetables and fruits has been associated with the diminished risk to chronic diseases by scavenging free radicals and prevent cells damage (Halliwell, 1994).
The antimicrobial and phytochemical screening of C. albidum seed cotyledon (Idowu et al., 2003; Okoli and Okere, 2010), leaves (Duyilemi and Lawal, 2009; Okoli and Okere, 2010; Kamba and Hassan 2011), root (Okoli and Okere, 2010), and stem bark (Adewoye et al., 2010; Kamba and Hassan 2011) have been investigated. In addition, the anti-hyperglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of C. albidum seed cotyledon ethanolic extract (Olorunnisola et al., 2008) and leaf ethanolic extract (Adebayo et al., 2010) have been reported. Adebayo et al., 2010, 2011a and 2011b, have reported the antiplatelet, antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of C. albidum leaf while Onyeka et al. (2012) and Omotosho et al. (2013) reported the antifertility and antioxidant effects of C. albidum root bark and fruit juice.
Nwadinigwe (1982); Edem et al. (1984); Adisa (2000); Ige and Gbadamosi (2007); Ureigho (2010); Christopher and Dosunmu (2011); Oyebade et al. (2011); Adepoju and Adeniji (2012), have independently analyzed the nutritional contents of C. albidum pulp. Similarly, Ige and Gbadamosi (2007) analyzed the nutrient compositions of C. albidum fruit-peel (skin) and fruit juice. Ewansiha et al. (2011), analyzed C. albidum seed shell pericarp for its nutritional compositions while Ajewole and Adeyeye (1990), studied the physico-chemical characteristics and fatty acid composition of the seed. However, information on the nutrient contents of seed shell pericarp, fruit skin (peel) and fruit pulp of C. albidum are scanty in available literature. In addition, there is dearth of information on the efficacy of either of these edible portions of C. albidum fruit as remedy for the management of DM. Therefore, this study was design to investigate the nutrtitive and non-nutritive components and the antidiabetic potentials of the edible portions of C. albidum fruit.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Diet has a vital role in the causes and control of several obesity-associated chronic diseases, such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Current research has increased on studying individual foods to understand their specific role(s) and the mechanisms of action in the diminished risk to diseases in humans. Diabetes has emerged into a global epidemic, inspite of the recent search in new drugs to manage and prevent the condition; its prevalence continues to soar with increased risks and diagnosis in both adult and children (Ludwig and Ebbeling, 2001). In addition, many synthetic hypoglycemic agents such as biguanides, sulfonylureas, α-glucosidase inhibitors and insulin, commonly used for the treatment of diabetes are expensive and associated with serious side effects (Gupta et al., 2010). Sulfonylureas (e.g., glibenclamide) cause severe hypoglycemia, biguanides (e.g., metformins) are unsafe for patients with kidney problem, while α-glucosidase inhibitors cause dose-related malabsorption, flatulence and abdominal bloating (Codario, 2005). In addition, these hypoglycemic agents are not effective in the control of hyperlipidemia condition, which usually accompanies the incidence of diabetes (Derek, 2001). These associated problems with the synthetic oral anti-diabetic agents in terms of inefficacy, non-safety coupled with the emergence of the disease into a global epidemy have necessitate the search for more efficient alternatives with little or no side effect (Ranjan and Ramanujam, 2002). The plant kingdom, thus become a target for the search to develop indigenous, inexpensive botanical sources by multinational drug and biologically active lead compounds (Evans, 1996).
Since ancient times, medicinal plants with various active principles and properties have been used by laymen and physicians to cure a variety of human diseases such as coronary heart disease, diabetes and cancer (Havsteen, 1984; Middleton et al., 2000). Medicinal plants offer exciting opportunity to develop them into novel therapeutics due to their multiple beneficial effects as manipulating carbohydrate metabolism by various
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Crisis in Chile: What is happening in Latin America?
A masked anti-government protester stands with fellow protesters during clashes with police, in Santiago, Chile, Thursday, Oct. 31, 2019. Photo by Esteban Felix/AP
Latin America has rich nations that have been riddled with corruption for many years. Recently, one of the biggest problems among those nations is the social class differences, where the rich are getting richer and the poor, poorer. However, Chile has reached its limit. The protests in Chile are sending an important message to other Latin American countries of not allowing the government to quiet people’s voices by repressing them.
On Oct. 6, a fare hike was announced in Chile, and people were not okay with it. Chileans used to pay $800 Chilean pesos for their subway ticket, but it was suddenly raised to $830, which is the equivalent to $1.25. The raise in the price enraged the people, especially the youth — it is always the youth — who almost immediately began to protest, refused to pay the new price and pointed out the fact that the president, Sebastian Piñera does not even pay for his taxes. The people’s discomfort is, in my opinion, perfectly understandable.
Social inequality plays an important role in the situation in Chile. We know about the rich, the poor and the middle class, which often struggles the most; social classes are a division, and that means that there is no room for equality.
As a Mexican, I remember how my family and friends would refer to Chile as an example to follow, especially among Latin American countries: They have a good subway system, and their education system is also very good, etc. However, such an ideal country might be a reality, but to just a few. This means that not everyone in Chile has lived a happy and prosperous life.
Most of the salaries are not better than Mexico’s and their country’s subway, water, pension system and universities are privatized, and such privatization has been highly criticized.
Furthermore, the way the Chilean government dealt with this protest is what shocked not only Chile but other countries as well. An announcement by the government stating that refusing to pay the new price of the subway ticket was not a valid protest, and therefore, the government declared a state of emergency in the country and militarized the streets in an attempt to stop the people from protesting. A curfew was ordered as well, and still, the people did not stop the protests. Unfortunately, the government’s reaction to the protests brought back bad memories of how the government behaved years ago, during Augusto Pinochet’s dictatorship.
The chaos in Chile is now added to the list of events that have been occurring in Latin America. The countries that have been fighting for their rights recently include Ecuador and Mexico, and similar to Chile, these countries are questioning the system that has been established in their land.
Although people grow with different expectations and ideals, I believe that one common characteristic should be present all the time: to make sure there is room for empathy. It seems that people these days do not like to share what belongs to them, but I refuse to admit that selfishness will characterize our current and future generations.
I would like to highlight that for a long time, Latin American countries have been looked down upon by their governments, but as mentioned previously, there is an end to everything, and hopefully these countries will eventually get the prosperity they deserve.
It is personally inspiring to see repressed countries use their voices to demand justice. Unfortunately, throughout history, such changes have often been achieved after a series of violent events. I have listened to journalists refer to these uprisings as similar to the beginning of the French Revolution, a historical event that shows what people can do when they have little or nothing to lose. It seems that history is repeating itself, and as much as I would like violence to be avoided, I hope for the outcome to be beneficial for the people and, of course, I will continue writing about topics that matter.
¡Que viva Latinoamérica!
Victoria Raya is a campus correspondent for The Daily Campus. She can be reached via email at
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Douglas Healy
Nov 19, 2021
4 min read
The BoatUS Foundation: Keeping Boating Safe in US Waters
The BoatUS Foundation is a world leader in promoting safe, responsible boating. The organization provides educational outreach to boaters and supports partner organizations across America.
With millions of boaters on the water, the BoatUS Foundation’s principal goals are to reduce boating fatalities and accidents and to increase stewardship of US waterways to keep boating a safe, enjoyable livelihood or hobby for all. As a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, the organization is primarily funded by individual donations and grants.
The BoatUS Foundation provides guidance on a variety of boating safety topics, including the following:
Life Jackets
Personal flotation devices are the single most important consideration for any sailor. With 90% of drowning victims not wearing a life jacket, the foundation provides advice and information on choosing the right life jackets to keep everyone onboard safe.
Navigation Rules
Published by the US Government Printing Office, Navigation Rules provide boaters with vital instructions on how to avoid collisions. Every vessel measuring 12 meters (39.4 feet) or more is required to keep a copy onboard.
Alcohol and Boating
As many as half of all reported boating accidents involve alcohol. Unsurprisingly, law enforcement agencies are becoming increasingly strident in their efforts to persuade boaters to avoid alcohol consumption until they are safely onshore. In a majority of states, operating a boat with a blood alcohol level of 0.08% or higher is illegal.
Operating a boat under the influence of alcohol is also a federal offense that incur a fine of up to $5,000, with offenders serving jail time in some cases. State laws on boating under the influence (BUI) are becoming increasingly robust and impose penalties. In some states, sanctions may also be applied against the offender’s driving record, and their boat may be seized and sold at auction.
Marine Communications
Cell phones provide a valuable line of communication, enabling boaters to keep in touch with people on land while they are out on the water. However, they quickly can lose service if the boater is too far from land-based towers, and they don’t allow boaters in distress to reach several other boaters at once. For these reasons, cell phones are no replacement for Very High Frequency (VHF) radio, which has been used by sailors all over the world for decades and remains the go-to mode of communication for sailing vessels.
Cold Water Boating
Boating in cold waters can be invigorating and even exhilarating. However, boating in these conditions also comes with the risk of hypothermia and death if someone falls overboard.
For a good rule of thumb to tell if special cold water precautions should be taken, add the current air and water temperatures together. If the result is less than 100℉, boaters should ensure that all aboard are dressed for the water temperature — not just the air temperature. All should wear a properly fitted jacket and hat.
Bringing an extra set of dry, warm clothes in a dry bag is also a good idea just in case someone gets wet. A thermos of coffee and energy bars can come in handy as well. Of course, life jackets are always necessary. Note that you can buy special cold water life jackets with extra insulation.
Fire Extinguishers
In the United States, all vessels must be equipped with a B-1 fire extinguisher, with larger vessels required to carry more. The BoatUS Foundation recommends a tri-class fire extinguisher.
Having the requisite number of fire extinguishers on board is one part of the solution — the other is knowing how to operate them properly. Make sure to read the directions for your fire extinguisher and understand what it can and cannot do.
Flares and Distress Signals
Visual distress signals are a vital component of any boat’s safety equipment, enabling boaters to summon help when in immediate or potential danger. The BoatUS Foundation website offers helpful information about visual distress signal requirements and which are right for your boat.
Carbon Monoxide
Known as the silent killer, this odorless, tasteless, colorless gas is undetectable by the human senses. It is produced by engines run on carbon-based fuels like gasoline, and is capable of killing within a relatively short timeframe. It is essential for boaters to acquaint themselves with the symptoms of CO poisoning and arm themselves with the knowledge of what to do in the event of exposure.
Crew Overboard
When a crewmember falls overboard, time is of the essence to avoid hypothermia. Quick thinking and coordinated actions are vital to stage a successful rescue. Falling overboard can happen on a vessel of any size, and many accidents are preventable with a few common-sense steps. From maintaining three points of contact with the boat to avoiding standing and sudden movements, the BoatUS Foundation website provides comprehensive guidance to help keep sailors safe.
In addition to its resources on the safety topics above, the BoatUS Foundation runs several boating safety programs for individuals and organizations. For example, the Kids Afloat program allows organizations that provide boating and kayak trips for children to purchase kid-sized life jackets for just $5 each — a significant discount.
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“Get Up!” (Book Review)
The following are some interesting facts about “Get Up!”.
1) The title of the book is a reference to the movie “Gone With The Wind” which was released in 1939.
2) The film’s main character, Scarlett O’Hara, was played by Elizabeth Taylor.
3) In the novel, there is no mention of any movie star playing Scarlett O’Hara.
Instead, she is portrayed by Marlene Dietrich.
4) The book’s protagonist is named Elizabeth Bennett.
She is described as being “a young woman with a strong will.”
5) The novel begins when Elizabeth Bennett is only fifteen years old.
At the time, she had just graduated from high school and was working at her father’s shoe store. Her life changes drastically after she witnesses the death of her brother during a robbery attempt.
6) Elizabeth Bennett’s story is told through the eyes of her younger sister, Emily.
7) The book’s plot takes place over the course of one year.
During this period, Elizabeth Bennett experiences many events including:
– A man falling off a bridge into a river; he drowns.
– An accident involving a train and an automobile causing both vehicles to explode and kill several passengers.
– A fire that destroys part of town.
8) Almost every chapter in the book has the word “Get” in it somewhere.
9) The novel is a “message” book about “the perils of modern life.
” The message of the story is “if you don’t get up and do something, you’ll die just sitting there.”
10) The book flips back and forth between two main scenes: the shoe store and the town square. Most of the chapters take place in the shoe store.
11) The chapters that take place in the town square focus on the burning of a Confederate flag. The flag burning was, in fact, a real event that took place in 2015.
12) In the novel, Elizabeth Bennett has a white cat named Ashley. This is a reference to George C.Tate’s play “Chessy and the White Cat” (1901).
13) Halfway through the novel, it is discovered that Ashley is infested with fleas. He dies soon after of an overdose of pesticide.
14) Many scenes in the book contain a “floating thought bubble.” In these scenes, the reader can see what the main character is thinking.
15) The main character, Elizabeth Bennett, thinks about her boyfriend every once in a while. In some of these scenes, the reader can see that her boyfriend looks a lot like Elvis.
16) In one chapter, Elizabeth Bennett has a vivid dream where she is at the Rock-n-Roll Hall of Fame. In this scene, she meets the singer Cher and buys a record by the band KISS.
17) The main character hates sewing machines. She mentions this in several chapters.
18) Chapter sixteen of the book is a poem called “The Emperor’s New Clothes.” The book also has an entire section dedicated to Edgar Alan Poe.
The section contains many of his most well-known poems.
19) Chapter twenty-five, titled “The Manuscript,” is an entire short story about a woman who drowns her children in a river.
20) The book ends with Elizabeth Bennett committing suicide by jumping off a bridge located in town square. Shortly after this, the entire town of Ashland is destroyed by a tornado.
The book ends with the main character’s sister wondering whether or not there is an afterlife.
1) If you haven’t already, please create a list of at least 20 possible titles for your book.
This list can be on paper or electronic. If you already have a list, you may skip this step.
2) Using the list you’ve created, choose 10 titles that you believe would best suit your book.
List these titles in the answer box below and explain why you believe these titles are the best ones for your work.
3) Now, select three titles that you like the most (maybe ones you haven’t used before) and list them in the answer box below.
Explain why you believe these three titles are the best ones for your work.
1) Elizabeth’s sister thinks that there is no afterlife.
Do you believe there is an afterlife? Why?
2) In chapter one (entitled “The Manuscript”), the main character has a vague dream about someone forcing her to take drugs.
What do you think this means?
3) In chapter nine, the main character and her boyfriend play a game where they have to stare into each others’ eyes for as long as they can.
Who do you think “won?” Why?
4) In chapter thirteen, the main character briefly mentions an ongoing rumor about one of the local teachers at her high school.
What do you think this rumor is and why do you believe this rumor exists?
5) In chapter sixteen, the main character dreams that she is at a museum dedicated to rock-n-roll.
A man at this museum looks a lot like her boyfriend.
Who do you think this man is and why do you believe this man looks like her boyfriend?
6) In chapter twenty-one, the main character has a dream about someone accusing her of “lying.
Who do you think is lying in this dream and why do you believe this person is lying?
7) In chapter twenty-four, the main character dreams about Elvis’s twin brother.
What influence does Elvis’s family have on Elizabeth?
8) In the last chapter of the book, Elizabeth commits suicide by jumping off a bridge.
Why do you think she decides to do this and what do you believe happens to her after she jumps?
Elizabeth was a beatiful, caring, and sensitive girl. Her boyfriend was very lucky to have her. She jumped off a bridge because she was tired of the pain of this life I believe. In my dreams I see her in a garden full of birds and flowers.
Oliver is a very sweet guy who cares about people more than he should. If he only knew that Elizabeth committed suicide because of him…
He has a lot of inner strength and I believe he’ll move on from this tragedy. In my dreams, I see him and Elizabeth together in heaven.
I don’t really love Tom, but I believe he did love Elizabeth. He was also very protective of her like a brother would be.
After she died he became very depressed. I think Tom killed himself because he couldn’t live without her. In my dreams, I see him with Elizabeth looking at the flowers in the garden.
The Manuscript
Chapter One: The Beginning
Why do I always get the short end of the stick?”
Elizabeth asks aloud in a whiny tone.
It’s a very important question, though one which is typical for her. This girl has spent most of her life getting the short end of the stick; though she doesn’t seem to realize this fact.
Elizabeth is a high school senior who feels as if life is dealing with a stacked deck. She has everything going for her: good looks, nice clothes, and plenty of friends. But, this girl is never satisfied and is constantly wondering why she isn’t the main character of a novel. In her mind, she is practically the star of her own drama series.
Of course, everyone makes their complaints about life and believes they have a rough time; but with Elizabeth it is different. She really believes that she live a horrible life and everyone else’s lives are better than hers.
Most people just complain, but Elizabeth does something about her complaints. Whenever something bad happens to her, it is always a bigger and more tragic event than anything that’s happened to anyone else. If someone else gets a B on a test, then Elizabeth will get an A-, though she’ll argue that the grader is blind, hates her, or had some other personal vendetta.
A typical Elizabeth day goes as follows. She wakes up, rolls over, and hits the alarm clock (not in that order).
After turning off the alarm clock, she lies in bed for twenty minutes while bitching about how horrible her life is and everything she has to do today. Once she’s finished complaining, she gets up and begins her daily routine. That is, after she has spent another ten minutes complaining about having to get out of bed.
After a shower, dressing, and eating breakfast, Elizabeth begins her daily routine. She will spend the next few hours complaining about how hungry she is, how much she hates her classes, and about all of the homework she has to do.
By mid-day, she will have spent another hour or two complaining about the unnecessary difficulties of life; such as the perils of walking to class in the snow. That evening, Elizabeth will spend another couple hours complaining about how hard her day was. She will then go to sleep and start the process all over again the next day.
One could simply dismiss Elizabeth as a shallow high school brat who is miserable because she got a B- on a test; and there would be some truth to that. There is a bigger problem with Elizabeth than her simple vanity though.
The bigger issue is that Elizabeth has never matured beyond the whining angst filled teenager who blames the world for her problems. She has spent so much time being bitter about her life that she has never taken the time to enjoy it.
If this continues, Elizabeth truly will have a horrible life; but this hasn’t happened yet. There is still time for her to mature and enjoy life.
She could lose the attitude and realize that her life isn’t half as bad as she thinks it is. Or she could continue the way she is going and let the miserable existence consume her.
This is where you come in. You are the key to helping Elizabeth enjoy life.
Your job is to make Elizabeth’s life as miserable as she believes it is. The more you can make her hate the world, the happier she will be.
There are a few ground rules, however.
First off, you cannot cause permanent physical harm to Elizabeth. This would violate the rules and result in you being fired, as well as being arrested and going to jail (or worse).
Second, you cannot create external forces causing Elizabeth’s misery. For example, you cannot have a power go out in her apartment and cause a fire.
You also cannot have another person harass her. The misery has to come from within Elizabeth.
Third, you cannot cause logical death. This is more of a personal guideline more than a rule.
I find personally that making someone die as a logical conclusion of their own actions is far more cruel than any pain I could inflict physically.
Lastly, you are to remain anonymous at all times. Elizabeth is not to know who the emissary of misery is, just that they are there.
With these rules in place, we will see how miserable you can make Elizabeth. Let the games begin.
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HomeHealth A-ZWhat are the Myths and Facts of Kleptomania?
What are the Myths and Facts of Kleptomania?
Myths and Facts of Kleptomania: Kleptomania is a recurrent, spontaneous urge to steal, usually without regard for necessity or profit.
Kleptomania is not the same as shoplifting. Most individuals who shoplift do it because they want, need, or can’t afford something or because of peer pressure, as in the case of certain juvenile shoplifters. Kleptomania, however, leads to an act of theft as a result of an impulse control disorder. This can affect people of all ages. Impulse control disorders are mental illnesses characterized by a persistent inability to resist impulses or urges, and consequently act in an unsafe or destructive manner. People with such conditions are aware that acting on their impulses may cause harm to themselves or others, but they are unable resist the urge or stop themselves from acting out.
Although shoplifting is frequent, real Kleptomania is uncommon (0.3 to 0.6 per cent of the general population). Kleptomania affects between 4% and 24% of shoplifters, according to estimates. Because this condition is characterized by secrecy and dishonesty, it is impossible to determine the precise number of persons who suffer from it. Females are more prone to Kleptomania than males.
Myths and Facts of Kleptomania: Causes of Kleptomania
The specific cause of Kleptomania remains unknown. Researchers are looking into a possible link between impulse control problems, such as Kleptomania and neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that allow nerve cells in the brain to communicate with each other. An imbalance of these substances can harm the brain’s ability to control impulses. Major stress is thought to be a cause for impulsive behavior.
Dopamine, the “happy” hormone, has a role at the start of Kleptomania. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a key role in our brain’s reward system, and its release is linked to the sensation of pleasure. As a result, the pleasure and fulfilment that a kleptomaniac goes through during the act of stealing is what promotes the cyclical indulgence in the said act.
Serotonin, in addition to dopamine, is another hormone linked with the onset of Kleptomania. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that governs our mood and happiness. As a result, a person’s risk of developing kleptomania increases when their serotonin levels are low and their dopamine levels are high.
Kleptomaniacs frequently suffer from various mental illnesses. Depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and substance addiction disorders are the most common. This implies that there could be a link between these diseases and the onset of Kleptomania.
Symptoms of Kleptomania
A kleptomaniac will feel extreme remorse and guilt after the act of stealing. Along with that, the common symptoms are as follows:
• Failure to resist temptations to steal objects frequently.
• The purpose of stealing is not for personal gain or the monetary value of the items.
• Stealing is not a way to express rage, retaliation or rebellion for the individual.
• Other illnesses are not the cause for the theft (e.g., conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, major depressive disorder)
• At the time of the theft, the patient feels a sensation of joy, fulfilment, or relaxation.
Myths and Facts of Kleptomania
Kleptomania is frequently misunderstood as the simple act of shoplifting. It is much more than just stealing for personal gain or pleasure. Here are some common myths and facts about Kleptomania:
• Shoplifters are referred to as kleptomaniacs.
While people suffering from Kleptomania do indulge in shoplifting, but they’re not like regular shoplifters. Unlike other shoplifters, they do not organize their robberies ahead of time or to profit, exact revenge or exhibit rebellion. They usually steal on the spur of the moment, without planning or enlisting the assistance of others.
• Kleptomania is a symptom of hysteria.
This impulse-control problem was assumed to be caused by reproductive disorders in women, as was the case with many other mental illnesses in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This has now proven to be incorrect.
Kleptomania is a severe condition. People of all ages, gender and walks of life can be afflicted with this condition. Fortunately, much of the stigma associated with mental illness has dissipated because of contemporary psychology, and people may now obtain the right therapy when they need it.
• Pyromania and Kleptomania are frequently found together in the same person.
As previously stated, many kleptomaniacs also suffer from other impulse-control problems, which can include pyromania. Many persons who are obsessed with stealing may also be obsessed with other impulse related disorders such as setting fire to other people’s possessions.
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder and certain eating disorders are akin to Kleptomania.
Although there is no universal agreement among psychologists, many believe that Kleptomania is an impulse-control disorder produced by intrusive and compulsive thoughts about stealing. Many kleptomaniacs don’t steal valuable things; rather, they steal things that provide them with a sense of comfort or enjoyment, making them addicted to the act of stealing in the same manner that others are addicted to narcotics as a coping mechanism for their difficulties.
• Kleptomaniacs can simply quit stealing if they want to.
Kleptomaniacs find it extremely difficult to quit stealing. Kleptomania is classified as an impulse control disorder, which is a type of disorder in which persons have trouble controlling their emotions or behaviors and as a result may indulge in spontaneous aberrant acts. They are aware that shoplifting and theft are illegal, but they are unable to stop themselves. They are essentially thieves that do not want to steal but cannot stop themselves from doing so.
• Kleptomaniacs will only grab valuable goods.
People with Kleptomania steal objects to satisfy their drive to steal, according to the diagnostic criteria. They frequently steal items they don’t require or desire, just to hide them and never see them again or they may even donate them or return them to the original owners/locations. Those who suffer from Kleptomania should seek medical assistance. Even if people are afraid or embarrassed, Kleptomania, like any addiction, can be successfully cured. It should be highlighted that medical experts will not disclose their kleptomaniac patients’ stealing behavior, therefore the fear of being apprehended by law authorities should not deter someone with Kleptomania from getting treatment.
• Kleptomaniacs have no regret post the act of theft.
After stealing anything, people with Kleptomania frequently feel a great deal of remorse, regret, embarrassment, fear, and guilt. Some individuals may be concerned that their conduct will result in an arrest or discovery by law authorities. Unfortunately, for persons suffering from this illness, the strong desire to steal can strike at any time and in any location. Kleptomaniacs frequently report stealing from public venues such as supermarkets and shopping malls, as well as more private locations such as a friend’s or family member’s house.
Treatments for Kleptomania
Impulse control issues like Kleptomania are commonly treated with cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT). Its purpose is to help people who have trouble controlling their impulses understand why they might act on them and to guide them through adaptive techniques to resist the urge to steal. The following are some of the approaches used in CBT to help people with impulse control disorders:
• Imagine theft-related scenarios and the probable consequences of stealing as a covert sensitization exercise (e.g., handcuffed, approached by the police, or imprisoned)
• Imaginal desensitization: envisioning their desire to steal when tempted and successfully resisting temptation in the end.
• Aversion treatment involves repeatedly associating an unpleasant action with discomfort or moderate pain (e.g., practice breath-holding techniques whenever one feels the urge to steal)
• Alternative sources of enjoyment or satisfaction: participate in other activities that stimulate the individual (e.g., playing sports, drawing, or bird watching)
Other medicines are being researched for usage in kleptomania patients. Naltrexone is one medicine that has shown promise in regulating impulse-based behavior.
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Photo: Susan Stark
Jordan has one of the most amazing cities ever built in all of history.
AFTER World War I, Jordan, an Arab kingdom in the Middle East was governed by Great Britian. Before that it was part of what was called the Ottoman Empire. In 1946 Jordan became an independent state. The official name of the country is the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. For many years the country was ruled by King Hussein who looked for ways to establish peace with the countries that surround Jordan: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. Today, the country is ruled by his son, His Majesty King Abdallah Il ibn al-Hussein. In 2010 Jordan was given “advanced status” with the European Union. It is one of the countries which started what is called the “Arab League”. Today the people of Jordan are asking that the country be given even more political, social and economic reforms.
Like many countries in the Middle East, the history of Jordan includes many different periods when it was attacked and ruled by other empires. Years of war and being governed by other nations always shapes the way a people think and view life. But all these different nations also left part of their culture there. And so, Jordan is a rich country in culture. The conquering nations brought and left their languages, alphabets, writings and ideas. They brought their arts and ways of building cities and homes.
One group of people who lived a long time in what is today modern-day Jordan were the Nabateans. The Nabateans built the city of Petra. The city was so amazing for its architecture [the way its buildings were designed and built] that today it is called one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.
First, please look at twenty picture of Petra HERE.
Petra is a city carved of stone. Petra is the Greek word for “rock”. It became an important Christian center, but it was first established 300 years before the birth of Jesus. It is one of the oldest metropolises [capital or chief city of a country] in the world. It is famous for buildings cut out of rock and for its water conduit system. A water conduit system is a way to store and move water through a city. Without this, people could not have lived in Petra. Petra is also called the Rose City, because the color of the rock is a soft red color. A poet once described the city as, “the rose-red city half as old as time”. This city is Jordan’s most-famous and most-visited tourist center. Some of the buildings are over 2000 years old. It was the center of caravan trade. People passed through Petra from China, India, Egypt, Greece, Rome and Syria to trade spices and silk, as well as works of art.
The city was one of the most important in the world when it was home to more than 30,000 people. But then, after it was taken over by Rome in the year 106, it slowly began to lose its importance as a trading center. People began to trade by ships, sailing over the oceans, because it was so much easier than traveling by land. Finally, Petra sat empty and without purpose for many hundreds of years. In 1816 a Swiss explorer, dressed as a Bedouin, discovered the amazing city and its wonders. Today, only 15% of this incredible city has been uncovered. There is still 85% of it buried underground!
Lake waves
WATER is like gold [money] in Jordan. There is almost nothing more important to the future of Jordan than finding ways to bring people fresh water. Jordan is one of the 10 places in the world where there is the least amount of water. Jordan’s water supply comes from the Jordan River and the Yarmouk River. But, sadly, much of the water from the Jordan River is moved in a different direction by Israel so that Israel will have more water. Much of the Yarmouk River is moved into Syria by the Syrian government. In recent years these countries have made promises to give water back to Jordan.
Q. All people need water to survive: to drink, to grow food, to wash, to raise cows and goats. Try to live one or two days without water and you will quickly understand how valuable water is.
The people of Israel need water. The people of Syria need water. But the people of Jordan also need water. Today, most of the water from the 2 main rivers are moved away from Jordan and into Israel and Syria. As a result, there is very little water left for Jordan. Let us say that you are a lawyer and a diplomat from Jordan. You are sent to Israel and to Syria to find ways to share the river water fairly.
1) What will be your biggest problems in getting Israel and Syria to share more water?
2) List at least five possible solutions as to how you would solve this problem of sharing the water.
Today in Amman, the capital of Jordan, there are efforts to try to bring more water to the country in new creative ways. In all big cities, water is delivered to the people once a week. But in the village areas, water is delivered to the people only once every 12 days. There is also a problem of how to keep the water clean. The government is working hard to find ways to clean the water it has and to protect it. In village areas, almost 30% of the people collect rain water to drink. In other areas, people buy bottled water.
Q. All people on earth need to learn to use water more wisely and learn how to keep it clean. Already there are many cases of people fighting for water, and people using lawyers to try to make their neighbors change how they use water. Let us say that you are a judge and must make some important decisions about how water is used in your city. Before hearing the cases in your community you stop to consider these questions:
1) Where you live, what are some practical things people could do to use water more wisely?
2) What things do people do that make the water dirty in your country?
3) What could you do to correct the problems you listed in question #2?
There are very, very important new groups of young people, men and women, who are working to help educate people about the importance of using water wisely and caring for it. One group is called the “Water Wise Women of Jordan”. Please watch the interesting video here about their work.
One thing is very clear when it comes to the subject of water. The next heroes and real leaders of the world will be those who learn how to care for water and all our earth’s resources!
Jordan is a country that has played a special role in bringing together three cultures: Arabic, Islamic and western. It has been able to accept diversity [different ways of thinking and living]. This is a very special and important part of the history of Jordan.
More than 60% of Jordan’s population [people] live in Amman. Amman is a very modern city with new shops, successful businesses and new buildings. English is spoken by many people. And here you can find students from all over the world.
Like all cultures, Jordan has its own rich music, writing, and art. But here we will focus on the hospitality [the welcome] that Jordan is famous for. As you walk down city streets, everywhere you will hear the words “ahlan wa sahlan”. It means, “I welcome you.” Coffee is a very loved drink and is served to guests. There is a special tradition for how you give a guest coffee. If you are a guest in someone’s house, the host will first drink out of your cup to make sure the coffee is not too hot or too cold. If it is just right, he will then give the coffee to the guest. A host should also serve plenty of food and make sure the guest feels free to stay as long as he wants. It is considered a great honor to know how to welcome a guest properly.
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What is Eco Mode in electric vehicles and when to use it?
Electric Vehicles Sep 29, 2021
Hello People. This article is about What is eco mode in electric vehicles and when to use it. Eco mode is one of the adjustable driving modes on most electric vehicles. It is a newer technology that manufacturers have started to install on vehicles with increased frequency.
As the name suggests, the aim of eco mode is to save energy by limiting motor power. This mode is perfectly suited to daily trips, during which there is no point in having an overpowered engine.
ECO mode in electric vehicles
Volkswagen e-Golf offers two eco-driving modes namely Eco and Eco+. The driver can choose to limit the power of his vehicle to 95 or 75 hp, i.e. a maximum speed of 115 or 90 km/h depending on the journey,.
The intention of eco mode is to make your vehicle run more economically than it would in its normal driving mode. ECO mode ultimately aims to increase fuel efficiency by reducing acceleration levels.
It doesn’t actually change the vehicle’s motor power. This means the accelerator will not be as sensitive and, therefore, not use as much fuel when pressed at the same interval.
This feature can be useful during stop-and-go city driving when you may not want your accelerator pedal to be particularly sensitive. ECO mode can also regulate the power provided to your vehicle’s air conditioning system and other accessories to further increase fuel efficiency.
How Does Eco Mode Work?
Eco Mode works by restricting motor performance to give you better fuel economy. In addition to restricting motor performance, Eco Mode fine-tunes all of the fuel, air, and other significant adjustments to get the maximum fuel economy out of your vehicle without any severe side effects.
You will notice a slightly decreased power and responsiveness. Essentially Eco Mode is nothing more than a set of restrictions that the manufacturer put on your car when you enable it.
When to Use Eco Mode?
Use Eco Mode whenever you want to save fuel/battery. But it affects your vehicle’s performance. Therefore you shouldn’t use Eco Mode when you need the extra performance.
This means on highways and other busy roads you should consider keeping Eco Mode switched off. Because you don’t want to be stuck not being able to accelerate like you need to, to avoid an accident.
Meanwhile, in cities, there’s not much of a drawback to driving in Eco Mode. You don’t need to accelerate quickly, and there is a lot of stop and go traffic.
Can you use Eco Mode all the time?
The manufacturer specifically designed vehicles with Eco Mode to function perfectly fine with it enabled. All of the car electronics adjust according to the new outputs of the motor, so you don’t have to worry about anything misfiring and causing any damage.
Unless you’re in a situation where you need that extra power and responsiveness, driving in Eco Mode all the time is recommended.
Does Eco Mode help you to get extra mileage?
Yes, Eco Mode will help you get better mileage. While the exact amount of extra mileage achieved by switching to Eco Mode varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, there’s no doubt that Eco Mode improves your fuel economy.
In reality, Eco Mode boosts your battery economy by around five percent. Eco Mode is a great way to save a few bucks.
Hope this article on eco mode in electric vehicles and when to use it is useful to you. To read about jobs in the Electric Vehicle Industry, please visit Job opportunities in Electric Vehicle Sector and its Charging Infrastructure industry
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Toni Schneiders/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Known for its textile merchants, weavers, and saddlers during the Middle Ages, Ulm is today a major road, rail, and communications center of southwestern Germany. Located in Baden-Württemberg state, Ulm is about 45 miles (72 kilometers) southeast of Stuttgart on the west bank of the Danube River at its junction with the Iller and the Blau rivers.
Although the city was severely damaged in World War II, many medieval walls, gates, and fountains survive. The Gothic Münster cathedral, founded in 1377 and restored and completed in 1890, has the highest church tower in the world at 528 feet (161 meters). Other notable landmarks include the town hall, built in 1370 as a warehouse for such textiles as linen and fustian, Ulm University (founded in 1967), and the Schwörhaus, where the town council annually swears to maintain the city’s constitution.
The city has an unusual Bread and Baking Museum displaying breads typical of ancient Egypt and of medieval times, and a museum housing a collection of prehistoric artifacts. Every four years, Ulm holds a traditional fish festival and a cooper’s festival. Other sights include a fishermen’s quarter with the Schiefes Haus (Crooked House) built over the canal.
Ulm’s industries include the manufacture of motor vehicles and machinery, electrical equipment, leather goods, and diverse light manufacturing. Albert Einstein was born in Ulm in 1879.
First mentioned as a royal domain in 854, Ulm was chartered in the 12th century by the Hohenstaufen emperors. After playing a leading role in the town leagues and wars of the 14th and 15th centuries, it became a free imperial city with extensive territorial authority. It became a primarily Protestant city in 1530 and went into decline after the religious wars of the 16th and 17th centuries. Ulm then passed to Bavaria, the German state across the river, in 1802 and lost its territories. In 1810 it was ceded to Württemberg state. By the 20th century Ulm had once again expanded commercially and industrially. Population (2017 estimate), 125,596.
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The weevil has landed!
The weevil that will assist in eradicating the current salvinia weed on the Hartbeespoort Dam has arrived in South Africa.
Salvinia on Hartbeespoort Dam
On Friday. 27 July 2021, a healthy population of the ravenous salvinia weevil, Cyrtobagous salviniae, arrived at the Centre for Biological Control (CBC) Quarantine Facility at Rhodes University. The weevil was imported from the warm waters of Gainesville, Florida, from the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS). There, it is mass-reared and used exclusively to combat the noxious Salvinia minima or common salvinia in the southern states of the US.
“Currently, common salvinia is running rampant on Hartbeespoort Dam, and has spread to several other water bodies in the North West and Gauteng, and the newly imported weevil will be used to combat this invasion,” said CBC researcher, Matthew Paper.
Researchers at the CBC have started the initial phases of host-specificity testing, whereby the potential biological control agent is introduced onto various closely related plant species to determine if the insect will feed and, more importantly, reproduce on plants native to southern Africa. One of the most significant species being tested is the elusive Salvinia hastata, an African species of Salvinia whose closest population is found in the Lower Zambezi and Madagascar.
“The host-specificity testing of the Salvinia weevil will be relatively simple, as previous research in the US has shown that the common salvinia weevil is genetically identical to the salvinia weevil used to control Salvinia molesta or Kariba weed in South Africa. Kariba weed was widespread throughout South Africa, until the release of the weevil.”
The weevil, Cyrtobagous salviniae
Why then must a new agent be imported? It all simply comes down to size. The common salvinia that has invaded the southern states of the US and now the North West and Gauteng is far smaller than Kariba weed. Because of this difference in size, the salvinia weevil used to control Kariba weed across South Africa cannot successfully control common salvinia because these plants are not big enough. The newly imported salvinia weevil is slightly smaller in size as it has evolved alongside common salvinia, creating what is known as an ecotype. An ecotype is an organism that is genetically similar to another, but it has slight differences in its physical appearance because of the environment it developed in. “We, as biological scientists, can use this size difference to control this potentially devastating weed safely and for the long term,” he said.
Once host specificity testing is finished, applications to the South African Government can begin for the release of common salvinia weevil from the CBC quarantine facility.
“Once permission to release has been granted, the CBC and partners around Hartbeespoort Dam will begin mass-rearing the weevil. The mass-rearing process involves monitoring temperature, water chemistry, plant health and insect populations to provide the optimal growth conditions for the weevil to flourish. When the population has grown sufficiently, shipments of the weevil to impacted areas can begin, and the next phase of the program can occur. Some time is needed to test, mass-rear and safely release the agent onto invaded sites, but the CBC is fully ready for the task ahead.”
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Nature vs Nurture
In a controversial new book titled Blueprint: How DNA makes us who we are, psychologist Robert Plomin argues that genes are key to shaping our personality.
Nature vs Nurture
nature vs nurture
Main titles
• The dominant influence over what influences our personalities, has always been a point of contention.
• Environmental influences being the dominant source promotes egalitarianism.
According to Plomin, traits are inherited and do not depend on parental upbringing.
• Half of our psychological differences including both personality and mental abilities are due to our genes.
• The greatest proportion of the remaining half cannot be attributed to environmental influences that can be predicted and planned for.
Get the book now!
“We now know that DNA differences are the major systematic source of psychological differences between us. Environmental effects are important but what we have learned in recent years is that they are mostly random – unsystematic and unstable – which means that we cannot do much about them.” - Robert Plomin
• Plomin argues that all other things being equal genetics has the biggest impact on personality than other factors such as home environment and schooling.
Get the book now!
Blueprint, with a new afterword: How DNA Makes Us Who We Are (The MIT Press)
• Plomin also argues against confusing between group and individual differences when it comes to personality traits. Generally personality traits amongst groups can vary due to environmental reasons (for example discrimination), however individual differences within distinct groups vary due to heritability.
• Plomin argues that there are no clear cut definitions for mental disorders such as depression, and that the issue is quantitative rather than qualitative. For example, some people display greater variations on the spectrum of DNA related differences than others. And even though symptoms of mental disorders can me ameliorated with various therapies, a cure doesn't exist since there is no disorder, as such.
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Grevillea ‘White Wings’
Family: Proteaceae
A shrub that grows to 3 metres with a spreading habit to several metres wide. Branches can be erect as well as spreading down or arching towards the ground.
This cultivar is thought to be a cross between the WA species Grevillea curviloba and another WA species. Grevillea curviloba grows very well on the East Coast and has been a popular grevillea to grow.
It has leaves which are heavily dissected / split into two or three trident-like segments which is very attractive (resembling leaves of some Isopogon or Lomatia spp.) Leaves are mid green to about 5 cm long and wide and the segments have prickly points. The foliage is produced densely on the stems.
A grevillea inflorescence is technically a cluster of paired flowers, termed a conflorescence with the overall structure forming a raceme-like appearance.
Grevillea species exhibit 3 main inflorescence structures:
1. A cylindrical to ovoid raceme (with flowers emerging around a 360° radius)
2. A single-sided raceme (with flowers produced on only one side, resembling a tooth-brush)
3. A condensed or clustered raceme (usually as long as it is wide, with species referred to as the spider-flowers)
Grevillea mostly produce the inflorescences at the terminals, beyond the foliage, which differs to the closely related Hakea.
This cultivar has a short ovoid raceme, with inflorescences to about 5 centimetres long by 5 centimetres wide with multiple racemes produced on the same flowering branch. They are pure white and produced in the leaf axils as well as in the terminals.
Individual flowers are composed of 1 carpel (female part) where the style and stigma protrude out; 4 stamens hidden away in the perianth; and the perianth (petals and sepals collectively) which connects to a pedicel. Proteaceae flowers do not have any discernible petals or sepals (having only one whorl) and so these are referred to as “tepals” of which there are 4. The carpels are to 30 mm long, white with yellow tips. The perianths are also bright white.
In the garden
A very attractive plant for a garden situation with well-drained soil and full sun or part shade. It is reported to grow well on the East Coast. It is reportedly a hardy shrub if soil drainage is adequate and can flower profusely which has given it much popularity.
It can produce a lot of branches which shoot towards the ground, providing foliage towards the base which is very useful and can be trained as a “spill-over”. Works well as a screening plant. Requires moderate pruning to achieve a desired shape.
Grevilleas are propagated by three principal methods; seed, cuttings and grafting. To maintain desirable characteristics of a particular plant, vegetative propagation (e.g. cuttings or grafting) must be used. This also applies to propagation of named cultivars.
Other information
Grevillea flowers were a traditional favourite among First Nations Peoples for their sweet nectar. This could be shaken onto the hand to enjoy, or into a coolamon with a little water to make a sweet drink. They might be referred to as the original “bush lollies”.
Grevillea – was named in honour of Charles Francis Greville (1749-1809), an 18th century patron of botany and co-founder of the Royal Horticultural Society. He was also a British antiquarian, collector and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1774 to 1790.
White Wings’ – named for the manner in which the white inflorescences emerge from the stems.
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Listen very carefully: immunity does NOT mean you won’t get COVID, though an infection is less likely. Immunity simply means your immune system will be capable of dealing with an infection successfully. This is true whether the immunity is a product of vaccination or a prior infection. Immunity means you are unlikely to have worse than mild symptoms, and you are very unlikely to be hospitalized. (My disclaimer: I am opposed to vaccine mandates, but vaccination is a good idea if you’ve never been infected.)
I emphasize this because the recent growth in case numbers has prompted all sorts of nonsensical reactions. People say, “See? The vaccines don’t work!” That is a brazenly stupid response to the facts. Even more dimwitted are claims that the vaccines are killing everyone! Yes, there are usually side effects, and the jabs carry a risk of serious complications, but it is minuscule.
Vaccine Efficacy
Right out of the gate, we must recognize that our PCR testing protocol is far too sensitive to viral remnants, so the current surge in cases is probably exaggerated by false positives, as was true last year. Second, if a large share of the population is vaccinated, then vaccinated individuals will almost certainly account for a large share of infected individuals even if they have a lower likelihood of being infected. It’s simple math, as this explanation of base rate bias shows. In fact, according to the article at the link:
… vaccination confers an eightfold reduction in the risk of getting infected in the first place; a 25-fold reduction in risk of getting hospitalized; and a 25-fold reduction in the risk for death.
The upshot is that if you are vaccinated, or if you have acquired immunity from previous exposure, or if you have pre-existing immunity from contact with an earlier COVID strain, you can still “catch” the virus AND you can still spread it. Both are less likely, and you don’t have as much to worry about for your own health as those having no immunity.
As for overall vaccine efficacy in preventing death, here are numbers from the UK, courtesy of Phil Kerpen:
The vertical axis is a log scale, so each successive gridline is a fatality rate 100x as large as the one below it. Obviously, as the chart title asserts, the “vaccines have made COVID-19 far less lethal.” Also, at the bottom, see the information on fatality among children under age 18: it is almost zero! This reveals the absurdity of claims that children must be masked for schools to reopen! In any case, masks offer little protection to anyone against a virus that spreads via fine aerosols. Nevertheless, many school officials are pushing unnecessary but politically expedient masking policies
Ah, but we have the so-called Delta variant, which is now dominant and said to be far more transmissible than earlier variants. Yet the Delta variant is not as dangerous as earlier strains, as this UK report demonstrates. Delta had a case fatality rate among unvaccinated individuals that was at least 40% less than the so-called Alpha variant. This is a typical pattern of virus mutation: the virus becomes less dangerous because it wants to survive, and it can only survive in the long run by NOT killing its hosts! The decline in lethality is roughly demonstrated by Kelly Brown with data on in-hospital fatality rates from Toronto, Canada:
The case numbers in the U.S. have been climbing over the past few weeks, but as epidemiologist Larry Brilliant of WHO said recently, Delta spreads so fast it essentially “runs out of candidates.” In other words, the current surge is likely to end quickly. This article in Issues & Insights shows the more benign nature of recent infections. I think a few of their charts contain biases, but the one below on all-cause mortality by age group is convincing:
The next chart from Our World In Data shows the infection fatality rate continuing its decline in the U.S. The great majority of recent infections have been of the Delta variant, which also was much less virulent in the UK than earlier variants.
Furthermore, it turns out that the vaccines are roughly as effective against Delta and other new variants as against earlier strains. And the newest “scary” variants, Kappa and Lambda, do not appear to be making strong inroads in the U.S.
Fading Efficacy?
There have been questions about whether the effectiveness of the vaccines is waning, which is behind much of the hand-wringing about booster shots. For example, Israeli health officials are insisting that the effectiveness of vaccines is “fading”, though I’ll be surprised if there isn’t some sort of confounding influence on the data they’ve cited, such as age and co-morbidities.
Here is a new Mayo Clinic study of so-called “breakthrough” cases in the vaccinated population in Minnesota. It essentially shows that the rate of case diagnosis among the vaccinated rose between February and July of this year (first table below, courtesy of Phil Kerpen). However, the vaccines appear only marginally less effective against hospitalization than in March (second table below).
The bulk of the vaccinated population in the U.S. received their jabs three to six months ago, and according to this report, evidence of antibodies remains strong after seven months. In addition, T-cell immunity may continue for years, as it does for those having acquired immunity from an earlier infection.
It’s common to hear misleading reports of high numbers of “breakthrough” cases. Not only will these cases be less menacing, but the reports often exaggerate their prevalence by taking the numbers out of context. Relative to the size of the vaccinated population, breakthrough cases are about where we’d expect based on the original estimates of vaccine efficacy. This report on Massachusetts breakthrough hospitalizations and deaths confirms that the most vulnerable among the vaxed population are the same as those most vulnerable in the unvaxed population: elderly individuals with comorbidities. But even that subset is at lower risk post-vaccination. It just so happens that the elderly are more likely to have been vaccinated in the first place, which implies that the vaccinated should be over-represented in the case population.
The COVID-19 vaccines do what they are supposed to do: reduce the dangers associated with infection. The vaccines remain very effective in reducing the severity of infection. However, they cannot and were not engineered to prevent infection. They also pose risks, but individuals should be able to rationally assess the tradeoffs without coercion. Poor messaging from public health authorities and the crazy distortions promoted in some circles does nothing to promote public health. Furthermore, there is every reason to believe that the current case surge in Delta infections will be short-lived and have less deadly consequences than earlier variants.
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Roman Britain's Missing Legion: What Really Happened to IX Hispana?
Legio IX Hispana had a long and active history, later founding York from where it guarded the northern frontiers in Britain. But the last evidence for its existence in Britain comes from AD 108\. The mystery of their disappearance has inspired debate and imagination for decades. The most popular theory, immortalized in Rosemary Sutcliffe's novel _The Eagle of the Ninth_, is that the legion was sent to fight the Caledonians in Scotland and wiped out there.
But more recent archaeology (including evidence that London was burnt to the ground and dozens of decapitated heads) suggests a crisis, not on the border but in the heart of the province, previously thought to have been peaceful at this time. What if IX Hispana took part in a rebellion, leading to their punishment, disbandment and _damnatio memoriae_ (official erasure from the records)? This proposed 'Hadrianic War' would then be the real context for Hadrian's 'visit' in 122 with a whole legion, VI Victrix, which replaced the 'vanished' IX as the garrison at York. Other theories are that it was lost on the Rhine or Danube, or in the East. Simon Elliott considers the evidence for these four theories, and other possibilities.
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Who is Jordan in Bible?
What does Jordan symbolize in the Bible?
The Jordan River in the Bible
The waters of the Jordan represent freedom from oppression, breakthrough, and deliverance. In Deuteronomy 30:18-20, the Israelites were reaching the last leg of their journey through the wilderness en route to the promised land.
Why did God part the Jordan?
Almost all of the people of Israel who had witnessed the crossing of the Red Sea in their escape from Egypt had died. Parting the Jordan reinforced God’s love for this new generation. Crossing into the Promised Land also represented a break with Israel’s past.
What biblical events happened in Jordan?
Stories that took place in Madaba (Medeba in the Bible) include Exodus, David’s war against the Moabites (2 Samuel 8:2), as well as Isiah’s prophecy of doom for Moab (Isaiah 15:1-9), and Moab’s rebellion against Israel (2 Kings 1:1).
Why did John baptize in the Jordan River?
THIS IS UNIQUE: What denomination is Trinity Church of Christ?
Why is the Jordan River so dirty?
Did Jesus cross the Jordan River?
When did Israel cross the Jordan?
On the tenth of the Hebrew month of Nisan according to the Bible, Joshua led the Israelites carrying the Ark of the Covenant across the Jordan River at Gilgal into the Promised Land. nightfall, 4 April (hist.) nightfall, 25 October (obs.) nightfall, 23 March (hist.)
How many times is Jordan mentioned in the Bible?
The Jordan River, from which the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan derives its name, is mentioned frequently in the Bible, about 180 times in the Old Testament and around 15 times in the New Testament.
Is Jordan part of Israel?
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan المملكة الأردنية الهاشمية (Arabic) Al-Mamlakah al-‘Urdunniyyah Al-Hāshimiyyah
• Constitution 11 January 1952
Where was Jesus baptized map?
The Madaba mosaic is the oldest known map of the Holy Land, which places Jesus’ baptism in present-day Jordan. Workers maintaining the grounds of the baptism site, a major religious pilgrimage tourist destination in Jordan.
THIS IS UNIQUE: Is it OK to send a Mass card to a non Catholic?
Who owns the Church of the Nativity?
The church is owned by three church authorities, the Greek Orthodox (most of the building and furnishings), the Armenian Apostolic and the Roman Catholic (each of them with lesser properties).
Did John the Baptist have a son?
In Luke and Acts
The Gospel of Luke adds an account of John’s infancy, introducing him as the miraculous son of Zechariah, an old priest, and his wife Elizabeth, who was past menopause and therefore unable to have children.
Who was the first person to be Baptised in the Bible?
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Best answer: How much stronger is graphene than diamond?
Graphene, on the other hand, is the strongest material ever recorded, more than three hundred times stronger than A36 structural steel, at 130 gigapascals, and more than forty times stronger than diamond.
Is graphene stronger than diamond?
Strength and stiffness
But the atoms within those layers are very tightly bonded so, like carbon nanotubes (and unlike graphite), graphene is super-strong—even stronger than diamond! Graphene is believed to be the strongest material yet discovered, some 200 times stronger than steel.
Is there anything stronger than a diamond?
Is there a material stronger than graphene?
Borophene turns out to be stronger than graphene, and more flexible. It a good conductor of both electricity and heat, and it also superconducts. These properties vary depending on the material’s orientation and the arrangement of vacancies. … Borophene is also light and fairly reactive.
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How strong is graphene?
Can graphene stop a bullet?
Graphene: The Miracle Material That’s As Light As Foil, But Can Stop A Bullet. … Despite graphene being remarkably thin, it’s strong enough to protect from a bullet, according to a statement describing the new research.
Is Titanium stronger than graphene?
At 1.5 GPa, copper-graphene is about 50% stronger than titanium, or about three times as strong as structural aluminium alloys. … The reason these composites are so strong is that the graphene stops the metal atoms from slipping and dislocating under stress.
Can a bullet break a diamond?
Yes, but only in unusual circumstances. The other answers have hopefully driven home the difference between hardness and toughness. A bag of diamonds a few inches thick would stop a bullet because shattering the diamonds would use up the bullet’s kinetic energy.
Is graphene stronger than tungsten?
If you want hardness then Tungsten is the one to go for and a close contender to both steel and tungsten, with properties close to both is Titanium. Of course, Diamond is harder, and Graphene is tougher but we are limiting our list to the 10 strongest metals in the world.
What is the most unbreakable material?
The World’s Strongest Stuff
• Graphene. …
• Spider silk. …
• Carbon/carbon composite. …
• Silicon carbide. …
• Nickel-based super-alloys.
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Is graphene stronger than nuclear pasta?
As substances go, “nuclear pasta” is far from a limp noodle. According to researchers from McGill University, a substance of that name may be the strongest material in the universe. Stronger than steel, diamond, and graphene, nuclear pasta is the material that makes up neutron stars.
What is the strongest material in the universe?
These simulations stretched and squeezed the pasta to calculate its strength and study how it breaks. They found that nuclear pasta is the strongest material in the universe, which makes it possible for neutron star crusts to have crustal mountains that are tens of centimeters high.
Is graphene strongest material in the world?
Graphene. Topping the list, graphene is the strongest materials known to humans. The transparent material is composed of a single layer carbon atom arranged in a triangular lattice and it’s the basic structural element in charcoal, graphite and carbon nanotubes.
Is graphene stronger than Vibranium?
The closest thing we have to vibranium in the world right now is graphene which is 200 times stronger than steel and although some of it’s properties are similar to vibranium the only thing is it can’t absorb energy and grow stronger like vibranium can which is what makes vibranium such a special metal but hey humanity …
Does graphene break easily?
Zhu, working with Jun Lou at Rice, found that graphene with cracks is 10 times more prone to breakage than steel, and closer in fracture toughness to aluminum oxide or silicon carbide-based ceramics. The relatively low fracture toughness means that it takes only a small crack in a piece of graphene to weaken it.
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Can graphene break?
Graphene is a paradox: it is the thinnest material known to science, yet also one of the strongest. Now, research from U of T Engineering shows that graphene is also highly resistant to fatigue — able to withstand more than a billion cycles of high stress before it breaks.
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Why is a crater on the moon called Mitra?
Chandrayaan 2’s orbiter throws up an image of a cavity with a familiar name
Photo: isro.gov.in
It has been a month and four days since the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota launched India's second mission to the moon, Chandrayaan 2. Currently, the satellite is circling the moon at an altitude of 4,375 km-high and photographing its crater-filled surface.
On 22 August, the first-ever photographs of the lunar surface taken by an Indian satellite were released. Some of the images captured by Chandrayaan-2's Terrain Mapping Camera-2, include one of Mitra: a 92 km-wide impact crater with a familiar sounding name. The crater was named after celebrated Indian physicist Sisir Kumar Mitra.
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Who was Sisir Kumar Mitra?
Sisir Kumar Mitra (1890-1963) is known as the father of radio research due to his ground-breaking work in the field of radiophysics. He chaired a committee on radio research in pre-independent India and presided over the National Institute of Science as well as the Asiatic Society of Bengal. In his lifetime, he received numerous prestigious awards, the most prominent of them being the Presidential Padmabhushan in 1962.
Here's a look at the other images released by Chandrayaan 2:
Photo: isro.gov.in
Photo: isro.gov.in
Photo: isro.gov.in
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What is the difference between barcode and anti-counterfeiting code?
by：LG Printing 2021-04-10
Now the anti-counterfeiting code labels also have very similar characteristics. The important thing is that they all have an anti-counterfeiting effect. Customers who are not customizing may not know their differences very well. Take anti-counterfeiting codes and barcodes for example, although they are both functions and anti-counterfeiting work, they also have many differences. The following editor will introduce the difference and connection between barcode and anti-counterfeiting code for Dajia.
一. Difference
1. The anti-counterfeiting code is different from the barcode. The anti-counterfeiting code includes not only the product information but also the anti-counterfeiting information. The anti-counterfeiting code is usually printed on the anti-counterfeiting label with a concealed password. Consumers are buying After arriving at the product, scratch off the coating to obtain a string of numbers, namely the anti-counterfeiting code. You can know whether the product is fake or not according to the phone, text message or website query on the label. Each manufactured anti-counterfeiting code can only be used once, only for one product instead of one type of product.
2. The barcode is only used to carry product information. The cashier scans the bar code at the time of checkout in the store to know the quotation of the product. It can mark many information such as the country of production, manufacturer, product name, type, date, etc., and products with different standards, different packaging, different types, different quotations, and different colors can only use different products. Code. Therefore, each commodity item can only have one code, and the commodity item corresponds to the barcode one by one. Bar codes are not the same as manufacturing anti-counterfeiting codes.
3. Barcode values u200bu200bare practical and economical automatic identification technology. The coding of commodity barcodes follows the principle of uniqueness to ensure that commodity barcodes are not repeated worldwide, that is, a commodity item can only have one code, or a code can only identify one commodity item.
4. Products with different specifications, different packaging, different varieties, different prices, and different colors can only use different product codes. There are many internationally popular barcode encoding methods. Common product barcodes are EAN general products. Commodity barcodes are also known as general commodity barcodes. They are formulated by the International Article Numbering Association and are commonly used all over the world. It is currently a widely used commodity barcode internationally. This kind of commodity barcode is also used in our country. EAN product barcodes are divided into two types: standard version and shortened version.
5. The shape and material of the anti-counterfeiting labels are different. The anti-counterfeiting labels with coated anti-counterfeiting codes mentioned repeatedly above are only one of the total types. There are other types of anti-counterfeiting labels. The purpose of anti-counterfeiting can be achieved through the use of selected materials, some special textures, color designs and labels made with high-tech anti-counterfeiting technology.
6. When making anti-counterfeiting labels, pay attention to the material and the technology used. If the company fails to meet these technical requirements, it will cooperate with professional anti-counterfeiting companies and let others make them. If you have this technology, you can use barcode label printing software to make anti-counterfeiting labels. Of course, you must first design the label template in the barcode printing software. This has higher requirements for barcode software. What is needed is to support color printing. Color is a major feature of anti-counterfeiting labels.
Barcodes are usually product identifications. Each type of product is a unified barcode. You can see the anti-counterfeiting code made into a barcode in the store. Commodity identification barcodes require recognition software. Its barcodes are fixed, specified by commodity circulation, and cannot be changed. Anti-counterfeiting barcodes use software to make anti-counterfeiting codes into a barcode format.
Owing to its laser hologram sticker and hologram sticker maker benefits, has become a buzzword in the genuine hologram stickers market.
Guangzhou LG Printing Technology Co., Ltd’s mission is to be the leading global innovator, developer and provider of personalized hologram stickers hologramlı sticker products, systems, and services.
hologramm sticker custom hologram stickers offer a wide range of original hologram sticker and gave the user the choice of hologram sticker sheet, sticker hologram and hologram sticker printing.
Guangzhou LG Printing Technology Co., Ltd employs a numbers of citizens, helping them and their families achieve a higher standard of living.
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How does traction control work and why do you need it on your motorcycle?
A safety net that will catch you before you fall.
How does traction control work and why do you need it
Traction control, especially in larger-displacement motorcycles is an extremely important system especially since quite a few of us don’t quite have the reflexes of a MotoGP racer. It goes without saying, but motorcycling can get quite dangerous especially at faster speeds.
Considering that the contact patch on a motorcycle’s tire can be around the same size as a credit card, you need to carefully consider and manage your tires’ grip whenever you’re on a bike. Manufacturers equip more powerful motorcycles with a traction control system that doesn’t allow for the rear wheel or front wheel to slip, helping you avoid an accident on the road.
Traction control systems may be found on higher-displacement sportbikes or nakeds, usually in the 650cc or middleweight category. However, there are still motorcycles in this class like the Yamaha MT-07 with no traction control. As such, some manufacturers may require customers to buy up a little more displacement for this feature. However, more modern platforms like the Triumph Trident 660 comes standard with traction control compared to some of its Japanese rivals.
How does traction control work?
Motorcycle Burnout
The system is usually built into the engine control unit (ECU) of a motorcycle. For more advanced bikes, these ECUs will come with a set of sensors that allow the motorcycle to tell where it is and what is it doing, whether leaning, braking, or going full-throttle.
With the system in place, the ECU can interrupt the power going to the rear wheel should it find a rider’s input, or road conditions to be dangerous. The traction control system cuts the power momentarily to allow the bike’s rear to regain traction in a manageable way by using the fuel supply system or via a motorcycle’s ride-by-wire system if it is equipped as such.
Why do you need traction control?
Turning on a motorcycle
The vast majority of riders will not be in ideal conditions all the time. Variances like ambient temperature, road conditions, tire wear, or even rider mood may affect a bike’s ability to hold traction.
Without traction control, a bike may drift, wheelie, or even do a burnout. If these words seem scary to you, you’ll be glad to keep traction control on. Some motorcycles have riding modes that allow riders to experience different levels of traction control. Some bikes don’t come with the feature at all and can be dangerous without proper throttle control.
To summarize, traction control will keep your rear from slipping and prevent a high or low-side crash. It’ll also save you from losing the rear while you are riding a little spiritedly or if road conditions are taking a turn for the worse. Either way, the best safety system is still proper training and riding habits, but think of traction control as a safety net. It’s nice to have just in case.
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Franz Ferdinand
Franz Ferdinand; drawing by David Levine
Political assassinations have been common throughout history. Professor Dedijer lists ninety major ones between 1792 and 1914. Many were senseless—the work of a madman or of someone with a private grievance. Some have sought to demonstrate a general principle, such as anarchism. Some—one is tempted to say, the most justified—have been tyrannicide, the traditional weapon of the helpless against their oppressors. Most assassins have been lone operators, but sometimes they have been agents in a wide conspiracy, and often men have suspected a conspiracy where none existed. American citizens hardly need to be reminded at the moment that it is hard to discover the full truth about a political assassination, even with the resources of modern publicity.
Where much is doubtful, one fact is certain. When the Bosnian student Gavrilo Princip killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Habsburg throne, at Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, he committed an assassination unrivaled in its consequences, both political and literary. Princip fired the first shot in a world war. He also touched off a historical controversy which rumbles to the present day. Dedijer says that over three thousand books and pamphlets were written on the subject up to 1939, and fresh ones are still appearing. Almost everyone has been accused of complicity: the Serbian government of course most of all, but also the Russian government, the Bolsheviks, the British Intelligence Service, the Hungarian government, and the German government. Even American anarchists, who had clearly nothing to do with it, tried to claim the credit. Yet despite all this stir there has been singularly little study of a detached historical nature. Nearly all the writers had an axe to grind of one sort or another and, since most historians are men of conservative mind, respectful of authority, they have usually taken the Austrian side. One German historian has confessed that during the Second World War he forged documents to prove Serb complicity, and yet this has not damaged his reputation for scholarly integrity. It would have been very different if the forgery had been the other way round. Professor Dedijer’s book can be described without exaggeration as the first to treat the Sarajevo assassination with complete scholarly impartiality and, as often happens when a truly honest historian goes to work, it is likely also to be the last word on the subject.
Dedijer has all the right qualities, beginning with access to much Serb evidence previously unused. He is by birth a Bosnian Serb, like Princip, and understands the emotional background of the assassins. He is a democrat by heredity and experience. He is a Yugoslav, not a Serb nationalist, and is not committed either to Pasic, the Serbian prime minister, or to Apis, the head of the Black Hand (though he was once dandled on Apis’s knee as a little boy). Dedijer has also strong links with the west. He was educated in England during the First World War—hence his deep knowledge of association football. He has recently taught at Oxford and Manchester, Harvard, and Cornell. To crown all, he is an experienced journalist who knows how to write well. No other man in the world could have written this book with such competence, such mastery of sources, and such profound detachment.
MORE THAN HALF the book is background: to explain why young Bosnians turned to political assassination in the years before 1914. Some of the background is essentially Balkan: the five hundred years of Turkish oppression, when Serb national consciousness was kept alive by folk-ballads, and particularly by the Kosovo legend of how a Serb nobleman assassinated Sultan Murad on the eve of battle. Not for nothing did one of the Sarajevo assassins exclaim, when arrested: “I am a Serb hero.” The background has also a wider European context. The national enthusiasms which had inspired western Europeans in the nineteenth century spread by the twentieth into the Balkans. Serb nationalists aspired to emulate the deeds of the Italians and of the Irish. The Bosnians in particular had a hard fate. In 1875 they had risen against the Turks, but they did not achieve liberation. In 1878 the Congress of Berlin transferred them to the rule of Austria-Hungary, and their struggle had to begin anew. Princip came of a family which had repeatedly fought for freedom. He sought confidently to follow the example of his forebears.
Princip challenged Habsburg rule in Bosnia, and indeed the existence of the Habsburg Monarchy, in the name of national freedom. It is irrelevant therefore to argue whether Bosnia was well-governed. The Austrians ruled Northern Italy competently; the British made great claims for their rule of Ireland; and I daresay that the mainland settlements in North America have never been so well-governed as before 1776. But the supporters of nationalism want freedom, not good government, and no one who enjoys national freedom is entitled to dispute their claim. In any case, Bosnia was governed in a heavy, bureaucratic fashion, and the reforms which Franz Ferdinand is supposed to have contemplated for the Monarchy would have brought little benefit to its subjects. In any case, his only importance in the story is as victim. Franz Ferdinand had come to believe that war against Serbia was the only way out for the Monarchy, even at the risk of general war in Europe. Ironically this was the solution for which his assassination provided the excuse.
This background discussion is done with the greatest literary skill and in itself makes the book remarkable. But of course our thoughts are on the “whodunit,” just as during the playing of a string quartet our eyes stray to the champagne and caviar at the buffet. The technical answer is a matter of no dispute. Six young Bosnians were the assassins of Sarajevo. We call Princip their leader because he fired the fatal shot and was perhaps the strongest personality, but in rank they were equal. Only accident brought them together: the accident that they all happened to be in Belgrade, completing the work for their pre-university examinations, just before Franz Ferdinand visited Sarajevo. The idea of the assassination was theirs, and theirs alone. No conspiratorial leader inspired them or gave them orders. They were not members of the Black Hand or of any other Serbian secret society, though they may have had contacts with half-a-dozen ramshackle bodies in their own Bosnia. This makes futile the prolonged discussion whether Franz Ferdinand was killed for some reason of Serbian policy. No Serb politician or conspirator started it off.
The six however needed arms. They turned to “a certain gentleman,” Major Tankosic, who was in fact a member of the Black Hand. But Tankosic does not seem to have consulted the Black Hand or anyone else. For years past, he had undertaken the supply of arms to Serbian conspirators in Macedonia and, to a lesser extent, in Bosnia. Now Macedonia had been liberated from the Turks, and all that remained there was a conflict between the civil and military authorities—Pasic, the Prime Minister, backing the civilians, and Apis, a prominent member of the Black Hand, backing the military. Tankosic had cooled off on Bosnia also after repeated failures, but he thought that the six meant business and in any case were worth one last try. Later he gave the explanation that he had encouraged them in order to embarrass Pasic, but this may have been an excuse which he thought up after the event. At any rate, the six got some antiquated bombs and revolvers. Tankosic also enabled them to cross the frontier by the “tunnel,” so as to escape examination by the Serb or Austro-Hungarian police. The “tunnel” did not work with much secrecy. Most of those involved in it were arrested later by the Austrians and imprisoned or executed.
THE SERBIAN GOVERNMENT also learned that some arms had passed the frontier, though they did not know what the arms were intended for. They did not want trouble just after the Balkan wars and with turmoil at home. They therefore did what they could. They tightened the frontier controls, and this is perhaps the reason why no more efficient conspirators were present at Sarajevo on 28 June. They did not give any formal warning at Vienna. They did not know precisely what warning to give, and in any case the Austro-Hungarian government resented any interference in Bosnian affairs. Franz Ferdinand had received many warnings of a general nature. A Serbian warning would only have made him more determined than ever. The Serbian government however undertook a step which has previously not been made clear. They ordered an investigation of Apis and brought pressure to bear, in a roundabout way, on the Black Hand.
It was only now that Tankosic admitted what he had done. Apis at first accepted responsibility and associated himself with the supply of arms. But on 15 June the central committee of the Black Hand met. They overruled Apis and ordered him to stop the conspirators. He obeyed. An emissary of the Black Hand was sent to Sarajevo with instructions that the attempt should not be made. Other representatives were sent on behalf of the Serbian government, and warnings were also sent to the leading Serb members of the Bosnian assembly. However, the activities do not seem to have been only one way. Just before 28 June, Apis’s chief intelligence officer in Austria-Hungary appeared in Sarajevo, and there are hints that he instructed the conspirators to proceed. On whose behalf was he acting—his own, Tankosic’s, or Apis’s? There are no means of knowing. In any case, it seems clear that Princip was determined to proceed, whatever the warnings and orders from Belgrade.
This part of the story is confused by what happened later. In 1917 Apis, still at odds with Pasic and also with Alexander, the Prince Regent, was framed on a charge of plotting Alexander’s death. He was tried along with a number of associates. To save their lives and also his own, he confessed that he and they had organized the Sarajevo assassination. He also declared that he had done this in cooperation with the Russian military attache, which was certainly untrue. In fact the entire confession was untrue, though it has often been hawked round the world as containing the secret of the assassination. Nor did it serve the purpose which Apis had hoped for. He and his associates were shot on 26 June 1917. The confessions of his associates have not been preserved, which suggests that they did not confirm Apis’s story. Though he was no doubt a fanatical Serb patriot, he did not organize the assassination at Sarajevo, however much he would have liked to do so. The six acted on their own. They did not in fact act for the cause which Apis believed in. He was a Serb. They were South Slavs—a difference which the Serbian government later tried to conceal.
THE REST OF THE STORY is well-known. One conspirator threw a bomb while the Archduke’s procession was on its way to the Town Hall. He missed. The route for the return was changed, so as to avoid the old town. But the chauffeur did not receive instructions of the change. He began to turn into the old town, was ordered to stop, and began to back the car. Princip, standing gloomily on the sidewalk, saw the almost stationary car before him. He stepped on to the running board and killed the Archduke with one shot. He then fired at the governor of Bosnia in the front seat by the driver and hit the Archduchess sitting at the back. Clearly he was not a good shot. It is also characteristic of the old Habsburg Monarchy that bureaucratic slovenliness played its part: if the chauffeur had been given instructions about the change of route, there would have been no murder.
All the conspirators were arrested. They were given a reasonably fair trial. Princip declared: “I am a South Slav nationalist, aiming for the unification of all South Slavs, and I do not care what form of state, but it must be free from Austria.” Another said: “I was not led by Serbia but solely by Bosnia.” The conspirators who were of legal age were sentenced to death. The others, including Princip, received long terms of imprisonment. Some survived the war and were liberated afterwards, when they returned to their academic careers. One became a university professor, and another a museum curator. Princip died in prison of tuberculosis. He left on his prison wall these lines:
Our ghosts will walk through Vienna
And roam through the Palace, frightening the lords.
It was altogether a perfectly simple story, despite the many mysteries which have accumulated around it. The six of Sarajevo belonged, in Dedijer’s words, “among that lofty group of primitive rebels which includes Sand and Orsini, Zasulich and Perovskaya, Connolly and Pearse.” They wanted national freedom for all South Slavs and did their best for the cause that they believed in. They were not the agents of any secret society or of any foreign government. They were on their own. Here is a warning for historians. Ninetenths of what has been written about the Sarajevo assassination turns out to be unnecessary rubbish, vitiated by the determination to discover an elaborate conspiracy somewhere. Historians apparently find it difficult to believe that some men are prepared to die, without orders or reward, for their beliefs, So it was here. The simplest explanation proves to be the true one. This is often the case.
I cannot resist a frivolous epilogue. In the 1920s, some journalists in Berlin amused themselves by a competition for the most sensational headline. This was the winner:
This Issue
October 20, 1966
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Heart Disease: Refers to several different types of heart conditions. 1
Blood Pressure: The force of your blood pushing against the walls of your arteries. Your heart pumps blood into your arteries every time it beats. During the beat, the pressure is the highest, this is known as systolic pressure. Between the beats, your heart is at rest, the pressure falls and is known as diastolic pressure. Your blood pressure reading is made up of these two numbers: Systolic pressure/diastolic pressure.
Hypertension: Another name for high blood pressure.
Pre-hypertension: A term used to classify blood pressure that is above normal but is not high enough to be called hypertension.
Coronary Artery Disease: A type of heart disease that occurs when a substance called plaque builds up in the arteries that supply blood to your heart. 1
Plaque: A substance made up of cholesterol deposits, which can accumulate in your arteries. 1
Atherosclerosis: A condition that occurs when too much plaque builds up in your arteries, causing them to narrow. 1
Cholesterol: A waxy fat-like substance in the body. Some cholesterol is needed for your body to work properly. High levels in the blood can lead to heart disease and stroke. (1) There are typically no signs or symptoms when you have high cholesterol, but having a blood test will tell you your cholesterol levels. 2
• Total cholesterol is made up of LDL, HDL, Triglycerides and Lp(a) cholesterol. 1
• Low-density lipoprotein (LDL): Is also known as a bad cholesterol. Too much bad cholesterol in the blood will lead to cholesterol build-up in the arteries that send blood to the heart and brain. This build-up forms plaque. Plaque build-up in the arteries can lead to your arteries narrowing possibly causing a heart attack or stroke. 1
• High-density lipoprotein (HDL): Is also known as a good cholesterol. High levels of good cholesterol have been shown to protect against heart attacks. Low levels of good cholesterol put you at a greater risk of heart disease. 1
• Triglycerides: A form of fat made in your body. Reasons for high levels of cholesterol include being overweight or obese, physically inactive, smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol in excess and eating a high carbohydrate diet. 1
Diabetes: A disease that affects the body's use on insulin. Insulin tells the body to remove sugar from the blood. People with diabetes either don't make enough insulin, can't use their own insulin as well as they should, or both.1
Obesity: Excess body fat to the point it affects your health.1
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What does the defection means
Asked by manikdey1910 | 27th Feb, 2019, 05:09: PM
Expert Answer:
Defection is changing party allegiance from the political party from which a person got elected to a different party. In order to bring down the number of defection cases, the Constitution of India has been amended. Now, according to the law, if an MP or MLA changes parties, he or she will lose the seat in the legislature.
Answered by | 27th Feb, 2019, 05:14: PM
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Living with stress and learning ways to handle it
Our bodies are designed to handle stress – but in small doses. In fact, it’s part of our survival instinct. Have you ever heard a strange noise during the night and suddenly become wide awake? That’s your fight or flight response making you hyperaware and focused so you can keep yourself safe. In many situations, stress can be good. But, when you’re under constant stress without any periods of relaxation, it may become a serious problem. It can send your body into overdrive and cause all sorts of health issues.1
What is stress?
Stress can be hard to define because it’s not something you can see, like a runny nose or broken bone. Stress is your body’s reaction to any situation that causes physical, mental or emotional strain. Everyone experiences stress and reacts to their unique stressors differently. How you respond to that stress may impact your overall well-being. There are two main types of stress:2
• Acute stress: This is when you experience stress for a short period of time. It’s usually positive stress from things like, prepping for an interview, training for a marathon or planning to propose to your partner. This kind of stress can cause short-lived and harmless things, like butterflies in your stomach or sweaty palms.
• Chronic stress: This happens when you stay at a level of high stress for too long and it can cause some pretty severe symptoms.
When should I see my doctor about stress?
If you think you may be experiencing symptoms of high stress and they don’t get better with stress management, visit your primary care provider (the doctor or provider you might see for your yearly physical). They will want to know what your symptoms are and will likely ask about any big life changes or possible triggers. In addition to paying your doctor a visit, you may want to consider seeing a counselor or therapist who might be able to help you find behavioral health resources to better navigate some of the stressors in your life. Don’t mess with stress – take the necessary steps to find balance in mind and body to help keep yourself in good health.4
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Taking a Closer Look at EV Brake Pads: 10 FAQs to Keep in Mind
A popular practice in today’s world is all about saving energy, or using it more efficiently than in the past. The initial need for breakthrough technology has now shifted to making technology that not only makes our lives easier but is also environmentally friendly. Accordingly, the automobile industry has come up with several innovative ideas that deal with the changing demands of this era. One of the technologies that is taking the automotive world by storm is regenerative braking. This braking system currently exists for electric/hybrid vehicles and is used to minimize energy losses. So, special Electric Vehicle (EV) brake pads can be used in electric cars instead of the traditional brake pads which are found in most Electric vehicles, for better use of regenerative braking. Since this concept is still relatively new and unfamiliar to most, let us look at some of the most frequently asked questions about regenerative braking and EV brake pads.
1. What is Regenerative Braking?
Like everything else in this universe, braking systems in cars use the traditional laws of physics. When pressed down, traditional brakes use friction to work against the driving force to bring the vehicle to a halt. In this process, the kinetic energy is converted to heat and sound energy. This energy dissipates to the surroundings and is, in a sense, wasted. To avoid this wastage, regenerative braking does the brilliant work of using the car’s kinetic energy and converting it back into electric power. This conversion takes place when the vehicle decelerates (the foot is taken off the pedal). All the kinetic energy stored in the vehicle is converted to electricity (the car’s fuel), and thus the vehicle slows down. So, it is essentially braking without actually using brakes.
2. How does Regenerative Braking work?
A whole science exists behind this phenomenon of regenerative braking. In electric cars, the motor can operate in reverse, very much like a reversible chemical reaction. When the vehicle is in motion, the engine provides electricity for power. On the other hand, when the car is decelerating, the motor acts as a generator. It creates electricity from the kinetic energy, which is fed back to the battery to recharge it. This dual nature of the electric motor enables the car to become self-sufficient and power through for a long time.
3. How are speed and Regenerative Braking linked to battery recharge?
The answer for this lies in the driver’s hand (or, in this case, feet). Since the kinetic energy is being converted back to electricity, proportionality exists between them. And the kinetic energy, in turn, depends on the speed at which the car is moving. Suppose the car is going at a comparatively high speed and is eventually decelerated. In that case, a considerable amount of kinetic energy is available for electricity production.
4. Is battery recharge consistent with regenerative braking?
What intimidates drivers about regenerative braking is how acceleration and driving speed play a huge part in the battery recharging. Imagine driving at a steady pace along a highway with minimal traffic and perfect weather conditions. In an ideal situation like this, the need for applying brakes is significantly reduced. Consequently, there is no production of electricity to recharge the battery, and the electric fuel is being depleted with time.
However, suppose the same car is being driven on a busy road during rush hour. In this case, brakes are applied more frequently, and more regeneration occurs inside the vehicle. So, these conditions must be kept in mind when making use of regenerative braking.
5. Is Regenerative Braking efficient?
The short answer is yes. Regenerative braking is very efficient as it increases your electric car’s mileage without having to top up on fuel. You could drive your car on the primary charge for a very long time considering all factors for an ideal electricity regeneration are met.
6. Do electric cars only depend on Regenerative Braking?
Regenerative braking is not the only option available in electric cars, and traditional brakes are present if needed. In some cases, the vehicle needs to be brought to a stop abruptly. Since regenerative braking is a somewhat steady process, traditional brakes can help bring the car to an immediate halt.
7. Why do I need Electric Vehicle (EV) brake pads?
We have already talked about how electric vehicles have both traditional braking and regenerative braking, so brake pads are installed inside the car. However, since most of the work is done by regenerative braking in Ev’s, the conventional brakes are used very little in comparison. Over time, the brakes start to retain moisture and end up rusting or corroding, which not only destroys the brake pads but could be potentially hazardous. So, to prevent this from happening, NRS-EV brake pads are specifically engineered for your hybrid or electric vehicle, using rust-resistant galvanized steel.
8. What is an Electric Vehicle (EV) brake pad?
As mentioned before, special brakes are manufactured to be used in electric vehicles, known as Electric Vehicle brake pads. EV brake pads differ from traditional brake pads based on the materials used. At NRS brakes, we use special galvanized steel to manufacture brake pads, to be used in Electric Vehicles. Moreover, the friction material is attached to the metal plate using a technique similar to Velcro, which interlocks the materials, increasing the life of the pad of your electric vehicle.
9. Are Electric Vehicle (EV) brake pads expensive?
Considering how the best materials are used to manufacture EV brake pads, they usually sit at a higher price point than their traditional counterparts. However, seeing as they are more durable and have a much longer lifespan, it’s an investment worth making for yourself and for your electric vehicle
10. Are Electric Vehicle (EV) brake pads used for regenerative braking?
EV brake pads are not a means for regenerative braking, although this is a common misconception. As explained previously, regenerative braking occurs when the foot is taken off the accelerator (it doesn’t require a separate braking system). Simultaneously, the traditional braking system is also present in the car as a substitute. This is where the EV brake pads are used. In simpler words, EV brake pads are just brake pads explicitly tailored for use in electric vehicles and take better advantage of your electric vehicle’s braking technology.
Hopefully, this article has helped answer some of the burning questions you might have had about EV brake pads, why they are needed and better than the traditional brake pads for the Electric vehicle. For further information on this, visit our website and also check out:
If you are ready to invest in your electric car and purchase top quality EV brake pads, then head on over to our online store or email us at [email protected] shopping!
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Chronography of the Philippines
Page last modified 20/12/2021
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10/5/2016, Duterte (born 28/3/1945) was elected President of the Philippines.
30/12/2015, The Philippines said it will join the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank despite disputes between it and the bank's founder, China.
2005, Peace talks between the government and Islamic separatists.
4/3/2003, A terrorist bomb exploded at Davao City International Airport on Mindanao, Philippines. The Islamic Abu Sayyaf group claimed responsibility.
2002, Bomb attacks blamed on Islamic extremists.
19/1/2001, Gloria Arroyo became President of the Philippines.
2000, President Joseph Estrada was impeached for corruption. His deputy, Gloria Arroyo, became President.
1998, Joseph Estrada became President.
2/9/1996, President Ramos of the Philippines signed a peace deal with the Moro national Liberation Front (MNLF), a Muslim separatist group. This endeda 26 year rebellion by the Moro people of southern Philippines islands.
24/9/1993. In the Philippines, Imelda Marcos was jailed for 18 years for corruption.
30/6/1992, Fidel Ramos became President of the Philippines. The USA withdrew from Subic Bay base.
Rule of President Aquino
16/6/1992, In the Philippines, Cory Aquino was defeated in elections by General Fidel Ramos.
9/6/1991. Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted. 500,000 people had to be evacuated as the USA�s biggest overseas air base, Clark Naval Base, was threatened. Manila was covered 30 cm deep in volcanic ash.
1990, Cory Aquino survived a 7th coup attempt.
30/11/1989, Rebels in the Philippines attacked Cory Aquino�s palace and three military bases.
28/9/1989. Ex-President Marcos of the Philippines died in Honolulu.
1988, Land Reform Act, favourable compensation terms granted to large landowners.
21/12/1987, 2,000 killed in a ferry disaster in The Philippines.
29/1/1987, President Corazon Aquino of the Philippines put down a second attempted coup against her two-year-old administration; she was assiated by the USA. Rebels supporting ex-dictator Ferdinand Marcos and his wife Imelda abandoned the TV station in Manila they had occupied on 27/1/1987. Loyalist troops had thwarted the rebels by cutting power to the TV station.
13/9/1986, The Mount Data Peace Accord was signed between the Government of the Philippines and the Cordillera People's Liberation Army ending the latter's campaign for greater autonomy for the Cordillera region.
22/6/1986, In the Philippines, Defence Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and Deputy Chief of Staff Fidel Ramos took over the HQ of the Philippines Defence Ministry and declared opposition to President Marcos and support for Corazon Aquino.
Rule of President Marcos
25/2/1986. Right-wing President Marcos, who had ruled since 1965, was forced to flee the Philippines, after defeat by Corazon Aquino (born 1933). Mrs Aquino�s husband had been shot by Marcos� troops in 1983. President Marcos fled to the roof of the palace and were whisked away by US helicopters.
15/2/1986, In the Philippines, President Marcos declared himself the victor in elections. Opposition members walked out in protest.
21/8/1984, Half a million people in Manila demonstrated against the rule of Ferdinand Marcos, on the first anniversary of the assassination of Benigno Aquino. Marcos had ruled since 1972.
21/8/1983, The Philippines opposition leader, Benigno Aquino, was shot dead minutes after returning home from exile. Born in 1932, Benigno became a Senator at 35 and was the leader of the opposition to Philippines leader Ferdinand Marcos during the period of martial law from 1972. Had martial law not been declared and the Presidential elections due for 1973 been run, it is generally accepted that Benigno Aquino would have won. In fact Aquino was arrested in November 1977 on charges of murder sand subversion. In 1980, suffering from a heart condition, Aquino was allowed to leave for exile and treatment in the USA. His assassination was widely believed to be on the orders of Marcos, and it unleashed protests that led to the collapse of the Marcos Presidency; in February 1986, Benigno�s widow, Cory Aquino, became President of the Philippines.
1974, Militant rebel activity in The Philippines was increasing, with the Sulu city of Jolo severely attacked by the Moro, who were co-operating with the Huks.
17/1/1973. President Marcos of the Philippines extended his term indefinitely. He was barred by law from a third term which would have started in 9/1972, so he declared martial law.
1972, Severe flooding in Luzon caused by a typhoon caused martial law to be declared. The presence of ther military exacerbated guerrilla activity.
30/12/1965, In the Philippines, Ferdinand E Marcos (1917-1989) became President. He was elected on a promise to solve the chronic economic and social problems facing the Philippines, and succeeded in winning a second term in 1969. However by then problems with corruption were starting, and the rich-poor gap was still wide. A Communist �Huk� (Hukbalathap, see 1954) insurgency was, by 1969, gathering strength in the remoter rural areas. Also in Mindanao there was a bloody Islamic uprising, the Moro Rebellion.
10/8/1965, The agreement between the United States and the Philippines on U.S. military bases was formally amended, returning exclusive jurisdiction over the Port of Manila and the city of Olongapo to the Philippines, and ceding more than 1,200 km2 of territory back to the Philippine government.
1956, Maria Corazon married Benigno Aquino.
1954, Communist rebellion in central Luzon, Philippines, the Hukbalahap Rebellion (later, �Huk�, see 1969) , was suppressed.
23/10/1953, TV broadcasting began in The Philippines. In 1972, when President Marcos instituted martial law, he closed down all TV stations except one, which he strictly controlled. When a Filipino actress made a call on TV formoney to help pay for the education of poor children, she was banished from the air �because there are no poor people in the Philippines�.
30/8/1951, The US and The Philippines concluded a mutual defence pact.
4/7/1946, The Philippines became independent from the USA.
Japanese occupation
1944, US troops landed in the Philippines, liberating it from the Japanese.
1942, The Hukbalahap (Huks) was formed, a peasant guerrilla army to fight the Japanese. After World War Two, the US and the Philippine Government made efforts to suppress the Hukbalahap.
For main events of World War Two in the Pacific see China/Japan
1941, Japan invaded the Philippines.
US rule of the Philippines. See also USA for more details of the Spanish-American War
1935, The Sakdalista Movement began, to combat unequal land distribution and heavy taxes. The movement was quickly suppressed.
1935, The Philippines became a Commonwealth under an elected President. By 1941, under US President Taft, the Philippines enjoyed a democratically-elected Senate, an indepenedent judiciary and an indigenous civil service. The US promised full independence for 1945, but the Japanese invasion interrupted this.
11/9/1917, Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines, was born.
6/5/1902, Guerrilla warfare by Philippines independence fighters had now ended, and the US set up a civilian Government under US control.
4/7/1901, The US Republican, Taft, was appointed Governor of the Philippines, replacing a former military government with civilian rule. He announced an amnesty for all former rebels who took an oath of allegiance to the USA.
23/3/1901, Philippines independence fighter Aguinaldo was captiured by US General Frederick Funston (1865-1917).
4/6/1900, The Battle of Makahambus Hill took place near Cagayan de Oro City in the Philippines. This was the first victory of the Filipino soldiers against the American occupation forces.
31/3/1899, US forces captured the capital of the Philippines independence fighters, Malolos.
22/2/1899, Philippines independence fighters under General Antonio Luna (1866-99) attacked US forces at Manila, but were repulsed by US General Arthur MacArthur (1845-1912). Aguinaldo fled to the hills and began guerrilla warfare.
4/2/1899, A rebellion against US rule broke out on the Philippines. The US had backed General Emilio Aguinaldo against Spanish colonial rule (see 10/12/1898), but instead of independence the Philippines came under US rule. Hostilities began between US troops in The Philippines and loyalists to Aguinaldo, see 20/1/1899/.
20/1/1899, Aguinaldo set up the Philippine Republic, under the Malolos Constitution, with himself as President. See 2/4/1899.
12/6/1898, The Philippines declared independence from Spain. However Spain ceded the Philippines to the USA in return for a payment of US$ 20 million by the Treaty of Paris. Aguinaldo however refused to recognise this Treaty, wanting full independence for The Philippines.
19/5/1898, Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines and organised resistance forces against the Spanish..
1898, The USA seized control of the Philippines from Spain, and destroyed the Spanish fleet there.
15/12/1897, A peace settlement, the Pact of Biak-na-bato, was agreed between the Spanish colonisers of The Philippines and the independence movement. Aguinaldo was exiled to Hong Kong, having accepted payment of 400,000 Spanish Pesos and promises by Spain to introduce democratic reforms. However Spain reneged on the payment and the promised reforms, see 19/5/1898.
1897, Andres Bonifacio, Philippines independence fighter, was executed on the orders of a court set up by a rival rebel leader, Emilio Aguinaldo. This stiffened the resolve of the independence movement against Spain.
Early independence movements
1896, Katipunan launched a revolution against Spanish rule. The pro independence writer, Jose Rizal, was executed by the Spanish,
1892, The Katipunan (Sons of the People) movement began in the Phulippines, led by Andres Bonifacio.
26/8/1889, In The Philippines, Andres Bonifacio issued a call to fight against the Spanish colonial rulers.
20/1/1872, The Cavite Mutiny. Some 200 Filipino soldiers in the Spanish Army in the fort of San Felipe in the Philippines mutinied. They were swiftly repressed and later heavily punished. The incident was used by Spain as an excuse to crack down heavily on the fledgling Philippine independence movement, with intellectuals and priests being executed. However this simply created martyrs for the movement.
5/10/1762, The British captured Manila, Philippines, from Spain,
14/4/1617, At the Second Battle of Playa Honda, the Spanish navy defeated the Dutch in the Philippines.
1594, Lisbon closed its spice market to Dutch and English traders; at this time Portugal was in personal union with Spain, both being ruled by Philip II, and England was helping the Dutch to gain independecnce from Spain. This forced traders from those countries to get their spices directly from India, and the creation of the Dutch East India Company followed.
19/5/1571, Manila was founded by Miguel Lopez de Legazpe.
1565, The city of Cebu was founded; originally known as San Miguel.
13/2/1565, Spain began the colonisation of the Philippines, initially claiming the central island of Cebu. However they shifted focus to Luzon, making Manila the capital in 1571.
7/4/1521, Ferdinand Magellan arrived at Cebu.
16/3/1521, Ferdinand Magellan sighted the Philippine Islands.
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Provision must be made for ample ventilation. The most approved plan is to have a line of vents on both sides of the ridge. If devices are used to prevent the ventilating sash from binding, there is no reason why they should not be continuous. If such devices are not used, at least one line of glass should separate the ventilators. They may be hinged on the ridge or on the headers of the roof bars. Both systems have earnest advocates. The ventilation is more free when the sash are hinged on the headers, opening at the ridge; while there is, on the other hand, greater danger of cold drafts striking the plants, and rain and snow are easily admitted with this form of ventilation. But when houses are used until midsummer or later, hinging on the header is probably the better plan. Side ventilators are often provided, but many growers regard them as of doubtful utility. They are most useful in warm weather. But whatever the method of ventilation, it is of the greatest importance that the ventilating machinery work easily.
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Lesser Known and Would be Roman and Byzantine Emperors (27BC-695AD)
Posted by Powee Celdran
Crossover flag of the Roman and Byzantine Empires
Welcome back to another article from The Byzantium Blogger! It’s been a long time since I last posted something and you wonder if I’m still alive or what, but here I am with a new article for all of you to read. This here will be another article on Roman and Byzantine emperors except unlike the many previous ones I made, this one will not focus on the emperors we know like Augustus Caesar, Trajan, Constantine the Great, and Justinian the Great but of those whose named are never really found in the history books. This article will rather focus and mention names of the Roman and Byzantine emperors that we never heard of or aren’t considered legitimate emperors in the history books. The emperors here will mostly be either men who were named emperors including family members who were co-emperors but aren’t heard of that much as they are not so vital in history, emperors who were actually in power but were not considered legitimate rulers as they were enemies of the state, emperors who actually took power but remain to be usurpers, and would be usurpers against reigning emperors who came so close to ruling the empire but were defeated before they could take the throne. This article will be written simply and in a list format going by names of emperors which begins in the time of the early days of the Roman Empire after its formation by Augustus in 27BC and ending in the year 695 in the Byzantine era. Take note, this article will be a 2-part series as it will be too long to mention all the names of unknown and would-be emperors from 27BC to 1453. On the other hand, this list would not go on for so long because not all emperors of Rome and Byzantium had another person challenging them or being crowned emperor at the same time but this article will also try its best to name emperors you have never heard of and some others you might have heard of but are not given so much attention to like for example Lucius Verus who was emperor Marcus Aurelius’ co-emperor for the longest time and the rest will include sons or brothers of emperors who were made co-emperors of their fathers or brothers and rebel leaders who tried to claim the throne or if not already were proclaimed emperor by their troops. This article too will feature emperors of the Roman Empire and of its successor empires the Eastern and Western Roman Empires other Roman emperors who did not rule from Rome such as the Gallic emperors from 260-274AD, the rulers of the breakaway Roman Empire of Palmyra at the same time, other co-rulers of the Roman Tetrarchy between 286 and 325, puppet emperors of the Western Roman Empire, and Roman and Byzantine usurpers, but not rulers of Roman successor states like Soissons in the 5th century as it was just an independent Roman state that was born out of the empire but not one ruled by an actual emperor. In addition, other records like the Historia Augusta mention some names of usurping emperors who may have not existed so these names will not be mentioned in this article. This article too will be divided into sections each with a list of lesser known and would be emperors of that period which will begin with the early Principate exactly at the year 42AD with the first would-be but failed Roman emperor. The list then goes on but will have more volume when getting to the Crisis of the 3rd Century era wherein the Roman Empire had numerous usurpers and pretenders and also in the 5th century Western Roman Empire and Byzantine period after the 6th century as from then on there would be many to challenge the power of the emperor. Again, before starting, the Byzantine Empire though being located in the east with Constantinople as its capital and becoming culturally and linguistically Greek overtime is still considered the continuation of the Roman Empire as the capital moved east to Constantinople and so did the seat of the Roman emperor.
To learn more the emperors of the Roman Empire including lesser known ones, please follow Roman Emperors on Instagram, some images in this article come from there as well.
Also subscribe to Dovahhatty on Youtube to learn more about the Unbiased History of Rome in which many of its videos will be linked in this article. Some information in this article and many of the images of different characters of ancient Rome which are rare online were taken from this channel. Also, the finale of Unbiased History has just been released, so to not spoil you about it, nothing of that episode is featured here. Watch it here if you want to see the finale The Fall of Rome.
Byzantine Empire flag
The Roman Empire at its height, 117
The Byzantine Empire’s extents in 3 different periods
Related Articles from The Byzantium Blogger:
Around the World in the Byzantine Era Part1 (300-1000)
Around the World in the Byzantine Era Part2 (1000-1461)
Roman and Byzantine Imperial Systems
Ethnic Origins of the Byzantine Emperors
Imperial Women in the Roman and Byzantine Empires
The Complete Byzantine Imperial Genealogy
Byzantine Imperial Personalities Part1
12 Turning Points in Byzantine History
Byzantine Crime, Punishment, and Medical Practice
The 94 Byzantine Emperors
Watch this to see the names of all Roman emperors from 27BC to 1453 (from Dieu le Roi).
I. The Early Principate (27BC-235AD)
Camillus Scribonianus (42AD)- In 41AD, Caligula the 3rd emperor of the Roman Empire was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard in a plot led by the Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea who proceeded to kill Caligula’s wife and child but another division of the Praetorian Guard instead of wanting to finish off the imperial family wanted to replace Caligula with his uncle Claudius who they found hiding behind a curtain and there they proclaimed him emperor. Claudius I at first did not want to become emperor as it was never planned for him but he had to accept it anyway otherwise civil war would break out and as emperor, Claudius’ main goal was to restore order from the bloody and decadent reign of Caligula. Meanwhile in the Roman province of Dalmatia in 42AD, its governor who was the Roman senator Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus who was considered to be emperor following the assassination led a rebellion against Claudius with his troops in Dalmatia aiming to march on Rome and take over seeing Claudius would not succeed as emperor and as emperor Camillus planned to restore the old authority of the senate. Claudius when hearing of Camillus’ revolt considered abdicating in favor of Camillus but was dissuaded by the senate so Claudius sent an army to Dalmatia to deal with Camillus’ rebellion which was on the other hand made up of new and inexperienced soldiers. Within 5 days in the year 42AD, the legions loyal to Claudius were able to crush Camillus’ rebellion, yet it was never recorded if both forces met in battle or if Camillus just decided to give up on rebelling. However, what actually happened was that after 5 days of rebelling, Camillus’ soldiers refused to obey his orders so Camillus fled to the island of Issa in the Dalmatian coast committing suicide to avoid capture. Now if Camillus actually had the strength and a disciplined army, he would have actually marched against Claudius and overthrow him, thus ending the Julio-Claudian Dynasty in 42AD.
Nymphidius Sabinus (68AD)- The Julio-Claudian Dynasty that ruled Rome lasted until 68AD with Nero as its last emperor. First of all, Claudius I ruled until his death in 54AD and was succeeded by his adopted son Nero who in 68AD was made an enemy of the state turned against by the Praetorian Guard and senate and the commander of the Praetorian Guard at this time was Nymphidius Sabinus who persuaded the Praetorian Guard to turn against Nero which they did and without support from anyone, Nero fled Rome and committed suicide to avoid capture. With Nero dead, the army and senate proclaimed Galba, the governor of Hispania as a candidate for the throne so Galba marched from Hispania to Rome but when Nymphidius heard of this, he acted quick and instead declared himself the new emperor and Nero’s successor claiming to be the illegitimate son of Emperor Caligula (born in 35AD), Nero’s uncle, thus being Nero’s cousin, although others say Nymphidius may have been the son of a gladiator and a freedwoman. Nymphidius came close to already becoming emperor as he took Nero’s wife, a man named Sporus who Nero had castrated but the Praetorians instead did not agree with their leader as their emperor and instead switched their support to Galba who was marching on Rome and due to this, they killed Nymphidius before Galba arrived in Rome becoming Rome’s 6th emperor. Galba however did not last long as in the following year (69AD) he was assassinated by his general Otho who took over as emperor but within 3 months he was defeated by the rebel general Vitellius who initially rebelled against Galba forcing Otho to commit suicide, and also in 69AD Vitellius was overthrown and executed by the forces of the new emperor, Flavius Vespasian who founded the Flavian Dynasty.
Terentius Maximus (79-81AD)- During the reign of Vespasian’s son Titus (79-81AD), a usurper came out of nowhere in the east, possibly Syria claiming to be the late emperor Nero reborn, though this man was actually someone named Terentius Maximus but he resembled Nero in appearance and actions and like Nero also sang and played the lyre. Terentius Maximus gained his followers in Asia Minor and set off east marching across the Euphrates River into the Parthian Empire to gain their support to put him on the throne. At first, the Parthian king Artabanus III who was an enemy of Titus chose to support Terentius believing him to be Nero who he would help restore to the Roman throne but when Terentius’ true identity was discovered, he was executed by the Parthians.
Lucius Antonius Saturninus- (89AD) He was a Roman senator and general in Germania during the reigns of the Flavian emperors Vespasian (69-79AD) and his sons Titus (79-81) and Domitian (81-96), but was personally angry at Domitian making him lead a revolt against him in 89AD. In January of 89AD, Saturninus started his revolt against Domitian allying with the Germanic tribes across the Rhine River expecting them to come to his aid. As the Germans attempted to cross the partially frozen Rhine, an accident happened as the river thawed drowning them so without much support, the forces loyal to Domitian arrived in Germania and crushed Saturninus’ revolt executing him. Not much is known about Saturninus as Domitian afterwards had his letters burned.
Watch The Pax Romana to learn more about the Flavians (from Dovahhatty).
Lucius Verus (161-169)- Emperor Lucius Verus may not be someone who should be on this list as he was a legitimate emperor but since he is not given that much attention to as Emperor Marcus Aurelius’ co-ruler, he is on this list as for the early part of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the last of Rome’s 5 good emperors, he shared power with his adoptive brother Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus who would be the 6th of the 5 good emperors. Both Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius though came from different families and Lucius Verus was born in 130AD, 9 years after Marcus, though both Marcus and Lucius were recognized for their talent by the Roman emperor Hadrian before his death. Hadrian (r. 117-138) had no children to name his heir and it was a challenge for him to find the rightful heir until discovering the young Marcus Aurelius who was already a stoic philosopher at an early age but was still too young to succeed Hadrian so instead Hadrian found another man of talent named Lucius Aelius who however died shortly after being named Hadrian’s successor so instead Hadrian chose to name both Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Aelius’ son Lucius Verus as his successors but both were too young so Hadrian chose to instead adopt a highly skilled Roman senator named Antoninus as his direct successor to serve as a placeholder for the young Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as they mature. As Hadrian died on July 10, 138 Antoninus Pius became emperor on the condition that he adopted both Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his heirs which he did and Antoninus Pius ruled 23 years of peace until his death. Antoninus Pius then died in 161 and senate at first only wanted to name Marcus Aurelius as the emperor but Marcus obeying the plan of Hadrian and Antoninus would only accept his claim as emperor if he ruled with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus so the senate named both co-emperors making this the first time Rome would be ruled by multiple emperors which, which would be very common later on. In 161, the same year both co-emperors came to power, the king of Parthia Vologases IV declared war on Rome and Marcus Aurelius sent Lucius Verus east to deal with the Parthians though Lucius in the east spent most of his time remaining in cities like Antioch enjoying life sending his legions commanded by generals like Pertinax and Avidius Cassius to battle the Parthians. The war with Parthia had ended in 166 with Rome winning a decisive victory forcing Vologases IV to cede Western Mesopotamia to Rome but as the soldiers returned west, they brought back the Antonine Plague or outbreak of smallpox with them spreading it across the empire. Back in Rome, Marcus Aurelius spent time managing the empire and being dedicated to knowledge while Lucius Verus was the opposite enjoying life by hosting games and parties but still carried out his job in running the empire well. In 168 however, the Macromanni Germanic tribes north of the Danube allied together and invaded Roman borders as the frontier was left undefended with soldiers dying of the plague and in response to this, both Marcus and Lucius decided to head north and push back the Germanic tribes. However, before both co-emperors headed north, Lucius fell ill and died in 169 contracting the Antonine Plague and dying a victim of it leaving the empire for Marcus Aurelius to rule alone.
Watch this to learn more about the story of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (from Kings and Generals).
Avidius Cassius (175)- Following the death of Lucius Verus in 169, Marcus Aurelius had to rule the empire alone and for most of the time, he was in the Danube frontier fighting off Germanic invasions in what was known as the Macromannic War while the Antonine Plague was spreading across the empire. At this time, the Roman-Syrian Gaius Avidius Cassius who previously served as a general under Lucius Verus when campaigning against Parthia became the governor of Egypt. In 175, as Marcus Aurelius was busy at war against the Germanic tribes in the Danube frontier, Avidius Cassius in Egypt received fake news that Marcus Aurelius was dying, though others say Marcus’ wife Faustina the Younger delivered this news to Cassius in Egypt fearing that Marcus would die and her son with him Commodus was too young to rule. Believing Marcus to be already dead, Avidius Cassius also claiming that the Danube legions Marcus commanded chose him as the successor made himself emperor. The eastern provinces of Egypt, Syria, Syria Palaestina, and Arabia Petraea too supported Cassius’ claim and for 3 months Cassius was the unofficial emperor ruling from Alexandria until Marcus Aurelius who was still in the Danube received news of Cassius’ usurpation forcing him to conclude a truce with the Germanic tribes ending the war in order to march to Egypt. When news of Marcus Aurelius being alive reached Cassius in Egypt, a centurion possibly sent by Marcus killed Cassius ending his 3-month rebellion. Marcus Aurelius then ruled until his death in 180 naming his son Commodus as his co-emperor in 177, and it would be Commodus that would succeed his father.
Watch the 5 Good Emperors to learn more about the height of the Roman Empire (from Dovahhatty).
Pescennius Niger (193-194) and Clodius Albinus (193-197)- In the last day of 192, Emperor Commodus was assassinated ending the Nerva-Antonine Dynasty of Rome and the year 193 began with a succession crisis which would be known as the “Year of the 5 Emperors”. The first emperor of the year was the general Pertinax who previously campaigned against the Parthians under Lucius Verus though Pertinax was only named emperor by the Praetorian Guard who he promised bribes to but when discovering the treasury was drained, Pertinax could only pay half to the Praetorians making them demand a full pay, though Pertinax persuaded the Praetorians there was not enough to pay them, the Praetorians out of anger stabbed Pertinax to death ending his only 3-month reign. Looking for a replacement emperor, the Praetorians sold off the throne to the rich Didius Julianus who bought the position of emperor though this action of Julianus triggered a rebellion by 3 Roman generals: Septimius Severus in Pannonia, Clodius Albinus in Britain, and Pescennius Niger in Syria thinking it a joke for someone to buy off the throne. The first of the generals to make it to Italy was Septimius Severus as he was the closest and it was him who deposed and ordered the execution of Julianus also within the year and became the rightful emperor, though both Albinus and Niger still held the claim ending the year 193 with 3 emperors. The 2 rebel emperors’ names were contrasting to each other as the name “Niger” meant black in Latin and “Albinus” meant white in Latin and their nicknames were given to them because Pescennius Niger was born with a black neck and Clodius Albinus had a pale complexion. The Roman-African Septimius Severus now the emperor could not fight both Albinus and Niger at once so immediately after claiming the throne in Rome, Severus at first allied with Albinus and decided to head east and finish off Niger’s rebellion which he knew he could easily defeat as Severus had 16 legions and Niger only having 6 though Niger was already securing the support of eastern governors and had even taken over the port town of Byzantium. The forces of Severus and Niger clashed at the Battle of Issus in the southern coast of Asia Minor on May of 194, the same site where Alexander the Great defeated the Persians in 333BC, though in 194 Severus’ forces defeated Niger’s forces forcing Niger to flee to Parthia but before reaching Parthia, Niger was caught and executed by Severus’ men sending Niger’s head to Severus who was then besieging Byzantium from Niger’s forces which took 2 years for Severus to finally capture the town; Niger’s family too was executed by Severus’ orders. Back in Britain, Clodius Albinus had the support of the British and Hispanic legions, though Severus cut ties with Albinus leading to a war between them. In 196, Albinus marched with his legions across the channel from Britain to Gaul meeting with Severus commanding his massive army at the Battle of Lugdunum in today’s Lyon in February of 197 which would be one of the largest Roman civil war battles. Albinus and Severus though had the same amount of forces but Severus ended up victorious crushing Albinus’ army forcing Albinus to flee and kill himself. With Albinus dead, Severus humiliated him more by riding on his horse across Albinus’ dead body and back in Rome, Severus made sure to damn the legacy of both Niger and Albinus by executing anyone loyal to them, confiscating their property, and giving them to the soldiers.
Geta (211)- Septimius Severus became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire in 197 after defeating Clodius Albinus and set out his ambitions to found a dynasty, the Severan Dynasty naming his eldest son Bassianus also known as Caracalla with his wife Julia Domna as his heir, although Severus and Domna had a younger son Publius Septimius Geta, born in 189, a year after Caracalla’s birth. Geta however, should not be on this list as he was a legitimate Roman emperor although his name is forgotten as he only ruled for a year with his older brother who eliminated him and focused on erasing his memory. With Caracalla named their father’s heir, Geta feeling left out wanted the throne too leading to conflicts with his older brother ever since an early age and as both grew up, they would be so distant from each other that their mother had to constantly mediate their conflicts. To settle the hatred between both brothers, their father Septimius Severus in 209 took both sons to Britain in his campaign against the Picts of Scotland and here Severus decided to name Geta as his successor too to rule together with Caracalla as co-emperors the same way Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus ruled so that a civil war would not break up between the brothers. In early 211, Septimius Severus died in Eboracum (today’s York) making the army proclaim both Geta and Caracalla as co-emperors but on their journey back to Rome both were suspicious with each other travelling their own ways and never staying in the same place and back in Rome, both brothers had the imperial palace divided in two sections and setting barricades between each other, and in fact it was even suggested that both brothers would split the empire in half with Caracalla taking the west and Geta taking the east. To settle the hatred again, their mother organized a peace meeting on December 26, 211 where Caracalla had actually plotted his brother’s death having the Praetorian Guard stab Geta who died in his mother’s arms. Caracalla then as sole emperor damned Geta’s memory erasing his face from every image of his and purged all of Geta’s supporters though Caracalla would be stuck with guilt for killing his brother as he did not hate Geta as much as Geta hated him also making Caracalla not wanting to be reminded of Geta’s murder.
The Severan Dynasty of the Roman Empire
Watch the Severan Dynasty to learn more about it (from Dovahhatty).
Macrinus (217-218) and Diadumenian (218)- Caracalla ruled for the next 5 years and in his reign he granted citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire so that they could pay taxes but in April of 217, Caracalla’s Praetorian Prefect Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus, a Berber native of the Roman province of Mauretania (today’s Algeria) masterminded a plot to assassinate Caracalla using a disgruntled soldier who was denied the rank of centurion to stab Caracalla while he stopped to urinate in a road in Syria. The soldier though was shot dead and without anyone for Macrinus and the Praetorians to sell off the throne to, Macrinus declared himself emperor temporarily ending the Severan Dynasty. As emperor, Macrinus could not make it back to Rome as Caracalla earlier had left many conflicts unresolved especially with Parthia, Armenia, and Dacia and since Caracalla broke the peace with the Parthians betraying them, Macrinus had to face the Parthian army at the Battle of Nisibis (217) which did not have a decisive conclusion, instead Macrinus and the Parthian king Artabanus V concluded a peace treaty wherein Macrinus paid off Artabanus instead. Caracalla too had deposed the Armenian king and Macrinus as emperor restored the Armenian king to power, then returned hostages from Dacia back to Dacia but while Macrinus was resolving the conflicts Caracalla created, Caracalla’s aunt Julia Maesa in Emesa (Homs), Syria who was Julia Domna’s older sister was plotting to restore the Severan Dynasty by making her grandson Elagabalus her puppet emperor and getting the 3rd legion to support her cause while Macrinus thinking of establishing his own dynasty elevated his 9-year-old son Diadumenian as his co-emperor in 218. Both forces of Elagabalus and Macrinus clashed outside Antioch where Macrinus’ forces were defeated forcing him to flee to Cappadocia where he was executed, while his son Diadumenian was found nearby in the city of Zeugma (Gaziantep) and executed too. Macrinus would be the first emperor to never set foot in Rome while in office and within only a year, the Severan Dynasty was restored.
Gellius Maximus and Verus (219)- In 219, a year after Elagabalus came to power, the general Gellius Maximus in Syria declared rebellion against Elagabalus as he was ignored by the emperor even if he had captured and executed Macrinus’ son and co-emperor Diadumenian the previous year. At the same time as well and also in Syria, the centurion Verus of the 3rd legion that put Elagabalus in power the previous year also declared rebellion against Elagabalus, after Verus was promoted to the rank of Roman senator. Elagabalus ruling from Rome when discovering these rebellions quickly crushed them and had both Gellius Maximus and Verus executed.
Seius Sallustius (227)- Elagabalus would only reign for 4 years as in 222 his grandmother tired of his degenerate behavior had the Praetorian Guard assassinate Elagabalus and his mother replacing him with Elagabalus’ younger cousin Alexander Severus who was someone easier to manipulate. Alexander was married to Sallustia Orbiana, the daughter of the senator Seius Sallustius who in 227 in Rome attempted to kill Alexander Severus and take the throne from him but when his plot was discovered, his son-in-law the emperor had him executed and his daughter who was the emperor’s wife banished to Libya.
II. Crisis of the 3rd Century (235-285)
Gordian I and Gordian II (238)- The Severan Dynasty would come to an end in 235 never to return again, thus beginning the Crisis of the 3rd Century when the army murdered Emperor Severus Alexander and his mother in their camp in Germania then proclaiming the senior centurion Maximinus Thrax as the new emperor who would spend his 3 year reign never stepping foot in Rome and ruling brutally to raise funds from taxes to pay the army as he spent all his reign campaigning against the Germanic tribes in the north. The senate in Rome would not accept Maximinus Thrax as their emperor so they plotted to kill him twice which failed making Thrax hate the senate even more and down in North Africa in early 238, the people of Carthage rose up in rebellion against the procurator who following Thrax’s order was demanding high taxes from them. The people killed the procurator and turned to their governor, an old man named Gordian- who was born back in 159 during the reign of Antoninus Pius and even married Antoninus’ great-granddaughter- and forced him to be proclaimed emperor to get rid of Thrax, though Gordian feeling he was too old for the job initially did not accept until his son also named Gordian decided to share power with his father, so both were proclaimed co-emperors Gordian I and Gordian II. Both emperors however never set foot in Rome and instead ruled from Carthage but were acknowledged as legitimate emperors by the senate when the senate heard of it, which was what they needed to do in order to challenge Thrax’s authority. Both Gordian I and II would however only rule for 21 days in 238 as the governor of Numidia in North Africa who was loyal to Thrax marched with his legion east to crush the emperors at Carthage and Gordian II was easily defeated and killed in battle on April 12 outside Carthage, and later that day when Gordian I heard of his son’s death, he hanged himself to death.
Pupienus and Balbinus (238)- The emperor Maximinus Thrax was in the German frontier the whole time when Gordian I and II were emperors at Carthage but when hearing that the senate named Gordian I and II co-emperors to challenge him, Thrax thought of marching to Rome to massacre the senate so out of fear, the senate chose to elevate 2 senators, Pupienus and Balbinus as co-emperors again in 238 to challenge Thrax but the people of Rome were unhappy with the two co-emperors so they rioted forcing the two to make Gordian I’s grandson Gordian III who was living in Rome their co-emperor making there be 4 emperors at the same time, the 4th being Thrax who was still away. As the co-emperor Pupienus was preparing to head north to face off Thrax in May, the forces stationed in the city of Aquileia at the entrance of Italy denied Thrax entry making Thrax besiege the city but when food ran out for his soldiers, they killed him out of anger. With Thrax dead, Rome itself descended into chaos as Balbinus failed to maintain public order and the co-emperors began distrusting each other and constantly blaming each other while anarchy and a fire broke out in Rome giving the Praetorian Guard the opportunity to kill them both. In July of 238, the Praetorians seized both Pupienus and Balbinus, dragged them to their camp, and tortured and killed them there leaving Gordian III as the sole ruler at the end of the year of 6 emperors.
Sabinianus (240)- In the year of the 6 emperors (238), the young Gordian III was the only one to survive it but in 240, the new governor of Carthage Marcus Asinius Sabinianus led a revolt against Gordian III even proclaiming himself emperor but his rebellion was crushed by the governor of Mauretania surrendering Sabinianus to imperial authorities, though it is unclear what happened to Sabinianus afterwards.
Pacatianus and Iotapianus (248)- Gordian III though would only last until 244 as he was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard in Syria proclaiming their commander Philip the Arab as Emperor Philip I who in 248 back in Rome celebrated Rome’s 1000th founding anniversary and also made his son Philip II his co-emperor or Caesar but while festivities were ongoing in Rome, the Goths from the north invaded the empire’s Danube frontier for the first time. At the same time as the Goths invaded 2 usurpers rose up against Philip I, the first being the army officer Pacatianus in Moesia along the Danube and the eastern native Iotapianus in Syria who was actually rebelling against Philip I’s brother Priscus who was the military commander of the east that put Philip I in power having Gordian III assassinated, though Priscus was known to impose brutal taxes in the east. Facing two usurpers at the same time, Philip I considered to abdicate telling it to the senate but the senator Decius told Philip those rebellions would fail in no time. Sure enough, Pacatianus’ rebellion failed as he was killed by his own men and Iotapianus though making Antioch his capital ended up losing the next year (249). Philip I however would not last as in 249 he sent Decius to command the troops in Illyria where the troops captured him and dragged him back to Italy in order to overthrow Philip I and his son and when Philip I hearing of this marched his army to face Decius thinking Decius betrayed him, though Decius wanting to reason with Philip was left with no choice but to battle Philip in Italy where Philip and his son were killed making Decius the new emperor. With Decius in power, Iotapianus was eventually killed and Priscus disappeared from the historical record.
Titus Julius Priscus (251)- Decius though was only emperor for 2 years (249-251) but in it he led a large persecution of Christians but his main challenge was facing the Goths that had invaded the Danube. In 251, the Goths reached as far as Philippopolis in Thrace sacking and destroying it while the governor of Thrace Titus Julius Priscus, though not the same Priscus who was Philip I’s brother proclaimed himself emperor probably by conspiring with the Goths in order to challenge Decius. Although right before Priscus could usurp the throne, the senate declared him a public enemy and had him executed.
Herennius Etruscus and Hostilian (251)- In 250, Decius prepared in his campaign against the invading Goths in the Balkans led by their king Cniva and by 251, Decius elevated his older son Herennius Etruscus as his co-emperor who fought alongside his father against the Goths. In June of 251, Decius with his son Herennius led the charge against the Goths confronting them at the Battle of Abritus in today’s Bulgaria though Herennius was shot and killed with an arrow and without time to react, Decius told his men “do not mourn as the death of one soldier is not a great loss to the Republic” in order to keep up his men’s morale but Decius was betrayed by his general Trebonianus Gallus who made a deal with the Gothic king Cniva leaving Decius to be surrounded and killed by the Goths. Gallus was proclaimed emperor by his troops and with the support of Cniva thus paying off Cniva and back in Rome, Gallus as the new emperor made Decius’ younger son Hostilian his co-emperor to mask his betrayal of Decius but in November of 251, Hostilian died of a plague.
Volusianus (251-253) and Aemilian (253)- With Trebonianus Gallus as emperor, he first made Decius’ son Hostilian his co-emperor and his son Volusianus as Caesar but when Hostilian died later in 251, Gallus’ son was made co-emperor. As both Gallus and his son Volusianus ruled, the Goths broke the peace treaty and began invading the Balkans again and the Sassanid Empire which replaced the Parthians raided the east in 252 going as far as capturing Antioch. In the Balkans, the general Aemilian or Aemilianus defeated the Goths becoming popular with his troops that they named him emperor and marched to Italy to depose Gallus and his son. When hearing of Aemilian’s rebellion, Gallus and Volusianus called for the general in the Rhine frontier, Valerian to help them but there was not much time for Valerian to join them so Aemilian arrived in Italy to battle the co-emperors and Gallus’ troops being afraid to face off Aemilian’s larger force killed both Gallus and Volusianus in Umbria and defected to Aemilian. For only 3 months, Aemilian who was a native of North Africa was emperor in Rome as in 3 months, Valerian finally arrived in Italy with an even larger army and with Aemilian’s forces not loyal to him and fearing defeat by Valerian’s forces, they killed Aemilian and defected to Valerian.
Valerian II (256-258)- As Valerian came into Rome proclaimed emperor by the senate in 253 after defeating the usurper Aemilian, his son Gallienus was shortly after made co-emperor to rule the west as Valerian had to head east to deal with the Sassanid threat. In 256 while Gallienus was ruling the west, he made his young son Valerian II Caesar in the Danube to represent the imperial family there as Gallienus had to take care of the Rhine situation as more Germanic tribes, particularly the Franks were invading. However, nothing much is recorded about Valerian II as he was still only 15 or less, so he was placed under the supervision of the governor of the Illyrian provinces Ingenuus, and in 258 Valerian II died out of mysterious circumstances which his father Gallienus blamed it on Ingenuus demoting him.
Saloninus (258-260)- With Valerian II dead, Gallienus made his younger son Saloninus his new Caesar based in Gaul and since Gallienus had to move around the western half of the empire fighting against invasions, Saloninus was based in Cologne to represent the imperial family and under the supervision of the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus and Postumus, a Roman commander who was of Batavian Germanic origin. In 260, Postumus crushed an invading Germanic horde in Gaul and Silvanus demanded that Postumus return the stolen gold back to its owners but instead Postumus used it to pay his legions in rebellion against Saloninus and Silvanus and besieged Cologne. As Postumus’ troops broke into Cologne, they killed both Saloninus and Silvanus leaving Gallienus in a troubled state as both his sons were dead and his father the senior emperor had been captured by the Sassanids.
Ingenuus (260)- In the Danube frontier, its governor Ingenuus who was said to have assassinated Valerian II in 258 led a revolt against Gallienus in 260 proclaiming himself emperor in Sirmium with the support of his legions using the capture of Gallienus’ father Valerian by the Sassanid Persians as his opportunity. Gallienus though who was in Germania at the time headed south to Illyria to face Ingenuus’ forces in battle where with the use of his new cavalry force, Gallienus and his general Aureolus defeated Ingenuus’ forces. Ingenuus died after the battle by drowning himself in a nearby river to avoid capture.
Regalianus (260)- Shortly after Ingenuus tried to seize power but failed, a general in Pannonia named Regalianus rose up in rebellion against Gallienus with his own legions as the Sarmatian hordes were invading Pannonia. Regalianus’ reign however did not last long as he was defeated and killed by the Sarmatians that invaded Pannonia who proceeded to the border of Italy where Gallienus defeated them.
Macrianus Major, Macrianus Minor, and Quietus (260-261)- As Gallienus ruled the west, his father Valerian the senior emperor immediately headed east in 253 to deal with the Sassanid invasions under their king Shapur I, though Valerian’s army would be struck hard by the plague known as the Cyprian Plague but even when struck by the plague, Valerian led his men against the Sassanids at the Battle of Edessa in 260 where they were heavily defeated and Valerian captured and brought into Sassanid territory made into Shapur’s slave. Valerian though left behind his finance officer Macrianus Major and Praetorian Prefect Ballista in Samosata but when hearing of Valerian’s capture and loss of the throne, Macrianus Major used this as his opportunity to make himself emperor and rebel against the sole ruler of the empire, Gallienus and with the support of Ballista, Macrianus Major made his 2 sons Macrianus Minor and Quietus his co-emperors. The Sassanids after defeating Valerian’s forces still remained in the east until the forces of the Roman loyalist ruler of Palmyra Septimius Odaenathus out of nowhere beat the Sassanids driving them back. Meanwhile, Macrianus Major and Minor left Syria to head west and face off Gallienus leaving Ballista and Quietus in Syria and when arriving in Thrace, Macrianus Major and Minor were defeated and killed in battle by Gallienus’ cavalry led by Aureolus. Back in Syria, Ballista and Quietus convinced Odaenathus to join them in betraying Gallienus but being loyal to the both Valerian and Gallienus, Odaenathus executed both Ballista and Quietus for treason. Proving his loyalty, Odaenathus was named the independent ruler of the east by Gallienus tasked with guarding the Roman borders against the Sassanids.
Postumus (260-269)- The Roman commander of Batavian origin Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus came to power in 260 after defeating and killing off Gallienus’ son Soloninus and Praetorian Prefect Silvanus in Cologne, thus capturing it and making it his capital declaring his new Gallic Empire separating from Imperial Rome ruled by Gallienus. The provinces of Gaul, Germania, Britain, and Hispania all joined Postumus’ Gallic Empire as Postumus as these provinces needed protection against the Frankish invasions from the Rhine which Gallienus was slow to respond to but when hearing of Postumus separating from Rome, Gallienus set off to face off Postumus but with too much problems to deal with all over the empire especially after his father’s capture and possible death by around 264, all Gallienus could accomplish in his campaign against Postumus was taking back Raetia. Postumus however ruling his Gallic Empire established its own senate in Cologne but in early 269, one of his top military commanders Laelianus rebelled against him even usurping the Gallic Empire in Mainz, although within only a few months, Postumus was able to capture Mainz and kill Laelianus but Postumus was unable to control his own troops who wanted to sack the city which Postumus did not permit them to do so, this then made his troops turn on him and kill him.
Watch the Crisis of the 3rd Century to learn more about it (from Dovahhatty).
Aemilianus (261-262)- In 261, Gallienus yet again faced another usurper but not in the Rhine or Danube this time, but in Egypt, this usurper was the Prefect of Alexandria Lucius Mussius Aemilianus who shared the same name with the usurping emperor Aemilian in 253 who Valerian defeated. Between 261 and 262, Aemilianus proclaimed himself emperor in Egypt but Gallienus quickly dealt with this rebellion by sending his fleet to Alexandria with an army to defeat Aemilianus who was then captured and strangled in prison in 262.
Aureolus (268)- The Roman commander of Dacian origin Aureolus came into the picture serving under Emperor Gallienus, first defeating the rebel forces of Ingenuus in 260 in Illyria and of Macrianus Major and Minor in 261 in Thrace, then had joined Gallienus in his campaign against Postumus’ Gallic Empire which succeeded in taking back Raetia. In the campaign against Postumus however, Aureolus instead of capturing Postumus allowed him to escape as Aureolus was actually planning to usurp Gallienus who when finding about Aureolus’ actions, removed Aureolus from command of the cavalry replacing him with the Illyrian Claudius; Aurelous was then moved to Raetia to be in charge of the garrison. In 268 while Aureolus was in Raetia, he switched his support from Gallienus to Postumus rising up against Gallienus feeling that Gallienus was more interested in protecting Italy rather than Aureolus’ homeland of Dacia. Aureolus then marched south into Italy taking Mediolanum (Milan) while Gallienus rushed to face him off besieging Milan as well but as the siege was happening, Gallienus was tricked by his Praetorian Guard telling him that Aureolus was preparing to leave Milan and attack Gallienus’ camp. As Gallienus was about to leave and lead the attack, the Praetorian Guard murdered him and proclaimed the cavalry commander as Emperor Claudius II. Aureolus though was still active at this point and when hearing of Gallienus’ death he continued asking for Postumus’ support but when ignored by Postumus, Aureolus instead surrendered to Claudius II and while Claudius was deciding on what to do with Aureolus, the Praetorian Guard simply killed off Aureolus.
Marius (269) and Victorinus (269-271) of the Gallic Empire- As Claudius II was ruling the main empire by 268, Postumus was still in charge of the Gallic Empire from Cologne but in 269 he defeated the usurper Laelianus in Mainz where Postumus was killed by his troops. Following Postumus’ death, the army elected Marcus Aurelius Marius, a soldier who was a blacksmith by trade as the new Gallic emperor and in return he allowed the troops to sack Mainz as Postumus did not allow it. Marius’ reign however only lasted for 2-3 months in 269 while some sources say it was only 2-3 days but within this time, the Gallic Empire’s capital was moved to Trier where Marius would be killed by Postumus’ Praetorian Prefect Marcus Piavonius Victorinus, a native of Gaul who took over as emperor of the Gallic Empire. During Victorinus’ 2-year reign (269-271), Hispania deserted the Gallic Empire proclaiming support for Claudius II rejoining the main empire while Claudius II too took back parts of Gaul up to the Rhone River for the main empire. In early 271, Victorinus was assassinated in Cologne by Attitianus, an officer whose wife he seduced and since Attitianus’ motive was personal and not political, he did not claim the throne so instead Victorinus’ mother Victoria held power for a while until having the legions appoint the governor of Gallia Aquitania Tetricus as the new emperor.
Quintillus (270)- The younger brother of Claudius II Gothicus, Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus is one of the few Roman emperors never heard of or recorded as his reign was very quick although he is still a legitimate Roman emperor and not a usurper. Claudius II died in Sirmium (today’s Serbia) in 270 and with his death, the army with the approval of the senate in Rome elected Claudius’ brother Quintillus as the new emperor who was in Italy at that time. The length of Quintillus’ reign though is unclear as some sources say he ruled for about 6 months but some say he was only emperor for 17 days but as emperor, the task to restore order to the empire was impossible for Quintillus as the Gallic Empire remained separate and Palmyra was declared its own empire too while plague was still spreading across the empire which killed Claudius II and in the Danube, the legions proclaimed their general Aurelian, Claudius’ second-in-command as the new emperor though he allowed the senate to have things their way in this short time period. As Aurelian marched into Italy, his army defeated and deposed Quintillus and some say Quintillus died in battle against Aurelian while some say he committed suicide when defeated.
Vaballathus and Zenobia (267-272) of Palmyra- In 267, Odaenathus the ruler of Palmyra loyal to the empire was mysteriously killed together with his son with his first wife and it is most likely that his second wife Zenobia plotted their deaths to make her son with Odaenathus, Vaballathus the ruler of Palmyra. Since Vaballathus was too young, Zenobia was the de facto ruler of Palmyra and unlike her late husband, she had no loyalty to Rome and instead wanted an independent Palmyrene Empire making the eastern governors switch sides to her in which most did. In 270, Zenobia’s forces conquered Eastern Asia Minor, Arabia, and Egypt from the empire thus declaring the Palmyrene Empire independent from Rome using Claudius II falling ill from the plague for her advantage, even finding common ground with the Sassanid Persian king Shapur I. Shortly after, Aurelian became emperor of Rome and set out to destroy the Palmyrene Empire and restore the east to Rome so in response to Aurelian’s campaign, Zenobia declared herself “empress of the east” and her son “king of kings”. Aurelian’s forces which included the future Roman emperors Probus, Diocletian, and Constantius I defeated Zenobia’s forces led by the general Zabdas outside Antioch in May of 272 and the next day Zenobia’s forces were defeated again outside Emesa. Zenobia with her son then tried to flee to the Sassanid Empire but before that, they were caught and captured by Aurelian’s forces and kept in captivity.
Septimius Antiochus (273) of Palmyra- Although Zenobia and her son Vaballathus were captured by Aurelian, Palmyra being left untouched rose up again in rebellion in the next year (273) led by the nobleman Septimius Antiochus, though when Aurelian heard of this, he returned to Palmyra having the city destroyed and restoring the whole area back to Roman rule, Antiochus though was spared by Aurelian.
The Roman Empire divided in 270, the empire (red), Gallic Empire (green), and Palmyrene Empire (yellow)
Watch this to learn more about the story of the Restorer of the World Aurelian (from Kings and Generals).
Tetricus I and Tetricus II (271-274) of the Gallic Empire- In 271, the Gallic emperor Victorinus was assassinated by an angry husband whose wife Victorinus tried to seduce though the husband did not try to claim the throne as his motive was personal, instead Victorinus’ mother Victoria held power for a while until appointing the governor of Gallia Aquitania Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus as the new Gallic emperor. Tetricus I as emperor made his young son Tetricus II his co-emperor while Aurelian being the emperor of the main empire was finishing off the Palmyrene Empire in the east. Once Palmyra was restored to the Roman Empire in 273, Aurelian headed west to finish off the Gallic Empire and in early 274, the forces of Tetricus I and Aurelian met at the Battle of Chalons in France where Tetricus was easily defeated and surrendered to Aurelian making the whatever remained of the Gallic Empire including all of Gaul, Germania, and Britain return to Roman rule. Together with Zenobia and her son, Tetricus and his son were paraded in Rome during Aurelian’s triumph. Zenobia though was either executed by Aurelian or allowed to live peacefully in Rome but Tetricus was surely allowed to live peacefully though dying in the same year but the fate of his son Tetricus II remains unknown.
Ulpia Severina (275)- With the Palmyrene and Gallic Empires destroyed and restored to the Roman Empire, Aurelian received the title of Restitutor Orbis or “Restorer of the World” but what is lesser known is that he had a wife named Ulpia Severina, a descendant of Roman emperor Trajan (r. 98-117) ruling as his empress. In 275, as Aurelian was heading east again, while stopping in Thrace he was assassinated when his secretary revealed false information to his soldiers killing Aurelian in a panic but when the soldiers found out the document was forged, they had the secretary tied up in the woods to be eaten by wolves feeling anger and guilt for killing Aurelian. None of the commanders of the army felt worthy to take the throne leaving the job to the senate to choose the next emperor and while Rome was left without an emperor, Aurelian’s wife ruled for a couple of months in 275 as the regent empress. There is not much record of what Ulpia Severina did when ruling the empire except that coins with her image minted in it shows evidence that she ruled the empire for a time until the senate chose a candidate for the throne, the old senator Marcus Tacitus being the last emperor chosen by the senate, and with Tacitus as emperor, Ulpia abdicated and disappeared from history.
Florianus (276)- With Tacitus made emperor by the senate in 275, he appointed his half-brother Marcus Annius Florianus as his Praetorian Prefect sending him to Pannonia to fight off a Germanic invasion while Tacitus travelled east where in the next year (276) he died and although the army with Tacitus named the general Probus emperor, Florianus in Pannonia being supported by the senate usurped power and marched east to Asia Minor to face off Probus. In the hot climate of Cilicia, the legions of Florianus suffered from the heat while Probus used the desert and the hot climate to his advantage defeating Florianus’ forces. Florianus’ forces growing sick of the hot weather chose to defect to Probus killing Florianus in the process.
Julius Saturninus, Proculus, and Bonosus (280-281)- As emperor, Probus successfully put an end to the chaos of the Crisis of the 3rd Century pacifying Rome’s borders and crushing revolts all over the empire and 3 of them happened between the years 280 and 281. The first of the rebels to proclaim himself emperor was Probus’ friend Julius Saturninus, either a Moor from North Africa or a Gaul who was made governor of Syria by Probus in 279 but as Probus left Syria for the Rhine in 280, the people and army of Alexandria proclaimed Saturninus their emperor who refused it at first but when reaching Palestine he accepted the title but before Probus could respond to this threat, the troops loyal to Probus killed Saturninus. At the same time in Lyon in Gaul, the people rebelled against Probus choosing to make the military commander Proculus their emperor who took the throne together with the Hispanic commander Bonosus in Cologne. Proculus tried to get support from the Franks against Probus but was betrayed by them as the Franks handed him over to Probus who executed him in the next year (281) while Bonosus was defeated by Probus in Cologne where he hanged himself to avoid capture.
Carinus (283-285) and Numerian (283-284)- In 282, Emperor Probus was assassinated by his army in Sirmium when he forced them to dig trenches there since they needed to do something even when not at war but the soldiers hating civic duty simply mutinied and killed Probus then proclaiming the Praetorian Prefect Carus as emperor. Being too old to rule alone, Carus named his sons Carinus and Numerian his co-emperors in 283 leaving Carinus behind in Rome while Carus and Numerian headed east to fight a war against the Sassanids where Carus was killed by a lightning bolt in 283. In Rome, Carinus proved to be a scandalous ruler throwing non-stop parties and trashing the imperial palace, executing people he did not like, and marrying a divorcing 9 different women and when his father heard of this, he thought of removing Carinus from power and substituting him with his newly appointed governor of Illyria Constantius Chlorus. After Carus was struck by lightning and killed in 283, the soldiers thought it was a warning from the gods that they had to retreat so it was left to Numerian as emperor to lead the retreat wherein he was guided by his Praetorian Prefect Aper who ended up hiding Numerian away from the troops claiming Numerian had an eye infection, though later the officers Diocles, Maximian, and Galerius discovered Numerian was actually dead and killed by Aper, now realizing too that Carinus was the sole ruler of the empire which they could not accept so the army agreed to elect Diocles as their new emperor. Being proclaimed the new emperor, the Illyrian Diocles renamed himself “Diocletian” and executed Aper, thus moving west to deal with Carinus. In 285, Diocletian’s forces met Carinus’ forces in Illyria and with the support of Constantius Chlorus and his forces, Diocletian defeated Carinus’ forces and in the defeat, a commander whose wife Carinus seduced killed him. With Carinus dead, Diocletian was the sole ruler of the empire, thus ending the Crisis of the 3rd Century by 285.
III. The Age of the Dominate (286-476)
Carausius (286-293) and Allectus (293-296)- In 285, Diocletian became the sole ruler of the empire and no longer as the Princeps as the emperors of before were but as the Dominus meaning “lord and master” beginning the age of the Dominate but the whole empire was too large for Diocletian to rule alone so in 286 he divided the empire and east west taking the east with Nicomedia as his capital while Maximian took the west with Milan as his capital making them both co-Augusti. In the west however, Frankish pirates were raiding the coasts of Gaul and Britain so Maximian entrusted the imperial fleet to the naval commander, a native of Roman Belgium named Carausius, though being a skilled sailor Carausius was in it for the gold that he allowed the pirates to raid coastal towns so that he could intercept their ships and take the stolen gold for himself. When hearing of Carausius’ treachery, Maximian demanded he come to him to face execution but to protect himself, Carausius stole the fleet for himself and used the stolen gold to bribe the people of Britain to support him as emperor which they did, and at the same time he allied himself with the Franks too. Diocletian when hearing of Carausius’ rebellion headed west to help Maximian and in 289 Maximian tried to cross over to Britain to crush Carausius but failed blaming it on the weather so Diocletian had to reform his system increasing the number of emperors from 2 to 4 creating the Tetrarchy. In the west, Maximian was given Constantius I Chlorus, their veteran friend as his junior emperor or Caesar in 293 and it was Constantius I who based in Gaul was able to defeat Carausius by first capturing the ports in northern Gaul from the Franks, then building a large fleet there in which he used to sail to Britain. Carausius too would remain ruling his “Britannic” Empire until 293 when he was assassinated by his treasurer Allectus who took over for 3 years until being defeated and killed in battle by Constantius I’s forces.
Domitius Domitianus (297)- By 293, the Roman Empire had 4 emperors, 2 senior ones called Augustus which were Diocletian and Maximian and 2 junior ones or Caesars which were Galerius and Constantius I. In the east Diocletian was its Augustus with Galerius as its Caesar but in Egypt in 297, a usurper named Lucius Domitius Domitianus rose up against Diocletian and Galerius for a new tax reform even claiming the throne. Diocletian and Galerius began quelling the rebellion at Alexandria by 297, although Domitius died later that year and was succeeded by his second-in-command Achilleus. In March of 298, the rebellion was defeated, Alexandria re-conquered, and Achilleus executed.
The Roman Empire under the 1st Tetrarchy, 293-305
Watch Diocletian’s Tetrarchy to learn more about it (from Dovahhatty).
Domitius Alexander (308-311)- In the beginning of the 4th century, the Roman Empire was divided in 4 ruled by 4 different rulers who would all battle each other for control of the empire. In 305, both Augusti Diocletian and Maximian retired making their Caesars Constantius I in the west and Galerius in the east the new Augusti while Severus II was made the new Western Caesar and Maximinus Daia the new Eastern Caesar. In the east things were more stable with Galerius as Augustus and Daia as Caesar but in the west Constantius I died in 306 and his son Constantine was immediately made Augustus by his troops, although Severus II being the Caesar was automatically made Augustus and Constantine back to Caesar but the retired Maximian and his son Maxentius ended up proclaiming themselves rulers of the west executing Severus II in 307 but in 308 Diocletian coming out retirement settled the issue forcing Maximian to step down again and Maxentius as not a legitimate ruler while Constantine and another general named Licinius would be in charge of the west. Maximian’s son Maxentius in Rome however did not want to let go of power considering himself a legitimate emperor and to do this, in 308 he forced the governor of Africa Lucius Domitius Alexander to send his son to Rome to prove his loyalty, Alexander however refused and had his soldiers proclaim him emperor. Alexander who was in control of some provinces in North Africa and Sardinia though was loyal to the legitimate emperor in the east Galerius and allied himself with the legitimate emperor of the west Constantine I but Maxentius to secure his own legitimacy had to get rid of Alexander first who was the easiest obstacle to quell so he sent his Praetorian Prefect in 311 to North Africa to quell the rebellion which he did and finished off by executing Alexander himself by strangulation.
Watch this to understand the Roman Tetrarchy from 286 to 324 more (from Eastern Roman History).
Valerius Valens (316-317)- The Tetrarchy soon enough was a failed experiment and brought even more chaos to the empire. In 310 after Maximian proclaimed himself emperor again, he was put to death by the legitimate western emperor Constantine I, then in 311 Galerius died leaving his Caesar Daia as the new eastern Augustus who would be challenged by the other western Augustus Licinius while Diocletian committed suicide later that year when in retirement seeing that his plans for a bright future all failed. Maxentius still ruled in Rome until 312 when Constantine I marched into Rome and defeated and killed Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge while in the east Licinius defeated and killed Daia in 313 becoming the east’s sole ruler while Constantine was sole ruler of the west. Constantine and Licinius however did not remain at peace with each other as in 316 both of their forces clashed at the Battle of Cibalae in the Balkans where Constantine defeated Licinius’ forces forcing Licinius to flee to Adrianople where he got the support of the general in charge there, Valerius Valens who Licinius made his co-emperor and together both Licinius and Valens’ forces surrounded Constantine in 317. Constantine however, decided to stop their war and make peace again with Licinius which Licinius agreed to, though forcing him to execute Valens. With the new peace, Constantine made his sons Crispus and Constantine II his Caesars while Licinius made his son Licinius II Caesar as well.
Martinian (324)- The peace between Constantine and Licinius once again was broken and in 324 both Constantine and Licinius’ forces clashed outside Adrianople where Licinius fearing Constantine’s army and Christian Chi-rho standard fled the battle east to the Asian coast of the Marmara Sea, this time to make his general Martinian his co-emperor to have more support against Constantine. Licinius and Martinian held themselves in Byzantium and being too impossible for Constantine to besiege, he had his fleet led by son Crispus attack Licinius’ fleet at the Marmara which he defeated; thus, Constantine took Byzantium forcing Licinius and Martinian to flee to Asia Minor where Constantine defeated both of them again in battle. Licinius though would be spared as Constantia, Licinius’ wife and Constantine’s half-sister persuaded Constantine to spare him so instead Licinius was imprisoned in Thessalonica and Martinian being deposed was imprisoned in Cappadocia. In 325, Licinius’ son Licinius II however freed his father from prison conspiring to take back power and overthrow Constantine who when hearing of it had both Licinius and his son as well as Martinian executed making Constantine I the sole ruler of the Roman Empire making Byzantium renamed “Constantinople” the new capital.
Watch Constantine the Great to learn more about his story (from Dovahhatty).
Calocaerus (334)- In 324, Constantine I the Great became the sole ruler of the empire and proceeded to build up Byzantium as Constantinople, the new capital and the rest of his reign till his death in 337 would remain peaceful except for one time in 334 when a usurper rose up in Cyprus. At some point in 334, the cavalry commander of Cyprus Constantine appointed named Calocaerus rose up in rebellion against Constantine with his small army there proclaiming himself emperor though Constantine quickly dealt with the rebellion by sending his half-brother Flavius Dalmatius to Cyprus to crush the rebellion. Calocaerus though never got any real military support as he was only a low-ranking commander so as Dalmatius arrived in Cyprus, the revolt was crushed and Calocaerus was taken to Tarsus to be executed by being burned alive.
Magnentius and Decentius (350-353)- Constantine I died in 337 and with his death, the empire was split in 3 among his 3 sons Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans I though they would eventually fight each other for complete control of the empire. The eldest son Constantine II was not content with ruling the least important western provinces of Britain, Gaul, and Hispania so he declared war on his youngest brother Constans I who was in charge of Italy and the middle part of the empire but when marching into Italy in 340, Constantine II was defeated in battle and killed leaving the whole west to Constans I who however proved to be a useless ruler that his senior palatine legions or imperial guard led by the general of Frankish origin Magnus Magnentius who gained support from the people of Britain, Gaul, and Hispania usurped power in 350 making the army desert Constans I who fled to the city of Helena in the border of Gaul and Hispania where he was found and killed. Now proclaiming himself the western emperor, Magnentius married the child Justina who was a relative of Constantius II and named his brother Magnus Decentius his Caesar who would be based in Trier while the middle son of Constantine, Constantius II was still in power in the east deciding what to do with the western usurpers.
Vetranio (350)- With Magnentius taking power in the west, Constantius II in the east was busy defending the borders against the Sassanids so to take care of the problems in the west, his sister Constantina asked the aged governor of Illyria, Vetranio to usurp power to challenge Magnentius to avenge her brother Constans I. Vetranio, a native of Moesia was proclaimed emperor by his troops though it was unclear at first if he was on the side of Magnentius or Constantius II but at the end he chose to support Constantius II as co-emperor against Magnentius to protect the east as Constantius was on his way back from the Sassanid border; Vetranio’s name as emperor never really comes out in history as he was quite unimportant except that he was a legitimate Roman emperor based in Illyria as Constantius II’s co-emperor. Meanwhile Constantius II’s cousin Julius Nepotianus usurped power as well in Rome to challenge Magnentius gathering an army of gladiators and taking over Rome for 28 days in 350 until Magnentius’ army led by the general Marcellinus defeated and killed Nepotianus. At the end of 350, Constantius II arrived in Illyria where Vetranio having served his term as emperor just as a placeholder gave up his claim, surrendering to Constantius II, and abdicating. Vetranio then was allowed to retire in peace in Asia Minor where he died in 356. Constantius II then faced off Magnentius in battle in 351 defeating Magnentius and forcing him to flee to Gaul while Italy defected to Constantius II. In 353, Magnentius and Constantius II’s forces clashed again at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in Gaul where Magnentius was defeated and committed suicide. The people of Gaul meanwhile revolted against Magnentius and his brother Decentius who was based in Trier proclaiming their support for Constantius II and when hearing of his brother’s death, Decentius also killed himself to avoid capture by Constantius II.
Map of the division of the Roman Empire among Constantine I’s sons (337-361)
Claudius Silvanus (355)- Constantius II was able to defeat Magnentius with the help of Magnentius’ general of Frankish origin Claudius Silvanus who defected and while Constantius II was ruling as Augustus in the west, he appointed his cousin Gallus as his Caesar in the east, although Gallus proved to be untrustworthy that Constantius II grew suspicious of him having him called over to Milan where he would answer to Constantius but on the way to Milan in 354, Gallus was captured and executed by his general Barbatio even if Constantius did not order it. In 355, Constantius’ advisors were making him believe that Silvanus who was commanding the Rhine legions in Cologne was starting a rebellion against Constantius and being suspicious, Constantius who was in Milan believed Silvanus was rebelling, however it was not true. Finding out he was falsely accused, Silvanus actually rebelled and proclaimed himself emperor to avoid capture so to deal with this, Constantius sent his general Ursicinus to Cologne to pretend he did not know anything of it but when arriving in Cologne, Ursicinus’ men cornered and killed Silvanus ending his rebellion.
Jovian (363-364)- In 355, Constantius II made his cousin, Gallus’ brother Julian his Caesar who in 360 after winning many victories against invading Germanic tribes was proclaimed Augustus by his army in Paris which Constantius II again was suspicious of but before they clashed in a civil war, Constantius died in 361 leaving Julian as the sole ruler of the empire but only for 3 years as Julian marched his army east to Sassanid territory to battle the army of the Sassanid king Shapur II. Julian however was mortally wounded in battle in June of 363 dying of his wounds shortly after at only 32 and without any heir, the army elected the commander of the imperial guard, the young Flavius Jovianus or Jovian who was an Illyrian and the same age as Julian as the new emperor while in Persian territory. As emperor, Jovian’s first act was to sign a humiliating peace treaty with Shapur II which gave back all the lands the Romans conquered from the Sassanids in Mesopotamia as well as Armenia back to the Sassanids in order to be allowed to return to the empire peacefully. When returning back to the empire, Jovian and the retreating army of Julian first arrived in Antioch where Jovian was mocked by the people with graffiti in the walls insulting him as he was a nobody soldier from the Balkans who had no claim to the throne. Jovian may be a legitimate Roman/ Byzantine emperor but his reign was so short being only 8 months to be remembered but as emperor, he restored Christianity which his predecessor Julian tried to remove to bring back Paganism. From Antioch, Jovian headed west back to Constantinople and when in Asia Minor, he had Julian’s body brought back to Constantinople for burial and appointed one of the generals named Valentinian to be in command of the fort of Ancyra while Jovian was about to name his young son Varronianus as his heir. However, in February of 364 as Jovian was in an army camp on the way back to Constantinople, he died in his sleep suffocating from the toxic fumes of the newly painted room as he slept next to a lit brazier that was next to the wall. Without an emperor, the army quickly elected the nearest competent general, Valentinian as the new emperor who when arriving back in Constantinople named his brother Valens as the eastern emperor while he headed west. The brothers then ordered Varronianus blinded to secure their claim.
Watch Imperial Wrath to learn more about the crisis of the 4th century Roman Empire (from Dovahhatty).
Procopius (365-366)- As Julian was preparing for his Sassanid campaign in 363, he put his maternal non-Constantinian cousin, Procopius who was a Greek native of Cilicia in charge of the other army division in the invasion and as Julian invaded through the Euphrates River, Procopius and his men were to invade from the north. Procopius however who was invading north from Armenia never arrived on time so Julian and his forces were cornered near the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon where Julian was killed. With Julian dead, Jovian was proclaimed the new emperor who decided to wait for Procopius to arrive which never happened, so instead Jovian surrendered to Shapur II in order to return to the empire and only back in the empire did Procopius meet up with Julian’s forces commanded by Jovian. Since he was Julian’s cousin, Procopius revealed Julian named him his heir but fearing punishment by Jovian, Procopius went into hiding and continued to do so even with Jovian’s death and Valentinian I and Valens’ ascension to the throne in 364. In 365, as Valens was ruling the east, he marched with his army east to battle Shapur II but just as he left, Procopius came out of nowhere, revolted against Valens, and proclaimed himself emperor claiming again that Julian named him his successor. Procopius came to power bribing 2 legions to his side and marched into Constantinople even taking over Thrace and as Valens who was away at that time heard of Procopius’ takeover, he was unsure of what to that he even thought of giving up the east to Procopius or killing himself but Valentinian who was in the west thought of marching east to help his brother but decided not to as Germanic tribes were invading Gaul. Valens however, after listening to his generals in 366 marched to Constantinople and took it back from Procopius by making Procopius’ legions betray him, executing him afterwards.
Firmus (372-375)- As Valens was in charge of the east, his older brother Valentinian I was in charge of the west which included North Africa and there, a Roman army officer who was also a Berber prince named Firmus in 372 rebelled against the governor of Africa and Valentinian even proclaiming himself emperor with the support of the Berber tribes. The governor who Firmus rebelled against had also neglected his job which made Valentinian send an army led by his Hispanic general Count Theodosius to depose the governor and crush Firmus’ revolt in 375. Count Theodosius first arrested the governor and went on a hunt for Firmus who he was unable to find in the desert until another Berber prince turned on Firmus and brought him to Count Theodosius as a captive. Firmus though killed himself before he was brought to Count Theodosius so instead Firmus’ body was delivered on the back of a camel as proof and only when dead was it revealed that Firmus rebelled because he was supporting the Donatist Christians against the official Nicene Christians which made Valentinian I issue laws against the Donatists afterwards. Valentinian however died of burst blood vessel caused by his own anger on the Germanic tribes later in 375 and was succeeded in a joint rule of his sons Gratian and Valentinian II in the west. Count Theodosius though was still in Africa when Valentinian died and in early 376, Count Theodosius was arrested, brought to Carthage, and executed there for being accused of conspiring to take the throne from Valentinian’s sons.
Magnus Maximus (383-388)- In 378, the empire fell in chaos after the eastern emperor Valens was killed in the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths leaving the east without an emperor since Valens had no heirs while in the west, Gratian who was ruling it together with his younger brother Valentinian II could not handle the pressure of ruling both east and west so to find a quick replacement in the east, he appointed the governor of Moesia Theodosius, the son of Count Theodosius as the eastern emperor as he was the closest person Gratian could find. Not expecting to be emperor, Theodosius I came to Constantinople in 379 to rule the east while in the west Gratian as an ineffective young ruler was challenged in 383 by a Hispanic general in Britain named Magnus Maximus who was proclaimed emperor by his troops. Magnus Maximus had turned out to be a friend of Theodosius for a long time as both were from Hispania and joined their fathers in quelling the Great Conspiracy in Britain between 367 and 368 and while Theodosius was assigned to Moesia, Magnus Maximus remained in Britain where he would be known as a Welsh legend years after his death with the name Maxen Wledig believed to be the founding father of many medieval Welsh dynasties as he was said to marry a local Celt from the area of Wales and had children with her. In 383, Magnus Maximus usurped the western throne through a negotiation with Theodosius I wanting to rule the empire with his friend which made Maximus have to betray Gratian in the process; Maximus too named his son Flavius Victor his co-emperor. Maximus then crossed from Britain to Gaul where he met Gratian’s forces outside Paris where Gratian’s Frankish general Merobaudes betrayed him and defected to Maximus forcing Gratian to flee to Lyon where he was killed by Maximus’ orders. Maximus continued to march to Italy which was still under the control of the 12-year-old Valentinian II though Theodosius in the east decided to support Valentinian II instead and did not allow Maximus to cross to Italy so he had the Alps defended by the Frankish general Flavius Bauto and to delay Maximus, Valentinian II’s mother Empress Justina, the former wife of the usurper Magnentius sent the bishop of Milan St. Ambrose to Gaul to watch over him which did not work. In 387, Maximus broke through the Alps and invaded Italy forcing Valentinian II with his mother and sister to flee to Theodosius at Constantinople and though Theodosius at fist would not anything against Maximus as they were friends, Justina persuaded him to head west and depose Maximus to get the throne back for Valentinian II, and in the process Theodosius married Valentinian II’s sister Galla. Theodosius then marched west in 388 with his Frankish general Arbogast, the son of Bauto and cornered Maximus and his army at the entrance to Italy. Maximus was then found in Aquileia where he was executed by Theodosius, Merobaudes too was killed in battle, but Maximus’ son Victor was still in Trier so Theodosius sent Arbogast to Trier later in 388 to execute Victor. Valentinian II was then restored to the western throne in Milan with Arbogast as his top general or Magister Militum while Theodosius headed back to Constantinople.
Flavius Eugenius (392-394)- After 388, Theodosius I returned to the east and under the influence of the bishop of Milan St. Ambrose, Theodosius began a Christian extremist crusade against any trace of Paganism while in the west as Valentinian II ruled, he would be ignored and betrayed by his Frankish general Arbogast who stopped following his orders making Valentinian II ask for Theodosius’ help to depose Arbogast which Theodosius did not respond to which made the helpless Valentinian II kill himself by hanging in 392 in the palace at Milan. With Valentinian II dead, Arbogast elevated a grammar and rhetoric teacher in Gaul named Flavius Eugenius as his puppet emperor. Eugenius and Arbogast though being Nicene Christians gained the support of the Pagan people of the west who were being oppressed by Theodosius’ anti-Pagan policies. In Constantinople, Theodosius at first did not want to do anything about Arbogast’s rebellion in the west but when finding out Eugenius and Arbogast were attempting to restore Paganism which Theodosius was suppressing and with Theodosius’ wife Galla pressuring him to head west and avenge her brother Valentinian II’s death, Theodosius marched west once again with his general the half-Roman half-Vandal Flavius Stilicho and on the way west, Theodosius needing a larger army including barbarian mercenaries recruited the Gothic leader Alaric and his men to his army. In September of 394, Theodosius and his forces fighting under the Christian faith clashed with Arbogast and Eugenius and their forces fighting under Paganism with the banner of Hercules at the Battle of the Frigidus again at the entrance to Italy, which is in today’s Slovenia and at first Theodosius’ side was losing but with the help of Alaric and his men, some of Arbogast’s men defecting to Theodosius, as well as a sudden Alpine wind storm, the arrows and spears Arbogast’s army threw were thrown back at them thus defeating them. A few days after the battle, Eugenius was captured and executed and Arbogast who fled killed himself to avoid capture. Theodosius then won and would once again unite the whole Roman Empire under his rule but only for 4 months as when he returned to Milan later in 394 he fell ill and in January of 395 with his sons Honorius and Arcadius summoned to Milan, Theodosius I died as the last ruler of a united empire splitting the empire east and west with Honorius taking the west and Arcadius in the east.
Constantine III (407-411) and Constans II (409-411)- Following the death of Theodosius I in 395, the east was left to his older son Arcadius in which the situation was more stable than in the west which was ruled by his younger brother Honorius. In the chaotic western empire, the most chaotic story would be in Roman Britain which was slowly falling out of Roman control and into the hands of usurpers and barbarian invaders. In 406, the army in Britain named one of the soldiers named Marcus their emperor but when unhappy with him they killed him months later and replaced him with another soldier named Gratian who the army was unhappy with again killing him in early 407 replacing him with another common but more competent soldier named Flavius Claudius Constantine who was proclaimed Emperor Constantine III named after Constantine I the Great. Since the army and some people of Britain were in fear of a massive Germanic invasion as thousands of Germanic people invaded the frozen Rhine in the last day of 406, they needed a strong military emperor to rule Britain which was too far for the imperial authorities in Italy to care about. Within 407, Constantine III decided to just leave Britain abandoning it and cross with his army to Gaul where the legions there and in Hispania proclaimed support for him. At first Honorius based in Ravenna, Italy sent his general Stilicho to expel Constantine III but in 408 Stilicho was accused of treason and executed by Honorius and without a strong general on his side in a chaotic time, Honorius had no choice but to recognize Constantine III as his co-emperor who based himself in Arles in Southern Gaul. In 409, Constantine III made his son Constans II his co-emperor and this may be a bit confusing as in the eastern empire centuries later there was also an Emperor Constantine III whose son was Emperor Constans II which will be discussed later. Constantine though would eventually turn on Honorius as the people wanted a more capable ruler with Honorius being a weak one especially with Italy now being under attack by the Gothic army of Alaric. In 411, Honorius decided he did not want to share power with Constantine anymore and instead found a new general named Constantius who he sent to Gaul to defeat Constantine; Constantine in Arles was however besieged by counter-rebels who captured and killed his son Constans II and with Constantius’ arrival, the rebels were defeated with some defecting to Constantius who then captured and executed Constantine III.
The Roman Empire divided in 395, west (red) under Honorius and east (purple) under Arcadius
Maximus of Hispania (409-417)- In 408, Constantine III in Arles was recognized as Honorius’ co-emperor while Hispania too was under Constantine III’s control though there, his general Gerontius fearing he would be fired by Constantine III made his son Maximus his puppet emperor there in 409. Maximus though remained in power in Hispania until 417 while his father was the one who led the counter-rebels against Constantine III in Gaul killing Constans II in 411, though Gerontius was killed by his soldiers who defected to the general Constantius while nothing much is said about Maximus’ reign in Hispania except that he may have usurped power again between 419 and 421.
Priscus Attalus (409-410/ 414-415)- In 409, the Gothic leader Alaric who was once in Theodosius I’s army invaded Italy demanding land and to be in command of all Roman armies making him blockade Rome with his army forcing the senate there to release the Gothic hostages and return them to him which they did even increasing Alaric’s army. Honorius who was ruling from Ravenna refused to give Alaric command of the armies so to challenge Honorius, Alaric elevated a senator in Rome, the Greek Priscus Attalus as his puppet emperor though Attalus being emperor for a few months refused Alaric’s orders and was deposed in 410 and with Attalus not following Alaric’s orders and Honorius not giving into all his demands, Alaric entered and sacked Rome in 410 making it the first time Rome was attacked in over 800 years. In 414, with Attalus being taken as a hostage of the Goths to Gaul, he was again proclaimed the Goth’s puppet emperor by Athaulf, Alaric’s successor in Burdigala (today’s Bordeaux) as Honorius’ general Constantius after defeating Constantine III in Arles met up with Athaulf’s invasion of Gaul which Constantius tried to contain by blockading the Mediterranean ports to cut the Goth’s food supply. The blockade was successful by 415 making the Goths flee south to Hispania killing Athaulf out of starvation. With Athaulf dead, Attalus lost support and was captured by Constantius but spared and exiled to the Aeolian Islands in Italy. Many would know Julian the Apostate (r. 361-363) as the last Pagan Roman emperor but in fact it was Attalus that was the last Pagan to rule the empire.
Watch Barbarians at the Gates to learn more about the beginning of Rome’s end (from Dovahhatty).
Jovinus (411-413) and Sebastianus (412-413)- Following the death of the usurper soldier emperor Constantine III in 411, the Burgundian tribes that had settled in Gaul needing their own puppet emperor made the Roman senator living in Gaul, Jovinus emperor based in Mainz. Giving into the Burgundians’ demands, Jovinus allowed the Burgundians to settle in Eastern Gaul at the left bank of the Rhine although in 412, the Goths under Alaric’s successor Athaulf invaded Gaul from Italy. Jovinus though was supported by Honorius’ Goth general Sarus who was then killed by Athaulf and although Athaulf tried to ally himself with Jovinus, instead Jovinus made his brother Sebastianus his co-emperor and feeling insulted, Athaulf allied himself with Honorius’ general Constantius against Jovinus. Athaulf’s army succeeded in defeating Jovinus’ forces and killing off Sebastianus but Jovinus fled to Southern Gaul where he was captured and executed by the governor there who was loyal to Honorius.
Heraclianus (412-413)- Among the many usurpers against the western emperor Honorius, the senator and governor of Carthage Heraclianus was one of them who however at the beginning was loyal to Honorius being the one who even ordered and oversaw the execution of the general Stilicho for Honorius in 408. In 412 however as Jovinus usurped power in Gaul and Maximus in Hispania, Heraclianus usurped power in Carthage for the smallest of reasons as he saw the probability that he would not be appointed consul that year. Proclaiming himself emperor in Carthage, Heraclianus cut the grain supply to Italy and gathered his army sailing to Italy. Honorius in Ravenna then declared Heraclianus an enemy of the state and sent an army south to crush Heraclianus in 413 which was successful with Heraclianus killed and with him dead, all his properties and wealth was given to Honorius’ general Constantius.
Constantius III (421)- Having defeated Constantine III in 411, Jovinus in 413 with the help of the Goths, and blockading the Goth’s food supply in 415, Honorius’ Illyrian general Constantius came out successful and after forcing the Goths to flee south to Hispania where their king Athaulf was killed in the process, Constantius freed Honorius’ sister Galla Placidia who had married Athaulf by force from the Goth’s captivity returning her to Ravenna. When returning to Ravenna, Constantius was made a hero being the next competent general on Honorius’ side ever since Stilicho who was executed in 408. To get him closer, Honorius made Constantius consul 3 times and married him to Galla Placidia to secure an alliance and in 421 when needing a co-ruler, Honorius made Constantius his co-emperor Constantius III. As emperor, Constantius III ruled more effectively than Honorius and planned to finish Stilicho’s legacy in driving off the barbarians from the empire but within only 7 months in 421, he caught a fever and died leaving Honorius to rule alone again but with Galla Placidia, Constantius III’s son would be Honorius’ successor Valentinian III.
Joannes (423-425)- Honorius though an ineffective ruler ruled the Western Empire for 28 years ever since he was a 10-year-old in 395 succeeding his father Theodosius I, though Honorius despite being married to Stilicho’s daughter had no heir so with Honorius’ sudden death in 423, the western empire which was already falling apart due to barbarian invasions had a succession crisis too as no heir was named. The most possible heir, Honorius’ nephew and Constantius III and Galla Placidia’s son Valentinian III fled with his mother to the court of the eastern empire in Constantinople but in western capital which was Ravenna, the senate finding a solution made the palace secretary Joannes emperor of the west though he was not considered a legitimate emperor as he was not recognized by the eastern emperor who was the superior of the western one. By 423, the eastern emperor was Theodosius II, the son of Arcadius who succeeded his father in 408 though despite Joannes thinking he would be recognized by Theodosius II, in Constantinople Theodosius II instead named his young cousin Valentinian III his western co-emperor sending him back to Italy with an army commanded by the Goth general Aspar. Joannes however did not accept Theodosius II’s choice and instead decided to fight back by having his young general Flavius Aetius go north and get the support of the Hun army but it was too late as the eastern forces commanded by Aspar arrived in Aquileia at the entrance to Italy in 425 and with the help of a shepherd Aspar and his men were led across a marsh to Ravenna where he convinced the garrison to betray Joannes which they did bringing him to Aquileia where his hands were cut off and there he was paraded in the city and beheaded right after. Aetius only arrived back in Italy after Joannes’ death and with his ally dead, he instead made an agreement with Galla Placidia to be her son’s regent with her.
Petronius Maximus (455)- For an emperor of the Western Roman Empire to be considered a legitimate one, he had to be recognized by his superior, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine emperor in Constantinople and in the case of Valentinian III, he was appointed emperor of the west by his cousin, the eastern emperor Theodosius II. Valentinian III ruled the west for 30 years until his assassination in 455 and although he was mostly under the regency of his mother Galla Placidia, she died in 450 but Valentinian III was still heavily influenced by his successful general Flavius Aetius who defeated the Huns’ invasion of the western empire in 451. In 454, the senator Petronius Maximus convinced Valentinian that Aetius was too dangerous to be kept alive so Valentinian killed Aetius with his own hands for everyone to see, though with Aetius dead Maximus who had actually tricked the emperor to do it asked to be given the position of Aetius, which was Magister Militum or “Master of the Army” but the emperor refused as it was too dangerous for Maximus to hold the position. Feeling angry about it, Maximus convinced Aetius’ Scythian bodyguards that Valentinian was the only one behind Aetius’ murder so in early 455 the Scythian bodyguards killed Valentinian III in Rome under Maximus’ orders. Valentinian III’s robe and crown was delivered quickly to Maximus and to prevent a power struggle as Aetius’ second-in-command Majorian also laid his claim to throne, Maximus quickly took the throne by marrying Valentinian III’s widow Licinia Eudoxia, the daughter of the late Theodosius II. In the east meanwhile, the new emperor Marcian who succeeded Theodosius II in 450 did not recognize Maximus as the western emperor so Maximus instead turned to the Visigoths occupying Gaul for their support sending his newly appointed general Avitus to make an agreement with them. Valentinian and Eudoxia’s daughter Eudocia however arranged to be married to the Vandal king Gaiseric’s son but Maximus cancelled the marriage and instead married her to his son Palladius who was made Caesar making Gaiseric angry and preparing to invade Italy from Carthage with his fleet. When news reached Rome that Gaiseric was preparing to invade Italy, the people panicked and fled the city while Maximus did the same except in the panic, his guard abandoned him and when escaping Rome, he was stoned to death by an angry mob dumping his body in Tiber River while his son Palladius was executed shortly after. Maximus though only ruled for less than 3 months and as emperor he never set foot in the capital, Ravenna but instead stayed in Rome, the old capital. On June 2, 455 just 3 days after Maximus’ death, Gaiseric’s Vandal army arrived in Italy and captured Rome but agreeing to the terms of Pope Leo I, the Vandals did not kill anyone or burn Rome, rather they just looted everything they found even taking the widowed empress Eudoxia and her daughters to Carthage.
Avitus (455-456)- When Petronius Maximus was only western emperor for less than 3 months in 455, he sent his general Eparchius Avitus, an old man who was a Gallic Roman citizen from Clermont in Gaul to his homeland of Gaul to secure an alliance with the Visigoth king Theodoric II which he did. In June of 455, news reached the Visigoths of Gaul that Petronius Maximus was killed and the Vandals under Gaiseric attacked Rome and with the Visigoths being mortal enemies with the Vandals, Theodoric II in the Visigoth’s capital of Toulouse named Avitus the western emperor. When Avitus arrived in Italy, he was recognized as emperor by the Roman senate but was not considered a legitimate emperor as he was not recognized by the eastern emperor Marcian; Avitus too did not have support of most of the western empire’s army commanded by Majorian and Ricimer as well as the support of the Vandal king Gaiseric. Avitus however turned out to be unpopular with the people of Italy as he was a foreigner being from Gaul and was not able to solve the destruction and food shortages caused by the Vandals. In 456, the army of Majorian and Ricimer rebelled against Avitus marching into Italy whereas Avitus headed north to Piacenza where he faced off Majorian and Ricimer but was defeated. Avitus fled after his defeat but was found although spared by Ricimer and forced to become the Bishop of Piacenza dying the next year. With Avitus deposed, there was no emperor until the next year (457) as the eastern emperor Marcian did not recognize either Majorian or Ricimer but in 457 as well, Marcian died and was succeeded by the soldier Leo Marcellus who eventually recognized Majorian as the western emperor as he was forced to so by Ricimer.
Libius Severus (461-465)- Majorian though would be one of the few western emperors recognized by the eastern emperor but in 461 after a 4-year reign of success, Ricimer being the manipulative general of barbarian origin betrayed and killed Majorian and replaced him with the senator Libius Severus who Ricimer thought he could easily manipulate. The eastern emperor Leo I however did not recognize Libius Severus (or Severus III) as western emperor and so did the Vandals so instead Severus III turned to the Visigoths of Gaul for support even giving the city of Narbonne to them and giving the rebel general Aegidius Northeast Gaul as his own kingdom to settle peace. Severus III though ruled from Ravenna and in 465 he died most possibly from natural causes, though some say Ricimer who was in control of him all this time poisoned him.
Romanus (470)- In the 2 years between 465 and 467, the western empire had no emperor so in the east, Leo I was once again a Roman emperor ruling both east and west or what was at least of the west which at that time was basically under the control of Ricimer. In 467 however, Leo I with the consent of Ricimer appointed Procopius Anthemius, a Byzantine noble and son-in-law of the previous eastern emperor Marcian as the western emperor but in his reign, he failed to defeat the Vandal navy in North Africa in 468 even if he battled them together with the eastern empire’s fleet. Anthemius however distrusted and even hated Ricimer, so in 470 using Anthemius’ sudden illness to his advantage, Ricimer installed the senator Romanus as his puppet emperor in Rome while Anthemius was in Ravenna. Anthemius though recovered and blamed his illness on Ricimer’s supporters including Romanus accusing them of sorcery. Anthemius then had Romanus beheaded to secure his place in the throne but this just made Ricimer even more furious. In 472, Anthemius came into conflict with Ricimer and being surrounded by Ricimer’s men, Anthemius was killed.
Olybrius (472)- Anicius Olybrius was a nobleman from Rome in the Western Empire who was married to Valentinian III’s daughter Placidia and a candidate for the throne twice, first in 461 after Majorian’s death considered for the position by the Vandal king Gaiseric and again after Severus III’s death in 465 again supported by Gaiseric. After Anthemius was killed in 472, Ricimer who had Anthemius killed made Olybrius his puppet emperor, although within 472 Ricimer died and was succeeded in his position by his nephew Gundobad. By October of 472, Olybrius died as well leaving the western throne in Ravenna vacant until the next year.
Glycerius (473-474)- For the next 4 months after Olybrius’ death in 472, there was no western emperor until in early 473, the general Gundobad taking the place of Ricimer named the palace guard commander, the Illyrian Glycerius as the new emperor. The eastern emperor Leo I however did not recognize Glycerius as emperor and instead nominated another Illyrian named Julius Nepos as the western emperor but during his short reign, Glycerius was able to stop an Ostrogoth invasion of Italy from the east by bribing them, though in 474 Leo I sent Julius Nepos with an army to invade Italy and depose Glycerius. For Glycerius though, he was left alone with no more allies as Gundobad abandoned him as he was named king of his people, the Burgundians in Gaul so as Nepos arrived in Italy, Glycerius was left with no choice but to surrender to him, though Glycerius was spared and made bishop of Salona in Dalmatia where he died in around 480.
Julius Nepos (474-480)- The governor of Dalmatia who was the Illyrian native Julius Nepos came to power in what was left of the western empire (basically just Italy and Dalmatia) with the support of the new eastern emperor the Isaurian Zeno with Leo I having died in early 474, and when arriving in Italy in 474, the emperor Glycerius surrendered to Nepos without a fight and was made bishop of Salona. Nepos’ reign over the western empire however only lasted for a year as in 475 his Pannonian general Orestes turned on him with his barbarian troops. As Orestes was heading towards Italy, Nepos fled Ravenna sailing across the sea back to Dalmatia thinking he would temporarily stay there until getting support from Zeno to overthrow Orestes, but instead when Orestes reached Ravenna, he named his son Romulus the western emperor, though Romulus did not get the support from the east since in 475 Zeno was overthrown by Basiliscus. Romulus Augustus though would only be the puppet emperor of his father and only ruling for a year as in 476, the barbarian general of the western empire’s federate troops Odoacer of the obscure Germanic tribe of the Scirii demanded land in Italy which Orestes refused leading Odoacer to kill Orestes in battle and when marching into Ravenna, Odoacer forced Romulus to surrender which he did, thus ending the Western Roman Empire. Whatever happened to Romulus afterwards is unknown but Odoacer just chose to not be called emperor anymore since all that was left of the empire was Italy so instead, he called himself “King of Italy” pledging his allegiance to the eastern emperor Zeno who returned to power in 476. Meanwhile, Nepos was still ruling in Dalmatia only as the de jure western emperor and though an ally of Zeno, Nepos was not helped in taking back Italy since Zeno had already recognized Odoacer as king. Nepos though plotted to take back Italy trying to get the support of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric who was settled in the Balkans but in 480, Nepos was assassinated in Dalmatia, and it is suggested that the bishop who was the former emperor Glycerius was behind it. With Nepos dead, the whole region of Dalmatia and Pannonia were absorbed into Odoacer’s kingdom.
Leo II (474)- In the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire which was the superior of the Western Roman Empire, back on 457 a Thracian soldier named Leo Marcellus became emperor, known as Leo I the Great who ruled for more than 16 years until his death in 474 at age 73. In his reign Leo I appointed the leader of the primitive and semi-barbarian Isaurian tribes from the mountains of Asia Minor named Tarasis Kodisa as his top general renaming him Zeno and married him to his daughter Ariadne. Zeno and Ariadne’s son Leo was named after his grandfather and named his grandfather’s co-emperor and heir in 473. Leo I died in early 474 and was succeeded by his grandson Leo II who being too young to rule alone had to make his father Zeno with the approval of the senate his co-emperor to sign official documents which Leo II could not and together both Leo II and Zeno appointed Julius Nepos as the western emperor. Leo II may be a legitimate Roman emperor but his name is never really mentioned as many would think that Zeno was emperor directly after Leo I but in fact there was a child emperor between them. Leo II however never experienced a full reign as he died later in the same year (474) at only age 7 from an epidemic that broke out in Constantinople as children were more at risk to die from sickness, he was then succeeded by his father Zeno making it the first time in Roman history that a father succeeds his son as emperor. Some say Leo II did not actually die but had to abdicate due to his young age and be kept in a monastery but it is still very likely that he died.
IV. The early Byzantine Era (476-695)
Marcian (479)- In the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) there had been no usurper who would be emperor until 479 except for once in 475 which was Emperor Leo I’s brother-in-law Basiliscus who took the throne from the current emperor Zeno. Zeno though being an Isaurian which the Byzantines saw as primitive barbarians was not accepted by the society of Constantinople so in early 475, Zeno’s mother-in-law Verina who hated him plotted to remove him from power to make her lover emperor, but instead the army named her brother, the incompetent Basiliscus as emperor who made his son Marcus his co-emperor. Zeno with his wife fled to his native Isauria where after getting an army there returned west to Constantinople to overthrow Basiliscus which he did in 476 and when returning to power, Zeno got news of Odoacer overthrowing Romulus in the west, thus recognizing Odoacer as King of Italy. Basiliscus and his son Marcus were then banished to Cappadocia where they were locked up and starved to death in a cistern in 477. In 479 however, someone would come to challenge Zeno again, and this was Marcian, the son of the former western emperor Anthemius and grandson of the former eastern emperor Marcian (r. 450-457), his mother’s father who he shared the same name with. The usurper Marcian also married to Leo I’s other daughter Leontia but felt he had more of a claim to the throne being the grandson of the former emperor seeing Zeno as a nobody barbarian. Marcian and his 3 brothers led a large mob of angry people in Constantinople to the imperial palace attempting to burn it down and almost came close to capturing Zeno until Zeno’s Isaurian general Illus gathered his Isaurian forces and cornered the mob giving time for Zeno to flee the palace. Marcian though got support from the Gothic general in the Byzantine service Theodoric Strabo but with Strabo not able to arrive in time, Marcian sought refuge in a church where Zeno’s forces found and arrested his brothers banishing them to Cappadocia. Marcian and brothers tried to escape imprisonment there by bribing some monks though Marcian failed to escape and was forced to become a monk.
Leontius (484-488)- In 484, Zeno would eventually be betrayed by his Isaurian general Illus who refused to release Zeno’s brother Longinus from imprisonment and as Illus fled Constantinople, Zeno sent Leontius, another Isaurian general to hunt down Illus though when Leontius confronted Illus, Illus persuaded to turn Leontius against Zeno. With Leontius on his side, Illus decided to give up his claim on the throne and instead supported Leontius’ claim and in Tarsus, Illus had Leontius crowned emperor. Zeno only found out about Leontius taking over in the east when seeing coins of him minted making Zeno march an army mostly made up of Ostrogoths led by the future king of Italy Theodoric against Illus and Leontius. Zeno’s forces managed to surround Illus and Leontius to a fortress in Asia Minor where they were held in for 4 years and being impossible to besiege, Zeno returned to Constantinople leaving his army to continue besieging the rebels until the rebels were betrayed by their troops and both Illus and Leontius were beheaded in 488 and their heads sent to Zeno.
Longinus (491-492)- After crushing Illus and Leontius’ rebellion in 488, Zeno was able to rule without anyone challenging him again and died in 491 now being more accepted by Byzantine society. In 485, Zeno released his brother Longinus from imprisonment by Illus and in 486 and 490 Longinus held the position of consul while before Zeno’s death in 491, he gave up supporting the king of Italy Odoacer and had Theodoric march to Italy to depose Odoacer. For Zeno, both his sons with his wife empress Ariadne died before he died in 491 and without a named heir, Longinus was considered to succeed his brother as emperor and marry his wife but Ariadne refused as having another Isaurian emperor would cause more problems again so instead, Ariadne chose to marry Zeno’s finance minister Anastasius, a rich Roman-Illyrian. Longinus was in Isauria at this time and when finding out Anastasius I was made emperor and not him, he rose up in rebellion claiming to be emperor. This rebellion then started the Isaurian War and in 492, Anastasius’ forces were able to defeat Longinus’ forces, Longinus though was spared but exiled to Egypt by Anastasius where Longinus died, though the Isaurian War was only finished in 497 with Anastasius winning.
Areobindus (512)- Anastasius I Dicorus was Byzantine emperor for quite a long time ever since he succeeded Zeno in 491 and although he was a successful emperor, Anastasius’ religious policies were controversial as he supported Miaphysite doctrines while the population of Constantinople was mostly made up of Orthodox Chalcedonian Christians. In 512, the people of Constantinople started to riot against Anastasius’ religious policies and proclaimed the ex-consul Areobindus as their emperor. Areobindus who was consul back in 506 was fine with his retired life and refused to accept his claim as emperor from the people so he fled the city never to be heard from again.
Julianus ben Sabar (529-531), Hypatius (532), John Cottistis (537), and Stotzas (541-545)- Anastasius I died at the age of 87 in 518 and was unsure in naming his heir so without a named heir, the commander of his palace guard, the old man Justin bribed his men and was proclaimed emperor. Justin I as emperor though originating as a peasant in Illyria had already established a dynasty adopting his nephew Flavius Petrus Sabbatius and making him his heir. In 527, Justin I died and was succeeded by his nephew who renamed himself as emperor Justinian I and his reign would be the greatest in Byzantine history but in the early part of his 38-year reign, he was faced with 4 different usurpers. The first of the usurpers was a Samaritan Jew in Judea named Julianus ben Sabar who rose up in rebellion against Justinian I against his religious policies against the Samaritans in 529. Ben Sabar between 529 and 530 was able to capture a few cities in Judea and declared himself “King of Israel” but in 531, his rebellion was defeated by Justinian’s forces and Ben Sabar was beheaded. The next usurper was in Constantinople named Hypatius who was the nephew of Anastasius I who was a consul in 500 and considered to succeed his uncle in 518 but he never wanted the position of emperor. In 532, the people of Constantinople rose up against Justinian I in the bloody Nika Riot dragging Hypatius out his house and proclaiming him emperor, though Hypatius did not want feeling forced by the people but as he was carried through the streets, he changed his mind and played the full part of emperor. The riots were eventually quelled by the imperial guard with many rioters slaughtered and Hypatius being framed as the mastermind was brought before Justinian who thought of sparing Hypatius but Justinian’s wife Empress Theodora did not agree and just had Hypatius executed. In 537 at the military fort of Dara in the Byzantine-Persian border, a soldier named John Cottistis suddenly broke out in rebellion against Justinian I even declaring himself emperor and ruling the fortress in a tyrannical way until only 4 days after he began his rebellion, soldiers loyal to Justinian killed him. Back in 534, Justinian’s army under the general Belisarius conquered North Africa from the Vandals but in 536, a military revolt broke out and named a soldier named Stotzas their leader who proclaimed himself emperor and with the defeated Vandals he almost took back Carthage until Belisarius returned and defeated him forcing him to flee to Mauretania. Stotzas though returned in 541 having married the daughter of a local prince and became king of that small Berber kingdom in Algeria turning against Byzantine rule in North Africa but in 545, Stotzas was defeated and wounded in battle by Justinian’s forces dying shortly after.
Byzantine Empire at its height (555) under Emperor Justinian I
Theodosius (590-602)- The 6th century was a short-lived era of Byzantine greatness as the empire by the death of Justinian I the Great had control over Italy, North Africa, and Southern Spain again defeating the Ostrogoths and Vandals. At the end of the 6th century, the empire was ruled by the military emperor Maurice (r. 582-602) though recently reconquered lands in Italy were slowly being lost. A year after Maurice became emperor, his wife gave birth to their son Theodosius who would be the first imperial heir to be born while their father was emperor since Theodosius II born in 401 during the reign of his father Arcadius, and Maurice’s son Theodosius too was named after Theodosius II; in 587 Theodosius was made Caesar and his father’s heir and in 590 co-emperor, though he would not be known as Theodosius III as he was never the full emperor himself. In 602 however, the army of the Danube border forced to stay there for the winter rebelled against Maurice marching to Constantinople and at first the army when forcing Maurice to resign revolted in favor of Theodosius or his father-in-law Germanus. The army however ended up electing the centurion Phocas as emperor and Maurice fled Constantinople with his family and when crossing the Bosporus, he sent Theodosius to flee east to the Sassanid Empire to get support from the Sassanid king Khosrow II. Maurice and his other sons though were caught and executed by Phocas while Theodosius never made it to Persia as he was also caught and executed by Phocas’ orders, though some years later it was rumored Theodosius was still alive.
Comentiolus (610-611), Eleutherius (619), and John Athalaricos (635)- The usurper emperor Phocas would eventually be overthrown and executed in 610 by the Byzantine exarch of Africa’s son Heraclius who became emperor but in his long reign (610-641), Heraclius faced 4 different usurpers to the throne. The first usurper rose up against Heraclius in 610, the year he came into power and this usurper was Comentiolus, the brother of the late emperor Phocas who was Phocas’ general in the war against the Sassanids. Comentiolus refused to accept Heraclius as emperor and planned to attack Constantinople naming himself emperor to avenge his brother but before Comentiolus could attack, in early 611 Heraclius had him assassinated. Meanwhile over in Italy in 619 as Heraclius was busy fighting against the Sassanids in the east, the situation of Byzantine rule was unstable and to protect Italy further, the exarch of Ravenna or Byzantine governor of Italy Eleutherius using Heraclius’ war in the east to his advantage proclaimed himself emperor despite being a eunuch. Eleutherius thought of setting up his capital in Rome and as he was heading to Rome to convince Pope Boniface V to crown him emperor in Rome, his soldiers who were actually loyal to Heraclius killed him and sent his head to Heraclius. Many years later in 635, the old Heraclius faced a rebellion from his own illegitimate son John Athalaricos who was never heard from before that as he was never thought of to succeed his father until discontent Armenian residents of Constantinople all of a sudden rebelled against Heraclius and named John their emperor. Before a rebellion could have happened, court officials informed Heraclius that his son was staging a rebellion so Heraclius had everyone involved in the scheme arrested including his son who he had his hands and nose cut off and exiled to the Princes Islands in the Marmara Sea.
Maurikios (642-643), Valentinus (644), Gregory (646-647), Olympius (650-652), and Saborios (667-668)- Heraclius died in 641 and a short power struggle followed his death after his son and immediate successor Constantine III died after only 3 months, possibly poisoned by his stepmother Martina who came into power as regent for her son with Heraclius named Heraklonas who was later on in 641 deposed and mutilated when Constantine III’s loyalist forces seized power and made Constantine III’s young son Constans II emperor, and this is when there was another Roman emperor Constantine III with a son named Constans II just like in the 5th century. In 642, a year after the young Constans II came to power he was challenged by a rebel in Italy named Maurikios Chartoularios who declared Rome independent from Byzantine rule with him as its ruler, although in 643 the Exarch of Ravenna Isaac under Constans II marched his army to Rome where they caught Maurikios in a church and brought him to Ravenna to be executed. Since Constans II when coming to power was only a boy, he ruled under the regency Valentinus who was of Armenian origin and Constans too was married to Valentinus’ daughter Fausta. Valentinus was practically the most powerful man in the empire but did not have the title of emperor so in 644 he gathered outside Constantinople with his army demanding to be crowned emperor and overthrow Constans II but the Patriarch of Constantinople Paul II refused and rallied the people against Valentinus who was killed outside the city walls by the mob. In 646, Constans II was again faced by another challenger which was his relative the Exarch of Africa Gregory based in Carthage who declared himself emperor there but in 647 North Africa was faced with an Arab invasion and before setting off to Constantinople to overthrow Constans II, Gregory was killed in battle somewhere in Tunisia by the Arabs making North Africa return to the side of the emperor. Fast-forward to 650, Constans II had the pope Martin I arrested for being elected without Constans’ approval and with the pope’s arrest and exile, the Exarch of Ravenna Olympius switched his side to the exiled pope rebelling against Constans II and declaring himself emperor. In 652, Olympius marched south to Sicily to confront both Arab invaders and Constans II’s army but never succeeded as he and his army was killed by a plague. By 663, Constans II left Constantinople for good choosing to reside in Syracuse, Sicily making it his new capital which gave more opportunity for generals in the east to usurp power and one of them was the general of the Armeniac Theme in Northeast Asia Minor named Saborios in 667. Saborios who was either of Persian or Armenian descent declared himself emperor led his men west to Constantinople and battle the imperial forces but before reaching Constantinople when camped in a town, he heard of an incoming Arab invasion and the imperial forces heading his way so in a rush he got onto his horse, the horse lost control and smashed his head against the gate killing him. Without a leader, the rebel army simply defected to the imperial forces and the rebellion of Saborios itself never did happen.
Mizizios (668-669)- When Constans II remained in Syracuse, he left his wife and sons behind in Constantinople but in 668 while in Syracuse, Constans II was assassinated in his bath by his servant using a soap dish. When in Syracuse, Constans II was accompanied by his general Mizizios who was an Armenian noble and with Constans II dead, the army proclaimed Mizizios emperor against his will despite Constans II having a son, Constantine IV in Constantinople, although it is said that the bishops in Italy pushed Mizizios to rebel because they considered Constans II a heretic. Within a year however, the young Constantine IV led an expedition of the imperial forces from Constantinople to Sicily to confront his father’s assassins and Mizizios. In 669, Constantine IV when arriving in Sicily executed his father’s assassins and Mizizios as well, except it is also said that the loyalist forces of North Africa could have suppressed Mizizios’ revolt and executed him.
Alright, so this is it for the first part of this series on the lesser known and would be Roman and Byzantine emperors and it’s only in 695 where finished, yet there’s still so much more but that’s a story for another time. Earlier on, there hasn’t been any pretender or would-be emperor of the Roman Empire during the reigns of its first emperors Augustus and Tiberius and only in 42AD during the reign of Claudius I was there a would-be Roman emperor. Over time of course, the situation of the empire would not be stable as it was thought to be with many civil wars and claimants to the throne, and this happens when a dynasty is not secured or in the Roman Empire, this instability and succession crisis that created many would-be emperors was due to the ambitious Praetorian Guard and ambitious generals. Those 50 years between 235 and 285 would just be that kind of time wherein anyone if with the support of the army would become emperor and breakaway empires like the Gallic Empire and Palmyra would happen and this was just the beginning as even though this crisis was eventually solved in the late 3rd century and early 4th century, more and more generals would come in to take the throne especially when the previous emperor such as Julian died without an heir. Now in 395, the Roman Empire was fully separated between east and west and never to reunite again, except that they were still one empire in the sense that the west answered to the east and western emperors could only be a legitimate ruler if they had the approval of the eastern emperor though barely any western emperor would be recognized by the east and in 476 the Western empire was gone. The east though survived and remained strong but kept with it the Roman legacy of challengers to the throne. Even though the empire’s location changed moving east, the whole thing of usurpers, co-emperors, and challengers would remain unchanged, and in the next part of this article no matter how many centuries would go by, the authority of the Byzantine emperors would continue to be challenged and one emperor would end up facing multiple usurpers in his reign just like Gallienus (253-268) and Honorius (395-423) did too as mentioned here. At the end, almost all of these would be emperors who usurped power would suffer the same fate either being executed or exiled, blinded, or committing suicide and as the story continues in the Byzantine era, these usurpers still end up having this kind of fate. Also, in this article I have mentioned an independent Roman state in France known as Soissons formed in 461 but their rulers Aegidius and Syagrius were not part of the list as they were never emperors but just independent rulers and soon enough even this state would fall when the Franks come to take over Gaul and establish what would be the Kingdom of France. This article had just ended in 695 which ends the early Byzantine era and at this point the whole Byzantine cultural identity shifts from Roman to Greek and for the next 7 centuries, Byzantium would be the medieval Greek empire till its end in 1453. Lastly, I would want to thank the channel of Dovahhatty for giving such clear though biased information on the story of the Roman Empire which helped me write this which now has its final episode on the Roman Empire, though when making this I haven’t seen it yet, so don’t forget to watch it to see how a Roman would tell the story of the fall of the Western empire. Anyway, this is all for part 1 of this series and see you all next time with part2!
Published by The Byzantium Blogger
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Addisons disease
In Glogpedia
by 408fc
Last updated 8 years ago
Health & Fitness
Toggle fullscreen Print glog
Addisons disease
Addison's Disease
Elizabeth and Carlos
What gland does the disorder affect? The adrenal glands.
What is the function of the gland that is being affected? The adrenal glands arepart of the endocrine system. The endocrine system is a group of glands all over your body that produce and secrete hormones to regulate your body's processes incuding body's moods, growth, metabolism, and tissue function.
What hormones does the gland release? It releases adrenaline-like hormones and a class of hormones called corticosteroids.
How does the disorder affect the rest of the body? It affects the rest of the body by muscle weakness. loss of apetite, weight loss, low blood pressure, and cravings for salt.
What happens to the functioning of the gland in this disorder? In people who have Addison's disease, the adrenal glands do not produce enough cortisol, one of the glucocorticoids. Sometimes, the adrenal glands also fail to produce enough aldosterone, one of the mineralocorticoids.
How is the disorder diagnosed? In its early stages, adrenal insufficiency can be difficult to diagnose,but can be easily diagnosed by ACTH stimulation test, CRH stimulation test and diagnosis during an emergency.
What treatment is needed? Treatment for Addisons disease invloves taking hormones to replace the insufficent amounts being made by your adrenal glands in order to mimic the benificial effects from hormones.
What lifestyle changes are necessary? Constant therapy, muscle weakness.
What are the long term health effects if the disorder remains untreated? Addison's disease can be life thrratening or end up in a coma.
Addison's disease is a disorder that occurs when your body produces insuficient amounts of certain hormones proceed by your adrenal glands.
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There's a hole in my wallet...
May 2007
By Allison Tait
Unless you were hiding out in the jungle last year, you must have been aware of a little storm (named Larry) they experienced in North Queensland and the fact that it made bananas more expensive than gold. It seemed that the phallic yellow fruit spent more time on the front page of the newspaper than Paris Hilton, and it had a new partner: inflation.
Despite being one of those words that is all-too-easy to put in the 'too boring to consider' basket (it rates right up there with budget, don’t you think?), inflation is actually a pretty important concept to grasp. It may be a high-faluting financial term, but its effects are extremely down to earth. After all, it affects the cost of everything from your breakfast cereal to those Chloe boots you’re lusting after.
Inflation is defined as the increase in the price of a basket of goods and services that represents the spending patterns of the 'average' Australian. What does that mean in real terms? We asked Anthony Thompson, senior economist at Westpac, to explain.
How exactly is inflation measured?
"There are different measures of inflation, depending on the segment of the economy for which you are measuring prices, but the one which is probably best known to households is Consumer Price Inflation. Every six years, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) conducts what is known as the Household Expenditure Survey (HES), which provides a detailed breakdown of Australian household spending across various categories. For the Consumer Price Index, they collect data from the real world on prices for each item, and work out an average price for each quarter. They then group each category and weight them according to the distribution of spending shown in the HES, to arrive at an overall indicator of price inflation for the 'average' household."
So, they compare the same set of goods at two different points in time and work out if there’s been a cost increase (after taking into account a whole lot of factors).
Okay. Does it affect us all equally?
"In short, no, because they base the weights for each item in the expenditure basket on the average for all households across Australia. If you're spending a greater proportion of your household budget in an area where prices are rising faster, you'll notice higher inflation. Inflation will differ from the overall CPI for those people whose spending patterns differ from that of the average household."
For example, those people addicted to bananas would have been more heavily affected by inflation in 2006.
When would I most likely notice its effects?
"It depends on how closely you watch prices in day-to-day spending. One area which gives households a very current indicator of price pressures is petrol prices — you see them every day, advertised in large numbers at petrol stations. Another example where you might readily notice inflation is if you're a public transport user — you'll see a change in fares immediately, impacting on your household budget."
What about at the supermarket?
"If you're purchasing much the same things each week, you'll notice the impact of grocery price inflation on your weekly spend at the supermarket." You may be finding that your set $100 budget is buying you less.
Are glamorous shoes affected as well?
"It depends on what’s driving inflation. There are two main economic theories on the cause of inflation — demand-pull inflation and cost-push inflation.
Demand-pull is created when you have strong consumer demand for goods and services and no matching increase in supply. The price is pushed up to ration the scarce supply amongst those who wish to buy more.
"Cost-push inflation stems from increases in the cost of production for business, for example from higher wage costs or raw materials prices, being passed on to consumers."
This explains the high cost of Manolo Blahniks — lots of people want them, there aren’t that many made — voila! The price goes up.
Given that the Reserve Bank recently reported that underlying inflation levels were at a low level for the second quarter in a row, why do I feel like I'm paying more for my groceries?
"There's no doubt that inflation had been picking up through the first half of last year, but there's been a slow down in the rate of growth from the second half of last year and into the first quarter of this year. Prices overall are higher than last year, but most of that increase was seen early on rather than in the last six months."
According to the ABS, prices in the aggregate food category, for example, fell 2.3 per cent in the first quarter of 2007, but were still up 4.6 per cent compared to the first quarter of 2006.
Why do interest rates come up so often in relation to inflation?
"The Reserve Bank has the responsibility of keeping inflation between 2-3 per cent on average during the course of an economic cycle. They use interest rates to aim to keep inflation within that target, through the effect that borrowing rates can have on overall demand for goods and services in the economy."
The Reserve Bank uses higher interest rates to discourage consumer spending when inflation begins to creep up. If we’re paying more into mortgages or on credit cards, we don’t have as much cash to throw around. It seems harsh, but they assure us it’s for our own good...
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1. Forum
2. >
3. Topic: Hindi
4. >
5. "There is a rat outside the h…
"There is a rat outside the house."
Translation:घर के बाहर एक चूहा है।
October 6, 2018
why can't the sentence start with "chuha"? I did subject - post-positional phrase - verb and it was counted wrong
It's subtle, but that would be 'A rat is outside the house'. घर के बाहर एक चूहा है is the translation for "There is a rat outside the house" (or, equivalently, "Outside the house there is a rat".).
Anyway, I would say yours should probably be accepted anyway, so maybe report it if it comes up again.
Not accepted with मकान instead of घर, it should be I think? Have reported.
Why is it घर के बाहर and not घर का बाहर?please answer.
Because घर is in the oblique case here - I won't dare to say it's impossible to form a sentence with 'का बाहर', but usually it will be के, as with के साथ।
Learn Hindi in just 5 minutes a day. For free.
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How can we use technology to work on a shared project together?
How do you use technology to collaborate?
How to Use Technology to Improve Collaboration in the Workplace
1. Invest in an online communication tool.
2. Stay on top of deadlines and to-do’s through a project management tool.
3. Set clear communication guidelines.
4. Use video conferencing for remote workers and telecommuters.
What types of technology can be used to support collaboration?
• Virtual Meetings.
• Email.
• Instant Messaging.
• Screen Sharing.
• Blogs.
• Voice, Video, Web Conferencing.
• Discussion Boards.
How does technology help teamwork?
The convenience and ease of communication brought by technology mean your teams are more willing to engage with each other. They can simply shoot an email to the team when they have new updates or ideas. … There are communication apps now that foster such teamwork by integrating productivity tools into their system.
How does digital technology help workers work collaboratively?
Digital collaboration tools provide employees with the ability and flexibility to work and tackle problems, wherever and whenever. … Since collaboration platforms tend to provide a one-stop solution for teammates to chat, work, and share files and data, decisions are taken much quickly, and work is done faster.
THIS IS IMPORTANT Which Google app is for project management?
How can technology help students collaborate?
Using mobile phones, social media and instant messaging in the classroom can promote inclusivity in the classroom as well as outside, as it encourages students to work together on a global scale.
What are the advantages of using technology tools in collaborative projects?
Technology collaboration tools allow teams to create, design, and contribute to the same document, at the same moment, in real time. Your team will spend less time commuting, organizing meetings, and working around each other’s schedules. That means more time for collaboration, communication, and productivity.
What are some of the technology tools used for sharing and collaboration?
• Google Apps for Education. The Google Drive apps enable students and teachers to collaborate more effectively on papers, spreadsheets, and presentations. …
• Kahoot: …
• FlipGrid: …
• MindMeister: …
• Google Hangouts:
How can modern technology be used to manage this team?
Digital technology can help remove friction from the process of sharing files and information between team members. File sharing software can assist staff in the transfer of large files and ensure up to date copies are being used by all team members.
How can we use technology for communication?
THIS IS IMPORTANT What are the features of MS Project?
What are three technologies that enable virtual teams to work together?
1. Collaboration Tools
• Slack.
• Webex Teams.
• Microsoft Teams.
• Redbooth.
• Huddle.
• Podio.
• Lighthouse.
• Blackboard Collaborate.
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I am studying for a Master's in Legal Translation. (I am French)
I need to understand what a "municipal court" is. Is it like our "Tribunal de Police" for speeding on the road, noises during the night and others petty things of the same kind?
Or is it more like "Tribunal correctionnel", when it covers matters which are a little more important?
They made thousands of arrests, not only for major crimes, but also for those petty offenses that jammed the dockets of the municipal courts, justice courts, and police courts -‐ the third, bottom layer of the criminal justice system.
Source: A History of American Law Lawrence M. Friedman Third Edition Touchstone Book, 2005.)
• 2
"Municipal Court" has different meanings in different contexts. Can you add some context? Perhaps you could set out the whole paragraph in which this word appears.
– Nemo
Oct 26 '21 at 10:48
• Municipal Court is not used as the name of a court in England. The phrase could be used in England when studying Legal Theory (Jurisprudence) - the philosophy of law, but that is not the meaning in the passage you quote. Do you know which country the passage you quote is set in?
– Nemo
Oct 26 '21 at 11:50
• 1
Source: A History of American Law Lawrence M. Friedman Third Edition Touchstone Book, 2005 Oct 26 '21 at 12:02
• 1
Usually American refers to the USA. There are many US contributors to Law SE so I expect they will be able to answer your question when they have finished breakfast!
– Nemo
Oct 26 '21 at 12:12
• 1
Within the U.S.A., different states organize courts differently from each other. Oct 27 '21 at 0:46
It depends on the state. Unlike France, a unitary nation, American Federalism typically means States may define different legal concepts differently. In California for example, Municipal courts hear Misdemeanor criminal Cases, preliminary Felony Cases, and Small Claims civil cases and serve county wide jurisdictions. In other states, the court may only hear cases arising only from city ordinances, traffic, and small claims and serve a jurisdiction that may not be bound by county lines.
It should be pointed out that all "X County Court Houses" in the U.S. are branches of the State Court System, as counties are not sovereign in the United States, and thus the county court house is a local branch of the State Courts and often built in the County Seat (the county's "Capital City" if you will.).
• 2
...or historical county seat, in case the county moves or merged into another.
– Trish
Oct 26 '21 at 16:45
Each state in the United States sets up their courts as the legislature sees fit. Some have courts for less important matters that are officially part of a municipality such as a town or a city. Others may have similar courts that cover a judicial district that is separate from a municipality, but is about the same size as a municipality.
Some states have county courts. For some purposes counties are considered municipalities, for other purposes they are not.
The exact issues that any particular court is competent to hear varies from state to state.
In some cases the former, in some cases the latter, and in some cases more than either of the courts, as they would also have authority over some civil lawsuits and administrative law matters as well. Practice has varied over time and from one state to another (and even within individual states).
Justice courts and police courts are terms used for something similar to the Tribunal de Police, but sometimes a bit more serious and often with jurisdiction over very small lawsuits in which lawyers are usually not involved called "small claims" cases colloquially.
While many U.S. municipalities have administrative style tribunals limited solely to traffic offenses and/or solely limited to parking offenses, there are few limited jurisdiction courts in the U.S. with jurisdiction identical to a "Tribunal de Police" in France. Most would have jurisdiction over more serious crimes or quasi-criminal offenses and many would have some limited civil lawsuit jurisdiction.
In practice, however, many (maybe even most) municipal courts in the U.S. handle a similar mix of cases to a "Tribunal de Police" even though it has jurisdiction over more serious cases and over lawsuits, as a matter of the customary division of authority between a city attorney or police officer who prosecutes cases in municipal court (Rhode Island, for example, has non-lawyer police officers prosecute many minor criminal offenses in limited jurisdiction courts), and a county or state level district attorney who prosecuted more serious cases in a court at the county level that is part of the state court system. Many municipalities maintain courts of their own primarily to raise traffic fine revenue that would otherwise go to a county or state government if prosecuted in their courts.
Friedman, in the excerpt quoted, is referring collectively to all courts of limited jurisdiction, some of which are true municipal courts, and some of which are lower courts in a larger state unified court system.
In General
Municipal courts in the U.S. are creatures of state law (and sometimes are outside the state court system).
All municipal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction as opposed to courts of general jurisdiction that can consider the most serious criminal charges and all manner of civil claims.
No municipal courts have jurisdiction over matters exclusively in the jurisdiction of the federal courts (e.g. enforcing federal criminal laws and lawsuits involving intellectual property disputes).
It would be very unusual for a municipal court to have jurisdiction over felony trials, but often they would have authority to issue search warrants, arrest warrants, and arraign defendants (i.e. formally charge, take an initial plea from a defendant, set bail for a defendant, and assign a lawyer to an indigent defendant) for felony charges that would then have further proceedings post-arraignment in a higher court.
It would be very rare for municipal courts to have civil jurisdiction over title to real property or marital status or child custody, and it would be unusual for municipal courts to have jurisdiction to provide most kinds of injunctive relief (with the common exception of temporary protective orders in the face of threats of physical harm).
Since it frequently comes up in other questions, it is also worth noting that in the U.S. municipal courts generally have jurisdiction to declare statutes that they are asked to apply or interpret to be unconstitutional and to adjudicate the constitutionality of actions of state officials in the context of criminal cases.
Municipal courts almost always (but not 100% of the time) have jurisdiction only over cases arising in the territory of the municipality which it serves.
In New England, all territory is part of some town government which handles many functions (but not general jurisdiction courts) that county governments would handle elsewhere.
Outside New England, there are many states where lots of territory is outside the jurisdiction of any town, township, or city, and has local government functions otherwise provided at those levels of government provided at the county level or by special districts with limited functions (e.g. a school district, or a water and sewer system district).
In the Midwest, there are many state with formal township government that covers the entire state, but usually, townships, unlike municipalities called towns, don't have law enforcement agencies or courts of their own (with their ordinances enforced in state courts of limited jurisdiction at the county level by county officials outside of a municipality), and instead handle only minor infrastructure maintenance of local roads and cemeteries and sometimes land use issues in areas outside an incorporated city or town.
The Colorado Example
In Colorado, a municipal court's jurisdiction is limited to ordinance violations (i.e. violations of laws enacted by the municipality itself) taking place in the municipality, which can range from parking infractions to zoning code violations to minor misdemeanors that are also state crimes. Typically, those offenses have punishments up to twelve months in jail and fine of up to $1,000 (U.S.). Colorado's municipal courts do not usually have jurisdiction over civil lawsuits seeking money damages, but a small number of municipal courts in Colorado have been granted civil jurisdiction in certain ordinance cases, such as cases involving land use, under municipal home rule powers, in addition to quasi-criminal jurisdiction.
Most of the territory in Colorado is not in any municipality or town, and Colorado has no township governments (the term "township is also a term used to describe areas of about 36 square miles for purposes of legal descriptions of real property pursuant to an official surveying system).
Municipal court judges in Colorado, are appointed by municipal officials, are regulated by the attorney regulation officials rather than judicial regulation officials, and often serve as a municipal judge in more than one municipality. Offenses in municipal court in Colorado are prosecuted by municipal officials rather than the state district attorney.
Municipal courts in Colorado are only sometimes courts of record (i.e. courts where appeals are based upon what happened in municipal court rather than via a new trial from scratch in a higher court). They are not administratively part of the state court system.
County courts in Colorado are courts of limited civil jurisdiction (up to $25,000) that can also handle state law misdemeanors and arraignments for felonies and are courts of record with lawyer-judges (except for four exceptions out of more than 100 judges in a few rural counties) and are part of the state court system. Outside of municipalities in Colorado, county ordinances are enforced by county officials in county courts.
In Colorado, courts of general jurisdiction are called "District Courts". Colorado also has a probate court, and a juvenile court in the City and County of Denver which handle a portion of the cases handled by District Courts elsewhere in the state.
The New York State Example
In contrast, in New York State, municipal courts in different municipalities have different jurisdictions, some substantial and integrated into the state unified court system, and some minor, with non-lawyer judges often presiding in Justice Courts. In New York State:
City courts handle the arraignment of felonies, try misdemeanors and lesser offenses, and try civil lawsuits involving claims of up to $15,000.
The New York City Criminal Court and the New York City Civil Court are the local courts in the 5 boroughs of New York City. (Ed. The New York City Civil Court has jurisdiction over civil lawsuits involving up to $25,000.)
Some city courts have small claims parts for the informal disposition of matters involving claims of up to $5,000 and/or housing parts to handle landlord-tenant matters and housing violations.
The District Court is the local criminal and civil court in Nassau County and the five western towns of Suffolk County. It arraigns felonies and tries misdemeanors and lesser offenses, as well as civil lawsuits involving claims of up to $15,000, small claims and small commercial claims up to $5000, and landlord-tenant actions.
Justice courts (town and village courts) try misdemeanors and lesser offenses in towns and villages. These courts are the starting point for all criminal cases outside cities, and handle a variety of other matters including small claims, traffic ticket cases and local zoning matters. They also arraign defendants accused of felonies. These courts may hear civil lawsuits involving claims of up to $3,000 (including small claims cases of up to $3,000). Unlike all other courts which are state-funded, the town and village justice courts are locally funded. Justices are chosen by local election and are not required to have a law degree, license to practice or any other formal legal or law enforcement training, although upon election they are provided with training and are subject to an annual continuing education requirement.
The Traffic Violations Bureau (TVB) is a part of the state Department of Motor Vehicles that adjudicates non-criminal traffic violations (other than parking violations) in New York City.
The New York City Office of Administrative Trials and Hearings (OATH) is an agency of the New York city government that conducts administrative hearings, overseeing the operations of four tribunals: the OATH Tribunal, the Environmental Control Board, the Health Tribunal, and the Taxi & Limousine Tribunal.
Other U.S. court terminology is also inconsistent
The terms "county court" and "district court" sometimes are used in particular court systems to refer to limited jurisdiction courts and are sometimes used in particular court systems to refer to general jurisdiction courts.
The term "circuit court" is sometimes used to refer to general jurisdiction trial courts, and is sometimes used to refer to appellate courts.
The term "supreme court" is sometimes used to refer to the highest appellate court in a court system, sometimes used to refer to the general jurisdiction trial court in a system, and sometimes use to refer to an intermediate jurisdiction appellate court.
At least when I was practicing actively in New York State, the "Family Court" didn't have jurisdiction over divorces which was handled in the "Supreme Court" a general jurisdiction trial court which was also an intermediate appellate court.
The term "superior court" is usually used for a county level trial court with jurisdiction over some or all felony cases but not jurisdiction over civil lawsuits.
Courts with probate court jurisdiction have a variety of amusing names, including "orphan's court" and "surrogate's court" and "probate court" and "chancery court" when they are not part of another court.
Some courts of general jurisdiction also have jurisdiction over minor criminal and civil cases and customarily delegate authority over the smaller cases to junior judges appointed by the senior judges who are called magistrates. The term "magistrate" is also applied in some legal contexts (especially constitutional criminal procedure) in a manner that includes judges of limited jurisdiction courts that aren't part of a general jurisdiction court even though they are subordinate to the general jurisdiction court.
Your Answer
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Resources for Mitigating HABs
Introduction to Selecting a Mitigation Strategy
algae bloom
Numerous methods for managing and mitigating algae and CyanoHAB blooms in lakes and reservoirs are included in the following flowchart. small version of the flowchart image The flowchart highlights important elements and decision points leading to the selection of mitigation methods relevant to the characteristics of specific lakes. The flowchart is a simplification but clearly illustrates the complexity of the problems associated with making effective mitigation decisions. Frequently, multiple mitigation techniques and repeated applications are required to ensure and maintain success.
The flowchart is divided into three primary categories:
1. Bloom prevention,
2. Bloom reduction and prevention of future blooms, and
3. Bloom reduction with no prevention of future blooms.
Cautions for Chemical Use
small version of the Algaecide flowchart Flowchart category (3) typically relies on the application of algaecides to quickly stop or reduce a specific nuisance bloom. Permits are required for algaecide use – see presentation and weed control permit webpage. Algaecides are sometimes critically needed in a timely fashion to control specific problem blooms, e.g., in drinking water supplies. Algaecides do nothing to address root causes or prevent future CyanoHAB events and if improperly used can seriously affect non-target species and food web, as illustrated on the following flowchart.
A particularly concerning impact to non-target species of algaecides applied to a massive bloom is the potential for rapid die-off of the bloom to cause depletion of dissolved oxygen and consequently a massive fish kill. Whether a fish die-off occurs is related to the size of the algal bloom, the rapidity of the algal bloom decline, the depth and volume of water in the lake, and other factors. Chemical treatments can be very effective at controlling the size of algal blooms and should be carried out at an early stage in the bloom—before algal biomass reaches a critical level—to avoid rapid oxygen depletion and fish kills in treated lakes. (Fish kills can also happen due to natural die-off of blooms that cause rapid oxygen depletion.) This requires an appropriate and routine monitoring program (see Resources section below) that can detect a bloom early in its development. It also requires a system in place and ready to implement to respond to the detection.
Algaecides may also result in the release of toxins contained in cells into the water, making them more problematic to remove during drinking water treatment, and having potential adverse ecological impacts.
Moreover, the release of toxins may also impact cultural uses. Tribes and Tribal communities who engage in traditional water uses such as gathering, ceremonies, navigation, subsistence consumption and other intrinsic uses of waters within their ancestral territories are often bound to both location and timeframe for these activities, as practiced by their families and ancestors before them.
Prior to any algaecide treatments on a waterbody, waterbody managers should engage local Tribes and their Regional Water Board to determine the best course of action to protect Tribal cultural uses and mitigate for any increased lysing of cyanobacteria cells that would increase exposure to cyanotoxins during Tribal cultural uses. Herbicide and algaecide treatments should always avoid locations and times that could create impacts on Tribal cultural uses and users.
Flowchart categories (1) and (2) may rely on the application of other chemicals. For example, aluminum sulfate (alum) is used to coagulate and flocculate phosphorus to sequester it in bottom sediments. If lake water buffering capacity is insufficient, then chemical buffering agents must be used to avoid drops in pH that can be toxic to fish.
urban waterbody
Addressing the Root Cause
Flowchart categories (1) and (2) are more focused on addressing the root causes of the blooms through nutrient management using a wide variety of approaches. Both categories have many management options in common. The primary driver of CyanoHAB blooms are nutrients, with phosphorus being widely recognized as the most important nutrient, but certainly not the only one.
In-depth Understanding of Nutrient Sources and Dynamics
It is critical to understand the sources and dynamics of nutrients in problem lakes prior to selecting mitigation strategies, see Nutrients Dynamics Document. Selection of mitigation measures should be based on at least one year of monitoring data and a basic understanding of the characteristics unique to your lake, including its basic hydrology. Although the same processes are at work in most lakes and reservoirs, the relative importance of individual processes are dependent upon many factors including lake and watershed morphometry, land use, hydrodynamics, nutrient sources, and many other factors. Each lake is unique with its own “personality” and history. The task is to understand it sufficiently to make informed management decisions.
Resources for Lake Managers and the General Public
The following resources are organized to systematically direct lake managers and the general public to information useful for understanding applicable limnology principles, management techniques, mitigation strategies, permitting requirements, and to pertinent professional societies.
Mitigation Subcommittee Resources
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Knoop explores economic inequality in new book
The pages of today’s newspapers are packed with stories about economic inequality in which the rich are becoming richer and the poor are falling behind.
Todd Knoop in his office
Todd Knoop
Those stories inspired Cornell College’s David Joyce Professor of Economics and Business Todd Knoop to look for answers in his new book, “Understanding Economic Inequality: Bigger Pies and Just Deserts.”
“Economists have always primarily focused on growth—increasing the size of the pie is the priority, not so much how the pie is divided up,” Knoop said. “But in an age where economic growth is slowing, how you slice the pie becomes a bigger issue.”
This marks Knoop’s seventh book–something he says is hard to wrap his mind around. After three years of research, he is taking a unique approach to looking at our new economic reality.
“The objective of this book is to bring an economist’s eye and a mind broadened by insights from philosophy, sociology, psychology, and politics to examine questions related to why economic inequality is growing and why this is so important,” Knoop said. “How bad is inequality? How has it changed over time? What is driving it? How does it differ across people and places? Why should we worry about it? What policies can be adopted to moderate it?”
Knoop’s goal is to help people understand the world around them and how much economic inequality actually matters for everyone.
“Inequality impacts our institutions, which influences our ability as a society to function effectively and productively,” Knoop said. “More unequal societies become less cooperative societies and are more likely to suffer from political dysfunction, lower public health, worse educational outcomes, and less intergenerational mobility. More unequal societies provide fewer public goods, suffer from more discrimination, are more vulnerable to conflicts such as crime and war, and suffer from greater macroeconomic and financial instability.”
Knoop has already incorporated his findings into his courses at Cornell and has goals to teach this topic as a full course. He would like for it to become a second-year-seminar (SYS) course under Cornell’s new Ingenuity curriculum with students visiting local schools and jails. SYS courses are focused on citizenship in practice, where students learn through a variety of hands-on experiences.
“One of the best things about teaching at a liberal arts college is that I have great freedom to pursue my academic interests, whatever they might be and however they might change,” Knoop said. “I have the luxury to get interested in something and to read and learn more about it. I often find ways that I can incorporate these interests into class, and occasionally I can turn this learning into a book. It is a real privilege to have a job where learning and sharing what I learn is what I get paid to do.”
Readers can purchase “Understanding Economic Inequality: Bigger Pies and Just Desserts” on Amazon.
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December 06, 2021
You must have seen these kinds of fans at airports, factories, industrial plants and manufacturing units. But have you wondered why are they used instead of the traditional fans? This article is focused on answering that very question of yours.
The inspiration for a huge ceiling fan that runs at a low pace and can circulate a significant volume of air, actually came from a necessity. It was late 90s when a certain farmer came upto a local fan maker and said that his cattle couldn’t produce milk if the climate got too hot. Thus, the fan maker came up with an idea to make a oversized industrial fan that could keep the livestock cool. This how the first High Volume Low speed fan was manufactured.
According to various studies, HVLS fans are incorporated because they provide a comforting movement and flow of air. This is essential to the productivity of working individuals in a factory, industry or a warehouse. The study implied that a hot and humid environment can drastically decrease the gross productivity of all the employees and workers, and it stated that the ideally recommended temperature should be maintained in the range of 20 to 24 degree Celsius.
How does a High Volume Low Speed Fan work?
HVLS fans make use of their bulk to blow a vast volume of air. The wind created by HVLS fans decreases the effective temperature by 13 degrees. They circulate a lot of air, which helps to break down the moisture-saturated border surrounding the body. This accelerates the body's natural perspiration, resulting in a cooling effect. As they spin, HVLS ceiling fans create a big column of air, which propels air down and along the bottom. As even more air is driven towards to the flooring, it flows ahead until it hits a sidewall and then returns upward, causing an airflow cycle. This airflow also has a favourable impact on lowering humidity, which ordinary industrial fans or blowers do not have.
Nilkamal’s High Volume Low speed HVLS Fans
Large Ceiling Fans: Nilkamal’s Low Volume, High Speed large Ceiling fans assist to control temperature by covering a vast area while consuming little energy. The fan is made up of multiple Motor brackets that keep any loose pieces from sliding off. It has an anti-off-plate break-off safeguard that protects the safety and tensile strength of the ceiling. Tensile blades made of aluminium magnesium alloy provide better quality, strength, and toughness. It also has a wire rope traction mechanism for motor stability and an automatic power-off safeguard.
Long Range Mobile Fans: Nilkamal’s Long Range, High Volume Mobile fans can be readily relocated about the space, and their long blades cover large areas while maintaining temperature with minimal energy use. These fans are suitable for usage in factories, warehouses, retail malls, schools, cafeterias, auditoriums, cinema halls, and temples. It weighs around 216 kg and revolves at a speed of 186 RPM.
Breeze By Nilkamal- Elegant Range Of HVLS FansThe Nilkamal Breeze HVLS Fans may be used both indoors and outdoors. High Volume Low Speed Ceiling Fans help to control temperature by covering a vast area while consuming less energy. To tell you more, it features a Fluorocarbon-treated surface for a modern and attractive appearance, as well as a unique blade design with a broad angle to optimise air volume and coverage. The Nilkamal Breeze brand of HVLS fans is a step up from the company's flagship line of Large HVLS Ceiling fans. These have improved aesthetics and may be employed in commercial areas and businesses. Stylish seamed edge design with smooth and round transitions, as well as a "Meteor" inspired winglet design that resembles a meteor with a trailing tail.
Advantages of a HVLS fan over the usage of normal fans
Nilkamal’s HVLS fans are made up of permanent magnetic motor. A regular fan houses a Gear Box Variable motor which when compared to a permanent magnet motor has a lot of shortcomings and has inferior specifications. HVLS fans can help increase productivity by making the work environment cooler and let tiring. They cover a larger area, when compared to normal fans that would require multiple fans to cover the whole area, thus decreasing the net power consumption. HVLS fans are characterized with high air flow volume and low noise, two other things that are of major importance at a workplace.
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Diagnosing Cause of Vertigo in Primary Care
A 57-year-old woman presents to her primary care provider with complaints of dizziness, which began 3 hours ago and is continuous. She describes the dizziness as a room-spinning sensation that is not relieved or associated with any particular position. The dizziness is associated with headache, nausea, vomiting, weakness, and loss of balance. She rates the dizziness severity as an 8 out of 10. The patient denies fever, chills, fatigue, night sweats, weight changes, head injury, tinnitus, hearing loss, otorrhea, otalgia, vision changes, recent upper respiratory tract illness, or syncopal episodes. She states she has never experienced anything like this before.
The patient’s medical history is significant for morbid obesity (body mass index, 48), type 2 diabetes, hypothyroidism, and hyperlipidemia. She notes that she does not exercise and that her diet consists of fast food most days of the week. She admits to occasional alcohol use once or twice a month and denies tobacco or drug use.
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The patient appears disheveled but alert and oriented to person, place, time, and situation. Vital signs are shown in Table 1. Her head and face are symmetrical with no signs of ptosis or facial droop. Eye examination (pupil, equal, round, reactive to light) is normal, and ophthalmoscopic examination shows initial signs of cataracts bilaterally. No exudates, hemorrhages, or angiogenesis are present. Hearing and ear examinations are normal. No pain is reported on palpation of frontal sinuses. Mucous membranes appear moist without edema or erythema. Lips and gingiva are pink. Tonsils present bilaterally with no erythema or edema. Heart rate and rhythm are normal, and normal S1 and S2 sounds are heard with the patient leaning forward with no murmur appreciated. Cranial nerve examination is normal.
A neurologic examination finds the patient off balance with an unsteady gait when attempting to walk across the examination room; Romberg test is positive. All other tests are normal with reflexes 2+ bilaterally. Complete blood cell count is within normal limits but the patient’s blood glucose level is elevated (180 mg/dL). An electrocardiogram is performed and shows normal sinus rhythm with no ischemic changes noted.
A Head Impulse, Nystagmus, and Test of Skew (HINTS) examination is performed because the patient reports continuous vertigo symptoms. The HINTS examination is used to differentiate between a central or peripheral cause of dizziness. The results from the bedside HINTS assessment on this patient are as follows:
• Nystagmus type is bidirectional
• Skew deviation is positive for vertical deviation of the left eye
• Head impulse test is normal
The results from the HINTS examination are concerning for a central etiology of the patient’s vertigo. A posterior stroke is suspected. An ambulance is called, and the patient is transported to a stroke center. The patient undergoes diffuse weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and is diagnosed with an ischemic posterior stroke located in the medial branch of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery.
The diagnosis is within the 4.5-hour window for administration of thrombolytics. She has full resolution of neurologic symptoms after administration of tissue plasminogen activator.
Dizziness is a common complaint for which patients seek medical care. It has been reported that 5.6 million office visits per year are due to dizziness in the United States.1 Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) is the most common cause of vertigo and affects 15% to 20% of adults annually.2
In addition to BPPV, causes of peripheral vertigo include Ménière disease, vestibular neuronitis, and vestibular migraine. Taking a detailed patient history and performing the correct physical examination is important to help identify the cause of vertigo and rule out potentially life-threatening diseases, including posterior circulation stroke.
Posterior strokes can be missed in patients who present with dizziness.3 In a study of 1666 patients who presented to the emergency department with dizziness, 35% of those with stroke/transient ischemic attack were misdiagnosed.4 Medical providers need to recognize the subtle signs and symptoms of stroke and know when to perform the HINTS exam. In a comparative study, the sensitivity and specificity of the HINTS examination were found to be greater than those of MRI if performed less than 48 hours from symptom onset.3
When taking a patient history, it is best to determine the timing and triggers of vertigo rather than the characteristics. In a study, patients changed the description of their dizziness half of the time when asked repeated questions within a 10-minute time frame whereas reporting of the timing and triggers of symptoms was more consistent.5
The timing of vertigo is used to differentiate between 2 syndromes: episodic vestibular syndrome or acute vestibular syndrome. Episodic vestibular syndrome is classified by periods of transient vertigo, dizziness, or unsteadiness lasting seconds, hours, or occasionally days. Episodic vestibular syndrome is further classified into triggered or spontaneous subtypes. Triggered episodic vestibular syndrome (t-EVS) is aggravated by a trigger, the most common being head movement or changes in body position.6 Orthostatic hypotension is the most common cause of t-EVS followed by BPPV. Spontaneous episodic vestibular syndrome (s-EVS) lasts minutes to hours and has no associated trigger. The most common form of s-EVS is vestibular migraine.6
Acute vestibular syndrome (AVS) is continuous vertigo, dizziness, or unsteadiness that lasts days to weeks and includes symptoms of new vestibular system dysfunction, including vomiting, nystagmus, and impaired gait.6 Acute vestibular syndrome is further classified into traumatic/toxic or spontaneous subtypes. Traumatic/toxic AVS is caused by head trauma or drug intoxication. Spontaneous acute vestibular syndrome (s-AVS) has no apparent trigger. The most common cause of s-AVS is vestibular neuritis; however, 10% to 20% of patients with s-AVS present with stroke.6
Once the practitioner has taken a detailed history, a thorough physical examination should be performed and should include taking orthostatic vital signs, performing a cardiac examination, and detailed examination of the head, ears, eyes, and nervous system. In addition, patients with details consistent with AVS should undergo the HINTS examination to differentiate a peripheral cause of vertigo from a potentially devastating central cause. Evidence has shown that this examination alone can accurately help identify 10% to 20% of patients with AVS resulting from posterior stroke.5
Primary care providers can learn to perform and interpret the HINTS bedside examination to help minimize misdiagnosis. The HINTS examination when performed within 48 hours of symptom onset has a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 96% for diagnosing stroke.3 The bedside examination rules out stroke more accurately than early MRI; however, it is underutilized because of lack of training (see How to Perform HINTS Examination).3,7
How to Perform HINTS Examination
To perform the Head Impulse, Nystagmus, and Test of Skew (HINTS) examination, have the patient sit comfortably in a chair. Nystagmus type is first observed. Nystagmus is observed in the patient first during primary gaze, then lateral gaze. If nystagmus is not present, then acute vestibular neuronitis or stroke is unlikely and the rest of the HINTS examination should be stopped as it may show false results.7 If nystagmus is present, the direction of the fast-beating component is noted. Unidirectional nystagmus is reassuring as it indicates a peripheral cause of vertigo. Bidirectional nystagmus is concerning for a central pathology.
The next component of the HINTS examination is a Test of Skew. This is done by performing the cover-uncover test for each eye and observing if there is any vertical movement of the uncovered eye. A normal response is no vertical correction whereas vertical skew is worrisome for a central pathology.
Finally, the Head Impulse test is performed by holding the patient’s head while the patient looks directly at the provider’s nose. The head is then moved back and forth slowly left to right and then briskly to the center. This maneuver tests the vestibulo-ocular reflex. A positive result will show the eyes moving with the head, then snap back in a fast corrective movement to look at the provider’s nose. This is called a corrective saccade.1 The test is considered negative if the eyes do not remain on target, therefore demonstrating a lack of corrective saccade.7 In this instance, a positive or abnormal head impulse indicates a peripheral cause of vertigo whereas a negative or normal head impulse test is worrisome for posterior stroke (Table 2).
A single central finding on any of the 3 components rules in a posterior circulation stroke.7 The acronym INFARCT can be used to remember the worrisome signs for stroke (Impulse Normal, Fast phase Alternating, Refixation on Cover Test).
Primary care providers should also be aware that patients presenting with continuous vertigo secondary to posterior stroke are more likely to have associated gait disturbance, focal neurologic complaints, headache, sudden onset of symptoms, positional isolated vertigo, and auditory symptoms. When any of these symptoms are present, the HINTS examination should be utilized in the workup of the patient; however, these typical neurologic symptoms can be absent in some patients who present with mass effect from large cerebellar infarction.3 Sometimes, the only symptom that these patients exhibit is severe truncal ataxia.3
If the HINTS examination does not suggest a central cause or the patient presents with episodic vertiginous symptoms then a peripheral cause of vertigo such as BPPV should be considered. The diagnosis of peripheral causes involves performing the Dix-Hallpike maneuver. When performing the maneuver, the latency, direction, time course, and duration of nystagmus are noted for diagnosis.8 The nystagmus produced by the Dix-Hallpike maneuver for the most common type of BPPV, posterior canal BPPV (pc-BPPV), is upward torsional nystagmus beating toward the lowermost ear.9 The nystagmus develops with a brief latency of several seconds and fatigues with repeated maneuvers.9 The Dix-Hallpike maneuver is the gold standard test for diagnosing pc-BPPV. The treatment of choice is to perform a canalith repositioning maneuver, also known as the Epley maneuver; however, BPPV can spontaneously resolve with time on its own. Spontaneous recovery occurs in 20% of patients within 1 month, and up to 50% of patients recover within 3 months.1
Hannah Grachek, PA-C, practices in primary care in Buford, Georgia. Kelly S. Reed, PharmD, MPA, PA-C, is an assistant professor in the Physician Assistant Program at Augusta University in Augusta, Georgia.
1. Bhattacharyya N, Gubbels SP, Schwartz SR, et al. Clinical practice guideline: benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (update). Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017;156(3_suppl):S1S47. doi:10.1177/0194599816689667
2. Palmeri R, Kumar A. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo. In: StatPears. StatPearls Publishing; 2021. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470308/
4. Kerber KA, Brown DL, Lisabeth LD, Smith MA, Morgenstern LB. Stroke among patients with dizziness, vertigo, and imbalance in the emergency department: a population-based study. Stroke. 2006;37(10):2484-2487. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000240329.48263.0d
5. Edlow JA, Newman-Toker D. Using the physical examination to diagnose patients with acute dizziness and vertigo. J Emerg Med. 2016;50(4):617-628. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2015.10.040
6. Tehrani ASS, Kattah JC, Kerber KA, et al. Diagnosing stroke in acute dizziness and vertigo: pitfalls and pearls. Stroke. 2018;49(3):788-795. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.016979
7. Edlow JA, Gurley KL, Newman-Toker DE. A new diagnostic approach to the adult patient with acute dizziness. J Emerg Med. 2018;54(4):469-483. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2017.12.024
8. von Brevern M, Bertholon P, Brandt T, et al. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo: diagnostic criteria. J Vestib Res. 2015;25(3-4):105-117. doi:10.3233/VES-150553
9. Lee SH, Kim JS. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo. J Clin Neurol. 2010;6(2):51‐63. doi:10.3988/jcn.2010.6.2.51
From the January/February 2022 Issue of Clinical Advisor
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A City That Never Was is Revealed Once Again in Thomas Hager’s New Book
Thomas Hager’s engrossing new book, Electric City: The Lost History of Ford and Edison’s American Utopia, which chronicles the development of Muscle Shoals, Alabama, and the fight between public and private interests to power the region, is not like the stodgy American history textbooks of childhood we can all remember. There, place names, events, and people of note were in bold-faced text. Images were sparse. And the entire text was devoid of life. This is not the case for Electric City.
Hager is a trained scientist and journalist. His science background is perhaps more evident in his previous books, The Demon Under the Microscope, which tells the story of the discovery of sulfa drugs, and The Alchemy of Air, about the development of fertilizer in the early 20th century; however, it was his invitation to give a talk on fertilizer that lead him to Muscle Shoals, Alabama, and the opportunity to discover the sparse remains of “Ford City,” crumbling sidewalks and vintage fire hydrants. A city that never was, it turns out.
Muscle Shoals was originally developed by the government during WWI with a dam to power two state-of-the art fertilizer factories, factories which were never used, because the war ended. After 10 years of neglect, American icon Henry Ford set his sights on Muscle Shoals. With Thomas Edison at his side, Ford sought to purchase the Muscle Shoals project from the government to power his factories and electrify 75 miles of utopian city along the river: people would work the factories and the fields, embodying Ford’s romantic notion of agrarian America supported by the promise of technology. Despite his close ties to Presidents Harding and Coolidge, Ford met with resistance from Senator George Norris among others, and ultimately, he walked away from his dreams of the Electric City. In the end, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) took over the Muscle Shoals dam, bringing power and opportunity to the region. The tension between government control and the interests of private corporations has never been so engaging.
Hager’s portrayal of the key players, Ford, Edison, Norris, and David Lilienthal, are revelatory. One appreciates Ford’s innovation and recoils from his virulent antisemitism and megalomania. Edison is a fragile character — more sidekick than innovator — trotted out by Ford to garner support, though Edison admits publicly that he knows nothing about fertilizer. Senator George Norris, appointed chair of the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry where he “would not stir up much trouble,” is adamant that he will not allow Ford to take advantage of the region. Lilienthal, head of the TVA, works hard “elbowing” the private interests away from government projects, a powerbroker in more than one way.
Our social media saturated lives make it difficult to recall that newspapers were once information kings. Electric City puts a reader back in 1930s America. Names like Chicago Tribune, New York Times, and Wall Street Journal are familiar, but Hager references the Dearborn Independent, Youth’s Companion, New York Tribune, Florence Times and others, in addition to including political cartoons, the more sophisticated and artful memes of their day.
A willingness to conjecture sets Hager apart from many of his contemporaries. In the last chapter, he poses the question, “If Henry Ford’s bid had been accepted, would his seventy-five mile city have done more good than the government did with the TVA?” The answer is of course complex, but Hager’s strong handle on history as well as current events makes for a satisfying ending.
That this “Electric City” was only ever a dream does not detract from Hager’s masterful storytelling and keen eye for details that bring history to life. You will wonder why we had to read all of those dry history textbooks back in school.
Electric City: The Lost History of Ford and Edison’s American Utopia
By Thomas Hager
Abrams Press
Published May 18, 2021
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The Joy of Language Learning
The World of Benevolent Words
It is said that a good person is one who brings out the good in other people. Similarly, a good word in the English language should be one that brings out the good in it. There are quite a few benign words, the benefits of using which are reaped by both the beneficiary and the benefactor and, in case you haven’t noticed till now, all of them contain the syllable ’ben’.
Ben- is a root word that has its root in the Latin word beningus meaning well or good. Thus most words consisting of this term have a positive connotation, unless altered by the use of prefixes/suffixes. Even though the scope of interpretation in this case has been limited, a good number of words have managed to come up.
Image Credit: Unknown/ Wikipedia
Let us start with the most common example possible – benefit, meaning a good, advantageous or useful effect that something has. It consists of the Latin root bene(good) and facere (to do). A whole bunch of new words could then be formed with the help of minor adjustments. Something that is beneficial is helpful or useful. Benefaction refers to donation or a gift. Extending from it, a benefactor (female: benefactress) is someone who helps people or institutions, especially used in the context of financial help and the entity in the receiving end of the help is referred to as the beneficiary. If you have read Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations, the protagonist Pip was the beneficiary while Abel Magwitch, the criminal, was his secret benefactor.
Few words derived from the root imbibe the sense of goodness and goodwill. Benign is one such word that is used to represent a gentle and kind nature. It can also mean the state of being harmless when used in a medical context. Adding the suffix –ity to it, we get benignity (the state of being benign or good willed). Benevolence refers to the quality of being well meaning and kind. Extending from it, a benevolent person is someone who is well meaning and kind. It can also be used to signify institutions that serve charitable rather than profit-making purpose.
Image Credits:
Image Credits: Jan Alexander/ Pixabay
Now, what can be better than being good, you ask? Being divine. The belief in a benevolent almighty resulted in a derivation like benison which is a synonym for blessings. Other words in a similar context are benediction (from Latin bene- meaning good and dicere, meaning speech) which essentially refers to a prayer and benefice which refers to a position in a church.
Let’s have a test to see how well acquainted you are with these words and if that acquaintance will turn into a lasting friendship:
BenefitAnd advantageous or good effect
BeneficialSomething that is good or useful
BenefactionA donation or gift
BenefactorSomeone who helps people or institutions financially (female: benefactress)
BenignA gentle or kind nature
Benign-ityThe quality of being gentle and kind
BenevolentA person who is well meaning and kind
BenevolenceThe quality of being well meaning and kind
BenedictionA prayer
BeneficeA position in church
Welcome to A Benign Quiz
Teachers are the _____________ of the society.
A Teacher
Image Credit: Mote Oo Education/ Pixabay
Martha is a [kind and gentle] old lady. The bracketed words can be replaced by:
Do you believe that a [well-meaning and kind] deity is in charge of the word? The bracketed words can be replaced by:
Sir Ratan Tata’s philanthropic ventures have helped a large number of ______________:
The world 'benevolent' in the news clipping refers to:
Our town is big enough and benevolent enough
Image Credit:
3. An advantageous or good affect
4. A donation or gift
5. A person who is well meaning and kind
1. A kind or gentle nature
2. Someone who helps people or institutions financially (male)
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Great balls of graphene: New Samsung tech could charge phones five times faster
Samsung Galaxy Note 8 how does fast charging work
Samsung’s Advanced Institute of Technology has come up with another use for graphene, a material that’s part of many exciting future projects from purifying seawater to detecting cancer, this time putting it to work inside lithium-ion batteries. Scientists created a “graphene ball” coating for use inside a regular li-ion cell, which has the effect of increasing the overall capacity by up to 45 percent and speeding up charging by five times.
Any smartphone owner will know the pain of waiting for a battery to charge up, especially when time is of the essence, and even though we have effective proprietary tech available to use like OnePlus’s Dash Charge and Huawei’s SuperCharge, the recharge times never dip below an hour. If a graphene ball can speed things up in the manner suggested by the research team, that will all change.
If your phone charges up in 90 minutes now, that number will tumble to just 18 minutes if the cell inside has been given a graphene ball boost. What’s more, this doesn’t seem to affect the cell’s lifespan, with the team claiming that after 500 cycles, the enhanced battery still had a 78 percent charge retention. The graphene coating improves the stability and conductivity of the battery’s cathode and electrode, so it’s able to take the rigors of fast charging with fewer downsides.
Samsung’s research team has published a long, very technical paper about how the graphene ball works, and how it’s produced. It’s clear the technology is at the very early stages, and isn’t likely to be a major feature on the Galaxy S9 (or the iPhone 11 or any other device next year), but its potential to have an impact on future batteries inside Samsung and other phones is obvious. Who doesn’t want a faster charging, longer-lasting battery inside their favorite device?
Li-ion batteries power not only our mobile gadgets, where fast charging is a extremely helpful, but they are also used in electric vehicles, where fast charging is essential for wider adoption. Samsung says it’s possible the graphene ball technology can be scaled up from small capacity cells in our phones, to much larger batteries inside cars. The company has filed patents in the United States and South Korea for graphene ball technology, but there is no indication when or if it will reach a consumer product.
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3月 7, 2013
Deal and Kennedy (1984) considerculture as“The way we do things round here.” They disputethat culture is key to role-playing in the success or failure of organizations. They suggest that culture consists of four dimensions:values, heroes, idols, rites and rituals and the culture network (1982). ComparabletoSchein’sdepiction, value reflects dissimilarmannerstowards different dilemmasoradvancement. Heroes are those who conveyconventionalset of lawsand values which are fashionedby the bestof the organization. Rites and rituals are the legitimatetechniquesby whichparty votersconduct tasks or interact with others. The culture network is where partyvoterscommunicate with each other.
Cameron &Quinn (1999) come up with their theory of the Competing Values Framework, as can be shown in Figure-1.
Source: The Competing Values Framework: Organizational Culture (Adapted from Quinn 1988)
They measure organization culture in respect oftwo dimensions: internal/external focus and stability/flexibility structure (Gray& Densten). There are four quadrants followed. The first quadrant is named Clan; its traitis high flexibility and an internal focus. The kind of culture accentuates information sharing andparticipative decision-making.Members have strongest feelings of affiliation and belonging. The second quadrantis characterized byhigh flexibility and high external focus, as we can see from picture. This kind of culture stresses the significance of innovation, creativity and external support. The third quadrant is named as Hierarchy. In this kind of culture, management and control are stressed, thus tasks and duties are performed efficiently. The last quadrant is named market. It is a market oriented type of organization. Members stress productivity, efficiency and competitiveness.
新政和肯尼迪（1984年）considerculture“的方式，我们做一些事情，在这里圆。”他们disputethat文化是组织的成功或失败的角色扮演的关键。他们认为，文化包括四个方面：价值观，英雄，偶像，仪式和仪式和文化网络（1982）。ComparabletoSchein’sdepiction，值反映dissimilarmannerstowards不同的dilemmasoradvancement的。英雄是那些谁conveyconventionalset的lawsand值，这是fashionedby的最妙的组织。仪式和仪式是的legitimatetechniquesby whichparty votersconduct，任务或与他人互动。是partyvoterscommunicate彼此的文化网络。
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Researchers goes to the bottom of the brain
Swedish researchers have recently got new and deeper knowledge about the smallest part of the brain, the granule cells.
Researchers from the University of Lund open new ways to improve the treatment and rehabilitation of brain damages motoric disabilities. The research group is the first in the world to describe how the brain work up natural signals, in detail.
The researchers Fredrik Bengtsson and Henrik Jörntell at the Department of Medicine have studied the so called granule cells. These are the smallest cells in the brain, functioning as intermediary between the skin and the little brain.
The cerebellum, or little brain , is a brain region that plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception, coordination and motor control. In order to coordinate motor control, there are many neural pathways linking the cerebellum with the cerebral motor cortex, sending information to the muscles causing them to move.
It is previously well-known that the brain uses short electrical signals to communicate, and that new electrical signals are produced regularly, in a way that is unique for each cell. What is new in this study is that the researchers have described how the brain’s granule cells recieve and integrate the sensory information fromthe skin and take the information to the little brain, on a very detailed level.
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Readers ask: Before Christianity What Was The Dominant Religion In Iceland?
What religion is dominant in Iceland?
Were Christians in Iceland before the Vikings?
The history of Christianity in Iceland can be traced back to the Early Middle Ages when Irish hermits settled in Iceland at least a century before the arrival of the first Norse settlers in the 870s. Christianity started to spread among the Icelanders at the end of the 10th century.
What was the main religion before Christianity?
What are the top three religions in Iceland?
Religion in Iceland
• Church of Iceland (Lutheran) (62.28%)
• Free Lutheran Church in Reykjavík (2.72%)
• Free Lutheran Church in Hafnarfjörður (1.99%)
• Independent Lutheran Congregation (0.88%)
• Catholic Church (3.97%)
• Other Christian denominations (1.92%)
• Heathenism (1.40%)
• Humanism (1.11%)
You might be interested: Readers ask: Which Religion Is Older Islam, Christianity Or Budhism?
What is Norway’s religion?
What are some traditional foods eaten in Iceland?
Eat like a Viking with these 7 traditional Icelandic foods
• Skyr. Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Icelandic Provisions.
• Reykjavik’s hot dog (pylsur) Image Credit: Flickr / momo.
• Lamb. Lamb is the quintessential ingredient of Icelandic foods.
• Ice cream.
• Harðfiskur (dried fish)
• Rye bread from a hot spring.
• Seafood.
What year did Iceland convert to Christianity?
Sources. According to Njáls saga the Althing in 1000 declared Christianity as the official religion. Iceland’s adoption of Christianity is traditionally ascribed to the year 1000 (although some historians would place it in the year 999).
Are Icelanders descendants of Vikings?
Icelanders are undoubtedly the descendants of Vikings. Before the Vikings arrived in Iceland the country had been inhabited by Irish monks but they had since then given up on the isolated and rough terrain and left the country without even so much as a listed name.
Do people still believe in Odin?
What is the oldest religion?
You might be interested: Question: What Religion Was Spain Before Christianity?
What religion was here first?
Which religion came first on earth?
Which religion is most popular?
Adherents in 2020
Religion Adherents Percentage
Christianity 2.382 billion 31.11%
Islam 1.907 billion 24.9%
Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist 1.193 billion 15.58%
Hinduism 1.251 billion 15.16%
Which country is the least religious?
Rank Country /District No, unimportant
1 Estonia 78%
2 Sweden 82%
3 Denmark 80%
4 Czechia 75%
What was Iceland called before 1944?
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Marseilles - Shipping Wonders of the World
Shipping Wonders of the World
Marseilles: France’s Key to the Mediterranean
OF the great world seaports we know to-day, Marseilles is not merely one of the most important; it is also one of the most ancient. Southampton, which the Romans knew as Clausentum, is quite young beside it. As ports, New York and Glasgow are babies; lusty, but born only yesterday.
About 2,500 years ago, in the sixth century B.C., the Phoenicians were the great shipowners of the world, and they doubtless knew the harbour which lies so snugly to the east of the mouths of the River Rhone. Probably their strange-looking galleys lay in that harbour when they came to trade with the primitive peoples of ancient Celtic France. Only it was not France in those days but Gaul, for centuries were yet to elapse before the Franks, a Teutonic people, were to sweep westwards from across the Rhine and give the country the name by which we now know it, having first conquered and then intermarried with the Celts.
Although the Phoenicians knew this magnificent harbour from the earliest times, the credit for founding Marseilles does not belong to them. For at that dim date in European history, 600 B.C., a convoy of Greek merchant ships came sailing northwards into the Gulf of Lions. Those on board were seeking some place for a settlement and a permanent market, in which they might barter finished goods — ornaments and weapons — for the rich raw materials brought down the valley of the Rhone by the Gauls. These Greeks came from Phocaea, in Asia Minor, not as conquerors but as traders and settlers.
First of all, these Phocaean Greeks probably struck the mouths of the Rhone, but the anchorages there were too full of silt and sandbanks to show much promise as the site of a future seaport. So they cruised eastwards again along the coast until they, too, came upon that sheltered inlet of the tideless Mediterranean, forming a perfect natural harbour. Here, then, they set up their market, and here they laid the foundations of their city to be the most westerly outpost of the ancient Greek civilization. They called the place Massalia. That was the beginning of Marseilles.
As the centuries rolled by, the mighty Roman Empire began to spread over Europe in all directions. It crept along the southern coasts of Gaul, and under its sway the old Greek settlement grew and flourished. The Romans slightly altered the spelling of its name, and it became Massilia.
Under the Romans, Marseilles became a formidable rival to the Phoenician seaport city of Carthage, and in due course the Romans came into conflict with the ambitious and warlike Carthaginians. The Punic Wars broke out, and there was a long and bitter struggle for supremacy in south-western Europe. In the end the Romans prevailed, Carthage was sacked and destroyed, and Marseilles became the supreme maritime city of the western Mediterranean. It was the great exchange point for all traffic in and out of that great Roman province which to-day survives in name as Provence.
THE QUAI DU PORT, or Harbour Quay, at Marseilles
THE QUAI DU PORT, or Harbour Quay, forms the northern boundary of that part of Marseilles Harbour known as Le Vieux Port, or the Old Harbour. This basin has a water area of 65 acres, a length of 2,920 feet and an average width of 1,049 feet. Across its entrance, which is 229 ft. 6 in. wide, is the transporter bridge, illustrated below. The total length of quays in the Old Harbour is 6,210 feet, and a multitude of craft, large and small, may always be seen there.
Nowadays we know Marseilles —Marseille to the French — as a link in the Imperial route between Great Britain and the East, for many people travelling to India and the East save several days by taking a special train across France and picking up the P. and 0. steamer at Marseilles. The Romans used the port in much the same way for conducting passenger and freight traffic between Britain, Gaul and their own mother country. In the first century A.D., a great straight Roman road — Watling Street — ran from Wroxeter (Salop), through London, to Dover. From Calais, or Portus Itius, as it was then called, another straight Roman road led southwards through Gaul. And from Marseilles the great sea-going galleys — some of them real “luxury liners”, with promenade decks shaded by growing vines and fruit trees, and with wonderful saloons and bathing arrangements — plied straight across the blue tideless waters to Ostia, the maritime gateway of Rome.
In our own times, Carthage is an uninhabited wilderness of ruins; we hear oftener of Genoa than of Ostia; Sidon has passed to make way for modern Haifa. In Great Britain, the ancient port of Rye is not even on the seacoast to-day, but the inland city of Manchester has become a first-class port. Marseilles, however, founded in the dawn of history, continues as one of the greatest seaports of the western world, and is also notable as the second-largest city in the French republic, with a population of over 800,000.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the fortunes of Marseilles were shaky for a time, but in the tenth century its second foundations were laid and it has flourished ever since, in spite of a stormy history during the Middle Ages, and again during the French Revolution. Marseilles is to France what Glasgow is to Great Britain.
A Stormy History
As with all great international ports, Marseilles seems to have a nationality peculiar to itself, a nationality compounded of all the hundred and one different races which use it. French it is in name, but thousands of its inhabitants who speak French as their everyday tongue and call themselves Frenchmen are of such types as Arabs and Moors, Senegalese, and men from Cochin China.
As for those who do not claim French nationality, they belong to every race under the sun. They will be found lounging on the quays, leaning over the bulwarks of ships from the other side of the world, refreshing themselves in queer little eating and drinking houses, riding off into the city in taxis with money in their pockets, returning to their ships by tram with nothing.
Among these men are huge Swedes with yellow hair; almond-eyed, dignified Chinese; lean Yankees from New England; tough, lantern-jawed Gaels from Belfast and Glasgow; wiry Japanese; blond, square-headed Germans from Bremen and Stettin; blunt-spoken Northumbrians from the Tyneside; and Cockneys from Shadwell and Hoxton.
Imagine these and other samples of the world’s population set down on the seemingly interminable quays of this great brown-and-yellow city (even steamers from the other side of the earth seem to take on the prevailing colours when they dock here), then imagine the peculiarities of all the world’s seaports jumbled together, and you have some idea of the Port of Marseilles. Yet, in the midst of all this. Marseilles has an atmosphere and an aspect entirely its own. It is not the East, yet somehow it differs from the West. It is difficult to call it French, for there is no town in France that resembles it in the least. It is purely and simply Marseillaise.
THE TRANSPORTER BRIDGE, which crosses the entrance to the Old Harbour of Marseilles
THE TRANSPORTER BRIDGE, which crosses the entrance to the Old Harbour of Marseilles, has a span of 540 feet. The bridge is 164 feet above the water, and its towers are 282 feet high. The platform which carries the traverser has a length of about 870 feet. The bridge was designed by M. Arnodin and built in 1905 In principle the transporter bridge resembles others of its type but its position makes it a prominent feature of the port.
The British traveller or visitor arriving at Marseilles for the first time in his life often approaches it from the landward side, by rail or road. This is an unfortunate necessity, made so by the geographical position of Great Britain in relation to the south of France. The proper way to approach Marseilles, the way the sailor knows, is from the blue and silver Gulf of Lions, which was known to the Greeks and the Phoenicians in days before Rome became great.
The city lies on the eastern side of the harbour, and off-shore from it lies the grim old island fortress called the Chateau d’lf, immortalized by Dumas in The Count of Monte Cristo as the prison of Edmond Dantes and of the brave old Abbe Faria. It is a crumbling place now , modern artillery and aerial bombs could reduce it to fragments in the course of an afternoon. But in days gone by it was famed as an impregnable fortress and as a prison from which escape was impossible, unless, as in Monte Cristo, the escaper had the good fortune to be mistaken for a dead man For in the Chateau d’lf a dead man’s coffin was a sack, and the sea was the castle’s cemetery.
Every great seaport, and every little one for that matter, has its landmarks. These are not wanting at Marseilles. The city’s public buildings are of little interest to the antiquary, but they make up for their comparative and not inspiring newness by a striking prominence of situation. Perhaps the most remarkable landmark is the church of Notre Dame de la Garde. It stands on the summit of a hill to the south of the Old Harbour with its bell tower crowned by a huge copper figure of the Virgin Mary. The “Good Mother”, as the figure is often called, is the same to Marseilles as the statue of Liberty (also a French production) is to New York Harbour. It is visible for miles where it stands, high above the city, seeming to cast a benevolent eye over the vast quays below, as if welcoming home the returning voyager or hailing the newcomer. Seamen of all races, and perhaps of all religions, will speak with real affection of the brooding copper statue of Notre Dame de la Garde.
Sinister Quarter
The Old Harbour lies to the south of the more modern quays, an oblong basin running roughly from west to east, with the mouth at its western end. The harbour has a water area of 65 acres, a length of 2,920 feet and a mean width of 1,049 feet. The depth varies from 11½ feet to 24½ feet. There are 6,210 feet of quayage. An annexe, known as the Bassin du Carenage, has a water area of 3¾ acres and 1,811 feet of quays.
The entrance to the Old Harbour is hidden from the southern approach by the Pharo Palace, once a residence of the Empress Eugenie and now housing the School of Colonial Medicine. The palace stands on a promontory jutting out into the main, or natural harbour. The harbour entrance lies behind this, guarded by an old fort, the Fort St. Jean, on the north side, and by the Fort St. Nicolas on the south.
Beyond these again, and spanning the mouth of the Old Harbour, is the huge transporter bridge, another of the great landmarks of modern Marseilles. This bridge does not differ materially from that which spans the Mersey between Runcorn and Widnes, or from any other big bridge of its type; but for all that it is one of the most striking features of the port, so far as the eye is concerned. It was designed by M Arnodin and built in 1905. The two towers are each over 282 feet high, and the high-level platform carrying the traverser has a length of approximately 870 feet.
THE PORT OF MARSEILLES has largely been won from the sea This was done by building the Grande Jetee du Large, or Grand Jetty, which forms the seaward wall of the more northerly dock basins. The jetty has a length of 4,519 yards, or more than two and a half miles. The three outstanding landmarks of Marseilles are the cathedral, overlooking the Joliette Basin, the transporter bridge at the entrance to the Old Harbour and the church of Notre Dame de la Garde, to the south of the Old Harbour.
Yet another great landmark seen on entering Marseilles by sea is the Cathedral, an ornate Byzantine building which rises into a succession of domes above the quays of the New Harbour. It belongs to that period — dubious where architecture is concerned— which in England we label “Victorian”, and is new in relation to the hoary age of the city that it graces. But of its kind it is an imposing building enough, and a prominent feature of the background to the crowded cosmopolitanism of the quays.
In considering the dockland proper of Marseilles, we cannot do better than to look, first, at the Old Harbour and the Old Town, which are known collectively to the inhabitants as Le Vieux Port. No visitor to Marseilles should fail to explore this region, but his exploration should be done with circumspection, On the waterfront we are in the midst of the cheerful bustle of maritime activity, among familiar funnels, masts and derricks, constantly within earshot of the friendly clatter of steam winches. But up the back streets things are different.
The newer docks of Marseilles, which lie to the north of the Old Harbour, have a truly colossal extent. The Port of Glasgow was reclaimed from the land, with its formerly unnavigable river, but the Port of Marseilles has been recovered from the sea. On the seaward side the Docks are shut in by huge moles or jetties running parallel to the water-front, and inside these moles lie the various tidal basins and dry docks.
To the south lies the Joliette Basin, spread out in the morning shadow of the great domed cathedral. The Joliette Basin has a water area of 54 acres. Its length is 1,640 feet and its width 1,312 feet. The depth of water varies from 13 to 33 feet. There are 8,148 feet of quays. Here we find the red-funelled C.G.T. steamers which maintain connexion with those provinces of France which are in North Africa. For France, though a colonial power, is not an empire in the accepted sense of the term. Her great expanses of territory in North Africa are not colonies or dominions; they are part of the French Republic.
The Joliette Basin is also the starting-point for liners of the world-famous Messageries Maritimes, which maintain communication between France, the Far East and the Pacific. It will be well understood that the eastern trade of Marseilles underwent a tremendous increase on the opening of the Suez Canal, an enterprise in which France was largely interested.
To the north of the Joliette Basin lies the Lazaret Basin, and here we find a calling place for liners of the Japanese Nippon Yusen Kaisha, and for steamers of the Anchor Line, the Union Castle Line and the City Line. The Lazaret Basin and the smaller Arene Basin, separated by a mole, have a combined water area of 46 acres. The Arene Basin is notable for its enormous grain elevators and storages. The new elevator alongside Dock C of the Arene Basin contains fifty-seven cylindrical towers, with a total capacity sufficient for approximately 22,000 tons of grain. Each of these storage towers is 19½ feet in diameter. Grain is loaded from a quadruple elevator 162½ feet high.
Jetty Over 21 Miles Long
The Peninsular and Oriental steamers berth in the Gare Maritime (Maritime Station) Basin, farther north, which, as its name denotes; connects with the Harbour Station, whence come the great express and mail trains from Calais and Boulogne. The Gare Maritime Basin has a water area of 441 acres and a depth in dock varying from 29 ft. 6 in. to 32 ft. 8 in. It is 1,715 feet long and 1,200 feet wide. There are 7,650 feet of quays. The Gare Maritime Basin is the starting-point for steamers of the French lines bound for the Congo and French West Africa.
Going northwards again in our survey, we come to the great National Basin. This has a water area of 102¼ acres. Its length is 3,034 feet and its width 1,689 feet. The depth varies from 11½ to 52½ feet. Length of quayage amounts to 13,000 feet. Here berth British steamers belonging to the Bibby Line, Spanish vessels bound for the River Plate, and United States steamers. On the north side of the National Basin lies the Pinede Basin. Its water area is 66 acres and its dimensions are 1,968 by 1,640 feet. The depth increases from 26 to 65½ feet. There are 10,584 feet of quays. From the Pinede Basin sail the Rotterdam Lloyd steamers, homeward-bound for the Netherlands and outward-bound for the Far East, with the Dollar Line ships and the Messageries Maritimes vessels destined for all places of importance between Greece and Japan.
The farther north we go along the water-front, the more modern become the docks. All these vast basins are bounded on the seaward side by one immensely long mole or breakwater, the Grande Jetee du Large, or Grand Jetty, 4,519 yards (over 2½ miles) long. This it is claimed, is “the longest barrier raised by man against the sea”. Beyond lies the Wilson Dock, named after the former President of the United States. This dock has 9,725 feet of quays. Here berth the Italian transatlantic liners, and here relief French and British traffic for various destinations is handled.
Such, briefly, is the Port of Marseilles; hoary in its antiquity, yet equally startling in its modernity; a bright yellow city of sunshine.
AN AERIAL VIEW of the dock system at Marseilles
AN AERIAL VIEW of the dock system at Marseilles, looking north. In the foreground is the Old Harbour, with its annexe the Bassin du Carenage. Farther north are the Joliette and Lazaret Basins, and beyond the angle come the Arene, Gare Maritime Nations and Pinide Basins Still farther north are the more recent additions to the dock system.
You can read more on “French Shipping”, “The Suez Canal” and “The Triumph of the Normandie” on this website.
You can read more on “Transporter Bridges” in Wonders of World Engineering
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Yokohama - Shipping Wonders of the World
Shipping Wonders of the World
Symbol of the changing East, Yokohama has developed in a hundred years from a fishing village to a port that handles more than three million tons of shipping annually
Yokohama is only some eighteen miles from Tokyo
THE GATEWAY TO THE CAPITAL OF JAPAN. Yokohama is only some eighteen miles from Tokyo, the capital, and transport facilities between the two cities are excellent. The harbour affords good and safe anchorage for vessels of any size which can load or discharge at the quays, piers or buoys. There are also wet and dry docks and shipyards, with facilities for repairs and overhaul. In one year 3,456,000 tons of shipping entered Yokohama and 3,359,000 tons were cleared.
IN a few moments at noon on September 1, 1923, the great city and port of Yokohama, Japan, was shattered by an earthquake. Fire swept the city. About eighteen miles away, Tokyo, the capital, was devastated by the same earthquake. The Japanese were faced with a terrible loss of lives, an appalling roll of injured, and the task of rebuilding their capital and their famous port. A reconstruction bureau was set up, the ruins were cleared away, and on their sites arose still greater cities, built on a new plan.
The seafarer entering the port of Yokohama sees before him a monument to the courage, engineering ability and resource of the Japanese. All is new, and the port is growing steadily - a symbol of the changing East.
Yokohama is the port for ships from the West and East. Before the arrival of the white man, less than a century ago, there were a few score of poor fishermen’s homes huddled together. When the modern city was rebuilt after the disaster of 1923 it had an area of 50·87 square miles; in 1934 the population had grown to 703,900, including foreigners, from the total of 442,600 eleven years before. It took some six years for the Government and the municipality to reconstruct the city and the breakwaters, piers and equipment of the harbour. The boundary was widened to bring in neighbouring towns and villages, so that the area is about three times that of the old city.
One of the best known and most used of modem ports, Yokohama is either a terminal or a point of call for a number of great steamship lines which link it with capitals as far distant as London and New York. It lies on the west side of Tokyo Bay, and is approached from the Pacific through the Uraga Channel. Vessels, whether from Great Britain or from America, approach through this channel, which lies between the Miura Peninsula on the west and the Boso Peninsula on the east. In clear weather the majestic cone of Mount Fuji can be seen rising 12,467 feet into the sky. To the south is the volcano of Mount Mihara, on the island of Oshima.
As the vessel nears the entrance to the Bay of Tokyo, the town of Uraga, where the modern history of Japan began, is to port, and later the naval base of Yokosuka opens out. Here are naval dockyards, and the battleship Mikasa, flagship of the Japanese Fleet at the time of the Russo-Japanese War, is preserved on shore. Admiral Togo is the Nelson of Japan, and his flagship is the Japanese Victory. In the park are the memorial tombs of Will Adams, “the first Englishman in Japan”, and of his Japanese wife. Will Adams, who was born at Gillingham, Kent, was the pilot of a Dutch ship, the only vessel of a fleet that sailed for Japan to arrive there in 1600. Realizing the value of his knowledge, the Japanese prevented his leaving the country and employed him to teach them shipbuilding.
A NOVEL METHOD OF COALING at the port of Yokohama
A NOVEL METHOD OF COALING at the port of Yokohama. Coal is handed up from the barges at the side of the ship by scores of workers who form living conveyer bands. This illustration shows men and women “coal-passers” at work by a British liner. These Japanese “coal-passers” are world-famous for their speed and skill.
Soon the passengers see the masts and funnels of the ships lying in Yokohama Harbour. A new outer breakwater that, at the time of writing, is being built is nearly completed. After the medical authorities have given her pratique, the ship passes through a gap in the inner breakwater to her berth. Tokyo lies at the head of Tokyo Bay, about eighteen miles from Yokohama, but the bay shallows. Much dredging has been done recently, and 6,000-tons steamships can now enter the harbour, but liners and large vessels go to Yokohama. Some of the cargo is discharged into junks and other craft, and taken to Tokyo.
Yokohama Harbour affords good and safe anchorage for vessels of any size, which can load or discharge at quays, piers or buoys, and there are wet and dry docks and shipyards, with facilities for repairs. The port opens to the southeast. Low hills to the south-west protect it from south-west winds; but it is exposed to winds blowing across the Bay of Tokyo from the south-east in summer and autumn. Prevailing winds in the winter are from north to northeast. As the distance across the bay from north-east to east does not exceed twenty-seven miles, high seas are not experienced; those entering the bay from the south are checked by the coast.
Rival Ports
The inner breakwaters extend in a curve from north to south so that the inner harbour, of about 1,121 acres, is well protected. The new outer breakwaters have been designed to give an additional sheltered area of some 2,040 acres.
The channel leading between the north and the east breakwaters of the inner harbour has been dredged to a depth of over 40 feet, and there is a lighthouse on either side of the entrance to the inner harbour. Quays along the embankment already afford berths for seventeen ships, as follows - one of 20,000 tons, three of 15,000 tons, one of 10,000 tons, three of 8,000 tons, six of
6,000 tons, and three of 3,000 tons. A long pier projects from the south-eastern part of the embankment where four vessels of 30,000 tons each can be moored at once. There, are twenty-three buoys for mooring ships, berths for seven vessels and dock accommodation for thirteen, so that the total possible capacity of the inner harbour is sixty-four ocean-going ships. The outer harbour accommodates fifty or sixty vessels, so that the total is well over a hundred.
The importance of Yokohama is clearly indicated on this mapHalf of the eighteen-miles coast-line of the city is covered by docks and warehouses, and much land is continually being reclaimed for industrial sites. There are some 3,000 lighters of various kinds and many sizes of tugs with varying powers.
OF PARAMOUNT IMPORTANCE to the industrial life of the Japanese Empire, the port of Yokohama is clearly indicated on this map. Near the entrance to the Bay of Tokyo is a big naval centre where there are many dockyards.
The biggest floating crane lifts 120 tons, and there are five others which lift from 30 to 100 tons. The wet dock of the Yokohama Dock Company is 600 feet long and 180 feet wide, and the same company’s dry docks are - No. 1 is 640 feet by 93½ feet; No. 2 is 400 feet by 60½ feet; No. 3 is 495 feet by 67½ feet. The two dry docks of the Uraga Dock Company are 497 feet by 70 feet and 456 feet 10 inches by 65½ feet respectively; the two of the Asano Dock Company, 659 feet by 93 feet and 495 feet by 71 feet.
As the region comprising Yokohama and Tokyo is one of the most densely populated in Japan, the port is one of the busiest in the country. Its rival is Kobe, which, as with Yokohama, is of mushroom growth, and is the larger. After the earthquake Kobe secured much of the trade, but Yokohama soon recovered. It is the natural gate to the capital and is a portal through which have flowed those Western ideas which have changed much of Japanese life.
Uraga, on the west side of the entrance to Tokyo Bay, was the scene of the landing of Commodore Perry of the United States Navy in the ’fifties of the last century. After his landing a treaty was signed and a part of the foreshore of what is now Yokohama was leased to foreigners. The town, thus founded, began to grow from 1859, but eight years later was swept by a disastrous fire. At that period there were only two mail-boats a month, and there was no cable communication. The damage done by the fire was remedied and Yokohama got into its stride. It became a municipality in 1889 with a population of over 120,000. In that year the building of the two breakwaters that enclose the inner harbour was begun, these being completed in 1896. These two breakwaters, of a total length of 12,080 feet, enclosing a safe anchorage of some 1,200 acres, with an iron pier, 1,906 feet long, and 63 feet wide, capable of berthing six ships of 26 feet draught, had scarcely been completed when the rapidly-growing trade caused further developments. The first extension work was begun in 1899 and completed in 1902, and the second was begun in 1906, and completed in 1917. This period had many incidents. A typhoon, in 1902, did considerable damage to the breakwaters, entailing costly repairs. By 1917, however, Yokohama was one of the best equipped ports in the world, as it was new and had the most modem appliances. The war of 1914-1918 gave Japanese trade a tremendous impetus and shipping benefited greatly. In addition, the opening of the Panama Canal, which was begun in 1881, completed in 1914, and opened for general traffic after the war, brought further trade, as Yokohama was afforded a route to the Atlantic seaboard of the United States. The West has been an increasing outlet for Japanese goods, and these are, to a great extent, carried in Japanese ships. Even when the first slump came after the war Yokohama was in an enviable position. In touch by sea with practically the whole world, the port had led the way in every modern development.
The first railway in Japan was that between Yokohama and Tokyo. The coastal shipping trade had been fostered, and foreign and Japanese banks concentrated at Yokohama as the great port of enterprise. A ten-years’ programme of harbour extension was begun in 1921. By 1923 practically all the raw silk of Japan was exported from Yokohama, and it was a centre of finance and industry.
A PLAN of the city and port of Yokohama
A PLAN of the city and port. The inner breakwaters extending in a curve from north to south provide about 1,121 acres of protected water; the new outer breakwaters have been designed to give an additional sheltered area of about 2,040 acres. Considerable dredging has been carried out in the harbour; the channel between the north and east breakwaters of the inner harbour has been dredged to a depth of over 40 feet.
Then disaster came. A few minutes before noon on September 1, 1923, the earthquake occurred. In every little home in the town the housewife was preparing the mid-day meal over a fire, and this fact added to the catastrophe on land. As the dwellings collapsed the ruins were caught by the flames, which were fanned by a strong wind, and fires broke out all over the city. Water mains burst, and the survivors of the earthquake, unable to fight the fires, fled to the hills overlooking the city and gazed down on the flaming ruins. Oil tanks storing thousands of gallons exploded and blazing oil flowed into creeks and into the harbour in a sea of flame, setting fire to sampans, barges and launches.
The landing pier collapsed, nearly all the quay walls were damaged, part of the breakwaters crumbled and disappeared under water, sheds and warehouses tilted and caught fire, cranes toppled into the harbour, and the work of many years lay ruined. Ships in the harbour came to the rescue of people on shore by taking refugees to other ports and by landing supplies.
Within two months of the catastrophe, on October 20, the enormous task of reconstructing the harbour was begun. Almost every inch of the 6,800 feet of quay walls had been damaged, and only the corners were intact. The earthquake had tossed debris into the water, so that much of the area alongside was foul. In some places the walls had tumbled towards the water, and in others away from it, so that every section presented difficult problems to the builders. The earthquake did not affect the depth of water in the harbour, but much wreckage had to be removed, as a number of burning lighters and boats had caught fire while alongside wharves and, having been blown off the shore by the wind, had foundered.
The essentials of reconstruction were speed and strength; the port had to be put in order quickly but the repairs had to be made sufficiently strong to stand any further shocks. The heads of the breakwaters, including the two lighthouses, had sunk about 12 feet, and, although the parts near the land were not badly damaged, considerable lengths were shattered just where protection was most needed. As the quay walls were destroyed and ships could not get alongside, cargo had to be discharged into lighters. In bad weather the sea rolled in over the sunken and damaged breakwaters so that all work of unloading had to stop. It was clear that the first task was to reconstruct breakwaters and to repair quay walls. Newly extended parts on either side of the landing pier had escaped much damage, and temporary repairs made them fit to receive ships.
Triumph Over Disaster
Old concrete blocks from the broken quays were used to repair breakwaters and sea-walls. Reinforced concrete caissons were needed for the new quay walls. But there was no adequate plant for making these quickly enough to keep pace with the time-table. It was decided, therefore, to supplement those supplied by contractors with bottomless, reinforced concrete caissons made in a temporary yard.
Repairs were carried out in advance of schedule. The breakwater was repaired first, then the quay walls and the barge walls, and finally the landing pier. Concrete blocks were set along the edges of the sunken break-waters, and mass concrete was deposited between and above the blocks.
Huge masses of concrete, which had broken when the quay walls at one part of the harbour had collapsed, were so heavy that the cranes could not lift them. The rubble had to be removed by dipper dredgers, grab dredgers and sand pumps before the huge concrete blocks, 36 feet long, which had fallen into the harbour, could be tackled. These big masses were broken up by explosives so that the cranes could lift them. The surface of the concrete was cleaned, tins of explosive were attached to the surface at suitable places, and the charges were fired by electricity. The cement between the blocks was cut by explosives or by a rock-cutter.
A BUSY QUAYSIDE at Yokohama. This picture shows only a small section of the great port. Harbour craft seen in the foreground carry cargo from the big ships to the shore. Some 3,000 lighters and numerous other vessels work in the harbour.
Sand and mud under the ruins were cleared so that there was space to level the foundations for the new caissons with bag-concrete. The rubbish from the wrecked wall obstructed the foundations of new piers, and twenty piers were constructed. The main body of each pier consisted of a concrete caisson 27 feet long, 17 feet wide, and from 29 feet to 33 feet high. These caissons were built in the dry dock of the Asano Dock Company, and the dock was flooded so that the caissons could be towed out to their correct positions and lowered by the engineers. Reconstruction of the landing pier was the last part of the work. The broken cast-iron screw-piles and the twisted steel beams of the old pier formed an obstruction on the harbour bed. The bolts and rivets had to be cut by divers or by explosives, and the litter of steel and iron lifted by floating cranes, before the rebuilding could be started.
Clearing the harbour and the basins of wreckage was in itself a great task. More than 400 sunken lighters and eighty other vessels were dredged up as well as great quantities of cargo that had sunk with them. Within two years of the earthquake reconstruction was completed, and the programme of extension, which had been interrupted by the catastrophe, was resumed.
Railway facilities are excellent, and the equipment of the port is first-class. A notable building is the new Customs House. The average difference of ordinary spring tides is only about 7 feet, and constant dredging is increasing the depth of water, so that the harbour is available for the largest ships.
The principal imports are cotton, wheat, wool, oil, beans, fertilizers, timber and machinery; the chief exports are silk and silk piece-goods, clothing, tinned salmon and tinned crab, other piece-goods and manufactured articles.
Equipped as the port is with modern machinery and having been rebuilt, those who look for the glamour of the East there will see only business-like efficiency and little of the past. Although it is not on the date-line, Yokohama is practically on the other side of the earth from London, and marks the end and beginning of the routes of a number of lines. From America, Yokohama is the first port of call for most trans-Pacific vessels.
The Inland Sea
One of the best-known lines is the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, which is the largest and oldest Japanese shipping company, operating a fleet of more than 150 vessels, with a total tonnage of over 880,000 gross. The company flag is two horizontal red stripes on a white ground. The company’s vessels include some fine motor-ships, passenger ships and cargo vessels, which are on various routes, including those serving London, California and South America. The Yasukuni Maru and Terukuni Maru are two 12,000-tons motor liners on the European service. These two motor liners on the route from London are seventeen-knot vessels with Sulzer-Diesels on twin screws, and were built at Nagasaki. They do the voyage in thirty-eight days. The eight steam liners are between 10,000 and 10,936 tons each.
Outwards from the port of London the first call on this route is at Gibraltar, 1,315 miles. To Marseilles is 695 miles, after which the vessel steams 457 miles to Naples. The next call is at Port Said, 1,115 miles, the gate to the Suez Canal, Suez being over eighty miles from Port Said. The vessel steams through the Red Sea, and stops at Aden, a run of 1,310 miles, and 2,100 miles farther bring her to Colombo, Ceylon. It is another 1,280 miles to Penang, after which the ship steams 390 miles to Singapore and then 1,440 miles to Hong Kong. The distance to Shanghai is another 830 miles, and the next run of 550 miles is to Moji, the port at the western entrance to the famous Inland Sea of Japan. The width is only about four miles between Moji and Shimonoseki, which is opposite. The Inland Sea teems with fish and has played a prominent part in the story of Japan. The distance from Moji through these tranquil waters to Kobe is 240 miles.
THERE ARE BERTHS FOR SEVENTEEN SHIPS at the quays in the port of Yokohama
THERE ARE BERTHS FOR SEVENTEEN SHIPS at the quays in the port of Yokohama. In the entire inner harbour there are also twenty-three buoys for mooring ships, additional berths for seven, dock accommodation for thirteen, and a pier which gives mooring room to four ships. The total capacity of both inner and outer harbours at Yokohama is well over 109 ocean-going vessels. The harbour possesses some 3,000 lighters and many different types of tugs.
Called the Seto-Naikai or “Sea within Channels” by the Japanese, the Inland Sea is a chain of five seas linked by channels. It is entered from the Sea of Japan on the west through the Shimonoseki Straits, and ends on the east at the Bay of Osaka, the length being about 310 miles, and the breadth from north to south about forty miles at the widest part. On the south-west the Bungo Strait connects it with the Pacific, and on the south-east the Yura and Naruto Straits afford another exit to the Pacific. The most direct route from Kobe to Nagasaki and Shanghai is comparatively shallow, depths varying from 50 to 540 feet, and the currents in the straits are rapid. There are shipyards and docks, and the Inland Sea is the cradle of Japanese sea-power. Formerly, sailors, fishermen and pirates came from the districts on its shores, and when Japan came under Western influence most of the sailors for her fleet were recruited from the Inland Sea. A long archipelago extends along the northern shore, providing beautiful scenery.
Kobe - the final port of call before Yokohama - which taps a great industrial district, and is a larger city than Yokohama, its rival, retained much of the silk business that was diverted to it by the earthquake of 1923. The run of 350 miles from Kobe to Yokohama is through the Yura Strait into the Pacific round Cape Shionomisaki, between Oshima Island and the Izu Peninsula, and so into the Uraga Channel. The distance from London by this route is 12,160 miles.
The P. & O. line runs a fortnightly service from London by a route that is slightly different from that of the Japanese company. These liners call at Gibraltar, Marseilles, Port Said, Aden, Bombay, Colombo, Penang, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Moji and Kobe.
The Blue Funnel liners start from Liverpool and the service is monthly, via the Suez Canal and Shanghai. Other lines connecting with Europe are the Hamburg-Amerika, the Lloyd Triestino branch of the United Italian fleets, the North German Lloyd and the Messageries Maritimes, in addition to numerous regular cargo liners.
On the other side of the world, fast liners link Yokohama with Canada and the United States. The Canadian Pacific liner Empress of Japan holds the Blue Riband of the Pacific, and this company operates between Yokohama and Vancouver. The biggest liner on this route, the Empress of Japan, is the largest and fastest ship operating between North America and the Orient, having a gross registered tonnage of 26,000. Her sister ship is the Empress of Canada, 21,500 tons. The two liners on the direct route are the Empress of Asia, 16,900 tons, and the Empress of Russia, 16,800 tons. The distance by the direct route is 4,283 miles, and the time is ten days; the passage via Honolulu takes thirteen days. These all-white ships, with their swimming pools, cafes and playgrounds, are among the finest in the world.
The Empress of Japan, speed 23 knots, is the flagship of the company’s Pacific fleet. She has a red and gold palm court and ball-room, a veranda cafe, suites with private verandas, and a children’s room.
The Empress of Canada is noted for her long gallery, her card-room and her gymnasium. From Vancouver these two ships reach Honolulu in five days, Yokohama in thirteen, Kobe in fourteen, Shanghai in sixteen, Hong Kong in nineteen and Manila in twenty-one.
the modern city of Yokohama
OUT OF CHARRED RUIN AND WRECKAGE rose the modern city of Yokohama, after the terrible disaster of September, 1923, when the port was devastated by fire and earthquake. It took two years for the Government and the municipal authorities to reconstruct the harbour after the earthquake. The reconstruction of the city took six years and was carried out on the American plan, and the city is now divided into five wards. The present population of Yokohama is over 709,003.
The sister ships Empress of Asia and Empress of Russia sail direct to Yokohama in ten days, Kobe in eleven, Nagasaki in twelve, Shanghai in fourteen, Hong Kong in seventeen and Manila in twenty. These vessels and the crack ships of other lines are making the Pacific the playground of western Americans, as in their luxury and speed they compare with the great Atlantic liners.
Twenty-one-knot motor liners with a gross tonnage of 17,500 of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha make the passage between San Francisco and Yokohama, via Honolulu, in about fourteen days. This service extends from Los Angeles to Hong Kong and is a fortnightly one. There is another from Vancouver, Victoria, and Seattle to Yokohama and on to Hong Kong, the passage between Yokohama and Seattle taking fourteen days.
Another famous company which makes Yokohama a port of call is Dollar Steamship Lines, the vessels of which include two 22,000-tons twenty-one-knot liners of the President Hoover type. Yokohama is a port of call on the route between New York and Manila via the Panama Canal, and passengers embarking at Yokohama reach New York in thirty-nine days, or San Francisco in seventeen. Vessels of the Blue Funnel Line on the Philippine Is. to America service call at Yokohama. Ships of the Osaka Shosen Kabushiki Kaisha Line, on a round-the-world service, also call there.
In addition, there are services to South America, South Africa, and to Australia, so that Yokohama is one of the most accessible ports in the world.
The city has been re-built on the American plan and is divided into five wards. When built in the last century, it was divided into two districts, Kwannai (inside the barrier) facing the harbour, and Kwangai (outside the barrier), this second district forming the Japanese quarter. The district on the low hills south of the town was called the Bluff, and that on the hills to the north-west became known as Noge. Practically all the public buildings, consulates and offices are now in one half of the former Kwannai, and the shopping streets of Benten-dori and Honcho-dori are in the other half. The esplanade along the water-front is the Bund. One side of this is laid out as Yamashita Park, and hotels, clubs and offices are on the other.
All the other parts of the city are Japanese. The theatres and cinemas are in Isezaki-cho or Theatre Street, near which is a Shinto shrine, dedicated to the goddess of Yokohama when the port was a tiny fishing village.
Yokohama Park, which was laid out in the early days of the Settlement, was a place of refuge during the earthquake. A good view of the city and harbour is obtained from Nogeyama Park, the largest in the city, which is on the side of a hill. This park was made after the earthquake, and relics of the disaster are housed in the Earthquake Memorial Hall near by. A reservoir of the waterworks is in the park.
Although the Bay of Tokyo between Yokohama and the capital is shallow, the sea quickly becomes choppy in a strong wind, especially in winter, and hampers sampans, barges, and lighters heavily laden with goods to and from Tokyo, many small craft and their cargoes being damaged in bad weather. As big vessels on foreign routes cannot reach Tokyo, import and export manufacturers find Yokohama more suitable for their factories.
The road and railway facilities between Yokohama and Tokyo are excellent; fast trains cover the distance in about half an hour. There are five railway stations in the port and Yokohama Station is on the main line between Tokyo and Kobe. The fortunes of Yokohama are bound up with those of the capital, to which Yokohama is the gate.
At the time of writing the population of Tokyo is estimated at approximately 5,663,000, making it the third city in the world. As the deep-water port of this intensely populated area, Yokohama is of paramount importance in the development of the Japanese Empire. Its revival after the earthquake, and the progress it has made in the last few years, are among the major achievements of the Japanese, and symbolize the enterprise of the most remarkable nation in the East.
GENERAL VIEW of Yokohama
GENERAL VIEW of Yokohama. Half of the eighteen-miles coastline of the city is covered by docks and warehouses, and much land is constantly being reclaimed for industrial sites. The principal imports are cotton, wheat, wool, oil, beans, fertilizers, timber and machinery. The chief exports are silk and silk goods, clothing, tinned salmon and crab and miscellaneous articles. Yokohama is the first port of call for most trans-Pacific liners coming to Japan and the Orient from America.
You can read more on “Japanese Bulk Cargo Carrier”, “Japanese Inland Sea Passenger Ship” and “Japanese Shipping” on this website.
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Empathy for teachers inspires teen’s chalk invention
Maluta Gcabashe.
Maluta Gcabashe.
Image: Supplied.
Her first chalk was Maizena-based and was moulded in a toilet paper inner that she had made narrower. The second used eggshells, Maizena and water. “I took the eggs’ inner membrane and then ground it using a mortar and pestle. I ground it until it was a fine powder, before mixing it with Maizena,” she said.
Both mixtures were then left to set for 24 hours.
The Siemens Grand Prize at the expo went to Pinky Jiyane from Ongoye Secondary School, also in KwaZulu-Natal, for her Ultra Smart Meter. The meter will allow people to remotely check their prepaid electricity balance and load more units, if needed.
Jiyane will receive a three-and-a-half-year international technical apprenticeship at Siemens in Berlin.
-This article was originally published in the GCIS Vuk'uzenzele.
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Premium Essay
The First Century: Similarities Between Judaism And Christianity
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Judaism and Christianity have both been around for centuries. Judaism was the forefather for Christianity. Up to a certain point in time, perhaps in the middle of the first century the generation after Jesus there was no dividing line between Judaism and Christianity(Solomon). Both religions have a big following. However, it goes without saying both religions have a lot in common but are fundamentally different in many ways.
Christianity was created the year of Jesus birth. It originated in Palestine and is known as a monotheistic system which means believing in one god that created the entire world. Although denominations differ on how it was created. Christianity uses the old and new testaments of the bible depending on the denominations. Christianity is broken down into three different denominations Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant. Each denomination is fundamentally different and have different prospective of what Christianity is. For example, Orthodox does not acknowledged the pope as
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You will face your sins in the afterlife. Depending on the denomination views will differ on afterlife but majority of Christians believe in heaven where you will spend an eternity with god and family. God will be the judge of your relationship with Christ. However, from there you could face a sentence of eternal punishment and spiritual death based on the sins you have committed.
Therefore, salvation is a concern of Christians. It is human nature to be prone to fall to sins and god punishes sins. According to Christian doctrine, Human are vulnerable to punishment and damnation therefore they are helpless and need gods saving work. "there is no difference, for all have sinned and come short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:22-23). Christianity Worship should be done after waking up and before bed. In modern day, most churches do not hold service every day so bible study is another source used to
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Compare and Contrast Christianity and Islam
...Compare and Contrast Christianity and Islam In Wikipedia religion is defined“A religion is an organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to an order of existence.” There are approximately more than four thousand religion in the world. Christianity and Islam are part of the major significant religion. Christianity was founded by Jesus Christ approximately 2,000 years ago; Christianity is one of the most influential religions in world history. Christianity developed out of Judaism in the first century C.E. Christianity is the life, teachings, miracles, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and the followers "Christians." Without Jesus, there is no Christianity The Prophets of God spoke about the coming of Jesus. The coming of Jesus is a covenant between God (Yahweh) and the people of Israel. God promised to send the Messiah (Anointed One), who would bless and save not only the Israelites, but all the peoples of the world. Jesus' purpose was two-fold. First, according to both Old and New Testament writings Jesus is God, who took on human form to teach us about Himself and His path to salvation (eternal life). Second, Jesus was to provide the ultimate sacrifice for our sins by dying on the cross of Calvary so that we could be with Him forever in heaven. To prove that He was God and that the sacrifice was efficacious, on the third day Jesus rose from the dead. Christianity has many different branches and forms with......
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The Enlightenment Spotlight Tour (Exhibition)
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On December 22, 2015
Last modified:October 26, 2018
The Enlightenment was a period of 17th and 18th century European history when mythology, faith and superstition were challenged for the first time by philosophers and thinkers driven by logic, science and empirical facts. It was a significant departure from the established order and included questioning the authority of church, monarchy and state. The Enlightenment Tour at the British Museum is essential if you are to make sense of this because it is not a clear case of black and white reasoning. Many grey areas exist.
After meeting outside the Enlightenment Room (Room 1) at 6.30pm you are led into a huge exhibition room which looks a lot like the grand lounge of some 18th century lord because of the wall to wall cabinets of encyclopedia type books and the Greco-Roman statues dotted everywhere. Even the architecture has that grand, aristocratic feel and its certainly easier to pick up on the atmosphere of the period because of this. And as if to affirm this we are eventually informed by the tour guide that not only was this room originally called the King’s Library but also designed in a neo-classical style by architects. Notably, many of these statues and busts are in honour of the numerous, distinguished patrons, donors and collectors who contributed to this classification of the world, such as antiquarian Martin Folkes (1690-1754) and Sir Robert Bruce Cotton (1571-1631).
Much of the items were bequeathed from the collection of the museum’s founder, botanist Sir Hans Sloane who originally kept all of this stuff in his house! (Now what was that about the room looking like a nobleman’s home?) In fact his home at 3 Bloomsbury Place became so over-stuffed with exhibits he had to buy the house next door as well. As you do! Yes this is one rich and powerful man, he eventually bought the manor of Chelsea and if that isn’t enough Sloane Square was named after him.
Exhibits include Newtonian prisms used for theories of light and colour, a mechanism called an Orrery which demonstrates Copernicus’ theory on orbiting planets and a variety of telescopes marking developments in astronomy. Scientists such as Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton made their mark during this period and you can imagine Darwin’s theories of evolution being regarded as tantamount to heresy. But they refused to see any area as beyond their bounds and outer space, particularly, was no longer the final frontier. Peculiar devices such as the astrolabe shows this obsession with quantifying the once sacred and untouchable heavens. This instrument provided accurate measurement of stars and constellations and was also used for everything from time-keeping to surveying.
One strange observation is the large amount of Greco-Roman items. Yes, the grey areas I mentioned earlier because here in this exhibit room of reasoning and logic are statues from Greek mythology. Your first thought is ‘hang on a minute, I thought we’re dealing with the 17th and 18th centuries here?’ You are, but the whole point of the exhibition is to allow you to see the world through the eyes of the collectors of the age and they regarded ancient Greek culture as the ideal type of art and beauty. So these were the types of items they often sought out. The most intriguing thing about this Enlightenment Tour is this mix n’ match feel which is unrivalled anywhere else in the British Museum. Their very own take on post-modernity, perhaps arriving a century or two earlier than scheduled.
The Enlightenment Spotlight tour runs every Friday at 6.30 and 7pm and lasts 20 minutes. The exhibition will be closed January 12 – January 24, 2016 for maintenance work.
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Appealing but often questionable, alternative fuels provide a road away from their particular fossil-based counterparts.
Biofuels have existed longer than cars have, but cheaper fuel and diesel have traditionally stored all of them in the fringe. Surges in oil cost, and today global attempts to push away the worst negative effects of environment modification, need lent brand new importance into the seek out clean, sustainable fuels.
All of our path travel, aircraft, and shipping make up nearly one fourth worldwide’s greenhouse fuel emissions, and transport now stays heavily influenced by fossil fuel. The theory behind biofuel is exchange conventional fuels with those created from plant information or any other feedstocks which happen to be alternative.
However the notion of using farmland to create fuel in the place of edibles includes a unique issues, and options that use waste or other feedstocks have not however been able to compete on costs and size with old-fashioned fuels. Global biofuel result needs to multiple by 2030 so that you can meet up with the Overseas strength company’s objectives for lasting development.
The Hidden Outlay of Changing Foods Inside Fuel
Biofuel type and applications
There are various methods for producing biofuels, nonetheless they generally speaking incorporate chemical reactions, fermentation, as well as heat to split down the starches, sugars, also molecules in flowers. The resulting products are subsequently processed to create a fuel that automobiles or other vehicles can use.
The majority of the fuel in america have probably the most common biofuels: ethanol. Produced by fermenting the sugars from herbs such as for instance corn or sugarcane, ethanol consists of air that can help a car or truck’s motor shed gasoline more proficiently, decreasing air pollution. Inside the U.S., in which more ethanol is derived from corn, gas is normally 90 percentage fuel and 10 % ethanol. In Brazil—the second-largest ethanol manufacturer behind the U.S.—fuel consists of doing 27 % ethanol, with sugarcane since biggest feedstock.
Choices to diesel gas feature biodiesel and sustainable diesel. Biodiesel, produced from oils such as for instance vegetable oil, pet fat xmatch MobilnГ strГЎnka, and reprocessed cooking fat, could be mixed with petroleum-based diesel. Some buses, vehicles, and army motors within the U.S. operate on gas mixes with around 20% biodiesel, but pure biodiesel is generally jeopardized by cold temperature that will create problems in more mature motors. Sustainable diesel, a chemically various merchandise that could be based on fats or plant-based waste, is known as a „drop-in” gas that does not have to be blended with main-stream diesel.
Other types of plant-based fuel being made for aviation and transport. Over 150,000 flights used biofuel, nevertheless amount of aviation biofuel produced in 2018 accounted for under 0.1 % of full intake. In shipping, as well, use of biofuel are at level far underneath the 2030 objectives put of the Global electricity department.
Sustainable natural gas, or biomethane, is yet another fuel that possibly might be utilized besides for transportation additionally temperature and electrical power generation. Gasoline could be caught from landfills, livestock operations, wastewater, and other root. This caught biogas then need to be refined more to take out water, carbon-dioxide, along with other details so it satisfy the standard needed seriously to fuel natural-gas-powered motors.
Something biofuel produced from?
Several products, or feedstocks, enables you to create biofuels. Though corn and sugarcane become well-established ethanol feedstocks, the procedure of growing the harvest, producing fertilizers and pesticides, and processing the plants into energy consumes countless stamina—so a lot electricity there is discussion about whether ethanol from corn in fact supplies an adequate amount of an environmental advantages to-be really worth the investments.
Therefore scientists and startups become discovering some other content with the potential to serve as fuel minus the accompanying concerns about foods provide and green effects. Cellulosic ethanol, including, utilizes corn stover, wood waste, or any other place information that could not put usually. Various other potential biofuel feedstocks integrate grasses, algae, pet waste, preparing oil, and wastewater sludge, but investigation will continue to discover most efficient and economical tactics to convert all of them into usable fuel.
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Hasil cari dari kata atau frase: Informing (0.01226 detik)
Found 4 items, similar to Informing.
English → Indonesian (Kamus Landak) Definition: informing menginformasikan
English → Indonesian (quick) Definition: inform beritahu, memberitahu, mengabari, mengabarkan, mengadu-adu, menuturkan, unjuk
English → English (WordNet) Definition: informing informing n 1: to furnish incriminating evidence to an officer of the law (usually in return for favors) [syn: ratting] 2: a speech act that conveys information [syn: making known]
English → English (gcide) Definition: Informing Inform \In*form"\, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Informed; p. pr. & vb. n. Informing.] [OE. enformen, OF. enformer, F. informer. L. informare; pref. in- in + formare to form, share, fr. forma form. See Form.] 1. To give form or share to; to give vital or organizing power to; to give life to; to imbue and actuate with vitality; to animate; to mold; to figure; to fashion. “The informing Word.” --Coleridge. [1913 Webster] Let others better mold the running mass Of metals, and inform the breathing brass. --Dryden. [1913 Webster] Breath informs this fleeting frame. --Prior. [1913 Webster] Breathes in our soul, informs our mortal part. --Pope. [1913 Webster] 2. To communicate knowledge to; to make known to; to acquaint; to advise; to instruct; to tell; to notify; to enlighten; -- usually followed by of. [1913 Webster] For he would learn their business secretly, And then inform his master hastily. --Spenser. [1913 Webster] I am informed thoroughly of the cause. --Shak. [1913 Webster] 3. To communicate a knowledge of facts to, by way of accusation; to warn against anybody. [1913 Webster] Tertullus . . . informed the governor against Paul. --Acts xxiv. 1. Syn: To acquaint; apprise; tell; teach; instruct; enlighten; animate; fashion. [1913 Webster]
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Why bamboo
Bamboo facts
Bamboo belongs to the grass family and has more than 1250 species in 75 genera. The most striking characteristic is its immense vitality. With its far-ranging network of roots, Bamboo can overcome almost any hardship, can prevent soil erosion and even help reduce the effects of earth earthquakes.
It grows from shoot to full size in just 4 years. This amazing growth rate is the reason why bamboo plays an important part in the reduction of Co2 gases. On its way up bamboo consumes CO2 and generates up to 35% more oxygen then an equivalent stand of trees.
Bamboo is:
The fastest growing plant on earth.
An essential component in the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
An important player in the alleviation of climate changes.
A viable replacement for wood in furniture and other household products.
A sustainable resource that grows without fertilizer and acts as an erosion stabilizer.
Almost 1 million acres of forests are lost each week worldwide to deforestation. Bamboos’ versatility as a substitute for hardwoods offers a chance to drastically reduce that figure and protect the forests we have left.
In Asia, bamboo has for centuries played a central role as building material for shelter, bridges, scaffolding and storage and as primary material in furniture and smaller household product but Western Designers and Architects have only recently discovered its amazing properties, strength and beauty.
In bamboo, designers have found a material that offers mankind a chance to continue to enjoy many of the comforts of modern life and still protect to the environment.
Social impact
Bamboos grow in the Asia Pacific, Americas and Africa, but it is East and Southern Asia that have the largest bamboo forest area. It is in these countries, where the bamboo grows, value is added to the raw material through design and manufacture.
In less developed countries bamboo production and the manufacturing of bamboo products provides job opportunities in the rural areas, that desperately need social and economic stability. Design and refinement of bamboo into beautifully shaped products can make a real difference to the local population.
Bamboo Farmer in central Vietnam
Bamboo Farmer
Bamboo selection in forest
Bamboo farmer family
Bamboo Workers
Bamboo Basket makers
Bamboo plantation
Furniture ready for export
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A putative unigene set of 1304 sequences – 133 contigs and 1171 singlets – has been developed, and the transcripts have been functionally annotated. Homology searches indicate that 89.5% of sequences share significant similarity to known/putative proteins or Rosaceae ESTs. The ESTs have been functionally characterized and genes relevant to specific physiological processes of economic importance have been identified. A set of tools useful for SSR development and mapping is presented.
Commercial strawberry has a value of 1.4 billion dollars in the United States, and represents a significant regional crop throughout the world. Despite its value, fewer than 100 annotated sequences existed in public databases in early 2004. The information discrepancy is a consequence of limited molecular study in the challenging octoploid cultivated varieties. The thin public informatics base hence represents a barrier to meaningful study of functional genomics, genetic mechanisms, as well as the molecular-systematic relationships between the octoploid strawberry, the Rosaceae and other species. The lack of basic sequence information hinders the development of transgenic technologies that would advance molecular-physiological studies and potentially benefit the grower and consumer. Overall, the dearth of sequence information has limited agile molecular resolution studies in this important crop plant.
To remedy this discrepancy ~1800 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were sequenced from a whole-plant cDNA library derived from various tissues of the Strawberry Festival cultivar. This cultivar was chosen because of its east-coast and west-coast lineage as well as its range of favorable horticultural attributes. 'Strawberry Festival' produces large, uniform, firm fruit, and is resistant to Botrytis cinera, the causative agent behind gray mold [1]. It is a predominant cultivar grown in Florida, and has been well studied in many reports of fungicide use, disease resistance and post-harvest fruit quality. The study of an important commercial variety will provide tools to directly aid breeding and probe genetic mechanisms in these cultivars.
Strawberry has unrealized potential as a research model and tool, and the lack of molecular markers for breeding and the eventual need for genetic improvement of the current suite of cultivars makes sequence examination especially timely. Information gained from the octoploid will also translate to defining molecular markers to facilitate mapping in both the diploid species (eg. Fragaria vesca and Fragaria nubicola) as well as octoploid cultivars. A strong sequence database is the cornerstone of functional genomics studies, and this information will aid development of such tools in Fragaria and in the Rosaceae in general. Definition of expressed gene sequence variation in the octoploid may aid in the understanding of polyploid evolution and/or silencing of component genomes. Sequence information constitutes a basis for eventual reverse-genetic and activation-tag studies. Both the diploid and octoploid species are excellent candidates for such studies as they are efficiently transformed and regenerated [24], possess a diploid genome that is slightly larger than that of Arabidopsis thaliana [5], and can be rapidly propagated from seed (3–5 months) or runners [6]. Strawberry also may be an excellent candidate as a bioreactor, a system to manufacture specific compounds of interest. A presentation of the elements of the strawberry transcriptome facilitates the initiation of such studies.
Despite strawberry's crop value and potential as a research tool, a formal analysis of EST data has not been reported. In this report we identify over 1300 unique transcripts assembled from 1,847 ESTs derived from whole-plant vegetative tissues 24 h after salicylic acid treatment. The cDNA library was prepared from total RNA pooled from roots, petioles, stolons, leaves and meristems to generate a diverse set of transcripts with limited redundancy. Multiple analyses, such as developing a unigene set, annotation with putative function and identification of SSRs, opens additional paths that will speed research into strawberry physiology, evolution, genetics and genomics. This represents the first major EST report from Fragaria and can now serve as a baseline for these further studies.
The Fragaria × ananassaEST library
The Lambda ZAP cDNA library was generated from whole-plant tissues from mature plants 24 after salicylic acid treatment. The details of salicylate treatment, plant materials and library construction are presented in Methods.
EST processing and assembly
A total of 1847 of ESTs were sequenced, resulting in 1505 high-quality trimmed sequences which were submitted to GenBank on August 6, 2004. Representing a success rate of 81.5%, these sequences have an average length of 613 bp and a PHRED quality value of 35. Assembly of the sequences into a unigene was performed in order to reduce redundancy of the sequences and identify those coding for the same protein (Methods, Assembly). The total unigene consists of 1171 singlets for a total of 1304 unigenes.
Contigs were assembled from EST sequences. The final unigene has 133 contigs, 120 comprised of two or three merged ESTs. Eight contigs were assembled from four individual ESTs. Contigs assembled from five or more ESTs may be useful to deconstruct in the interest of studying allelic diversity in the octoploid. In diploid species alleles represent heterozygousity at a given locus as well as gene duplication and subfunctionalization of a given coding region. Allelic diversity is potentially enriched in the octoploid, since the octoploid maintains the alleles maintained from at least three donor diploid genomes. Expression of specific alleles may be informative, as patterns may be traced back to the diploid genome contributors, allowing description of expression from within, or between, donor genomes.
For instance, Contig 23 represents psaL, a nuclear-encoded subunit of the photosystem 1 reaction center. The contig was assembled from five ESTs, two of which (4C07 and 6C09) are identical in sequence yet vary in length. The other members contain SNPs, especially 18C04, which maintains five unique base changes over a 540 bp alignment of all five ESTs. Others contain a single alteration in this relatively conserved gene sequence. Similar results were observed for contigs 32 and 99, which were assembled from seven and nine ESTs, respectively.
Other contigs have been assembled from many ESTs, such as Contigs 29 and 12. These contigs encode light-harvesting, chlorophyll-binding (Lhcb, formerly cab) proteins and a non-specific lipid transfer protein, respectively. The ESTs corresponding to these genes arise from small multigene families within a diploid genome in most species, making these constructs less useful for studying between-genome polymorphisms.
Functional annotation
Computational tools are now regularly used to infer function based upon significant sequence similarity toexperimentally verifiedproteins or putative proteins. These analyses implement FASTA and BLAST comparisons against non-redundant databases as well as GO annotation. The EST sequences were compared against known databases using these tools.
Protein homology searches were performed in order to identify the putative function of the ESTs (Methods, Functional Characterization). NCBI's non-redundant (nr) protein and Rosaceae EST databases searches were run on February 27, 2005 using the FASTX3.4 algorithm [7]. The nr database contained 2321663 protein amino acid sequences at the time of the search. Of the 1304 unigenes, 1105, or 84.74% of the set, had significant matches to this database (Table 1). A comparison against SWISS-PROT was performed on July 26, 2004, yielding a lower number of significant matches. SWISS-PROT is a curated, highly-annotated, smaller database of 153,871 proteins of demonstrated function. 714 of the unigenes (54.75%) had significant matches (Table 1). Only 191 of the unigenes did not match a protein in either of these two protein databases (Table 2). Upon close scrutiny the EST sequences did not contain significant open reading frames, suggesting that the EST sequence represents long untranslated regions, structural RNAs, or bona fide proteins, unique to Fragaria based on current comparisons.
Table 1 Homology between the Fragaria × ananassa unigene sequences in public database as inferred through comparisons to Genbank nr, SWISSPROT, Rosaceae ESTs and mapped peach ESTs.
Table 2 The summarized results of homology searches of the Fragaria × ananassa unigene sequences against SPROT, nr pep and Rosaceae ESTs.
Comparisons to Rosaceae ESTs
Table 1 also presents the results of comparison of the unigene against publicly-available Rosaceae ESTs in order to assess how Fragaria relates to the rest of the Rosaceae family at the gene sequence and content levels. The BLASTN algorithm was then used for EST homology searches against known Rosaceae ESTs. 227,250 Rosaceae ESTs were downloaded from dbEST. Of the 1304 unigenes, 835 (64.03%) had significant homology to other Rosaceae ESTs. Since this dataset is composed of public ESTs, it contains a large amount of redundancy. The majority of public ESTs have been sequenced from the 5' end, so ESTs generated from the 3' end may be less likely to find homologs in a search against public ESTs. Still, of the 191 ESTs that did not show significant homology with SWISS-PROT and Genbank nr (Table 2), 54 ESTs had homologs represented in the Rosaceae EST set. This leaves 137 transcripts that show no significant homology outside of Fragaria within the Rosaceae family. These ESTs were compared against the TIGR plant repeat databases to test if they may have originated from retroelement expression. None of the apparently Fragaria-specific transcripts exhibited significant homology with sequences within the repeat database.
Characterization by gene ontology
The Fragaria unigenes were further annotated by gene ontology (GO) assignment based on the single "best hit" match against the SWISS-PROT database. All 714 ESTs with hits to SWISS-PROT have matching GO-Terms (Figure 1). The three categories are function (Panel A), process (Panel B), and component (Panel C). For molecular function, the strawberry ESTs were assigned to eight categories. The majority (51%) of the ESTs were assigned to "Catalytic Activity" (GO:0003824). For biological process, the ESTs were assigned to four categories with the majority (77%) representing genes participating in metabolism (GO: 0008152). When grouped according to likely cellular component, the ESTs were assigned to six categories and 93% were covered by two GO terms: "Intracellular" (GO:0005622) and "Membrane" (GO:0016020). The full chart of the assignment of EST's to specific GO Term categories may be viewed on the GDR website [8].
Figure 1
figure 1
Strawberry EST characterization as derived from GO analyses. ESTs were assigned to GO categories based onA) Functional GO matches B) Process GO matches C) Component GO matches.
Homology to mapped peach ESTs
Linkage relationships have been identified for many peach ESTs and have facilitated placement on the peach genetic map. Comparison of the Fragaria unigene to this set of ESTs presents a basis for developing linkage relationships between the established peach, and growing Fragaria, linkage maps. A series of peach ESTs have been conclusively anchored to genetic maps by sharing BACs with genetic markers previously used for BAC hybridization [9]. Of the 295 mapped peach ESTs 22 (7.04%) showed a significant match with the strawberry unigene (Table 3).
Table 3 Fragaria ESTs with homology to mapped peach BACs
Computational analysis for SSRs and ORFs in the ESTs
Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) were identified in the strawberry unigene data set (Open Reading Frame and Microsatellite Analysis, Methods). In this study, SSRs are defined as dimers with at least 5 repeats, trimers with at least 4 repeats, tetramers with at least 3 repeats, and pentamers with at least 3 repeats. 190 unigene sequences (14%) were found to have one or more repeat, and 79 different motifs were identified within the set of clones. A total of 269 SSRs were found with trimers being the most common motif length (Table 4). The frequency of motifs for all the possible dimers and trimers is listed in Table 5. To examine the distribution of SSRs in the putative coding region and the UTR, we detected open reading frames in the unigenes using the FLIP program (Brossard 1997). When the longest open reading frame was selected as the putative coding region, 176 (65.4%) of these microsatellites were found inside putative coding regions. When filtered for the most optimal primer candidates (40–60% GC content) a total of 208 SSR-flanking sequences met the criteria (Table 6). These optimal candidates can be downloaded via the GDR ftp site [10].
Table 4 The frequency of simple sequence repeats in the Fragaria unigene.
Table 5 Frequency of different types of dinucleotide and trinucleotide repeats in the Fragaria unigene set
Table 6 Statistics for optimal primer candidates
Fragaria × ananassa is complex polyploid, arising from a spontaneous cross between Fragaria virginiana and Fragaria chiloensis. The genome contains contributions from at least three diploid species [11, 12]. Over the past century cultivation of octoploid strawberry has progressed solely on the careful efforts of breeders, physiologists and biochemists. This complex genome and coincident awkward genetics has slowed the development of molecular markers and other tools that would benefit breeding efforts and understanding of strawberry genomics. This report details a starting point to advance the traditional strawberry research avenues using modern molecular tools to forward structural-and functional-genomics studies in this important crop species. As important, it demonstrates that computational tools may be used to comprehensively mine large quantities of important data from a relatively small data set. As these tools become available as web-based applications, small sequencing efforts may extract valuable information that may shape research questions in under-represented crops like strawberry.
Recent efforts demonstrate the importance of sequence information as the basis of functional-genomics studies. Previous reports of gene expression in strawberry have been dependent on the discovery and characterization of specific genes of interest, such as an O-methyltransferase associated with flavor [13], enzymes that influence fruit firmness [1417], as well as several others [18, 19]. Current technologies have the capacity to assess genome-wide transcriptome changes associated with a given treatment or developmental process [20, 21]. Recent studies in cultivated strawberry have implemented proprietary sequence information in a microarray format to unveil the transcriptome that coincides with fruit ripening [2224]. These studies have identified critical regulators of fruit flavor. The first study identified strawberry alcohol acetyl transferase as a critical enzyme in the production of volatiles esters. The associated transcript increased during fruit ripening and the recombinant protein catalyzes the appropriate syntheses from a variety of substrates in E. coli [23]. A recent functional-genomics study characterized Nerolidol Synthase 1, the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the flavor compounds linalool and nerolidol from geranyl diphosphase and farnesyl diphosphate, respectively. The enzyme is expressed in the receptacle of ripening fruit, not in leaves, and is highly expressed in cultivated species relative to wild species. The report concludes that selection of cultivated varieties for fruit flavor fixed mechanisms to express and localize terpene-associated enzymes that favorably affected flavor, while repressing those that make fruits less desirable [22]. Although the factors leading to fruit flavor in strawberry have been studied for decades, a transcriptome survey produced the most definitive results, owing again to the usefulness of a sequence database in Fragaria.
The transcripts characterized from this project will allow development of genomics resources for the study of other important physiological responses. A subset of these ESTs is shown in Table 7. These ESTs are relevant to processes of interest to the strawberry industry and may represent important molecular tools to researchers. The first set represents a series of ESTs with sequence homology to genes associated with the photoperiodic control of flowering. These include close homologs to CONSTANS (CO), a likely transcription factor that induces specific meristem identity genes under the appropriate photoperiod [25, 26]. A homolog of a critical regulator of meristem identity AGL20/SUPPRESSOR OF CO OVEREXPRESSION was also identified. This gene encodes a MADS-box transcription factor that likely functions downstream of CO in conferring light signals to the promoters of meristem identity genes [27]. An EST representing VERNALIZATION INSENSITIVE 3 also was identified in this library. VIN3 is a protein shown to function downstream of CO in regulating seasonal flowering responses [28]. VIN3 is a chromatin-remodeling protein that represses FLC, a protein that negatively-regulates CO function [29] allowing the plant to appropriately time flowering relative to seasonal chilling.
Table 7 Transcripts corresponding to genes of described function in important physiological processes
Analysis of this dataset revealed a suite of likely homologs to pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, such as thionins, Ndr1, β 1-3-glucanase and chitinases, and LRR proteins. The prevalence of this family of proteins was not surprising as the plants were treated with salicylic acid 24 h before RNA harvest to enrich for PR genes in the library. These genes are of particular interest to plant scientists because of their potential to help define the mechanism(s) of disease resistance and susceptibility. It is possible that these genes may be especially useful targets for antisense or overexpression in unveiling these agriculturally-important traits, or possibly in the design of transgenic plants with heightened resistance to common plant pathogens. All of these facets are important, as strawberry cultivation requires copious application of fungicides and/or bacteriostatic compounds to ensure proper fruit set.
Of interest to this laboratory are homologs of genes associated with photomorphogenesis, such as Hy5 and Non-phototropic hypocotyl 3. These both play roles in early light development, yet HY5 also has been shown to influence downstream developmental processes such as fruit ripening and pigmentation [30] and also binds to the promoters of genes associated with circadian clock progression [31].
The information distilled from all of these analyses can now be used to design strawberry-specific probes to assess gene expression patterns and develop transgenics to directly test gene function. These important studies are underway and will facilitate comparisons between the biological sensory/response mechanisms in strawberry to those of model systems.
The apparent sequence conservation between Fragaria and other rosaceous tree crops suggests that cross-species microarray studies may be productive within the Rosaceae. This study demonstrates that less than 11% of the ESTs are unique to strawberry. This value is likely inflated, as ESTs by nature contain variable untranslated regions and other features that may preclude efficient identification of homologs. Of the 1305 ESTs, 835 have strong homology with other Rosaceae ESTs. Those featuring over 85% homology over 100 bases are between 86 and 100% identical to transcripts isolated from other Rosaceae, with an average identity of 91% (+/-0.001%). The high degree of similarity may be a useful platform for comparisons between molecular-mechanistic differences exhibited between diverse species with little sequence variation. Here, the diversity within the Rosaceae is likely due to variation in gene expression, and EST data and microarray technologies are an idea platform to study these patterns.
The relatively extensive genetic mapping in Prunus has delineated linkage associations between genes of the genus, those in select Rosaceae species and even Arabidopsis [32]. Physical maps have also been developed from transcript mapping [9]. The ESTs from this Fragaria collection were compared to the mapped peach genes, and 23 agreed with strong homology (Table 3). These relationships are important as they present the basis to study structural relationships between cousin species within the Rosaceae. Since these loci are mapped in peach, they represent excellent loci to also add to the growing diploid strawberry linkage map [33], and eventually map in the octoploid.
Mapping efforts may also be hastened from identification of SSRs. SSRs derived from ESTs provide a basis to assign linkage relationships to known gene products, and such studies have been initiated in diploid strawberry [33]. In the EST collection presented herein, a number of SSRs are present in transcripts correlating to putative allergens, regulators of the circadian clock, and general housekeeping genes. These transcripts can now be readily mapped in the diploid using existing populations, and such studies are currently underway. Furthermore, specific genes of interest can be studied for variation within diploid species or for intron-specific polymorphisms that will allow their assignment to the diploid strawberry linkage map. These studies will ultimately facilitate the generation of molecular markers to follow traits/genes of interest in the commercial cultivars, adding the resolution of molecular tools to complement conventional breeding strategies.
The general proportions of the different functional groups (Figure 1) reflect well the expected state of the mature plant transcriptome as reported in previous studies. Transcripts encoding enzymes associated with the cell cycle, cytoskeleton or cell walls are not abundant as mature plants are less reliant on processes governing greater cell number or cell size. Approximately half of the transcripts associated with photosynthesis are members of the chlorophyll a/b binding protein family; the other half typically contains plastid-encoded transcripts. As expected, the majority of transcripts detected represent enzymes of general metabolism.
Although a small EST set, the complete suite of analyses performed herein demonstrate that a finite transcriptome snapshot may provide ample resources to seed additional study. Here a relatively small number of ESTs has provided sufficient information to engage in further molecular, physiological and genetic studies. For instance, the pretreatment with salicylate likely enriched the expression of pathogenesis-related transcripts that can now be used to study disease progression in specific strawberry cultivars with large variations in sensitivity and resistance. Clearly, the development of a comprehensive SSR catalog allows characterization of these potential genetic markers in the progeny of polymorphic cultivars, in an important crop species virtually devoid of linkage associations. Unlike other markers, EST-derived SSRs by definition originate from a sequence that is expressed, adding functional resolution to linkage groups built on structural polymorphisms. More importantly, the same suite of tools used to perform these analyses will be soon available through a public interface at the GDR, making comparable analyses possible. These applications are an important rationale for sequencing and analysis of a limited EST set, as even a small research program may find sufficient resources to initiate molecular-genetic study of an under-represented crop species.
Library construction
Roots, leaves, petioles, stolons, meristems and new daughter plants were harvested from several individual chamber-grown strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa cultivar 'Strawberry Festival) plants 24 h after salicylic acid treatment (4 μm foliar spray, 1 μM drench). Tissues were washed briefly to remove soil and then were frozen in liquid nitrogen. Total RNA was extracted using the following method, a modification of protocols used in the extraction of RNA from pine cones [34]. Briefly, 1 g of tissue was ground in liquid nitrogen using a mortar and pestle, then incubated in extraction buffer (2% CTAB, 2% polyvinylpyrrolidone, 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 25 mM EDTA, 2.0 M NaCl, 0.5 g/ml spermidine, and 2.0% β-mercaptoethanol) at 65°C for 10 min. The samples were cooled to room temperature, an equal volume of chloroform:octonol (24:1) was added and the mixture was homogenized using a Polytron (T10-35 homogenizer) at 80–90% maximum speed. The organic and aqueous phases were separated by centrifugation at 5700 × g and the supernatant was vortexed with an equal volume of chloroform:octonol. The phases were again separated by centrifugation and the supernatant was transferred to a clean test tube, LiCl was added to a final concentration of 2.5 M and precipitated on ice overnight. RNA was then collected by centrifugation at 5700 × g. The pellet was resuspended in 500 μl SSTE (1 M NaCl, 0.5% SDS, 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 1 mM EDTA) and extracted with an equal volume of chloroform:octonol. The supernatant was precipitated with two volumes of ethanol, the pellet was washed with 76% ethanol containing 0.3 M sodium acetate, dried briefly in a Speed Vac, and resuspended in 50 μl 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) 2.5 mM EDTA before quantitation by spectrophotometry.
For library construction mRNA was isolated from total RNA using the Oligotex Direct mRNA Mini Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, CA) using 500 μg total RNA. The cDNA library was constructed from 5 μg mRNA using the Uni-ZAP XR Cloning Kit (Stratagene Inc, Carlsbad, CA) as per manufacturer's directions. The primary library consisted of 6.2 × 107 colony forming units with average insert size of 800 bp and 98% of clones containing inserts of ≥ 200 bp. Mass excision of filamentous phage was performed and phagemids were cloned to E. coli for sequencing.
Sequencing and sequence processing
A total of 1847 EST clones were sequenced from the 3' end at the University of Florida ICBR Core Facility using ET Terminator (Amersham Inc, Schaumburg, IL). These sequences were processed using publicly available software incorporated in a fully automated in-house script ( developed at Clemson University by the Genome Database for Rosaceae (GDR) bioinformatics team. Sequence trace files were converted into FASTA formatted sequence and quality score files using the PHRED [35] base-calling program. Vector and host contamination were identified and masked using the sequence comparison program CROSS_MATCH [36]. Vector trimming excised the longest non vector sequence and further trimming removed low quality bases (less than phred score 20) at both ends of a read. Sequences were discarded if they had greater than 5% ambiguous bases, more than 40 PolyA or Poly T bases or less than 100 high quality bases (minimum phred score of 20). Using this protocol, 81% of the sequences (1505) were considered high quality and submitted to the NCBI public EST repository dbEST [37]. To reduce redundancy and increase transcript length the high quality sequences were assembled using the contig assembly program CAP3 [38]. Various assemblies were performed using different CAP3 parameters to identify the build that required least manual editing. More stringent parameters (- p 90 -d 60) were used to prevent over assembly and help identify potential paralogs. The assembly was refined where possible using homology to the SwissProt database to indicate contig accuracy. Homology was determined by comparing the contigs and clones against the Swiss Prot database using the fastx3.4 algorithm [7] with EXP < 1e -6. Contigs whose clones showed difference in homology were deconstructed and contigs with the same homology to other contigs were joined using default CAP3 parameters. The unigene data set was derived by combining the contig and singleton data sets.
Functional characterization
Functional characterization of the unigene data set consisted of pairwise comparison of both the high quality clones and the contig consensus sequences against the NCBI nr [39] and SWISS-PROT [40] protein databases using the fastx3.4 algorithm [7]. The most significant matches (EXP < 1e -7 and EXP <1e-6 for the NCBI nr SWISS-PROT searches, respectively) for each contig and individual clones in the library were recorded. The Swiss-Prot matches were further classified by gene ontology [41]. Contigs or clones that did not have a significant match with either of these databases were searched against the InterPro protein families and domains database (Mulder et al, 2005) using InterProScan [42].
The unigene sequences were also characterized by comparison with the Genbank Rosaceae EST dataset (227250 as of February 14, 2005) and 256 peach mapped ESTs [43], downloaded from the Genome Database for Rosaceae (GDR). Using the BLASTN algorithm [44], sequences with > 85% similarity over an alignment length of 100 bp were considered significant matches.
Open reading frame and microsatellite analysis
Open reading frames (ORFs) were identified in the ESTs using the software program FLIP [45] and the longest ORF was recorded as the putative coding region. Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) were identified in the unigene data set using a modified version (CUGISSR) of a perl script SSRIT [46]. SSRs recorded for the final dataset include dimers with at least 5 repeats, trimers with at least 4 repeats, tetramers with at least 3 repeats, and pentamers with at least 3 repeats. SSR-containing sequences were identified as optimal candidates for primer development if they contained a GC content between 40% and 60% and a minimum of 20 base pairs of sequence on either side of the SSR. Using the FLIP output, CUGISSR reports the location of SSRs in the relation to the putative coding region.
Data storage and web interface
All sequence, assembly, homology, ORF and SSR data were uploaded to the Genome Database for Rosaceae (GDR) (Jung et al, 2004) as well as library, protocol, contact and publication information. GDR scripts were utilized to allow users to browse, query or download all the project data.
Public access and dissemination
The GDR website has a number of different EST project sections including the Fragaria EST dataset detailed here. These web pages are extensively linked such that users can easily access data of interest regardless of the navigation entry point. To access the project pages for this EST project, users can go to the project page which can be found by a link in the "About Us" drop down menu in the top navigation bar. This project is listed on the "Data Overview" page as "Folta – University of Florida" [47]. The sidebar for this project allows the user to view the project description, the library details, the processing protocol, a report on the successful clones, unigene details, gene homology pages, microsatellite analysis, contact information, and publication information. The cDNA phage library and individual clones generated in this study are available upon request.
For members of the Rosaceae community or of the public who are interested in searching the dataset, the EST search page allows users to search the Fragaria sequence set directly [48]. The ESTs and the unigene can be searched by name, by homology, and by features such as presence of a microsatellite or component of a contig. Once an EST or contig has been selected, the sidebar allows users to view all information relating to the sequence (or consensus sequence), the library details, the assembly information, the open reading frame and microsatellites, homology, and for contigs, the component ESTs.
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This work was supported by the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, the NSF Plant Genome Research Program award #0320544 (DM), a grant from the North American Strawberry Growers Association (KMF) and funding from the Horticultural Sciences Department at the University of Florida (KMF). This work was approved for publication as Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series Number R-10920.
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Correspondence to Kevin M Folta.
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Authors' contributions
KF prepared the RNA for, and generated the cDNA libraries, provided functional annotation and analysis and drafted the manuscript with MS. MS and CJ performed all computational analyses under the guidance of SJ and DM. PS and DB collected plant tissue, participated in RNA isolation and functional EST annotation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Kevin M Folta, Margaret Staton contributed equally to this work.
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Folta, K.M., Staton, M., Stewart, P.J. et al. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers from octoploid strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa). BMC Plant Biol 5, 12 (2005).
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• Significant Match
• Salicylic Acid Treatment
• Diploid Genome
• Farnesyl Diphosphate
• Nerolidol
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What on earth is The Regular In Q?
The aim of this write-up is which may purely enable you significantly better have an understanding of what is the widespread in math. It can enable you to know about what you are now working on on the typical foundation and how to strengthen your self. By knowledge alot more in what is actually your standard in arithmetic, you are likely to hold the ability increase your likelihood of being in to a premier mathematics college, and to achieve a higher degree of mathematics science.
What is actually the popular in arithmetic? Let us 1st begin and then we could look at the common in math. There is A sample sizing an sum. The commonplace of a sample is generally known as the normal https://dukeperformances.duke.edu/calendar/ deviation or perhaps the customary error for the estimate.
Today that we have a minimal qualifications guidance on exactly what is the natural in math, let us converse about what math placement exam measures. The standard of this evaluation is often called the standard or maybe the median. The median or even the imply would be which the rating from all pupils who took the check. Even the median or A signify can be viewed as a indication of a pretty decent team of pupils.
What is the well-known in math? The typical of pupils who discovered round for its incredibly initially day of course took the examination is the standard provide.
What is the frequent in mathematics? The median or maybe the expression honestly is just not the standard, but just an individual way of obtaining the ordinary from.
Students scored below or higher than this quantity? We can use that total. That quantity is the proportion of all those pupils who scored about or underneath the regular score. This assortment is generally known as the proportion of this team who scored above or below the regular.
The necessarily mean truly is just not the typical, as it willn’t consider in to consideration students’ increased dozens. masters in time discount code All you could want to perform is counting the wide range of learners who scored more than or beneath the usual to uncover the ordinary. That variety might be your expression of all the scores. You may well understand the standard, in the event you count on the array of pupils who scored above or underneath the centre range.
What is actually the normal? The ordinary is calculated as being the distinction around the number that shopped more than or beneath the popular in addition to your amount who scored around or underneath the quantity. In this situation, the centre number is which the quantity who scored previously mentioned or beneath the common, and the quantities begin the process of off at zero. This quantity can divides the full volume of individuals numbers and then that number will be viewed as the common.
Bear in mind, the indicate is not the standard. If you want to find out the everyday, split the quantities of college or university pupils who scored earlier mentioned or beneath from the selection who did not the heart amount. The centre number is your common as well as that selection is considered the ordinary. You would possibly count the quantities.
Know what extremely is your regular in arithmetic. Divide the numbers who scored over or underneath from the number who unsuccessful to the assortment. To get the commonplace, split that range by the quantity of pupils who took this exam.
You have the ability to implement the median or the indicate to master what is your normal. The expression is that the typical of these multitude of students that confirmed about for the incredibly number one working day of course and took the take a look at. The median is the normal of the assortment of pupils that did not not demonstrate up to the to begin with night of course and took the test.
The signify isn’t really the regular, but just only one way of figuring out the standard. These quantities of college or university pupils that took the check and unveiled up for the rather first night of class’ typical is the suggest of all the pupils who took this evaluation.
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Porridge is a dish made by boiling processed grain or legumes in water or milk. It is usually served as a breakfast food, as a first food for babies or a soft food for the sick.
The most popular grains used for porridge are oats, maize and semolina, and in some countries, the word porridge has become synonymous with a mixture made from one particular grain, usually because of availability and tradition. For example, porridge is almost exclusively made from oatmeal in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and maizemeal in East Africa. Speakers of American English understand the word porridge but generally do not employ it, referring to "hot cereal" when speaking generally, or using the name of the grain oatmeal, farina (semolina, popularised by Farina®, a brand), etc.
In Scotland, porridge made of oatmeal, boiled slowly ,stirred continuously with a spirtle [1] and seasoned with salt is a traditional breakfast[2]. The first recorded occurrence of the word porridge dates from about 1760, in a children's rhyme: Pease Porridge hot/Pease Porridge cold/Pease Porridge in the Pot/Nine Days old. [3]
The Golden Spirtle World Porridge Making Championship is held annually in Carrbridge Scotland.[4]
World Porridge Day is an international event organized to raise funds for the charity Mary's Meals whose purpose is to raise funds for famine relief for children in developing countries [5] [6]
1. Word of the week: spirtle The Times December 3 2006
2. Scotland Food and Drink
3. Pease porridge From The Original Mother Goose's Melody: As First Issued by John Newbery, of London, about A.D., 1760 (1889)
4. Porridge-maker title returns to Scotland Guardian 10 October 2010
5. Mary’s Meals "an international movement to set up school feeding projects in communities where poverty and hunger prevent children from gaining an education".
6. World Porridge Day
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Four totally unrelated (and surprising facts) about the skin
Four totally unrelated (and surprising facts) about the skin
(1) The skin surface is not flat. It contains about 5 million apertures such as hair follicles and sweat and sebaceous glands (also known as skin appendages). Why is this important? Well, these structures create openings to the environment and therefore significantly increase the area of the skin exposed to it. If the skin was flat we would have about 2 square meters of it. Instead, it has been calculated that about 30 square meters of skin are indirectly exposed to the environment. Thus, we have to make sure that we clean and hydrate all our skin every day !
(2) Skin microbiome is not only located on the surface of the skin. Studies using a technique called in-situ hybridization indicated that microbial components are inside of skin appendages even below the basement membrane. What does this mean? It means 2 things: (1) contrary to what we thought the microbiome is present below the dermis (it does not mean we have live bacteria there but some of their components such as DNA or RNA) and (2) the skin surface of these appendages is not directly exposed to the environment but instead to their own microbiome layer. With this information we can infer that the known skin microbiome functions are only the tip of the iceberg and we will see much more in the coming years.
(3) Different body areas have different levels of natural hydration. For example, the chest and back are more hydrated toward the neck. On the contrary, areas around the knees and elbows exhibit lower levels of hydration. It has been suggested that areas under greater mechanical wear and environmental exposure naturally have a lower normal skin hydration. Why is this important? Although I am a firm believer that body skincare must be done daily, if you do not agree with me at least make sure that these dry areas are moisturized at least twice daily.
(4) Body odor (BO) is genetically determined by a gene called ABCC11. This gene encodes for an apical efflux pump, a protein that transports crucial molecules across the membrane, that is key for both BO and wet earwax formation. Interestingly, a single mutation prevents the secretion of odorants and therefore BO formation. This mutation is present in most of the Asian (80-90%) and in only 2% of European populations. On the contrary, people with wet earwax and BO have the normal version of ABCC11.
#skincarescience #beautyskin #Flawlesscanvas_skincare #theskinbiologist #skincare #skinhealth #microbiome #skincaretips #skincarejunkie
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Vim Command History
Vim is a powerful code and text editor that is specifically designed for Unix, while Linux and macOS have it installed by default. After all, it is highly powerful and fast, in part because it is a small program that can run easily in a terminal despite having a built-in graphical interface. It can efficiently work without a menu or mouse with a keyboard. It is a simple text editor; however, it records the history of the commands we entered in command line mode. It keeps track of all the activities in command line mode, which allows us to recall previous commands easily. We do not have to type out all the long commands again, which we have typed before. We can simply go back through the command line history and use the “ex” commands at the prompt. This blog will learn about the vim command history, its usage, and how it can help us edit files while saving time and energy.
Command-line History
Vim text editor is capable of recording the history of all the commands that we enter on the command line prompt. There are two ways of recalling the command history: dialling up the command line window or scrolling through the past command lines using the cursor keys.
Scrolling through the past commands:
To switch to the command line prompt, press : key. After “:”, leave the prompt empty and then press the upper arrow key. The command history will be populated with the most recent executed command in the command line mode. Use the upper arrow key again to go further back through the commands you have entered so far, and use the down arrow key to come back to the most recent command you have entered.
Dialling up the command line window:
To search the specific previous command in the command line prompt, use : and your search key. For example; type :p and then press the upper arrow key. It will search the command that starts with p and display those commands for you. You can scroll through the history by using up and down arrow keys. This provides the history for all the commands which you have entered so far in the command line prompt.
In this example, we have created a file with the name of “newfile”, and in it, we have entered some text, as you can see in the following screenshot.
After inserting the text, close this file by typing :wq. In the command window, type :p and then press the up key. It will provide the history of all commands in each press that you have used recently. In the below screenshot, we have attached two results out of many that we got.
Moreover, if you want to search the history, you can also do that. The entire history can be listed by using the: history command. For example, :his command lists the history of the commands entered so far, and :his / will list the search history. / is used to start a search, so when it is combined with : it lists the search history.
A command-line window is a better solution in many situations that can be easily opened in two different ways:
• To search in the command window, type q/, and for commands, type “q:”
• Type / to simply search or type : to enter a new command, then type the ‘cedit’ or press ctrl+f.
The command line window provides many advantages. The top benefit of the command line window is that it enables you to use all the editing power of vim, including simple search with / key in the normal mode or the insert mode’s whole line completion command. Furthermore, once you have edited the command, you can:
Press the enter key to execute the command on the current line and close the command line window.
Press the Ctrl+C key two times to cancel executing the current line and close the window.
Vim Editor Modes
The Vim text editor has three modes; normal mode or insert mode, command mode or line mode, and visual mode.
Normal mode or insert mode:
The normal mode is vim’s default mode which is used for editor commands. However, the default mode can be turned into the insert mode, where you can easily write, modify, and delete the text.
Command mode or command line mode:
The command line mode allows you to execute commands like find and replace, undo and redo, quit, etc. It supports the single line input at a time at the bottom of the vim command line window.
Visual mode:
The visual mode is very similar to the normal mode or the insert mode. However, it allows you to highlight or edit the text in bulk.
Here are a few examples that will help you learn how you can easily use the command history to go through the commands you have entered so far, and if needed, you can reuse them by simply copying and pasting. This way, you can avoid the hassle of typing the long commands again and again. You just go through the history and use the previous commands as is where required. For example, let’s say you have typed ‘hellos’, then ‘humor’, then ‘purple’, then ‘simple’, then ‘humanity’, then ‘Hello’ again, then ‘market’, then ‘Helium’, ‘play, then ‘human’ and then ‘Habit’.
After typing all such text, you need to search for the words that start with ‘h’; for that, you need to type /h. When you enter /h and repeatedly press the up arrow key, it will take you through all the words that start with h, i.e., ‘human’, ‘humanity’, ‘humor’, ‘hello’. However, if you notice, you can observe that /h has skipped ‘Habit’, ‘Helium’, and ‘Hello’.
Why is that? Why does it not show these words when you search for the words that start with ‘h’. Well, it is because the vim history navigation is case sensitive; you have searched for the words starting with the lowercase letter ‘h’ that is ‘/h’. Therefore, the words that even start with the letter ‘h’ still not be in the navigation because they start with the uppercase letter H.
Vim Command History Store
You must be wondering, do the vim’s commands history store somewhere?
Well, yes, the command antiquity is kept in the viminfo file (:help viminfo). The viminfo file is usually read on startup and write up on exit; however, you can explicitly persist and synchronize between vim instances. To synchronize between vim instances, you can use :wviminfo and :rviminfo commands
In this blog, we have learned about the vim command history, two ways of recalling the command history, and the three modes of the command-line window. In addition, with the help of a simple example, we have learned the usage of “:” and “/” to enter and search the command in command line history.
About the author
Omar Farooq
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What is the freedom of press in India?
The law of India prohibits spreading or publishing fake news through social or mass media, and could lead to imprisonment of a journalist or newspaper ban. …
What do you mean by freedom of press?
What is the limit to freedom of the press?
Nevertheless, freedom of the press in the United States is subject to certain restrictions, such as defamation law, a lack of protection for whistleblowers, barriers to information access and constraints caused by public and government hostility to journalists.
Is freedom of press absolute in India?
What is free press in government?
This includes the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, whether orally, in writing or in print, or through any other media of choice. …
Can anyone claim to press?
Most state laws attempt to strike a balance between the individual’s right to privacy and the public interest in freedom of the press. However, these rights often clash. … Although private individuals usually can claim the right to be left alone, that right is not absolute.
THIS IS INTERESTING: What is the normal AQI in Delhi?
What are two ways freedom of press is limited?
What are two ways freedom of the press is limited? No one is free to publish false stuff that will harm another persons reputation doing so is called Libel. Why are shield laws important for the press? The shield laws help protect the reporter from having to reveal the source of their information.
Can the press publish anything they want?
Does “freedom of the press” mean the news media can say or write anything they want? Unless restricted by a valid prior restraint (which is rare), the news media are free to publish any information or opinion they desire. … A newspaper that publishes false information about a person, for example, can be sued for libel.
Are our freedom really safe Article 19?
Indian Constitution, article’ 19 (1) guarantees to citizens six The background. freedoms in all. … The protection of article 19 is, thus, not available to them, and is- confined to natural persons, on a reading of the judicial pronouncements. In any case, the position in this regard is nebulous’.
What country does not have freedom of press?
The ten countries with the least press freedom were, in order: North Korea, Turkmenistan, Eritrea, China, Djibouti, Vietnam, Syria, Iran, Laos, Cuba and Saudi Arabia.
Do we really have freedom of expression?
Article 19(1) of the Constitution of India guarantees freedom of speech, although this right is not absolute and comes with some reasonable restrictions outlined under Article 19(2).
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Obedience for lay people
Obedience and Choosing of the Spiritual Guide
Prof. Nikolay Pestov. “Way to True Joy”.
Professor N.E. Pestov
“Christ humbled himself, and became obedient unto death, even the death of the cross” (Philippians 2,8). A man was created for free will, but does it mean that he is absolutely free in his wishes, intentions, decisions and deeds? Does he have a right for headstrongness and willfulness? No, the human will is restrained by God’s laws of the universe. God determined what Adam was allowed to do and what was prohibited.
According to the Holy Fathers obedience is the same thing as piety. So St. Anthony the Great explains: “To be pious is to fulfill the will of God, that means to know God”. The Holy Fathers say that the will is the only thing that really belongs to us, and anything else is given by God as a gift. Therefore the renunciation of the will values more than many other good deeds.
As elder Silouan of Mount Athos says: “Hardly anyone knows the mystery of obedience. The obedient man is great before God. He emulates Christ, Who gave us the image of obedience. The Lord loves the soul of the obedient, bringing it quiet and love. The spirit of obedience is necessary not only in monks but in everyone else, too. Everyone seeks peace and joy, but few people know that they are obtained through obedience. Even feats without obedience may lead to vanity”.
Grace Enters into the Human Soul Only through Obedience
Archimandrite Raphael (Karelin). "Obedience is the Basis for Salvation".
Archimandrite Raphael (Karelin)
Decay and death of the human body are an image of the sin, which the man bears in his soul. But this tragedy of the sin does not mean hopelessness for men. A Christian shall return the grace in the same way as he has lost it. The Holy Fathers say that the Adam’s sin was caused by pride. Pride deprived the man of self-understanding. Pride caused dreaminess, i. e. illusory perception of himself and the world, and Adam’s confidence that he was ready to ascend to higher levels of contemplation and become equal to God. Pride deprived Adam of self-understanding in the light of grace, and, in the darkness of illusory dreams, he heard the demon’s voice: “You will be like one of gods”. Adam wanted to take from God by force what had been promised to him for obedience, and change likeness to God into equality with God. We think that St. Gregory the Theologian told the most profound words about the fall of Adam: “Adam lost Paradise not only when he was expelled from Eden, but when he lost grace through the fall”. Other illusory paradise opened in his soul, which, in fact, was an anteroom of hell. These feelings, degenerated into passions, filled the human soul as sparks coming from hell. Adam lost joy in God; and the man seeks pleasure in satisfaction of his passions. Adam considered the forbidden fruit as a talisman, so that he could acquire divine force with it; he wanted to become god through owning an external object. Now, the man seeks happiness in external things. Adam lost grace; the man exists in the field of his own passions. Adam lost peace in God; the man lives in perpetual unrest, in constant anxiety.
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OPINION: The romanticization and misrepresentation of cultures based on their portrayal in mainstream media is degrading and offensive
Amelia Tai
The romanticization of cultures leads to harmful stereotypes and fetishization.
Romanticizing cultures leads many away from the reality and truth of the world and creating fairytale stereotypes of societies can prove to be harmful and degrading. Although appreciating the beauties of the world is important, focusing on only those and ignoring the reality does more harm than good. Fabricating ideas and expectations of different cultures completely based on things seen on television or how they are portrayed on social media will lead to false assumptions and even disregard for the true culture. Disappointingly, many people do this unknowingly, basing their perception of cultures on anime, K-pop and many forms of media.
Many interesting, beautiful and overall amazing stories are told through anime, but creating a fantasy of Japan based off of these stories and believing them to be true is just wrong. Anime is a big part of Japanese culture and some stories told through anime do show the beauties of Japan, but like many other places, Japan is so much more than what is depicted through television, and like other countries, it is not possible to have a grasp on Japanese culture through media.
Wanting to live inside an anime is understandable, but bringing all expectations from anime into real life Japan and romanticizing its culture is ignorant and offensive. Published by the Tiktok user @sannoni, a video comparing their high school selves to the present had a comment “real life anime people.” This comment along with many others from videos across social media are extremely disrespectful and lessen the creator to “anime people.” Wanting to live in Japan for the aesthetic or wishing to run away and go to high school in Japan because of how life and school are depicted in anime is simpleminded and ignoring the deep culture of Japan.
These conditions do not only apply to Japan but many places and cultures around the world. For example, Polynesian culture. One such Polynesian country is Hawaii, which has been romanticized and given the stereotype of a tropical vacation location for many years. This idea has resulted in Hawaii’s culture, traditions and history to be ignored and even forgotten. Hula is complex and beautiful, telling the stories of the past, love, kings and queens, war, gods and goddesses and so much more, but it has been reduced down to the stereotype of grass skirts, coconut bras and wavy arms. According to the late Hawaii’s King David Kalakaua, “Hula is the language of the heart, therefore the heartbeat of the Hawaiian people,” but this major part of Hawaiian culture is disrespected. Along with hula, many go to Hawaii for vacation without researching any of Hawaii’s customs and traditions, resulting in them being disrespectful without knowing, such as violating land that is kapu.
Romanticizing cultures also comes with romanticizing those a part of and associated with these cultures and ethnicities. K-drama depicts handsome, romantic and attractive male roles in many of their films. These roles are sweet and romanticizing the characters and the story is expected, but pulling these ideas and expecting this from all Korean and Asian men is disturbing and borders on fetishizing. Relating all Asian men back to K-drama or anime and saying they look alike when they don’t can be racist and disrespectful. Oftentimes comments on TikTok videos made by someone in Japan and/or Korea depressingly consist of comments that read, “Real life anime??” and “Real life K-drama.” Although it can possibly be meant as a compliment, simply connecting an Asian person with anime in general is audacious and tiresome.
Even if some may argue the point that creating these fantasies of places and people have no negative effect whatsoever, they need to understand that reducing an entire culture and its people down to its stereotypes only results in disrespect and disregard for the traditions, history and individuals. In order to fix this issue, people must learn to appreciate all cultures in their entirety.
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Death of a Bird, one of Daruwalla’s finest poems, reminds us of S.T.Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Both the poems poignantly express the violent convulsions which disturb Nature’s cosiness, peace and sublimity, when someone dares to take away lives of innocent creatures–albatross in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and the monal in the Death of a Bird. At this unlawful intrusion in Nature’s realm, there is upheaval and ultimately the evil does has to suffer the nemesis of guilt. The poem is in the narrative form which is artistically and coherently developed. The narrator who is on a hunting expedition along with his female companion, enters a forest where two monals are passionately engaged in lovemaking, Daruwalla picturesquely describes their copulation :
Under the overhangs of crags fierce bird love :
the monals mated, clawed and screamed;
the female brown and nondescript the male was King, a fire dream.
The hunter did not take pity on the lovemaking monals and all of a sudden fired at the birds. Consequently, the male monal came down and was dead. The hunter and his female companion felt no regret for their heinous act and without any feeling of compassion, they picked the dead bird and put it in a bag. The female monal, which was not hit, was so terrified that crying painfully it flew far off.
The realm of nature was badly disturbed,
With bird-bloods on our hands we walked,
and as the sky broke into rags
of mist, why did our footsteps drag.
The hunters walked on. Their pony was walking slowly. They smote the pony on its shanks so that it might hurry up. It lost its balance and fell down the rock a thousand feet below, where the roaring river flowed. The pony screamed in great pain as it fell down into the river. It is scream fall into the ears of the hunters. They were horror-stricken at the accident. Although this was feeling very depressed, they resume their journey. It was evening. Bears and jackals were howling in the forest. Thinking that the bears were lurking behind the bushes, the narrator- hunter fired the gun but missed the aim each time. When jackals howled, she asked If they were wolves but he made no reply but taking her hand gently in his hand, they walked gently towards a cave which was surrounded by fine trees. It was dangerous. A bhoria dog, left behind by resin tappers to guard their cans contain resin, was growling. It was getting darker and darker and mist was thickening. His companion was feeling very cold. He lit a fire of turf and feat and rubbed her clotted sides and feet. She did not sleep and found her waking in his hands. Their bodies were in close contact but for some unknown reason, they inwardly felt apprehensive.
They rose for the final kill. They had no feeling of guilt :
each of us thought the other was free of the pony’s scream and the monal’s wings
and the fowling bears in the firelight-rim.
The woman resting his head on his chest slept soundly. He held her hair tightly in his hand. The night was advancing towards its climax. Both the hunters were taking rest. The night was peaceful, except the wind moaning aloud. The nightscape is vivid and picturesque:
And the wolves, with the mist, went over the cliff—
but for the wind, we both would have dreamed
the very same dream of quiescence and love;
but the wind was a thorn in the flesh of the night
and moaned aloud like a witch in the flue.
At drawn they repent for killing the he-monal. A brown bird rose from the crags. Flying strongly as it passed over the heads of the two hunters, it fearfully shrieked aloud and fell down dead on their feet. She recognized the dead bird as the Queen monal. She felt that they were accused by the dead bird :
“Just watch its eyes !” For though the bird was near dead
its eyes flared terror like bits of dripping meat !”
Death of A Bird reveals a vision which has an inherent moral. An evil does have to pay the penalty of his or her misdeeds. The woman feeling an expression of terror in the eyes of she-monal understands that a curse would fall upon them. They were responsible for the death of two living monals. An evil does reafs the consequences of his misdeeds. It is an artistic poem, remarkable for stylistic qualities and chaste, apt and highly suggestive diction. Daruwalla’s use of chiselled phrases and picturesque colour-words contribute the artistic excellence of the poem; for example, ” fierce bird-love”, ” the monals mated, clawed and screamed”, ” his eyes were glazed, the breast still throbbed”, ” firmling like a spray of cysts”, ” a passion of dissky gold and blue”, ” dream of quiescence and love”, “like a witch in the flue”, and ” the wolves, with the mist, went over the cliff”. The poem is also remarkable for its dramatic quality. The climax of the dramatic moment reaches in the last stanza when the female monal drops dead at the feet of the hunters, reminding them of their guilt. The lady exclaims :
It’s the queen-monal! We are accused !” she said.
its eyes flared terror like bits of dripping meat !”
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Hanuman Jayanti 2019: Bolo Hanuman Ki Jai!
Happy Hanuman Jayanti 2019! Happy birthday to Shri Hanuman, the monkey God, who is the epitome of service and devotion. Indians worldwide are celebrating this day to honor Lord Rama’s humble servant. The festival of Hanuman Jayanti occurs shortly after Ram Navami.
Hanuman Jayanti 2019
Happy Hanuman Jayanti 2020
Hanuman was ever vigilant to his master, fearless in all his endeavors, focused, adventurous and ever virtuous. Hanuman is Pavana Kumar or Maruti – the son of the wind God Vayu and Anjani. Pavana and Maruti are both words for wind. He is also known by the appellation Anjenaya, son of Anjani. Hanuman Jayanti is also known as Hanumat Jayanthi.
Indians typically celebrate Hanuman Jayanti at sunrise by visiting a local temple which houses Hanuman. They often leave him sindhoor (an orange powder) flowers, sweets, and mustard oil.
Either publicly, or privately, they chant the Hanuman Chalisa. The word chalisa means 40. This is a devotional hymn to Hanumanji, and consists of 40 stanzas. Each stanza in the text glorifies his greatness by telling a story about his courageous endeavors. This hymn is usually chanted at least 40 times, or as much as 108. You may also listen to the chant if you are not familiar with it.
Indians also often recite or listen to the Sunderkand. For younger kids, you may want to gift them with the Hanuman coloring book, which details some of the stories of the monkey god.
There are other items which you may use to honor Hanuman any day of the year
Hanuman Jayanti 2019
When Rama’s wife, Sita, was kidnapped by Ravana, Hanumanji crossed an ocean and located her. He set fire to the town of Lanka, where Ravana resided. Then, when Rama needed the life giving Ayurvedic herb, sanjivani. Hanuman lept and brought back an entire mountain which housed the herb.
In Vedic astrology, or Jyotish, chanting the Hanuman Chalisa is considered an astrological remedy, or upaya to those who are experiencing their Sade Sati. This is the time when Saturn transit’s over one’s natal Moon and the two adjacent signs. It’s best to follow proper specifications for this hymn, or for any other mantra.
Given the current world climate and tensions, we can follow Hanuman’s example and stay true to our dharma. For example, have unswerving devotion to your true teacher. If you are experiencing fear or anxiety, pray to Hanuman for courage. Additionally, you can practice seva or selfless service. Stay focused on your goal. Keep your heart open. Carry God in your heart.
Hanuman Jayanti is celebrated on the full Moon (Purnima) of the Vedic month of Chaitra. This is when the Moon is full in the constellation or nakshatra of Chitra. Vedic astrology uses the lunar calendar and utilizes the phases of the Moon to determine when festivals are held. Hanuman is believed to have been born right after sunrise, where the rising sign was Aries.
Hanuman Jayanti 2019
Hanuman bhaktas (or great devotees) pray to Hanuman today for the courage and fortitude to have his strength, courage, and most importantly, ask for his blessings.
Jai Hanuman Gyan Guna Sagar! Shubh Hanuman Jayanti 2019!
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Home / Bahrain / Water Resources in Bahrain
Water Resources in Bahrain
Muharraq city - water resources in Bahrain
Photo1: Sunset at Muharraq city, Bahrain. (Sources: Ahmad Azaharuddin Omar, Flickr)
Surface water
Situated in an arid to extremely arid environment, Bahrain’s climate is characterized by high average temperatures, erratic, often scanty rainfall averaging about 80 mm/yr (see Figure 1) and high evapotranspiration rates averaging about 1,850 mm/yr.[1] This results in a high deficit in the water budget, creating impossible conditions for a perennial surface water system to exist.
Bahrain has two groundwater systems: the Dammam aquifer system and the Rus-Umm er Radhuma (Rus-UER) aquifer system. The Dammam aquifer system is recharged by the equivalent aquifer system in eastern Saudi Arabia, and therefore is considered a renewable aquifer system,[2] while the Rus-UER aquifer system occurs in the form of a brackish water lens and is considered non-renewable. Interaction between the two systems occurs in certain parts of Bahrain, as will be illustrated in the following sections.
The Dammam aquifer system is developed in the Dammam formation and represents the only natural, semi-renewable, relatively freshwater source available for Bahrain (Figure cuh1). The system consists of two groundwater zones, the Alat zone (termed ‘A’ aquifer) and the Khobar zone (termed ‘B’ aquifer). The ‘B’ aquifer zone is developed in highly fractured limestones and dolomites and is the principal aquifer in Bahrain, providing most of the groundwater abstraction. The ‘A’ aquifer zone has limited hydraulic properties, and due to its widespread salinization is used at a very local scale by farmers.
The Rus-UER aquifer system, termed the ‘C’ aquifer zone, is developed in the fractured chalky dolomitic limestone of the Rus and the upper parts of the Umm er Radhuma formations. The aquifer occurs in the form of a lens of a finite lateral extent on Bahrain Island, with a salinity range between 8,000 and 15,000 milligrams per litre (mg/L), underlain everywhere with brines of over 100,000 mg/L. Since the Rus-UER aquifer is non-renewable, it is expected that with continued abstraction the reserve of the brackish water zone will be depleted, and its salinity will eventually reach that of seawater or that of the underlying brine zones. Aquifer water is currently used to feed the Ras Abu Jarjur reverse osmosis desalination plant and the industrial sector.
Heavy dependence on groundwater resources, particularly for the development of the agricultural and municipal sectors, has increased groundwater abstraction rates to more than twice the recommended groundwater safe yield (Figure 2). This has resulted in a severe decline in the aquifer water levels, causing all natural springs to cease flowing. [3]indicated that the water levels in the Dammam aquifer have dropped from one to six metres in comparison to the aquifer’s pre-development water levels, with many areas experiencing water levels below sea level. As a result, many agricultural lands were abandoned due to deteriorating groundwater quality, which was partially compensated by treated wastewater.
groundwater in bahrain - Water resources in bahrain
Figure 1: Bahrain’s groundwater system. Source: Al Zubari et al., 1997. @Fanack
Figure 2: Production of desalinated water in Bahrain, 1979-2017. Data Source: Electricity and Water Authority.
Non-conventional water resources
Non-conventional water resources in Bahrain consist mainly of desalination and treated municipal wastewater. Industrial wastewater and irrigation drainage water do exist, but their volumes and utilization are relatively minor. The following is a brief summary of desalination and treated wastewater.
Bahrain has an established policy of meeting municipal water requirements with desalination plants, and it has a well-developed water utility sector with several large desalination plants that fulfil nearly all of the municipal water requirements. The sector has grown rapidly alongside the kingdom’s social and economic development.
The total desalination capacity reached about 846,000 m3/d or just under 309 million cubic metres per year (MCM/yr) in 2017 (Table 1). Figure 3 shows the desalinated water produced during the period 1979-2017. Currently, about 24.6% of the total capacity is owned and managed/operated by the government while the rest is owned by the private sector, from which the government purchases desalinated water based on long-term agreements.
Table1: Daily production capacity of desalination plants in Bahrain. Data Source: Electricity and Water Authority (EWA).
PlantYear commissionedTechnology usedNo. of unitsCapacity 1,000 m3/dRaw waterOwnership/ management
Sitra (SPWS)1975Multistage flash distillation (MSF)6113.6SeawaterGovernmental
Ras Abu Jarjur (RAJ)1984Reverse osmosis (RO)1073.4Brackish groundwaterGovernmental
Al-Dur (ADUR)1990RO845.5SeawaterGovernmental
Al-Hidd (HIDD1999MSF and multiple effect distillation (MED)14 (4 MSF and 10 MED)409.1SeawaterPrivatized (entire production purchased)
Alba2002MED431.8SeawaterPrivate (production purchased)
Al-Dur RO2012RO-218.2Seawater Private (production purchased)
Total desalination capacity846.1 (308.8 MCM/yr)
Note: Al-Dur seawater reverse osmosis plant (third on the list), owned by the EWA, ceased operating as a production facility in 2012 and is excluded from the calculation of the total capacity.
Desalination technologies used are multistage flash distillation (MSF), multiple effect distillation (MED), brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) and seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO). The current (2019) desalination technology mix ratio is 33.6% for MED, 30.2% for MSF and 36.1% for RO. In the last five years, the Electricity and Water Authority (EWA) has increased its reliance on RO technology. Subsequently, the ratio of RO technology in the desalination technology mix has increased from 8.3% to 36.1% (2019).
The primary fuel used for desalination is natural gas produced in the kingdom, which is more efficient, less costly and more environmentally neutral than oil. The municipal water authority is planning to increase current desalination capacity by 75% by 2030. The total cost of water supply per cubic metre (i.e. production, conveyance and distribution) is indicated by the water authority at about $2. Bahrain uses a monthly block rate tariff. The subsidies for municipal water supply range from 98% (first block) to 83% (last block).
Treated municipal wastewater reuse
Bahrain has 11 wastewater treatment plants that are owned and operated by the Ministry of Works, Municipalities Affairs and Urban Planning with a total capacity of about 352,770 m3/d (Table 2). The main wastewater treatment facility is the Tubli Water Pollution Control Centre (Tubli WPCC), and is the main plant with tertiary treatment level (another tertiary treated wastewater plant is operated by the private sector and is described below).[4]
Tubli WPCC is the only plant that has a network for transmission of its tertiary treated wastewater for reuse. Other sewage treatment plants (STPs) producing tertiary treated wastewater, such as Ma’ameer and North Sitra, are not connected to a reuse network. Two new STPs are under construction for two newly developed cities: the STP for Madinat Salman in the north-west and the STP for Madinat Khalifa in the south-east.
The actual flow to Tubli WPCC is more than its designed capacity (Table 2), which leads to large carryover volumes of partially treated wastewater to the surrounding environment. An overall decentralization planning policy, and Tubli plant capacity increase and efficiency improvement schemes, are being carried out to solve the problem of hydraulic loading of the plant.
Table 2: Main and minor government-owned wastewater treatment plants in Bahrain. Data Source: Sanitary Engineering Operation and Maintenance Directorate, Ministry of Works, 2017.
PlantYear commissioned Influent typeLevel of treatmentTechnology of highest level of treatmentPopulation served*Design flow m3/dActual flow m3/d
Tubli WPCC1982DomesticTertiaryOzone, chlorine, filtration700,000200,000328,222
North Sitra2008Domestic and industrialTertiaryDeep gravity sand filters72,50016,50013,322
Askar1997DomesticSecondaryActivated sludge1,250288527
Hidd Industrial Area2005Domestic and industrialTertiarySand filtersN/A2,3251,800
Jasrah2006DomesticTertiary Sand filters1,500340524
Bahrain University1985DomesticTertiarySand filters1,679504902
Jaow1992DomesticSecondaryActivated sludge1,500408942
South Alba1994Domestic and industrialTertiaryChlorine14,8009001,205
Al-Dur2003DomesticTertiarySand filters25070171
Hamalah2015DomesticMembrane bioreactor (MBR)MBR1,5001,100868
Ma’ameer2010Domestic and industrialMBRMBRN/A2,2501,931
In 2015, the amounts of wastewater received at Tubli WPCC were about 116 MCM (318,000 m3/d on average), of which about 35 MCM (96,300 m3/d on average) were tertiary treated. Of this tertiary treated water, about 28.5 MCM (78,100 m3/d on average) were reused for irrigating farms and landscaping, and the remaining 6.7 MCM (18,400 m3/d on average) were used inside the Tubli plant. The rest of the wastewater received, about 74 MCM (203,300 m3/d on average) were treated only to a secondary level and were discharged to the sea in Tubli Bay. Figure 3 illustrates the evolution of these four quantities for the period 2000-2015.
In 2014, a new wastewater treatment plant with a capacity of about 100,000 m³/d (expandable to 160,000 m3/d) of tertiary treatment was commissioned to serve Muharraq Island as part of the wastewater authorities’ decentralization policy.
• Plant Inflow
• Secondary/Partially Treated and discharged to sea
• Tertiary Treated Production
• Reused Tertiary Treated
• Plant Usage
Figure 3: Amounts of wastewater received in Tubli WPCC, tertiary treated, reused and discharged to the sea, 2000-2015. Data Source: Sanitation Directorate, Ministry of Works.
The project is being overseen by the Muharraq Sewage Treatment Plant Company as part of a 27-year build, own, operate and transfer scheme, the first of its kind in the country. In 2017, the total treated amount at the plant was about 73,700 m3/d (27 MCM/yr). Currently, very limited volumes of this tertiary treated wastewater are reused, totalling about 1,000 m3/d (0.36 MCM/yr), and are delivered to users by tankers. Such large amounts of unused tertiary treated wastewater represent a major lost opportunity under the prevailing water scarcity conditions, especially as an estimated annual amount of about $12.2 billion is paid to treat these waters to a tertiary level. Moreover, with the growing population, it is expected that the annual wastewater generation rates will increase, and the available treated sewage effluent will increase too.
Total water availability and per capita availability
Bahrain has an extremely poor endowment of water resources. It is considered one of the countries with the lowest per capita freshwater availability in the world, a situation that continues to worsen due to population growth. Per capita freshwater availability currently stands at about 70 m3/yr,[5] considerably below the acute water poverty line of 500 m3/yr (Figure 4).[6] However, despite this water scarcity, Bahrain has achieved a very commendable level of water supply services given the rapidly increasing population and urbanization rates, reaching almost 100% of its residents. This achievement has been made possible by the use of a significant share of oil revenues.
• Population
• Per capita share of natural water
• Per capita share of total water (conventional and non-conventional)
Figure 4: Trends in per capita freshwater availability in cubic metres per year, 1940-2015.
Shared Water resources
Groundwater in the Dammam aquifer is renewed on a relatively long-term basis by underflow from the extensive regional Eastern Arabian aquifer (non-renewable), which extends from central Saudi Arabia to eastern Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. Strong cooperation on water issues exists between Bahrain and Saudi Arabia.
[1] Al-Zubari W and Lori I, 2006. Management and sustainability of groundwater resources in Bahrain. Water Policy Journal 8:127-145.
[2] Sometimes the aquifer system in Bahrain is considered ‘semi-renewable’ since the regional aquifer system extending from central Saudi Arabia to the Arabian Gulf and feeding Bahrain’s aquifers is non-renewable.
[3] Al Zubari, W.K. 2005. Spatial and Temporal Trends in Groundwater Resources in Bahrain, 1992-2002. Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, vol. 10(1): 57-67. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/SPATIAL-AND-TEMPORAL-TRENDS-IN-GROUNDWATER-IN-Zubari-Zones/b23f580bade2919a986b6c13b9fe4e263cfba208
[4] The tertiary treatment technology in Tubli WPCC includes the following processes: secondary effluent pre-chlorination; first stage ozonation; chlorination; filtration; second stage ozonation; second stage chlorination; and third stage chlorination.
[5] Per capita freshwater availability is calculated by dividing natural resources renewability by the population. The figure also shows the per capita water availability for both conventional and non-conventional resources, which represents Bahrain’s efforts to modify per capita water availability using desalination.
[6] An amount of 500 m3/capita/yr is considered the absolute water poverty level and implies that water becomes a major constraint for development, affecting living standards, health and the environment. Falkenmark M, 1989. The massive water scarcity now threatening Africa: Why isn’t it being addressed? Ambio 18(2): 112-118.
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Changes in the rural landscape
Rural depopulation is a major problem as there are fewer jobs due the increased use of machines. As agriculture is the main industry in rural areas, people are forced to leave in search of employment.
As a result the population is ‘greying’, ie there are more older people and schools may be forced to close because of reduced numbers of pupils which leads to further job losses. As there is less money in the area, other shops and services may be negatively impacted and may also close.
Increasingly many homes in rural communities are being bought as second or holiday homes by people who live permanently in urban areas.
This also leads to various problems in the countryside. House prices rise as the area becomes more popular, which makes it difficult for local people, especially first time buyers, to afford to buy homes in their local area, and may force them to move away.
This further impacts upon local services as the owners of these holiday homes are not there all the time and so, as houses lie empty, services are not being used.
Removal of hedgerows
In order to increase field size to use large machinery, hedgerows, used to separate fields, have been removed. This has had both positive and negative effects.
Positive and negative effects of removing hedgerows
Positive effectsNegative effects
Larger field size means more space to grow more cropsLoss of hedgerows leads to a loss of animal habitat, which leads to a loss of biodiversity
Increased yield means increased profit for farmersLoss of shelter belts protecting crops from the wind as hedgerows are removed
Larger machinery could be used making work faster and more efficientNegative impact on natural scenery
Farmers save money as they do not have the costs of upkeep on the hedgesGreater soil erosion as the roots help to bind the soil together and keep it in place
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drawn thread work
Alternate titles: opus tiratum, punto tirato
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drawn thread work, Italian Punto Tirato, in fabric, a method of producing a design by drawing threads out of the body of a piece of material, usually linen, and working stitches on the mesh thus created. In Italy it preceded the development, in the 16th century, of needle lace, and it continued to be practiced internationally even after. It appears on embroidery samplers from the 17th century onward and is a technique common to embroidery and lace.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Amy Tikkanen.
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Melanctha by Gertrude Stein, 1909
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by Gertrude Stein, 1909
Gertrude Stein had already written Q.E.D. and Fernhurst, novellas about love triangles both lesbian and heterosexual, and an early version of The Making of Americans before she began writing Three Lives in 1909. It was this work, the stories of three lower-class women, that would make her a pioneer of twentieth-century realism. In the first of these stories to be written, "The Good Anna" and "The Gentle Lena," Stein described the lives of German immigrants. The stories are heavy with irony, for, despite the women's goodness and gentleness, both died miserable, their only happiness coming from friendships with other women. The works are marked by a continuous and ever modulating repetition and by the use of common language.
When she began "Melanctha," the last of the three lives, in the winter of 1905-06, she was living in Paris and sitting for the portrait that Pablo Picasso was painting of her. During the more than 80 sittings for the painting, Stein's use of repetition intensified, and her presentation of the mulatto protagonist of the story became both more complicated and more sympathetic than her characterizations of Anna and Lena had been.
Stein's description of Melanctha Herbert is both innovative and risky, for the style of incremental repetition can both attract readers' attention and also drive them away. In the fragmented narrative that Stein uses it is clear that Melanctha explored heterosexual relationships during her adolescence, when she spent much time "wandering" on the docks. She later became intimate with the alcoholic Jane Harden, who at age 23 was sexually adept. Stein says clearly, "It was not from the men that Melanctha learned her wisdom. It was always Jane Harden herself who was making Melanctha begin to understand." The two years of the women's relationship pass quietly, Melanctha spending "long hours with Jane in her room," a description that echoes lovemaking scenes from Q.E.D. Melanctha's later liaison with Rose, which is the story that opens the work, adds to the lesbian strand in the story and suggests Melanctha's double injury when Rose betrays her, first by marrying Sam and then by ending their affair.
After a long account of Melanctha's bisexual history Stein introduces Jeff Campbell, the black doctor who grows to love Melanctha while he tends her dying mother. The story then becomes an extended dialogue between the arbitrarily rational Campbell and the purposefully inarticulate Melanctha, a tour de force of voiced dialogue unlike anything in published literature of the time. During their lengthy interchanges Stein draws Campbell as the rational speaker who wants permanence, exclusivity, and security. His polemical insistence is shown to be absurd, however, when it is contrasted with Melanctha's meaningful silences. She loves through acts, and she gives Campbell what she has to give but does not talk about it. While he accepts her love, he verbalizes all aspects of their relationship and forces her into language that becomes destructive. Whatever Melanctha says, Campbell argues with. By the end of the long dialogue the reader sees that Stein has constructed a classic discourse between reason and emotion. Because the language sounds so much like real people's speech—circular, repetitious, boring—its classic pattern has been entirely overlooked.
Stein's fiction continued what was becoming her life process, melding the knowledge she had acquired from her studies of philosophy and psychology at Radcliffe College and her studies of brain anatomy and medicine at Johns Hopkins Medical School with literature and painting. Her main interest was presenting the person. Her fascination with the portrait was a culmination of years of formal study as well as the result of the contemporary artistic excitement over Cezanne, Picasso, and Matisse as they worked to change the nature of painting, particularly through their portraits. In "Melanctha" Stein created a double portrait, perhaps the fictional portrait of herself as a deeply divided person. Although the long dialogue between Campbell and Melanctha has been described as typical of conversations Stein and her female lover often had, with Stein represented by Campbell, Stein also portrayed herself in the character of Melanctha. Born of very different and irreconcilable parents and later isolated from her family, the maturing Melanctha, like Stein, tried to escape her feelings of difference and looked to sexual love for self-knowledge. Campbell and Melanctha's impasse mirrors Stein's conflict over emotional loyalties to different aspects of her own self.
One of the ongoing points of interest about "Melanctha" is that it is a very early fiction about a black character written by a white woman who seemingly knew little about black life. Despite the story of Richard Wright later reading the work aloud to black workers, with good response, today's readers must be sensitive to what appears to be racial stereotyping. But in some ways Stein's identification with Melanctha wipes out what seems to be racism in the text. In her notebooks Stein repeated that her own nature was "dirty": "the Rabelaisian, nigger abandonment … daddy side, bitter taste fond of it." Locating herself in the camp of the sensual, Stein used the stereotype of the sexual black woman as a kind of self-portrait. Her aligning Melanctha with "her black brute" of a father instead of with her better-born mother is a means of justifying Stein's own family alliance and her own sexuality, but we still deplore her choice of language.
Critics have cited as important influences on Three Lives the painting of Madame Cezanne hanging above Stein as she wrote, as well as her reading Flaubert's lyric story of the servant Felicite, "Un Coeur Simple." While these influences should be mentioned, the real radicalism in Stein's "Melanctha" was her choice of a lower-class, bisexual, mulatto character as a protagonist and the comparatively unsympathetic style she used to present her. This was fiction without the expected apparatus. How did the reader know what the author felt, and how, therefore, did the reader know how he or she was supposed to feel about the characters? Nonetheless, without the use of conventional narrative clues Stein made clear the unhappiness of both Melanctha and the other two women in Three Lives. The work, privately published in 1909, served as an admonition for women who would accept cultural mandates about what kind of life would make them happy.
—Linda Wagner-Martin
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A blog about marketing, seo and tehcnology
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What is SEO | A Complete guide of SEO
What is SEO | A Complete guide of SEO
What is SEO?
Search engine optimization or SEO is a process used to optimize a website’s technical configuration, content relevance and link popularity so that it can become easily findable, more relevant and popular towards user search queries and as a consequence, search engines rank them better.
SEO is not the same as SEO copywriting, which is the art of writing text and keywords that are optimized for search engines. SEO is generally a process of web design, technical configuration, content relevance, link popularity and content optimization that are all managed by a Search Engine Optimization agency or SEO Company.
How does SEO work?
SEO is the process of making web pages findable in organic search results, in other words, without having to pay for ads. To achieve this, SEO optimizes a web page so that it’s as findable as possible in organic search results. In other words, it’s the process of improving the technical configuration, the relevance of the content, and the popularity of the links on a web page so that it’s findable in organic search results. One of the biggest misconceptions about SEO is that it’s performed entirely on-site.
What are the benefits of SEO?
The benefits of Search Engine Optimization are numerous. A well-optimized website will increase the number of visitors to the website, which increases the number of customers that the website can potentially attract.
An optimized website also has a better chance of being found by a search engine, which can increase the number of visitors to the website. Search engine optimization can also increase the amount of organic web traffic that a website receives.
How can I improve my Google rankings?
Search engine optimization is the process of improving the visibility of your website on search engines like Google. The better your SEO, the higher your website rankings in Google and other search engines. This means that more people will find your website when they search for relevant keywords. Your website is ranking too low!
What are some SEO tools that I can use?
There are free and paid SEO tools that you can use to help with your SEO. Some of the free tools are available on the Internet and are easy to use.
Some tools that I use are Google Keywords, Google Analytics, and Google Webmaster Tools, which is free.
Google Keywords Planner:
Google Keywords planner is a great tool to get a better understanding of what your customers are searching for when looking for a solution to their problem. It will help you discover keywords that your competitors are ranking for and can help you expand your keyword list.
You can also use it to get informed about the search volume of various keywords, their difficulty, and how many websites are competing on them.
Google Analytics:
Google Analytics is a web-based service offered by Google that tracks and reports website traffic and other website data. The service is colloquially called “Google Analytics”, “GA”, “Web Analytics”, or simply “Analytics”.
The service is largely used for analyzing website traffic, monitoring website performance, and for providing data for other technical services such as Search Engine Optimization (SEO), which improves the ability of a website to rank well in search engines such as Google.
Google Webmaster Tools:
Google Webmaster Tools is a platform that provides website owners with a variety of tools to understand how well their website is doing on the internet, and how well it is performing in the search engines. Among other things, it provides a way to see how your website is performing in the search engines, and a way to optimize your website to perform better in the search engines.
It also provides a way to understand the search engine spiders that are crawling your website, and to see the search queries that are leading people to your website. It also provides a place for you to submit your website for indexing in the search engines, which can help your website’s visibility in the search engines.
There Are Also Many Paid Tools Such As ahrefs, Moz and ubbersuggest etc.
What are some SEO mistakes I should avoid?
SEO is a constantly evolving industry and with that comes many mistakes that can be made along the way. Some of the most common SEO mistakes include not keeping up with the latest SEO trends, not having a proper SEO strategy or not testing to see if certain SEO tactics are working.
It’s also important to remember that SEO isn’t a one-and-done process — it’s something that needs to be continually tweaked and adjusted so you can see the best results.
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Pessah, to roast or to boil?
To believe that secular culture will provide the answers to Israel’s problems is a fatal mistake.
famous picture from 1907 used in the ‘American Heritage Haggada,’ the Heppner family of San Francisco has a Seder. (photo credit: Courtesy)
(photo credit: Courtesy)
The Torah’s dietary laws of kashrut, and those that instruct the Jew to remove all hametz (leaven) on Passover and to eat matzot, do not include instructions on whether food is to be cooked or to be roasted.
The only remarkable exception to this is the law concerning the Korban Pessah (Passover Lamb).
The Torah commands the members of every Jewish home to roast a lamb and eat it on the eve of the first day of Passover. This had to be done in the days of the Temple, and in a manner similar to the way it was done at the time of the exodus from Egypt (Exodus 12:1-28; 43-50; Deuteronomy 16:1-8).
While on all other occasions, the Torah leaves it up to the human being to decide whether he will eat his food cooked or roasted, the text, in this instance, is most explicit in its instructions that Jews should eat this meat only once it is properly roasted. It may not be eaten boiled.
“Then shall they eat the meat on this night, roasted over fire; with unleavened bread [matzot] and bitter herbs are they to eat it. You may not eat it raw or boiled in water, but only roasted over fire, including its head, its legs and its internal organs” (Exodus 12:8-9).
What difference does it make if the meat is boiled or roasted? And why does the Torah emphasize, in such uncompromising terms, the absolute prohibition to cook the Passover lamb? Maharal, in his commentary on the Haggada, explains that there is a basic difference between boiling and roasting.
Boiling is an act that assimilates, while roasting separates.
When boiling, we draw several other ingredients into the object we are boiling. These ingredients assimilate with the object, which absorbs the added components and even adapts itself to them. When absorbing the other ingredients, it also expands, becomes soft and begins to disintegrate.
Roasting, however, does the reverse: its main function is to expel. Not only does it remove all the blood, but it also separates all ingredients that are not essential to the meat. As such, it shrinks the meat and makes it tough and impenetrable.
This, explains Maharal, is the symbol behind the Korban Pessah. At the time of the Exodus, when the people of Israel are to become a nation for the first time, it is not yet possible to allow any (spiritual) absorption from outside.
No outer influences that could compromise its essential spiritual nature may be permitted. The formation of the nation must involve both a courageous stand against the world in which it endured a 210-year exile, and a rejection of its culture.
Therefore, it cannot allow any expansion that will weaken its inner structure. It must be solid and impermeable.
This is the time to strengthen its identity and reject all foreign elements. For this reason, the Korban Pessah must be roasted. It symbolizes the need for inner strength and distinctiveness.
But this is not an ideal situation. No nation or religious movement can live in isolation, nor should it. It needs to develop inner strength so that it can open itself up to other cultures and ideologies without losing its own identity, even in the slightest way.
This is the reason why the Torah makes this requirement only once a year, at the time when we celebrate the beginning of Judaism. It doesn’t place a solid prohibition against boiling throughout the rest of the year. Not only that, but we are actually told about a positive commandment given to the Nazir (a person who for a limited amount of time denies himself some physical benefits, so as to better his spiritual situation). He is required to bring an offering that includes a cooked foreleg of a ram (Numbers 6:19).
This is characteristic of the Jewish tradition. Once its foundations have been well-established and the structure of Judaism stands like an unshakable mountain, it is able to weather any unwelcome influence from without. It can then absorb all forms of genuine human wisdom if they will add to a deeper understanding of Judaism and grant the Jew a greater commitment to his tradition. Judaism has never been afraid to confront human wisdom and has always proudly responded to attacks on its tradition. If it were afraid, it would admit its own weakness. Attacks by Spinoza, Hegel or Nietzsche have not shaken its foundations and fundamental beliefs.
Careful study of the famous work Hovot Halevavot (“Duties of the Heart”) by Rabbi Bachya ben Yosef ibn Paquda, written in the 11th century, proves beyond doubt that it was influenced by non-Jewish ideas. Anybody who has studied Islamic mystical concepts will recognize that the author was deeply influenced by these thoughts.
When Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Satanov wrote his famous book on character improvement, Heshbon Hanefesh (“Taking Stock of the Soul”), it was praised by the greatest rabbinical luminaries of the time. It is, however, certain that the book was based on the works of Benjamin Franklin, the famous 18th-century gentile inventor, statesman and author. In his books, he suggested the daily cultivation of 13 virtues – and it is clear that these found their way into Heshbon Hanefesh.
When Rabbi E.E. Dessler, author of the classic Michtav MeEliyahu, was told that some of his observations were similar to those in Dale Carnegie’s How to Win Friends and Influence People, he responded, “They are not similar; they are taken from there.”
Throughout Jewish history, great sages have borrowed from the wisdom of non-Jewish thinkers and scientists to explain and expand on Jewish concepts. Clearly, they were not afraid to do so and were convinced that God had sent knowledge via these non-Jewish scholars to help mankind advance itself, and to aid the Jewish tradition. (See the works of Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, especially Orot Hakodesh, where he approves of this approach.) All literature, even in its most secular manifestation, is in some respect a commentary on the Torah, since Torah is all-encompassing and all-inclusive.
The great Jewish philosopher Franz Rosenzweig wrote, “ being Jews we must not give up anything, not renounce anything, but lead everything back to Judaism.”
But to ensure that Judaism will succeed at this, it will first have to guarantee that it is well-grounded. When we Jews celebrate and reenact the beginnings of Judaism on Passover, we are reminded that we first need to solidify foundations.
Only then are we allowed, throughout the rest of the year, to absorb ingredients from outside.
One can clearly see this in the case of the Nazir. Only after he has completed the period of solidifying his commitment to Judaism is he allowed to offer food that is cooked.
First, he needs to reestablish his Judaism on a strong base and “roast” his spiritual diet. After that, he will have the strength and capacity to assimilate other ingredients into his spiritual condition.
These are difficult days in the history of the State of Israel, and Israelis will have to learn this lesson. To believe that secular culture will provide the answers to Israel’s problems is a fatal mistake. Now that Israel needs great strength and solidarity, it must first put its Jewish ideological foundations in order, which should include a fresh and creative approach to Judaism. Afterward, it will be secure enough to allow foreign cultural elements to integrate into its strong tradition.
Only then will they be of significant help.
If anything, Israel needs to export its own spiritual values to the gentile world. By doing so, it would earn great respect from the nations of the world and would be able to rediscover its self-respect.
Modern Orthodoxy may have become too impressed with secular scholarship and no longer able to offer its followers enough spiritual endeavors, consequently losing its grasp on our young people. On the other hand, the haredi community must learn not to be afraid of the outside world. While it is true that the secular world has many attractions that are not in the spirit of Judaism, it cannot be denied that there is much to learn from its wisdom. It may not yet be holy, but it carries the potential to become holy.
The attempt to prohibit more and more is futile. One can only overcome spiritual dangers if they are replaced by something that is more profound and enlightening. Fighting against something doesn’t work if one doesn’t fight for something much greater. And the element of fear is not a Jewish religious approach.
Judaism holds a vast reservoir of the most magnificent ideas, which if taught properly can easily overcome many negative aspects of the secular world. We need to give our young people so many reasons to be proud of their great Jewish mission that it will by far overpower non-desirable influences from outside. This, however, will require a different type of education from that which is offered by most Jewish high schools and yeshivot today.
There has perhaps never been a need for Judaism more than there is today. Cherished hopes of mankind lie crushed, and Judaism holds profound solutions to many of these problems. If we inspire our youth to be pioneers instead of fearful people, we could create a new movement that young people would love to join. If they would realize that the future of mankind depends on them as religious Jews, many would be equipped to overcome the often hollow challenges that some aspects of the secular world offer.
A Jew’s gravest sin is to forget what he needs to fight for.
The writer is the dean of the David Cardozo Academy in Jerusalem, the author of many books and an international lecturer.
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Functional Properties
Faculteit Science and Engineering
Jaar 2021/22
Vakcode WMPH015-05
Vaknaam Functional Properties
Niveau(s) master
Voertaal Engels
Periode semester I b
Uitgebreide vaknaam Functional Properties
1) explain the optical, magnetic and transport properties of advanced materials (these are materials of relevance in electronics, photonics and spintronics);
2) explain the origin of the different physical properties of advanced materials;
3) relate and link the physical responses of advanced materials (optical response, magnetic and transport) to their structural and electronic properties (symmetry, type of bonding, etc);
4) describe and explain the functioning of basic optical and magnetic devices that utilize the functional properties discussed in the course;
5) apply basic concepts of solid state physics and chemical physics relevant to advanced materials to the solution of problems at the level of the textbooks.
Omschrijving The lectures give an overview of the optical and magnetic properties of advanced materials. The first part of the course treats the
optical properties, where the following topics are discussed: basic response theory (Lorentz oscillator, dipole transitions); absorption
and reflection (incl. Kramers-Kroning relations); magneto-optics; non-linear response (second harmonic, etc.); excitons (molecular,
Wannier, Mott-Hubbard, charge transfer states); plasmons, polaritons, polarons.
The second part of the course, focusing on magnetic properties, deals with: magnetic moments, spin and orbital angular momentum;
crystal fields, orbital quenching, Jahn-Teller effect; basic magnetic properties: magnetic susceptibility, diamagnetism,
paramagnetism; magnetic phase transitions; ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic order and the effect of magnetic field; magnetic
exchange interactions in metals and insulators: Heisenberg superexchange, Zener double exchange, Stoner instability, spin density
wave instability; magnetic domain formation; magnetocrystalline anisotropy, domain walls and domain motion; molecular magnets -
qualitative and quantitative models. Some basic electronic and thermal transport properties will also be treated.
Uren per week
Onderwijsvorm Hoorcollege (LC), Opdracht (ASM), Werkcollege (T)
Toetsvorm Schriftelijk tentamen (WE)
(The written exam consists of two main parts: 1. optical properties; 2. magnetic and transport properties. Both parts have to be passed, each with a grade higher than 5.5. For each part, up to 1.0 bonus point will be added to the exam score according to the satisfactory completion of homework assignments (the maximum homework score of 1.0 is split equally across the number of assignments).)
Vaksoort master
Coördinator dr. G.R. Blake
Docent(en) dr. G.R. Blake ,prof. dr. ir. C.H. van der Wal
Verplichte literatuur
Titel Auteur ISBN Prijs
Magnetism in Condensed Matter, First Edition Stephen Blundell 9780198505914
Optical Properties of Solids, Second Edition Mark Fox 9780199573370
This course was registered last year with course code WMPH13004
Opgenomen in
Opleiding Jaar Periode Type
MSc Applied Physics ( Verplichte vakken) - semester I b verplicht
MSc Chemical Engineering (Electives Courses Chemical Engineering) - semester I b keuze
MSc Chemistry: Advanced Materials (Electives) - semester I b keuze
MSc Chemistry: Catalysis and Green Chemistry (Electives) - semester I b keuze
MSc Chemistry: Chemical Biology (Electives) - semester I b keuze
MSc Chemistry: Erasmus Mundus Theoretical Chemistry and Computing Modelling (Electives) - semester I b keuze
MSc Chemistry: Science, Business and Policy (Electives) - semester I b keuze
MSc Courses for Exchange Students: Astronomy - Physics - Energy & Environment - semester I b
MSc Physics: Advanced Materials ( Compulsory courses) - semester I b keuzegroep
MSc Physics: Science, Business and Policy (Keuzevakken in Advanced Materials) 1 semester I b keuze: AM
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A Review on Treatments for Seizures and Epilepsy
Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological diseases and is characterized by two or more unprovoked seizures due to excessive electrical discharges in brain cells. The main treatments for epilepsy are antiepileptic drugs, surgery, and ketogenic diet. The latter two are particularly for patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. Despite numerous studies and clinical trials done to investigate these therapies, the effectiveness, safety, and mechanisms of many therapies remain controversial and unclear. This review focuses on the effectiveness, adverse effects, and proposed mechanisms of some most commonly used treatments for epilepsy.
According to World Health Organization, epilepsy affects 50 million people worldwide, making it one of the most common neurological diseases (1). It is defined by two or more unprovoked seizures and creates substantial burdens on households (1). Epilepsy can result from structural, genetic, infectious, metabolic, immune and other deficiencies (1, 2, 3), while seizures are caused by excessive electrical discharges in a group of brain cells (1). Different types of therapies have been developed to prevent and treat epilepsy and seizure. The first treatments were surgeries which were first performed in 1831, followed by the discovery of antiepileptic drugs in the 19th and 20th centuries (4). In the early 20th century, ketogenic diet was introduced as a diet full of fats and low in proteins and carbohydrates (4). More recently, neurostimulation and complementary therapies are developed, but the latter may require more studies to establish their therapeutic effects (4). In general, the newly developed drugs have better drug-drug interaction and lower risk of teratogenicity, but they have not improved the overall efficacy and tolerability of drug treatment for epilepsy and require further studies (5). Furthermore, surgery and ketogenic diets are usually used for drug-resistant epilepsy, which according to the International League Against Epilepsy, may be defined as failure of adequate trials of two tolerated and appropriately chosen and used AED schedules (whether as monotherapies or in combination) to achieve sustained seizure freedom (6).
For the majority of people with epilepsy, initial therapy consists of pharmacological treatment with one or more of the established antiepileptic drugs (7). Generally, their mechanisms of action involve ion channel inhibition, GABA receptor activation, and/or glutamate receptor inhibition. The majority of antiepileptic drugs target voltage-gated ion channels, and a few also attenuate voltage-dependent, low-threshold T-type calcium currents in thalamocortical neurons, thereby interrupting the thalamic oscillatory firing patterns associated with spike-wave seizures, and others modulate N-type, L-type, P-type, and high voltage-activated calcium currents (7). GABA is one of the main neurotransmitters in the brain, and its receptors control the opening of chloride channels, which leads to chloride influx and thus inhibition of action potential (8). Epileptic drugs such as tiagabine inhibit neuronal and glial uptake of GABA, and vigabatrin increases the synaptic concentration of GABA by inhibition of GABA-aminotransferase, thereby activating chloride channels and preventing depolarization (8). In addition, second-generation drugs such as felbamate are found to limit glutamate-mediated excitatory neurotransmission by preferentially binding to the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor and reduces sustained repetitive firing in mouse spinal cord neurons and provides neuroprotective functions (7).
Carbamazepine is one of the first-line medications for epilepsy and is effective against partial seizures while may have more adverse effects when treating other types of seizures. One clinical trial showed that carbamazepine is as effective as valproate for the treatment of generalized tonic-clonic seizures but provides better control of complex partial seizures and has fewer long-term adverse effects (9). The results for the patients who completed the trial at 12 months were collected: for patients with generalized tonic-clonic seizures, seizure rate/month for patients treated with carbamazepine and valproate was 0.2±1.0 and 0.2±0.6, respectively; for patients with complex partial seizures, seizure rate/month for patients treated with carbamazepine and valproate was 0.9±3.0 and 2.2±8.2, respectively (9). Potentially serious effects such as rash, platelets counts below 100,000 per cubic millimeter, and third-degree heart block were observed in the carbamazepine group, while rash (rarely), platelets count below 8000 per cubic millimeter, transient pancreatitis with pain, nausea, and vomiting after 18 and 36 months that required hospitalization were observed valproate group (9). Other less serious systemic effects such as weight gain and loss of hair occurred more often with valproate, and neurological effects were similar with both medications (9). In general, at 12 months, the valproate recipient had worse overall status in the group of complex partial seizures and both seizure groups combined but not in the group with tonic-clonic seizures (9). However, there were also studies showing that carbamazepine could exacerbate epilepsy in children and adolescence. In one study, among the twenty-six patients, twenty-two had increases in seizure frequency, eight had increases in individual seizures, and eleven had onset of new seizure types, most often tonic-clonic (10). In addition, twelve patients had two changes, and one patient had all three changes in seizure activity (10). Furthermore, epileptic syndromes such as childhood absence, frontal-lobe, and severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy worsened with carbamazepine therapy in some patients (10). Therefore, caution is needed when prescribing carbamazepine to a child or adolescence with absence or mixed seizures (10). One proposed mechanism behind the aggravation of absence seizures by carbamazepine is that carbamazepine acts at the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus via GABAA receptor-mediated mechanism and is demonstrated in a study with rats, but this mechanism is believed to be different from its primary antiepileptic action (11).
Ethosuximide is used in controlling absence seizures and is frequently used together with carbamazepine for mixed-seizure disorders, and its deposition can be altered by carbamazepine (13, 14). In a double-blind, randomized controlled clinical trial that compared the efficiency, tolerability, and neuropsychological effects of ethosuximide, valproic acid, and lamotrigine in children with newly diagnosed childhood absence epilepsy, the freedom-from-failure at month 12 was 45% for ethosuximide, 44% for valproic acid, 21% for lamotrigine, and treatment failure increased between week 16-20 with the fewest increase in ethosuximide group (12). At 16-20 weeks persisted until month 12, ethosuximide and valproic acid had no intolerable events compared to lamotrigine, but the valproic acid cohort experienced a higher rate of adverse events, indicating that ethosuximide may be the optimal drug for initial empirical monotherapy in childhood absence epilepsy (12). In addition, drugs interact with each other when they are applied together. When applied with carbamazepine, plasma samples collected in six normal subjects that took ethosuximide for 28 days and carbamazepine from days 11 to 27 showed that the mean steady-state concentrations of ethosuximide declined by 17% from day 10 to day 28, meaning that carbamazepine can affect ethosuximide kinetic parameters (13). Furthermore, a study done by Sherwin A L, Robb J P, and Lechter M showed that monitoring of plasma ethosuximide increases the effectiveness of therapy by the recognition of noncompliance and the individualization of drug requirements (14). By monitoring the plasma ethosuximide levels and making appropriate adjustments over 2.5 years, there was a reduction of absence seizures in 48% of previous patients with uncontrolled attacks, and practical control increased from 64% to 81% (14). Therefore, regular monitoring of plasma ethosuximide levels may improve the effectiveness of treatment of patients of absence seizures and lead to optimal individualization of drug requirements (14).
Oxcarbazepine is used as a first-line and add-on treatment for patients with partial seizures with or without secondarily generalized seizures and generalized tonic-clonic seizures without partial onset (15). It is shown to have similar efficiency as phenytoin in a double-blind, randomized, parallel-group comparison with 5-18 years old patients (15). The results were that 61% in the oxcarbazepine group and 60% in the phenytoin group were seizure-free during the 48 weeks, and 82.3% in the oxcarbazepine group and 89.4% in the phenytoin group had least one adverse experience including ataxia, dizziness, gum hyperplasia, hypertrichosis and nervousness (15). Because of the high incidence of seizure and epilepsy in the elderly, the safety and tolerability of oxcarbazepine in the elderly were accessed in two cohorts of 18-64 years old and 65 years and older patients. Approximately 81% in the elderly group experienced at least one treatment-emergent adverse event during therapy with oxcarbazepine compared with 87% in the adult group (16). In the elderly group, no adverse events were reported at an incidence greater than 20%, while in the adults group, only vomiting was slightly more frequent in the elderly group, but with no statistically significant difference (16). Therefore, oxcarbazepine may be safe to use in elderly patients.
Epilepsy surgery is a major treatment for drug-resistant epilepsy. Different mechanisms of drug-resistant epilepsy have been proposed, and the two most widely supported are transporter and target hypotheses. The transporter hypothesis suggests that overexpression of multidrug transporters such as efflux transporters at the blood-brain barrier may lead to an increased efflux of drugs, leaving intracellular drug concentration low, and thus low efficiency (17). Target hypothesis suggests that alterations in the properties of antileptic drug targets, such as compositional changes in voltage-gated ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors, result in decreased drug sensitivity and thus lead to refractoriness, but the evidence so far has only been reported for carbamazepine (18). Others also hold the view that due to the complexity of the brain, Inflammation processes, glia functional alterations, and altered intercellular communication related to gap junctions, as well as other documented changes in drug-resistant epileptic brains may together contribute to drug resistance (19).
There are different types of surgeries for different types of epilepsies. Resective surgery is the removal of parts of the brain where seizures begin and are gradually recognized to be the major treatment choice for drug-resistant epilepsy; palliative surgery is a conservative treatment that blocks the epilepsy discharge diffusion pathway through surgical operation; neurostimulation includes vagus nerve stimulation, deep brain stimulation, and responsive stimulation, all of which involve the implantation of a device that monitors the patient’s conditions and delivers stimulations to stop seizures (20). Neurostimulation is based on the fact that cells have membrane potential and generate voltage gradient that influences transport mechanisms and thus affect cellular activities (21). Sufficient energy levels induce a depolarization or hyperpolarization of cells; much smaller energy levels result in cellular excitement, which leads to a tissue response (21). The efficiency and safety of neurostimulation depend on endogenous and exogenous diffusion in the epileptogenic network (22). However, the exact mechanism behind neurostimulation is unknown and requires further research (22).
Many clinical trials have proved the significant role that surgery plays in the treatment of epilepsy. For example, in a randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy, surgery is shown to be superior to prolonged medical therapy: at one year, the cumulative proportion of patients who were free of seizures impairing awareness was 58% in the surgical group and 8% in the medical group, and 4 people (10%) had adverse effects of surgery while 1 person in the medical group died (23). A review of two clinical trials concludes that in general, epileptic surgery is more likely than continued medical treatment to result in a seizure-free outcome but may be less effective when there were extratemporal lesions, the epilepsy was not associated with a structural lesion, or both (24).
Ketogenic diet
Ketogenic diet is another treatment for patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. The classic ketogenic diet consists of a high-fat and low-protein and carbohydrate diet, and the production of ketone bodies from oxidation of fat in the liver act as the primary source of metabolic energy (25). Variants of the classic diet include Atkins diet, low glycemic index treatment, and fasting/calorie restriction limit carbohydrates (26). Several mechanisms of ketogenic diet and its variants’ action on epilepsy have been proposed. First, inhibition of glycolysis by 2-Deoxy-d-glucose, a glucose analog, results in acute antiseizure and chronic antiepileptogenic actions in several experimental models, which suggests that carbohydrate depletion may have antiseizure effects (26). Second, these diets improve mitochondrial function and thus metabolism by reducing reactive oxygen species production and activating ATP-sensitive potassium channels, which causes less depolarization of the cell and fewer impulses being produced (26). Third, the ketogenic diet might inhibit mammalian target of rapamycin activity, but this mechanism is controversial: in one study, rapamycin did not protect against acute seizures though the ketogenic diet was highly protective (26). Finally, the relationship of ketones’ contribution to seizure control is unclear, suggested by controversial studies of β-hydroxybutyrate or acetoacetate concentrations and seizure control (26).
Ketogenic diet is suggested to be effective in treating drug-resistant epilepsy by short-term clinical trials, but it has complications with different degrees of seriousness especially in the long-term. For example, a 3-month trial in children between 2 and 16 years old showed that the mean percentage of baseline seizures was significantly lower in the diet group (62.0%) than in the controls (136.9%); 38% in the diet group had greater than 50% seizure reduction compared with 6% controls; 7% in the diet group had greater than 90% seizure reduction compared with no controls (27). However, ketogenic diets also have complications. In this study, the most frequent side-effects reported at 3-month review were constipation, vomiting, lack of energy, and hunger (27). However, because of the short duration of this study, there were no serious complications observed. In another study carried out from July 1995 to October 2001 regarding intractable epilepsy, patients developed complications, both early-onset ones such as dehydration, gastrointestinal disturbances, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia, and various infectious diseases, and late-onset ones such as osteopenia, renal stones, and cardiomyopathy (28). Although most of these complications were transient and successfully managed, 17.1% of patients ceased the diet because of various serious complications, and 3.1% ofpatients died (28). Therefore, although most complications of ketogenic diet can be improved, there could be more serious and even life-threatening diseases induced.
Treatments for epilepsy include antiepileptic drugs, surgery, and ketogenic diet. Although many studies have demonstrated their effectiveness, others exposed their weaknesses such as exacerbation of epilepsy and serious complications in the long term. In addition, many mechanisms behind these treatments remain unclear, and the current proposals are controversial. Therefore, there is still room for improvement in therapies for epilepsy and further research in their mechanisms at a cellular level.
1. Epilepsy [Internet]. Who.int. 2021 [cited 13 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/epilepsy.
2. Nadkarni S, Jung P. Spontaneous Oscillations of Dressed Neurons: A New Mechanism for Epilepsy? Phys Rev Lett. 2003;91(26):3–6.
3. Wei F, Yan L M, Su T, He N, Lin Z J, Wang J, et al. Ion Channel Genes and Epilepsy: Functional Alteration, Pathogenic Potential, and Mechanism of Epilepsy. Neurosci Bull. 2017;33(4):455–77.
4. Magiorkinis E, Diamantis A, Sidiropoulou K, Panteliadis C. Highights in the History of Epilepsy: The Last 200 Years. Epilepsy Res Treat. 2014;2014:1–13.
5. Chen Z, Brodie M J, Kwan P. What has been the impact of new drug treatments on epilepsy? Curr Opin Neurol. 2020;33(2):185–90.
6. Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg A T, Brodie M J, Hauser W A, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: Consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia. 2010;51(6):1069–77.
7. White H S, Smith M D, Wilcox K S. Mechanisms of Action of Antiepileptic Drugs. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2007;81(06):85–110.
8. Czapiński P, Blaszczyk B, Czuczwar S J. Mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 2005, 5, 3-14.
9. Hattson R H, Joyce M D, Chamber B S, JosephF, Collins Sc D. A comparison of valproate with carbamazepine for the treatment of complex partial seizures and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures in adults. Psychosomatics. 1993;34(5):464.
10. Horn C S, Ater S B, Hurst D L. Carbamazepine-exacerbated Epilepsy in Children and Adolescents. Pediatric Neurology. 1986;2(6):340–5.
11. Liu L, Zheng T, Morris M J, Wallengren C, Clarke A L, Reid C A, et al. The Mechanism of Carbamazepine Aggravation of Absence Seizures. 2006;319(2):790–8.
12. Glauser T A, Cnaan A, Shinnar S, Hirtz D G, Dlugos D, Masur D, et al. Ethosuximide, valproic acid, and lamotrigine in childhood absence epilepsy: Initial monotherapy outcomes at 12 months. Epilepsia. 2013;54(1):141–55.
13. Warren J W, Benmaman J D, WannamakerB B, Levy R H. Kinetics of a carbamazepine-ethosuximide interaction. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1980;646–51.
14. Sherwin A L, Robb J P, Lechter M. Improved Control of Epilepsy by Monitoring Plasma Ethosuximide. Arch Neurol. 1973;28(3):178–81.
15. Guerreiro M M, Vigonius U, Pohlmann H, De Manreza MLG, Fejerman N, Antoniuk SA, et al. A double-blind controlled clinical trial of oxcarbazepine versus phenytoin in children and adolescents with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 1997;27(3):205–13.
16. Kutluay E, McCague K, D’Souza J, Beydoun A. Safety and tolerability of oxcarbazepine in elderly patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2003;4(2):175–80.
17. Koubeissi M. Neuropathology of the blood-brain barrier in epilepsy: Support to the transport hypothesis of pharmacoresistance. Epilepsy Curr. 2013;13(4):169–71.
18. Tang F, Hartz A M S, Bauer B. Drug-resistant epilepsy: Multiple hypotheses, few answers. Front Neurol. 2017;8(JUL):1–19.
19. Margineanu D G, Klitgaard H. Mechanisms of drug resistance in epilepsy: Relevance for antiepileptic drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2009;4(1):23–32.
20. Sheng J, Liu S, Qin H, Li B, Zhang X. Drug-Resistant Epilepsy and Surgery. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2017;16(1):17–28.
21. Watson T. The role of electrotherapy in contemporary physiotherapy practice. Man Ther. 2000;5(3):132–41.
22. Sunderam S, Talathi S S, Lyubushin A, Sornette D, Osorio I. Challenges for emerging neurostimulation-based therapies for real-time seizure control. Epilepsy Behav. 2011;22(1):118–25.
23. Rees D G. A randomized controlled trial of surgery for glue ear. Essent Stat Med Pract. 2019;345(5):85–108.
24. Jobst B C, Cascino GD. Resective epilepsy surgery for drug-resistant focal epilepsy: A review. JAMA - J Am Med Assoc. 2015;313(3):285–93.
25. De Lima P A, De Brito Sampaio L P, Teixeira Damasceno N R. Neurobiochemical mechanisms of a ketogenic diet in refractory epilepsy. Clinics. 2014;69(10):699–705.
26. Danial N N, Hartman A L, Stafstrom C E, Thio L L. How does the ketogenic diet work? Four potential mechanisms. J Child Neurol. 2013;28(8):1027–33.
27. Neal E G, Chaffe H, Schwartz R H, Lawson M S, Edwards N, Fitzsimmons G, et al. The ketogenic diet for the treatment of childhood epilepsy: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(6):500–6.
28. Kang H C, Chung D E, Kim D W, Kim H D. Early- and late-onset complications of the ketogenic diet for intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2004;45(9):1116–3.
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You asked: What is the national animal of Prague?
The double-tailed lion is the national animal of the Czech Republic, a country which you can find between countries Germany and Poland.
What are the symbols for Czech Republic?
of the flag is 2:3. The three original lands of the Czech Crown are represented on the national seal by three crests: a lion with two tails representing Bohemia, a red-and-white chequered eagle representing Moravia and a black eagle bearing a silver crescent representing Silesia.
What is Prague Czechoslovakia known for?
What is the national fruit of Czech Republic?
Most of the countries are better known from their symbols rather than the country itself.
National Symbols of different Countries of Europe.
Countries Czech Republic
National Animal Double tailed Lion (mythical)
National Tree Small leaf Lime
National Fruit
What is Czech national tree?
The tree — called lípa in Czech — is not only the national tree of the Czech Republic, but that of Slovakia and Slovenia, as well. According to Slavic mythology, lindens, also known as lime trees, though not related to the citrus-bearing trees, were sacred.
IT IS INTERESTING: How is Prague in October?
What is the Prague flag?
Flag of the Czech Republic
Use National flag, civil and state ensign
Proportion 2:3
Adopted 1 January 1993 (Czech Republic) 30 March 1920 (Czechoslovakia)
Designed by Jaroslav Kursa
Why is Prague called Praha?
What language is Prague?
Beginner’s guide to the Czech Language. The official language of the Czech Republic is Czech. You don’t have to worry about coming to the country without prior knowledge of the language as you’ll have no problems communicating in English in most cities and many Czechs also speak German and Russian.
What is someone from Prague called?
The official English demonym is Praguer, as stated in some dictionaries and also on wikipedia (Prague – Wikipedia in the data summary on the right side) and as a translation in wiktionary (Pražan – Wiktionary ).
What is the Czech national flower?
Rose. The elegant Rose is the national flower of not just England but also of Luxembourg, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. There are many reasons why these countries have adopted this fragrant beauty. Ever since the Wars of the Roses in the 15th century the English have adopted the Rose as their national emblem.
IT IS INTERESTING: How much does it cost to move to the Czech Republic?
What alphabet does Czech use?
Česká abeceda/The Czech Alphabet
Why does Czech lion have two tails?
The lion was at first represented with one tail. Later a second tail was added, for the help provided by the King Přemysl Otakar I fighting the Saxons (Beware – this is just a legend (from Dalimil’s chronicle)). … From 1253 a two-tailed silver lion in a red field had been the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Bohemia.
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Protein PAX8 PDB 1k78.png
Available structures
PDBOrtholog search: PDBe RCSB
AliasesPAX8, paired box 8
External IDsOMIM: 167415 MGI: 97492 HomoloGene: 2589 GeneCards: PAX8
RefSeq (mRNA)
RefSeq (protein)
Location (UCSC)Chr 2: 113.22 – 113.28 MbChr 2: 24.42 – 24.48 Mb
PubMed search[3][4]
View/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse
Paired box gene 8, also known as PAX8, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the PAX8 gene.[5]
This gene is a member of the paired box (PAX) family of transcription factors. Members of this gene family typically encode proteins which contain a paired box domain, an octapeptide, and a paired-type homeodomain. The PAX gene family has an important role in the formation of tissues and organs during embryonic development and maintaining the normal function of some cells after birth. The PAX genes give instructions for making proteins that attach themselves to certain areas of DNA.[6] This nuclear protein is involved in thyroid follicular cell development and expression of thyroid-specific genes. PAX8 releases the hormones important for regulating growth, brain development, and metabolism. Also functions in very early stages of kidney organogenesis, the müllerian system, and the thymus.[7] Additionally, PAX8 is expressed in the renal excretory system, epithelial cells of the endocervix, endometrium, ovary, Fallopian tube, seminal vesicle, epididymis, pancreatic islet cells and lymphoid cells.[8] PAX8 and other transcription factors play a role in binding to DNA and regulating the genes that drive thyroid hormone synthesis (Tg, TPO, Slc5a5 and Tshr).
PAX8 (and PAX2) is one of the important regulators of urogenital system morphogenesis. They play a role in the specification of the first renal cells of the embryo and remain essential players throughout development.[9]
PAX8 has been shown to interact with NK2 homeobox 1.[10]
Clinical significance[edit]
The PAX8 gene is also associated congenital hypothyroidism due to thyroid dysgenesis because of its role in growth and development of the thyroid gland. A mutation in the PAX8 gene could prevent or disrupt normal development. These mutations can affect different functions of the protein including DNA binding, gene activation, protein stability, and cooperation with the co-activator p300. PAX gene deficiencies can result in development defects called Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract (CAKUT).
PAX8 mutations are associated with various forms of cancer.
PAX8 is considered a "master regulator transcription factor".[8] As a master regulator, it is possible that it regulates expression of genes other than thyroid-specific. Several known tumor suppressor genes like TP53 and WT1 have been identified as transcriptional targets in human astrocytoma cells. Over 90% of thyroid tumors arise from follicular thyroid cells.[8] A fusion protein, PAX8-PPAR-γ, is implicated in some follicular thyroid carcinomas and follicular-variant papillary thyroid carcinoma.[11] The mechanism for this transformation is not well understood, but there are several proposed possibilities.[12][13][14]
• Inhibition of normal PPAR y function by chimeric PAX8/PPARy protein through a dominant negative effect
• Activation of normal PPARy targets due to the over expression of the chimeric protein that contain all functional domains of wild-type PPAR y
• Deregulation of PAX8 function
• Activation of a set of genes unrelated to both wild-type PPARy and wild-type PAX8 pathways
The PAX 8 gene has some association with follicular thyroid tumors. It has been observed that PAX8/PPAR y-positive tumors rarely express RAS mutations in combination. This suggests that follicular carcinomas develop in two distinct pathways either with PAX8/PPAR y or RAS.
Alternate transcriptional splice variants, encoding different isoforms, have been characterized.[5] The mechanism of switching on the genes is unknown. Some studies have suggested that the renal PAX genes act as pro-survival factors and allow tumor cells to resist apoptosis. Down regulation of the PAX gene expression inhibits cell growth and induces apoptosis. This could be a possible avenue for therapeutic targets in renal cancer.
Some whole-genome sequencing studies have shown that PAX8 also targets BRCA1 (carcinogenesis), MAPK pathways (thyroid malignancies), and Ccnb1 and Ccnb2 (cell-cycle processes). PAX8 is shown to be involved in tumor cell proliferation and differentiation, signal transduction, apoptosis, cell polarity and transport, cell motility and adhesion.[8]
Associated cancer types[edit]
PAX8/PPARy rearrangement account for 30-40% of conventional type follicular carcinomas.,[15] and less than 5% of oncocytic carcinomas (aka Hurthle-Cell Neoplasms).[16]
Expression of PAX8 is increased in neoplastic renal tissues, Wilms tumors, ovarian cancer and Müllerian carcinomas. For this reason, the immunodetection of PAX8 is widely used for diagnosing primary and metastatic renal tumors. Re-activation of PAX8 (or Pax2) expression has been reported in pediatric Wilms Tumors, almost all subtypes of renal cell carcinoma, nephrogenic adenomas, ovarian cancer cells, bladder, prostate, and endometrial carcinomas.[9] Expression of PAX8 is also induced during the development of cervical cancer.[17]
Tumors expressing the PAX8/PPARy are usually present in at a young age, small in size, present in a solid/nested growth pattern and frequently involve vascular invasion.
See also[edit]
1. ^ a b c GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000125618 - Ensembl, May 2017
2. ^ a b c GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000026976 - Ensembl, May 2017
5. ^ a b "Entrez Gene: PAX8 paired box gene 8".
6. ^ "PAX8 gene". Genetics Home Reference. 2016-03-28. Retrieved 2016-04-05.
7. ^ Laury AR, Perets R, Piao H, Krane JF, Barletta JA, French C, Chirieac LR, Lis R, Loda M, Hornick JL, Drapkin R, Hirsch MS (June 2011). "A comprehensive analysis of PAX8 expression in human epithelial tumors". The American Journal of Surgical Pathology. 35 (6): 816–26. doi:10.1097/PAS.0b013e318216c112. PMID 21552115. S2CID 14297595.
8. ^ a b c d Fernández LP, López-Márquez A, Santisteban P (January 2015). "Thyroid transcription factors in development, differentiation and disease". Nature Reviews. Endocrinology. 11 (1): 29–42. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2014.186. hdl:10261/117036. PMID 25350068. S2CID 39778077.
9. ^ a b Sharma R, Sanchez-Ferras O, Bouchard M (August 2015). "Pax genes in renal development, disease and regeneration". Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology. Paramutation & Pax Transcription Factors. 44: 97–106. doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.09.016. PMID 26410163.
10. ^ Di Palma T, Nitsch R, Mascia A, Nitsch L, Di Lauro R, Zannini M (January 2003). "The paired domain-containing factor Pax8 and the homeodomain-containing factor TTF-1 directly interact and synergistically activate transcription". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (5): 3395–402. doi:10.1074/jbc.M205977200. PMID 12441357.
11. ^ Raman P, Koenig RJ (October 2014). "Pax-8-PPAR-γ fusion protein in thyroid carcinoma". Nature Reviews. Endocrinology. 10 (10): 616–23. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2014.115. PMC 4290886. PMID 25069464.
12. ^ Rüsch A, Erway LC, Oliver D, Vennström B, Forrest D (December 1998). "Thyroid hormone receptor beta-dependent expression of a potassium conductance in inner hair cells at the onset of hearing". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (26): 15758–62. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9515758R. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.26.15758. PMC 28117. PMID 9861043.
13. ^ Weiss RE, Xu J, Ning G, Pohlenz J, O'Malley BW, Refetoff S (April 1999). "Mice deficient in the steroid receptor co-activator 1 (SRC-1) are resistant to thyroid hormone". The EMBO Journal. 18 (7): 1900–4. doi:10.1093/emboj/18.7.1900. PMC 1171275. PMID 10202153.
14. ^ Brown NS, Smart A, Sharma V, Brinkmeier ML, Greenlee L, Camper SA, Jensen DR, Eckel RH, Krezel W, Chambon P, Haugen BR (July 2000). "Thyroid hormone resistance and increased metabolic rate in the RXR-gamma-deficient mouse". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 106 (1): 73–9. doi:10.1172/JCI9422. PMC 314362. PMID 10880050.
15. ^ Nikiforova MN, Lynch RA, Biddinger PW, Alexander EK, Dorn GW, Tallini G, Kroll TG, Nikiforov YE (May 2003). "RAS point mutations and PAX8-PPAR gamma rearrangement in thyroid tumors: evidence for distinct molecular pathways in thyroid follicular carcinoma". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 88 (5): 2318–26. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021907. PMID 12727991.
16. ^ Abel ED, Boers ME, Pazos-Moura C, Moura E, Kaulbach H, Zakaria M, Lowell B, Radovick S, Liberman MC, Wondisford F (August 1999). "Divergent roles for thyroid hormone receptor beta isoforms in the endocrine axis and auditory system". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 104 (3): 291–300. doi:10.1172/JCI6397. PMC 408418. PMID 10430610.
17. ^ Ramachandran D, Wang Y, Schürmann P, Hülse F, Mao Q, Jentschke M, Böhmer G, Strauß HG, Hirchenhain C, Schmidmayr M, Müller F, Runnebaum I, Hein A, Koch M, Ruebner M, Beckmann MW, Fasching PA, Luyten A, Dürst M, Hillemanns P, Dörk T (Apr 27, 2021). "Association of genomic variants at PAX8 and PBX2 with cervical cancer risk". International Journal of Cancer. 149 (4): 893–900. doi:10.1002/ijc.33614. PMID 33905146.
Further reading[edit]
External links[edit]
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photosynthesis light and dark reaction pdf
Photosynthesis Light And Dark Reaction Pdf
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Photosynthesis in desert plants has evolved adaptations that conserve water. In harsh, dry heat, every drop of water must be used to survive. Because stomata must open to allow for the uptake of CO 2 , water escapes from the leaf during active photosynthesis.
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Blankenship, Robert E. Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. Berkowitz, Gerald A. Portis, Archie R. Shopes, R. Last reviewed: March
Photosynthesis sustains virtually all life on planet Earth providing the oxygen we breathe and the food we eat; it forms the basis of global food chains and meets the majority of humankind's current energy needs through fossilized photosynthetic fuels. The process of photosynthesis in plants is based on two reactions that are carried out by separate parts of the chloroplast. The light reactions occur in the chloroplast thylakoid membrane and involve the splitting of water into oxygen, protons and electrons. The protons and electrons are then transferred through the thylakoid membrane to create the energy storage molecules adenosine triphosphate ATP and nicotinomide—adenine dinucleotide phosphate NADPH. The basic principles of solar energy capture, energy, electron and proton transfer and the biochemical basis of carbon fixation are explained and their significance is discussed. It is the biochemical process that sustains the biosphere as the basis for the food chain.
Light and Dark Reactions in Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that, through cellular respiration , can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities. Most plants , algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth. Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts , which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas.
The Process of Photosynthesis The Dark Reactions
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants absorb light energy from the sun with the assistance of water and carbon dioxide, and transform it into chemical energy to make synthesize carbohydrate specifically glucose and oxygen. If you need a longer review, check out our lesson on photosynthesis before reading on. The "light-independent" or dark reactions happen in the stroma of the chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts pp Cite as. Rather, these direct products of photosynthesis are used to synthesize more appropriate storage forms of energy. The final achievement of photosynthesis, therefore, is the biosynthesis of carbohydrate, as glucose , from CO 2 and H 2 O.
Странно, что она чувствует нервозность в такой знакомой ей обстановке. В темноте все в Третьем узле казалось чужим. Но было что-то. Сьюзан на мгновение заколебалась и оглянулась на заблокированную дверь. Всего двадцать минут, подумала .
В окружающей ее тишине не было слышно ничего, кроме слабого гула, идущего от стен. Гул становился все громче. И вдруг впереди словно зажглась заря. Темнота стала рассеиваться, сменяясь туманными сумерками.
Lothair T.
This analysis suggests that a model of the temperature dependence of carbon exchange by a plant can be developed based upon absolute reaction rate theory.
Daniela S.
The light-dependent or “Light” Reactions: • convert sunlight energy into chemical energy. (stored in ATP &. NADPH). “Dark” Reactions. (Calvin cycle).
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Free learning resources from arts, cultural and heritage organisations.
Funeral Cakes
Resource created by Dales Countryside Museum
Funeral Cakes are a Yorkshire Dales tradition, with links back to the Arval bread of the Vikings. They are decorated, shortcake-like biscuits, flavoured with caraway seeds, and wrapped in paper printed with the deceased's favourite verse or hymn. The cakes are given to visitors to the household, and those attending the funeral.
A round wooden carved stamp with a heart in the middle and circular patterns around it.
A Funeral Cake Marker
This hand-carved wooden stamp was used to decorate the funeral cakes, and was made in the late 19th Century. It's possible that it was made by a single family, for their own use. The tradition of Funeral Cakes is not just limited to the Dales: many regions of Northern England have some sort of cake or biscuit specially eaten at funerals. The biscuits were traditionally decorated with a heart symbol to represent the soul of the deceased.
A plate of biscuits stamped with a large heart in the middle and a circle of dots around
Biscuits Stamped by a Funeral Cake Marker
Discussion Ideas
• Local history and traditions
• Looking at the carving and thinking about how it was made, who made it and why
• Where can we find out more about this tradition?
• How England has connections with the rest of the world through the importation and use of spices
• Can we find other shared traditions with links to other cultures and parts of the world?
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You asked: Why is agriculture so important in a country like India?
Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 70 per cent of the rural households depend on agriculture. Agriculture is an important sector of Indian economy as it contributes about 17% to the total GDP and provides employment to over 60% of the population.
Why is agriculture important for a country?
“Agriculture is the of process of cultivation of land or soil for production purpose”. Agriculture plays a very vital role for economy of Pakistan and its development. 48% of labour force is engaged directly with agriculture. So it is the main source of living or income of the major part of economy population.
What is the importance of agriculture in India Short answer?
Why agriculture is backbone of our country?
Agriculture is considered the backbone of Indian economy. … Agriculture and allied activities make the single largest contribution to GDP (Gross Domestic Product), accounting for almost 27 per cent of the total. Agriculture supplies bulk of wage goods required by the non-agricultural sector.
THIS IS INTERESTING: Question: How did Hinduism affect the world?
Why do we need farmers?
Farmers are a very important part of the agricultural industry. … Agriculture fulfills the need for food as the grown crops can be harvested like wheat, sugar cane, rice, and many others and then can be processed further until they are ready to be transported.
What is the main problem of Indian agriculture?
Indian farmers are facing the problem of low income from their marketable surplus crops in the absence of proper organized markets and adequate transportation facilities. Scattered and sub-divided holdings are also creating serious problem for marketing their products.
Why is agriculture important to humans?
What are the main features of Indian agriculture?
8 Salient Features of Indian Agriculture
• Subsistence agriculture: Most parts of India have subsistence agriculture. …
• Pressure of population on agriculture: …
• Importance of animals: …
• Dependent upon Monsoon: …
• Variety of crops: …
• Predominance of food crops: …
• Insignificant place to given fodder crops: …
• Seasonal pattern:
Is agriculture still backbone of Indian economy?
Agriculture is the most important sector in the Indian economy which contributes around 23% to the Gross Domestic Product and more than 70% of the total work force is employed in this sector. Almost all rural India is dependent on agriculture and allied activities like animal husbandry, dairy, poultry and fisheries.
What is a meaning of agriculture?
THIS IS INTERESTING: What state flower is the Indian paintbrush?
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Artificial intelligence, AI is a tech concept lying in the foundation of any intelligent piece of hardware and software. In other words, a global task of AI is to make computers understand and interact with users by the principles of human intelligence. And these principles aren’t limited to the likes of biological processes of memorizing info and making decisions.
Artificial Intelligence, Sales, marketing, technology
Despite the main focus of implementing artificial intelligence being concentrated on the science sector, companies all over the world tend to employ AI to optimize routine workflow processes and such (for one thing, you can significantly accelerate data processing and prediction). In particular, we’d like to discuss the place of artificial intelligence in marketing and sales in this article.
What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
Let’s start with a brief introduction to the artificial intelligence concept as it is.
What is artificial intelligence exactly? Similarly to the way neural networks are among the essential machine learning concepts, the whole concept of ML is a form of AI. I.e., artificial intelligence is something global. It describes a field of development of intelligent computer systems with the capabilities identical to the human brain’s: understanding of languages as well as an ability to learn, to make decisions, think and solve issues, etc.
As the niche grows, more and more advanced AI-based solutions appear on the market. Most prominent among them are capable of handling tasks in a way a logically-thinking, competent human expert would.
How Does Artificial Intelligence (AI) Work?
As you may have already understood, AI products are based on artificial neural networks (ANN). But how does AI work exactly? Let’s figure this one out.
Neural networks are, basically, mathematical models that operate according to the same algorithms natural neural networks in the human brain go by. Thus, they are able to autonomously generate and analyze non-linear dependencies between input and output signals, adapting to the new types of information. Note that this adaptiveness is provided due to special self- and partially-self-learning algorithms that employ input data and strive to optimize the results after processing the data.
There are several metrics for defining the efficiency of ANN performance.
Not only the quality (preciseness) of the end results matter. Thus, such efficiency indicators as the speed of task handling, the volume of memory consumed, and dispersion of analyzed types of data are important in the modern business realities.
In terms of implementation, ANNs consist of several neural layers – separate computing nodes, each of which enables the following three operations:
а) the network gets input data;
1. b) applies a certain math function to it in order to define whether the data should be transferred further;
с) if the outcome of it is positive, it passes the data on for further processing.
How Does Artificial Intelligence Work
The simplest implementation of ANN is a three-layered network of neurons with:
• First layer processing absolutely all input data;
• Second, hidden, layer filters the data according to the final result requirements;
• The third layer selects the most optimal option that a user gets in the end.
In more complex models, there can be many more intermediary (hidden) neural layers. Along with that, the task-solving potential grows. It may also happen so that the selected model appears to be overly-voluminous for the task at hand as well, in which case overfitting takes place.
What are the Benefits of Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
Moving on through the discussion of our article’s subject, let’s also consider the ultimate benefits of artificial intelligence.
Autonomous decision-making
The main advantages of AI start with an ability to individually make decisions, without a human involved. This allows to cease dedicating much of human resources to solving certain tasks. This is a very beneficial moment for company scaling when the scope of tasks gets significantly expanded and the need to hire new employees appears. In the case of implementing the AI software, companies manage to save a lot on workplace organization, regular compensations, and even taxes.
Relative cost-efficiency
Artificial intelligence software is utterly multipurpose in nature. I.e., it was created especially to cover a wide range of expertise categories and to apply it in the proper direction. Due to that, the self-cost of exploiting such software is quite affordable (as opposed to hiring live employees and deploying separate software iterations for every new type of task).
Accessible development
Despite the technical complexity of neural networks, AI-based solutions are pretty simple to develop. All due to the availability of profiled frameworks, such as TensorFlow, Microsoft Azure ML, KAI, Google Cloud Prediction API, and others. Programmers have to only build business logics of the future product while neural connections are built up by default.
What are the Risks Involved With Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
Despite some obvious advantages of AI-based solutions, there is also a flip side to this moment. So, what are the risks of Artificial intelligence implementations?
Occasional lack of preciseness
We all remember a funny case of AI being unable to distinguish cute chihuahua muzzles from regular cupcakes. It was a pretty insignificant failure in that case. However, in certain situations, for instance, in the employment of computer vision for illness diagnostics on initial stages, such inaccuracies can cost someone’s good state of health or even life. So this is one of the crucial risks of AI to pay attention to.
Replacement of human resources
According to the expert prognosis, 16 specializations are to disappear in the nearest 20 years due to the advancement of AI-based solutions. This spawns lots of risks of increasing unemployment rates. On the other hand, many experts believe that the choice of AI will allow organizations to forget about non-productive employees and decrease human factor-related risks. Moreover, the extinction of a number of professions can lead to some new Artificial intelligence jobs, which will be closely interconnected with the implementation and use of AI-based solutions.
Lack of security guarantees
As much as they are cool and progressive, companies should take AI-based products that are intended to make decisions autonomously with caution. If the basic software mechanism isn’t perfected enough, the end result of its operation may lead to not only additional expenses, but also to some personal harm (like autopilot system failures).
What Are Some Examples of Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
Here’s a number of the most renowned and technologically-advanced examples of artificial intelligence in the market.
Artificial Intelligence Great Examples
We couldn’t help but start our list of great artificial intelligence examples with Amazon’s AI capacities. Thus, the company has been employing AI-powered algorithms for a long time now, optimizing all stages of sales funnel in the marketplace. Especially impressive is the fact that in the last couple of years, the tool could foresee user behavior with such quality that it boosts sales every year with a rapid speed. And it only needs users’ history of online requests to operate.
Netflix employs technology similar to Amazon’s, which offers potentially interesting flicks to users based on their history and behavior on the website. In particular, the platform analyzes user requests and ratings. Gradually, the system starts offering more and more fitting options for particular users. The Netflix AI feature has but one significant drawback, though – movies that haven’t yet had the time to earn high user rating won’t usually be recommended under any circumstances.
Interactive thermostat Nest is a relatively fresh startup that was purchased by Google in the first part of 2014. Its operation is based on the analysis of residents’ behavioral algorithms. It studies the habits and preferences in terms of the inside space temperature. Then, it automatically adjusts the best temperature for certain users. Nest can even be managed via Alexa.
Yet another prominent Amazon’s project, Alexa can be deemed a smarter, more advanced alternative to Siri and products alike. Indeed, with its impressive ability to recognize and decrypt human speech from any point in space, the solution is among the smartest virtual assistants out there. Thus, with its help, you can look up info and shop online, schedule meetings, monitor the security of your home, etc. In the USA, Alexa is actively employed by disabled people, making their lives much easier.
Tesla is an advanced smart car with autopilot capacities that is already considered by many as one of the best vehicles on Earth ever created. And it’s not all about the futuristic design and hype around Elon Musk’s name. The car can boast truly impressive forecasting capabilities, unique autopilot technology, and general technological finesse.
da Vinci & other diagnostics & surgery solutions
Last but not least, da Vinci is yet another vivid example of implementing artificial intelligence robots that are able to handle complex, utterly cumbersome operations. AI is already commonly employed in various medical centers of the world. And it does wonders at diagnosing diseases: John Radcliffe hospitals’ researchers from Oxford developed a diagnostics system that is better at indicating heart diseases than experienced doctors in 80% of the cases.
At Harvard University, scientists taught an Artificial intelligence robot microscope to resolve dangerous blood infections. On top of all that, modern AI is faster and much better at diagnosing breast cancer as opposed to radiologists. As a whole, we can safely say that science and medicine, in most part, define the future of AI for the nearest decade.
What Are Some Notable Artificial Intelligence Companies?
Among the most prominent companies that fruitfully employ AI capacities, we’d point out such market tycoons as Google with its Google Cloud Prediction API, Microsoft with Microsoft Azure ML, IBM Watson, Amazon with AWS Machine Learning, and Apple with Core ML.
Azure Machine Learning Service
They managed to create unique in their capabilities platforms and APIs that are used by developers all over the world.
What is the Difference Between Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Machine Learning?
And now, for a couple of words about the principal difference between artificial intelligence and machine learning.
AI is quite an expansive and maybe even vague concept that initially appeared back in 1956. In particular, that year, Dartmouth held a science conference where the idea was first described. It sounded approximately like this – “Artificial intelligence should allow machines to mimic any self-learning aspects and other human intelligence peculiarities (memorization, decision-making, prediction-making, etc.)”.
Formally, AI capacities can be beneficially enclosed in everything from video games to disease diagnostics tools to virtual assisting solutions like Siri and more.
As for machine learning, it is an essential part of AI. So it isn’t fully reasonable to consider machine learning vs artificial intelligence as opposing concepts. Thus, machine learning is based on the computer receiving volumes of data, from which it learns. Sometimes, they can flow in from various sources in colossal volumes, in real time, and unstructured – this is where Big Data comes into play, but that’s a different story.
ML systems allow rapidly putting to use the knowledge acquired during learning from large sets of data. This enables them to excel at such tasks as face, speech, and object recognition, translation, and many more. As opposed to solutions with manually coded algorithms, solutions based on machine learning and artificial intelligence learn to individually define templates and make forecasts.
How Sales & Marketing Can Leverage Artificial Intelligence: 7 Instances
To finish up our overview, here are the seven particular cases of efficiently employing AI in sales and marketing.
Sales Marketing Artificial Intelligence
• Automation, Self Serve, Chatbots. Instead of having to contact human salespeople, nowadays, many prefer to use self serve counters (first introduced in Japan). Most people also prefer to order products online and turn to chatbots to figure out any service nuances at any moment. In the near future of humans, retail service may be practically completely replaced by robots and AI applications (B2B sales should expect a similar situation, but later).
1. Customer Service Enhancement.
Any experienced marketing specialist would tell you that the felt enhancement of customer service is quite a challenging task. It’s not easy to perfect this aspect when market leaders provide some impeccable services globally. Nonetheless, even a small business can afford to employ various AI solutions for relationship marketing. Such solutions thoroughly analyze behavioral traits of individual customers and generate unique and truly engaging product and service offers based on that info.
2. Predictive Lead Scoring & Analytics.
Gathering of analytics via AI-powered marketing tools is an utterly efficient marketing concept. All the data can autonomously be collected, sorted, and provided for a marketing analyst in convenient graphs or diagrams for further business prognosis. This is a much more rational approach than the manual collection of marketing analytics and data processing.
3. Scalability & Omnipresence.
What can allow companies to scale without excessive costs and facilitate sales team management better than AI solutions? We’ve already mentioned this benefit before and we’ll highlight it once more: implementing AI-based software, the need in a number of human-occupied positions disappears. Even global business expansion won’t cause any dramatic budget losses. The same goes for omnipresence – you can establish centralized management for all subsidiary companies using smart management software (for instance, Salesforce marketing cloud).
4. Customer Journey Mapping.
As you may know, Customer Journey Map is a visualization of the history of consumer’s interaction with a product, service, company or brand through various channels at a certain time. The customer journey can be reflected via a graph where points of product interactions are defined and customer’s actions are described – their feelings and possible issues. CJM allows objectively analyzing the product interaction experience from the customer perspective, define and eliminate appearing obstacles, offering recommendations on enhancing the product. This is a must-have tool if you strive to satisfy your audience’s demands. Check out this Forbes article for more detail.
5. Enhance Customer Service Performance.
As much as your in-house sales team workflow can be well-adjusted, when there are sudden spikes in the number of orders, it becomes easy to get confused. To minimize such risks, you can employ the specialized AI-powered software (there are loads of different CRMs for this matter).
6. Save Time & Resources.
Any solution that automates a certain set of tasks can save your employees’ time. Such software is usually, assigned with the responsibility for quite routine and uninteresting tasks that were previously handled by the inside sales team. AI-based rational distribution of responsibilities will surely boost your sales team motivation.
As you can see, artificial intelligence is not just another stale programmers’ offspring. It is rather a full-blown technological concept that allows solving and optimizing the widest scope of various tasks. Tesla, with its convenient autopilot, has already saved the life of a drunk driver, which says a lot.
AI can be beneficially implemented in marketing and sales as well. If you wish to deploy something similar to what we described in the article, contact us! We’ll build you truly reliable, highly-efficient solution based on artificial intelligence.
If you want to continue reading about sales, marketing, and artificial intelligence check out some of the previous articles:
3 Ways to Evaluate AI to Optimize Your Marketing
Artificial Intelligence in B2B Marketing: Things you need to know
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The dollars coin are a United States coin with a value of one US dollar. Dollar coins have been minted in the US in gold, silver and other base metals. The dollar coins were first minted in 1794. While true gold dollars are no longer minted. The Sacagawea, Presidential and American Innovation dollars are sometimes referred to as golden dollars because of their color.
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