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Alhassan Dantata ((Listen); 1877 – 17 August 1955) was a Northern Nigerian trader in kola nuts and ground nuts, and he was a distributor of European goods. He supplied large British trading companies with raw materials and also had business interests in the Gold Coast. At the time of his death he was the wealthiest man in West Africa. He is the great-grandfather of Aliko Dangote, the wealthiest person in Nigeria and Africa.
Early life
Parents
Dantata was born 1877 in Bebeji, Kano Emirate in the Sokoto Caliphate, one of several children of Abdullahi and his wife, Amarya. Abdullahi was the son of Baba Talatin, it was Baba Talatin who brought the family from Katsina to Madobi in Kano following the death of his father called Ali, Abdullahi continued to operate from Madobi until 1877, when having set out for a journey to Gonja headquarters of Kola nut trade at Ghana, his wife gave birth to Alhassan at the campsite (Zango) of Bebeji, upon his return from the journey he decided to abandon Madobi for Bebeji. Both his parents were wealthy Agalawa, a hereditary group of long-distance traders in the Hausa empire. Abdullahi died in Bebeji around 1885.
Abdullahi's children were too young to manage his considerable wealth. They all received their portion according to Islamic law when he died. Amarya, like her mother-in-law, was a trader of wealth in her own right. After her husband's death, she decided to leave Bebeji for Ghana, where she had commercial interests. She left the children in Bebeji, in the care of an old slave woman named Tata.
Kano Civil War and slavery
Dantata was still a teenager when the great upheavals occurred in the Kano Emirate from 1893 to 1895. There were two claimants to the Kano Emirate when Emir Muhammad Bello died in 1893. Tukur was his son. Tukur received his religious training from a Tijaniyya scholar and received the support of the Agalawa. Yusufu had been passed over when Bello became Emir. Yusufu received his religious training from Qaadiriyya schools. In the resulting civil war, Yusufu forces were victorious over Tukur, and claimed the title of emir. Because of the Agalawa support of Tukur, Dantata and the other Agalawa had their property confiscated and many were captured. Dantata and his brothers were held for ransom, under the threat of slavery. They paid it and Dantata returned to the trading business without his family lands around Kano.
Introduction to trading
Probably after being freed from slavery around 1894, Dantata joined a Gonja-bound caravan to see his mother. He purchased some items in Bebeji, he sold half of them on the way and the rest in Accra. He might have hoped his wealthy mother would allow him to live with her and find him work among the Gold Coast Agalawa community. However, this did not happen. After a rest of only one day, she took him to a mallam and asked Dantata to stay there until he was ready to return to Bebeji. Dantata worked harder in Ghana than he did in Bebeji. After the usual reading of the Qur'an, he had to go and beg for food for his mallam and himself. He worked for money on Thursdays and Fridays. As was the tradition, the bulk of his earnings went to his mallam. At some point he returned to Bebeji to his religious studies and work. There, Tata continued to insist that he must save something every year
Career
Dantata started to be a long-distance trader himself. He remained in Bebeji until matters had settled down. He used the new trade routes to Ibadan and Lagos to develop his network of trading associates. Instead of bringing kola nuts on pack animals, he used steamships to transport them between Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi and Lagos. He was the first to develop this route. This innovation and contact with Europeans helped establish his wealth and future.In 1906, he began broadening his interests by trading in beads, necklaces, European cloth, and trade goods. His mother, who had never remarried, died in Accra around 1908. After her death he focused his attention on new opportunities in Lagos and Kano.
Base of operations
Dantata maintained a house in Bebeji and had no property in the larger trading town of Kano. He did not own a house there, but was satisfied with the accommodation given to him by his patoma (landlord). When the British deposed the successor of Yusufu in 1903, they appointed Abbas as the Emir of Kano. As part of a recompilation, Abbas returned the confiscated lands around Kano to the Agalawa families. Dantata built his first house in the then empty Sarari area (an extension of Koki) in Kano.By all accounts, Dantata was hard working, frugal and unpretentious in his personal habits. He was also a good financial manager. He had the good sense to employ Alhaji Babba Na Alhassan who served as his chief accountant and Alhaji Garba Maisikeli as his financial controller for 38 years. Dantata did not manage from behind a desk but involved himself with his workers.
European trading companies
In 1912, when the Europeans started to show an interest in the export of groundnut, they contacted the already established Kano merchants through Emir Abbas and their chief agent, Adamu Jakada. Some established merchants of Kano like Umaru Sharubutu, Maikano Agogo accepted their offer.Dantata was already familiar with the manner by which traders could make fortunes by buying cocoa for Europeans in the Gold Coast. He had several advantages over other Kano business men: language, wealth and age. He could speak some English and already had direct dealings with Europeans in Lagos and Accra. He had substantial amounts of capital. Unlike other established Kano merchants, he was in his mid-thirties, with a small family and retinue to support. Despite the famine in Kano in 1914, he quickly dominated the groundnut purchasing business via promotions, loans and contacts.In 1918, the UK-based Royal Niger Company (later became the United Africa Company) searched for an agent to purchase groundnuts for them, and Dantata responded to their offer. It is said that he used to purchase about half of all the nuts purchased by the United Africa Company in northern Nigeria.By 1922 Dantata had become the richest businessman in Kano, surpassing other merchant traders. In 1929, when the Bank of British West Africa opened a branch in Kano, Dantata placed 20 camel-loads of silver coins in it. (For religious reasons, his money collected no interest). Shortly before his death, he pointed to sixty "groundnut pyramids" in Kano and said, "These are all mine".Dantata applied for a licence to purchase and export groundnuts in 1940, on the same level as the United Africa Company. However, it was not granted because of worldwide military and economic conditions. In 1953–54 he became a licensed buying agent, which allowed him to sell directly to the Nigerian Groundnut Marketing board instead of another firm.He had many business connections both in Nigeria and in other West African countries, particularly the Gold Coast. He dealt not only in groundnuts and kola but also in other merchandise. He traded in cattle, cloth, beads, precious stones, grains, rope and other things.
Pilgrimage to Mecca
Dantata made a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca via boat in the 1920s. On this trip he also went to England and was presented to George V. Dantata financed the pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca, a tradition that continues among his descendants. His son, Alhaji Aminu Dantata and his grandchildren like Hajiya Mariya Sunusi Dantata as well as his great-grandchildren, Aliko Dangote still finance pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca every year.
Death
In 1955, Dantata fell ill. Because of the seriousness of his illness, he summoned his chief financial controller, Garba Maisikeli and his children. He told them that his days were approaching their end and advised them to live together. He was particularly concerned about the company he had established (Alhassan Dantata & Sons). He asked them not to allow the company to collapse. He implored them to continue to marry within the family as much as possible. He urged them to avoid clashes with other wealthy Kano merchants. They should take care of their relatives, especially the poor among them. Three days later he died in his sleep on Wednesday 17 August 1955. He was buried in his house in the Sarari ward.
Descendants
Some descendants of Alhassan Dantata includes:
Ahmadu Dantata (1916–1960): son, a politicianSanusi Dantata (1917–1997): son, a successful businessmanAlhaji Abdulkadir Dantata: grandsonAliko Dangote (born 1957): great grandson, a billionaire
Mudi (Sulaiman) Dantata (1916–1960): son, a businessmanMahmud Dantata, popularly known as Mamuda Wapa (1922–1983): son. After graduating from Gold Coast University (Ghana) he became his father's chief scribe and Modernized his business activities. He later founded West African Pilgrims Agency in 1948 and pioneered parallel Market Currency Trading in West Africa. The Genius Shrewd Business Man brought more fame to Dantata Family within West African Countries.Aminu Dantata (born 1931): son, a businessman
== References ==
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
473
],
"text": [
"Bebeji"
]
}
|
Alhassan Dantata ((Listen); 1877 – 17 August 1955) was a Northern Nigerian trader in kola nuts and ground nuts, and he was a distributor of European goods. He supplied large British trading companies with raw materials and also had business interests in the Gold Coast. At the time of his death he was the wealthiest man in West Africa. He is the great-grandfather of Aliko Dangote, the wealthiest person in Nigeria and Africa.
Early life
Parents
Dantata was born 1877 in Bebeji, Kano Emirate in the Sokoto Caliphate, one of several children of Abdullahi and his wife, Amarya. Abdullahi was the son of Baba Talatin, it was Baba Talatin who brought the family from Katsina to Madobi in Kano following the death of his father called Ali, Abdullahi continued to operate from Madobi until 1877, when having set out for a journey to Gonja headquarters of Kola nut trade at Ghana, his wife gave birth to Alhassan at the campsite (Zango) of Bebeji, upon his return from the journey he decided to abandon Madobi for Bebeji. Both his parents were wealthy Agalawa, a hereditary group of long-distance traders in the Hausa empire. Abdullahi died in Bebeji around 1885.
Abdullahi's children were too young to manage his considerable wealth. They all received their portion according to Islamic law when he died. Amarya, like her mother-in-law, was a trader of wealth in her own right. After her husband's death, she decided to leave Bebeji for Ghana, where she had commercial interests. She left the children in Bebeji, in the care of an old slave woman named Tata.
Kano Civil War and slavery
Dantata was still a teenager when the great upheavals occurred in the Kano Emirate from 1893 to 1895. There were two claimants to the Kano Emirate when Emir Muhammad Bello died in 1893. Tukur was his son. Tukur received his religious training from a Tijaniyya scholar and received the support of the Agalawa. Yusufu had been passed over when Bello became Emir. Yusufu received his religious training from Qaadiriyya schools. In the resulting civil war, Yusufu forces were victorious over Tukur, and claimed the title of emir. Because of the Agalawa support of Tukur, Dantata and the other Agalawa had their property confiscated and many were captured. Dantata and his brothers were held for ransom, under the threat of slavery. They paid it and Dantata returned to the trading business without his family lands around Kano.
Introduction to trading
Probably after being freed from slavery around 1894, Dantata joined a Gonja-bound caravan to see his mother. He purchased some items in Bebeji, he sold half of them on the way and the rest in Accra. He might have hoped his wealthy mother would allow him to live with her and find him work among the Gold Coast Agalawa community. However, this did not happen. After a rest of only one day, she took him to a mallam and asked Dantata to stay there until he was ready to return to Bebeji. Dantata worked harder in Ghana than he did in Bebeji. After the usual reading of the Qur'an, he had to go and beg for food for his mallam and himself. He worked for money on Thursdays and Fridays. As was the tradition, the bulk of his earnings went to his mallam. At some point he returned to Bebeji to his religious studies and work. There, Tata continued to insist that he must save something every year
Career
Dantata started to be a long-distance trader himself. He remained in Bebeji until matters had settled down. He used the new trade routes to Ibadan and Lagos to develop his network of trading associates. Instead of bringing kola nuts on pack animals, he used steamships to transport them between Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi and Lagos. He was the first to develop this route. This innovation and contact with Europeans helped establish his wealth and future.In 1906, he began broadening his interests by trading in beads, necklaces, European cloth, and trade goods. His mother, who had never remarried, died in Accra around 1908. After her death he focused his attention on new opportunities in Lagos and Kano.
Base of operations
Dantata maintained a house in Bebeji and had no property in the larger trading town of Kano. He did not own a house there, but was satisfied with the accommodation given to him by his patoma (landlord). When the British deposed the successor of Yusufu in 1903, they appointed Abbas as the Emir of Kano. As part of a recompilation, Abbas returned the confiscated lands around Kano to the Agalawa families. Dantata built his first house in the then empty Sarari area (an extension of Koki) in Kano.By all accounts, Dantata was hard working, frugal and unpretentious in his personal habits. He was also a good financial manager. He had the good sense to employ Alhaji Babba Na Alhassan who served as his chief accountant and Alhaji Garba Maisikeli as his financial controller for 38 years. Dantata did not manage from behind a desk but involved himself with his workers.
European trading companies
In 1912, when the Europeans started to show an interest in the export of groundnut, they contacted the already established Kano merchants through Emir Abbas and their chief agent, Adamu Jakada. Some established merchants of Kano like Umaru Sharubutu, Maikano Agogo accepted their offer.Dantata was already familiar with the manner by which traders could make fortunes by buying cocoa for Europeans in the Gold Coast. He had several advantages over other Kano business men: language, wealth and age. He could speak some English and already had direct dealings with Europeans in Lagos and Accra. He had substantial amounts of capital. Unlike other established Kano merchants, he was in his mid-thirties, with a small family and retinue to support. Despite the famine in Kano in 1914, he quickly dominated the groundnut purchasing business via promotions, loans and contacts.In 1918, the UK-based Royal Niger Company (later became the United Africa Company) searched for an agent to purchase groundnuts for them, and Dantata responded to their offer. It is said that he used to purchase about half of all the nuts purchased by the United Africa Company in northern Nigeria.By 1922 Dantata had become the richest businessman in Kano, surpassing other merchant traders. In 1929, when the Bank of British West Africa opened a branch in Kano, Dantata placed 20 camel-loads of silver coins in it. (For religious reasons, his money collected no interest). Shortly before his death, he pointed to sixty "groundnut pyramids" in Kano and said, "These are all mine".Dantata applied for a licence to purchase and export groundnuts in 1940, on the same level as the United Africa Company. However, it was not granted because of worldwide military and economic conditions. In 1953–54 he became a licensed buying agent, which allowed him to sell directly to the Nigerian Groundnut Marketing board instead of another firm.He had many business connections both in Nigeria and in other West African countries, particularly the Gold Coast. He dealt not only in groundnuts and kola but also in other merchandise. He traded in cattle, cloth, beads, precious stones, grains, rope and other things.
Pilgrimage to Mecca
Dantata made a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca via boat in the 1920s. On this trip he also went to England and was presented to George V. Dantata financed the pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca, a tradition that continues among his descendants. His son, Alhaji Aminu Dantata and his grandchildren like Hajiya Mariya Sunusi Dantata as well as his great-grandchildren, Aliko Dangote still finance pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca every year.
Death
In 1955, Dantata fell ill. Because of the seriousness of his illness, he summoned his chief financial controller, Garba Maisikeli and his children. He told them that his days were approaching their end and advised them to live together. He was particularly concerned about the company he had established (Alhassan Dantata & Sons). He asked them not to allow the company to collapse. He implored them to continue to marry within the family as much as possible. He urged them to avoid clashes with other wealthy Kano merchants. They should take care of their relatives, especially the poor among them. Three days later he died in his sleep on Wednesday 17 August 1955. He was buried in his house in the Sarari ward.
Descendants
Some descendants of Alhassan Dantata includes:
Ahmadu Dantata (1916–1960): son, a politicianSanusi Dantata (1917–1997): son, a successful businessmanAlhaji Abdulkadir Dantata: grandsonAliko Dangote (born 1957): great grandson, a billionaire
Mudi (Sulaiman) Dantata (1916–1960): son, a businessmanMahmud Dantata, popularly known as Mamuda Wapa (1922–1983): son. After graduating from Gold Coast University (Ghana) he became his father's chief scribe and Modernized his business activities. He later founded West African Pilgrims Agency in 1948 and pioneered parallel Market Currency Trading in West Africa. The Genius Shrewd Business Man brought more fame to Dantata Family within West African Countries.Aminu Dantata (born 1931): son, a businessman
== References ==
|
place of death
|
{
"answer_start": [
481
],
"text": [
"Kano"
]
}
|
Alhassan Dantata ((Listen); 1877 – 17 August 1955) was a Northern Nigerian trader in kola nuts and ground nuts, and he was a distributor of European goods. He supplied large British trading companies with raw materials and also had business interests in the Gold Coast. At the time of his death he was the wealthiest man in West Africa. He is the great-grandfather of Aliko Dangote, the wealthiest person in Nigeria and Africa.
Early life
Parents
Dantata was born 1877 in Bebeji, Kano Emirate in the Sokoto Caliphate, one of several children of Abdullahi and his wife, Amarya. Abdullahi was the son of Baba Talatin, it was Baba Talatin who brought the family from Katsina to Madobi in Kano following the death of his father called Ali, Abdullahi continued to operate from Madobi until 1877, when having set out for a journey to Gonja headquarters of Kola nut trade at Ghana, his wife gave birth to Alhassan at the campsite (Zango) of Bebeji, upon his return from the journey he decided to abandon Madobi for Bebeji. Both his parents were wealthy Agalawa, a hereditary group of long-distance traders in the Hausa empire. Abdullahi died in Bebeji around 1885.
Abdullahi's children were too young to manage his considerable wealth. They all received their portion according to Islamic law when he died. Amarya, like her mother-in-law, was a trader of wealth in her own right. After her husband's death, she decided to leave Bebeji for Ghana, where she had commercial interests. She left the children in Bebeji, in the care of an old slave woman named Tata.
Kano Civil War and slavery
Dantata was still a teenager when the great upheavals occurred in the Kano Emirate from 1893 to 1895. There were two claimants to the Kano Emirate when Emir Muhammad Bello died in 1893. Tukur was his son. Tukur received his religious training from a Tijaniyya scholar and received the support of the Agalawa. Yusufu had been passed over when Bello became Emir. Yusufu received his religious training from Qaadiriyya schools. In the resulting civil war, Yusufu forces were victorious over Tukur, and claimed the title of emir. Because of the Agalawa support of Tukur, Dantata and the other Agalawa had their property confiscated and many were captured. Dantata and his brothers were held for ransom, under the threat of slavery. They paid it and Dantata returned to the trading business without his family lands around Kano.
Introduction to trading
Probably after being freed from slavery around 1894, Dantata joined a Gonja-bound caravan to see his mother. He purchased some items in Bebeji, he sold half of them on the way and the rest in Accra. He might have hoped his wealthy mother would allow him to live with her and find him work among the Gold Coast Agalawa community. However, this did not happen. After a rest of only one day, she took him to a mallam and asked Dantata to stay there until he was ready to return to Bebeji. Dantata worked harder in Ghana than he did in Bebeji. After the usual reading of the Qur'an, he had to go and beg for food for his mallam and himself. He worked for money on Thursdays and Fridays. As was the tradition, the bulk of his earnings went to his mallam. At some point he returned to Bebeji to his religious studies and work. There, Tata continued to insist that he must save something every year
Career
Dantata started to be a long-distance trader himself. He remained in Bebeji until matters had settled down. He used the new trade routes to Ibadan and Lagos to develop his network of trading associates. Instead of bringing kola nuts on pack animals, he used steamships to transport them between Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi and Lagos. He was the first to develop this route. This innovation and contact with Europeans helped establish his wealth and future.In 1906, he began broadening his interests by trading in beads, necklaces, European cloth, and trade goods. His mother, who had never remarried, died in Accra around 1908. After her death he focused his attention on new opportunities in Lagos and Kano.
Base of operations
Dantata maintained a house in Bebeji and had no property in the larger trading town of Kano. He did not own a house there, but was satisfied with the accommodation given to him by his patoma (landlord). When the British deposed the successor of Yusufu in 1903, they appointed Abbas as the Emir of Kano. As part of a recompilation, Abbas returned the confiscated lands around Kano to the Agalawa families. Dantata built his first house in the then empty Sarari area (an extension of Koki) in Kano.By all accounts, Dantata was hard working, frugal and unpretentious in his personal habits. He was also a good financial manager. He had the good sense to employ Alhaji Babba Na Alhassan who served as his chief accountant and Alhaji Garba Maisikeli as his financial controller for 38 years. Dantata did not manage from behind a desk but involved himself with his workers.
European trading companies
In 1912, when the Europeans started to show an interest in the export of groundnut, they contacted the already established Kano merchants through Emir Abbas and their chief agent, Adamu Jakada. Some established merchants of Kano like Umaru Sharubutu, Maikano Agogo accepted their offer.Dantata was already familiar with the manner by which traders could make fortunes by buying cocoa for Europeans in the Gold Coast. He had several advantages over other Kano business men: language, wealth and age. He could speak some English and already had direct dealings with Europeans in Lagos and Accra. He had substantial amounts of capital. Unlike other established Kano merchants, he was in his mid-thirties, with a small family and retinue to support. Despite the famine in Kano in 1914, he quickly dominated the groundnut purchasing business via promotions, loans and contacts.In 1918, the UK-based Royal Niger Company (later became the United Africa Company) searched for an agent to purchase groundnuts for them, and Dantata responded to their offer. It is said that he used to purchase about half of all the nuts purchased by the United Africa Company in northern Nigeria.By 1922 Dantata had become the richest businessman in Kano, surpassing other merchant traders. In 1929, when the Bank of British West Africa opened a branch in Kano, Dantata placed 20 camel-loads of silver coins in it. (For religious reasons, his money collected no interest). Shortly before his death, he pointed to sixty "groundnut pyramids" in Kano and said, "These are all mine".Dantata applied for a licence to purchase and export groundnuts in 1940, on the same level as the United Africa Company. However, it was not granted because of worldwide military and economic conditions. In 1953–54 he became a licensed buying agent, which allowed him to sell directly to the Nigerian Groundnut Marketing board instead of another firm.He had many business connections both in Nigeria and in other West African countries, particularly the Gold Coast. He dealt not only in groundnuts and kola but also in other merchandise. He traded in cattle, cloth, beads, precious stones, grains, rope and other things.
Pilgrimage to Mecca
Dantata made a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca via boat in the 1920s. On this trip he also went to England and was presented to George V. Dantata financed the pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca, a tradition that continues among his descendants. His son, Alhaji Aminu Dantata and his grandchildren like Hajiya Mariya Sunusi Dantata as well as his great-grandchildren, Aliko Dangote still finance pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca every year.
Death
In 1955, Dantata fell ill. Because of the seriousness of his illness, he summoned his chief financial controller, Garba Maisikeli and his children. He told them that his days were approaching their end and advised them to live together. He was particularly concerned about the company he had established (Alhassan Dantata & Sons). He asked them not to allow the company to collapse. He implored them to continue to marry within the family as much as possible. He urged them to avoid clashes with other wealthy Kano merchants. They should take care of their relatives, especially the poor among them. Three days later he died in his sleep on Wednesday 17 August 1955. He was buried in his house in the Sarari ward.
Descendants
Some descendants of Alhassan Dantata includes:
Ahmadu Dantata (1916–1960): son, a politicianSanusi Dantata (1917–1997): son, a successful businessmanAlhaji Abdulkadir Dantata: grandsonAliko Dangote (born 1957): great grandson, a billionaire
Mudi (Sulaiman) Dantata (1916–1960): son, a businessmanMahmud Dantata, popularly known as Mamuda Wapa (1922–1983): son. After graduating from Gold Coast University (Ghana) he became his father's chief scribe and Modernized his business activities. He later founded West African Pilgrims Agency in 1948 and pioneered parallel Market Currency Trading in West Africa. The Genius Shrewd Business Man brought more fame to Dantata Family within West African Countries.Aminu Dantata (born 1931): son, a businessman
== References ==
|
country of citizenship
|
{
"answer_start": [
66
],
"text": [
"Nigeria"
]
}
|
Alhassan Dantata ((Listen); 1877 – 17 August 1955) was a Northern Nigerian trader in kola nuts and ground nuts, and he was a distributor of European goods. He supplied large British trading companies with raw materials and also had business interests in the Gold Coast. At the time of his death he was the wealthiest man in West Africa. He is the great-grandfather of Aliko Dangote, the wealthiest person in Nigeria and Africa.
Early life
Parents
Dantata was born 1877 in Bebeji, Kano Emirate in the Sokoto Caliphate, one of several children of Abdullahi and his wife, Amarya. Abdullahi was the son of Baba Talatin, it was Baba Talatin who brought the family from Katsina to Madobi in Kano following the death of his father called Ali, Abdullahi continued to operate from Madobi until 1877, when having set out for a journey to Gonja headquarters of Kola nut trade at Ghana, his wife gave birth to Alhassan at the campsite (Zango) of Bebeji, upon his return from the journey he decided to abandon Madobi for Bebeji. Both his parents were wealthy Agalawa, a hereditary group of long-distance traders in the Hausa empire. Abdullahi died in Bebeji around 1885.
Abdullahi's children were too young to manage his considerable wealth. They all received their portion according to Islamic law when he died. Amarya, like her mother-in-law, was a trader of wealth in her own right. After her husband's death, she decided to leave Bebeji for Ghana, where she had commercial interests. She left the children in Bebeji, in the care of an old slave woman named Tata.
Kano Civil War and slavery
Dantata was still a teenager when the great upheavals occurred in the Kano Emirate from 1893 to 1895. There were two claimants to the Kano Emirate when Emir Muhammad Bello died in 1893. Tukur was his son. Tukur received his religious training from a Tijaniyya scholar and received the support of the Agalawa. Yusufu had been passed over when Bello became Emir. Yusufu received his religious training from Qaadiriyya schools. In the resulting civil war, Yusufu forces were victorious over Tukur, and claimed the title of emir. Because of the Agalawa support of Tukur, Dantata and the other Agalawa had their property confiscated and many were captured. Dantata and his brothers were held for ransom, under the threat of slavery. They paid it and Dantata returned to the trading business without his family lands around Kano.
Introduction to trading
Probably after being freed from slavery around 1894, Dantata joined a Gonja-bound caravan to see his mother. He purchased some items in Bebeji, he sold half of them on the way and the rest in Accra. He might have hoped his wealthy mother would allow him to live with her and find him work among the Gold Coast Agalawa community. However, this did not happen. After a rest of only one day, she took him to a mallam and asked Dantata to stay there until he was ready to return to Bebeji. Dantata worked harder in Ghana than he did in Bebeji. After the usual reading of the Qur'an, he had to go and beg for food for his mallam and himself. He worked for money on Thursdays and Fridays. As was the tradition, the bulk of his earnings went to his mallam. At some point he returned to Bebeji to his religious studies and work. There, Tata continued to insist that he must save something every year
Career
Dantata started to be a long-distance trader himself. He remained in Bebeji until matters had settled down. He used the new trade routes to Ibadan and Lagos to develop his network of trading associates. Instead of bringing kola nuts on pack animals, he used steamships to transport them between Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi and Lagos. He was the first to develop this route. This innovation and contact with Europeans helped establish his wealth and future.In 1906, he began broadening his interests by trading in beads, necklaces, European cloth, and trade goods. His mother, who had never remarried, died in Accra around 1908. After her death he focused his attention on new opportunities in Lagos and Kano.
Base of operations
Dantata maintained a house in Bebeji and had no property in the larger trading town of Kano. He did not own a house there, but was satisfied with the accommodation given to him by his patoma (landlord). When the British deposed the successor of Yusufu in 1903, they appointed Abbas as the Emir of Kano. As part of a recompilation, Abbas returned the confiscated lands around Kano to the Agalawa families. Dantata built his first house in the then empty Sarari area (an extension of Koki) in Kano.By all accounts, Dantata was hard working, frugal and unpretentious in his personal habits. He was also a good financial manager. He had the good sense to employ Alhaji Babba Na Alhassan who served as his chief accountant and Alhaji Garba Maisikeli as his financial controller for 38 years. Dantata did not manage from behind a desk but involved himself with his workers.
European trading companies
In 1912, when the Europeans started to show an interest in the export of groundnut, they contacted the already established Kano merchants through Emir Abbas and their chief agent, Adamu Jakada. Some established merchants of Kano like Umaru Sharubutu, Maikano Agogo accepted their offer.Dantata was already familiar with the manner by which traders could make fortunes by buying cocoa for Europeans in the Gold Coast. He had several advantages over other Kano business men: language, wealth and age. He could speak some English and already had direct dealings with Europeans in Lagos and Accra. He had substantial amounts of capital. Unlike other established Kano merchants, he was in his mid-thirties, with a small family and retinue to support. Despite the famine in Kano in 1914, he quickly dominated the groundnut purchasing business via promotions, loans and contacts.In 1918, the UK-based Royal Niger Company (later became the United Africa Company) searched for an agent to purchase groundnuts for them, and Dantata responded to their offer. It is said that he used to purchase about half of all the nuts purchased by the United Africa Company in northern Nigeria.By 1922 Dantata had become the richest businessman in Kano, surpassing other merchant traders. In 1929, when the Bank of British West Africa opened a branch in Kano, Dantata placed 20 camel-loads of silver coins in it. (For religious reasons, his money collected no interest). Shortly before his death, he pointed to sixty "groundnut pyramids" in Kano and said, "These are all mine".Dantata applied for a licence to purchase and export groundnuts in 1940, on the same level as the United Africa Company. However, it was not granted because of worldwide military and economic conditions. In 1953–54 he became a licensed buying agent, which allowed him to sell directly to the Nigerian Groundnut Marketing board instead of another firm.He had many business connections both in Nigeria and in other West African countries, particularly the Gold Coast. He dealt not only in groundnuts and kola but also in other merchandise. He traded in cattle, cloth, beads, precious stones, grains, rope and other things.
Pilgrimage to Mecca
Dantata made a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca via boat in the 1920s. On this trip he also went to England and was presented to George V. Dantata financed the pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca, a tradition that continues among his descendants. His son, Alhaji Aminu Dantata and his grandchildren like Hajiya Mariya Sunusi Dantata as well as his great-grandchildren, Aliko Dangote still finance pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca every year.
Death
In 1955, Dantata fell ill. Because of the seriousness of his illness, he summoned his chief financial controller, Garba Maisikeli and his children. He told them that his days were approaching their end and advised them to live together. He was particularly concerned about the company he had established (Alhassan Dantata & Sons). He asked them not to allow the company to collapse. He implored them to continue to marry within the family as much as possible. He urged them to avoid clashes with other wealthy Kano merchants. They should take care of their relatives, especially the poor among them. Three days later he died in his sleep on Wednesday 17 August 1955. He was buried in his house in the Sarari ward.
Descendants
Some descendants of Alhassan Dantata includes:
Ahmadu Dantata (1916–1960): son, a politicianSanusi Dantata (1917–1997): son, a successful businessmanAlhaji Abdulkadir Dantata: grandsonAliko Dangote (born 1957): great grandson, a billionaire
Mudi (Sulaiman) Dantata (1916–1960): son, a businessmanMahmud Dantata, popularly known as Mamuda Wapa (1922–1983): son. After graduating from Gold Coast University (Ghana) he became his father's chief scribe and Modernized his business activities. He later founded West African Pilgrims Agency in 1948 and pioneered parallel Market Currency Trading in West Africa. The Genius Shrewd Business Man brought more fame to Dantata Family within West African Countries.Aminu Dantata (born 1931): son, a businessman
== References ==
|
child
|
{
"answer_start": [
8423
],
"text": [
"Sanusi Dantata"
]
}
|
Alhassan Dantata ((Listen); 1877 – 17 August 1955) was a Northern Nigerian trader in kola nuts and ground nuts, and he was a distributor of European goods. He supplied large British trading companies with raw materials and also had business interests in the Gold Coast. At the time of his death he was the wealthiest man in West Africa. He is the great-grandfather of Aliko Dangote, the wealthiest person in Nigeria and Africa.
Early life
Parents
Dantata was born 1877 in Bebeji, Kano Emirate in the Sokoto Caliphate, one of several children of Abdullahi and his wife, Amarya. Abdullahi was the son of Baba Talatin, it was Baba Talatin who brought the family from Katsina to Madobi in Kano following the death of his father called Ali, Abdullahi continued to operate from Madobi until 1877, when having set out for a journey to Gonja headquarters of Kola nut trade at Ghana, his wife gave birth to Alhassan at the campsite (Zango) of Bebeji, upon his return from the journey he decided to abandon Madobi for Bebeji. Both his parents were wealthy Agalawa, a hereditary group of long-distance traders in the Hausa empire. Abdullahi died in Bebeji around 1885.
Abdullahi's children were too young to manage his considerable wealth. They all received their portion according to Islamic law when he died. Amarya, like her mother-in-law, was a trader of wealth in her own right. After her husband's death, she decided to leave Bebeji for Ghana, where she had commercial interests. She left the children in Bebeji, in the care of an old slave woman named Tata.
Kano Civil War and slavery
Dantata was still a teenager when the great upheavals occurred in the Kano Emirate from 1893 to 1895. There were two claimants to the Kano Emirate when Emir Muhammad Bello died in 1893. Tukur was his son. Tukur received his religious training from a Tijaniyya scholar and received the support of the Agalawa. Yusufu had been passed over when Bello became Emir. Yusufu received his religious training from Qaadiriyya schools. In the resulting civil war, Yusufu forces were victorious over Tukur, and claimed the title of emir. Because of the Agalawa support of Tukur, Dantata and the other Agalawa had their property confiscated and many were captured. Dantata and his brothers were held for ransom, under the threat of slavery. They paid it and Dantata returned to the trading business without his family lands around Kano.
Introduction to trading
Probably after being freed from slavery around 1894, Dantata joined a Gonja-bound caravan to see his mother. He purchased some items in Bebeji, he sold half of them on the way and the rest in Accra. He might have hoped his wealthy mother would allow him to live with her and find him work among the Gold Coast Agalawa community. However, this did not happen. After a rest of only one day, she took him to a mallam and asked Dantata to stay there until he was ready to return to Bebeji. Dantata worked harder in Ghana than he did in Bebeji. After the usual reading of the Qur'an, he had to go and beg for food for his mallam and himself. He worked for money on Thursdays and Fridays. As was the tradition, the bulk of his earnings went to his mallam. At some point he returned to Bebeji to his religious studies and work. There, Tata continued to insist that he must save something every year
Career
Dantata started to be a long-distance trader himself. He remained in Bebeji until matters had settled down. He used the new trade routes to Ibadan and Lagos to develop his network of trading associates. Instead of bringing kola nuts on pack animals, he used steamships to transport them between Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi and Lagos. He was the first to develop this route. This innovation and contact with Europeans helped establish his wealth and future.In 1906, he began broadening his interests by trading in beads, necklaces, European cloth, and trade goods. His mother, who had never remarried, died in Accra around 1908. After her death he focused his attention on new opportunities in Lagos and Kano.
Base of operations
Dantata maintained a house in Bebeji and had no property in the larger trading town of Kano. He did not own a house there, but was satisfied with the accommodation given to him by his patoma (landlord). When the British deposed the successor of Yusufu in 1903, they appointed Abbas as the Emir of Kano. As part of a recompilation, Abbas returned the confiscated lands around Kano to the Agalawa families. Dantata built his first house in the then empty Sarari area (an extension of Koki) in Kano.By all accounts, Dantata was hard working, frugal and unpretentious in his personal habits. He was also a good financial manager. He had the good sense to employ Alhaji Babba Na Alhassan who served as his chief accountant and Alhaji Garba Maisikeli as his financial controller for 38 years. Dantata did not manage from behind a desk but involved himself with his workers.
European trading companies
In 1912, when the Europeans started to show an interest in the export of groundnut, they contacted the already established Kano merchants through Emir Abbas and their chief agent, Adamu Jakada. Some established merchants of Kano like Umaru Sharubutu, Maikano Agogo accepted their offer.Dantata was already familiar with the manner by which traders could make fortunes by buying cocoa for Europeans in the Gold Coast. He had several advantages over other Kano business men: language, wealth and age. He could speak some English and already had direct dealings with Europeans in Lagos and Accra. He had substantial amounts of capital. Unlike other established Kano merchants, he was in his mid-thirties, with a small family and retinue to support. Despite the famine in Kano in 1914, he quickly dominated the groundnut purchasing business via promotions, loans and contacts.In 1918, the UK-based Royal Niger Company (later became the United Africa Company) searched for an agent to purchase groundnuts for them, and Dantata responded to their offer. It is said that he used to purchase about half of all the nuts purchased by the United Africa Company in northern Nigeria.By 1922 Dantata had become the richest businessman in Kano, surpassing other merchant traders. In 1929, when the Bank of British West Africa opened a branch in Kano, Dantata placed 20 camel-loads of silver coins in it. (For religious reasons, his money collected no interest). Shortly before his death, he pointed to sixty "groundnut pyramids" in Kano and said, "These are all mine".Dantata applied for a licence to purchase and export groundnuts in 1940, on the same level as the United Africa Company. However, it was not granted because of worldwide military and economic conditions. In 1953–54 he became a licensed buying agent, which allowed him to sell directly to the Nigerian Groundnut Marketing board instead of another firm.He had many business connections both in Nigeria and in other West African countries, particularly the Gold Coast. He dealt not only in groundnuts and kola but also in other merchandise. He traded in cattle, cloth, beads, precious stones, grains, rope and other things.
Pilgrimage to Mecca
Dantata made a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca via boat in the 1920s. On this trip he also went to England and was presented to George V. Dantata financed the pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca, a tradition that continues among his descendants. His son, Alhaji Aminu Dantata and his grandchildren like Hajiya Mariya Sunusi Dantata as well as his great-grandchildren, Aliko Dangote still finance pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca every year.
Death
In 1955, Dantata fell ill. Because of the seriousness of his illness, he summoned his chief financial controller, Garba Maisikeli and his children. He told them that his days were approaching their end and advised them to live together. He was particularly concerned about the company he had established (Alhassan Dantata & Sons). He asked them not to allow the company to collapse. He implored them to continue to marry within the family as much as possible. He urged them to avoid clashes with other wealthy Kano merchants. They should take care of their relatives, especially the poor among them. Three days later he died in his sleep on Wednesday 17 August 1955. He was buried in his house in the Sarari ward.
Descendants
Some descendants of Alhassan Dantata includes:
Ahmadu Dantata (1916–1960): son, a politicianSanusi Dantata (1917–1997): son, a successful businessmanAlhaji Abdulkadir Dantata: grandsonAliko Dangote (born 1957): great grandson, a billionaire
Mudi (Sulaiman) Dantata (1916–1960): son, a businessmanMahmud Dantata, popularly known as Mamuda Wapa (1922–1983): son. After graduating from Gold Coast University (Ghana) he became his father's chief scribe and Modernized his business activities. He later founded West African Pilgrims Agency in 1948 and pioneered parallel Market Currency Trading in West Africa. The Genius Shrewd Business Man brought more fame to Dantata Family within West African Countries.Aminu Dantata (born 1931): son, a businessman
== References ==
|
native language
|
{
"answer_start": [
1107
],
"text": [
"Hausa"
]
}
|
Alhassan Dantata ((Listen); 1877 – 17 August 1955) was a Northern Nigerian trader in kola nuts and ground nuts, and he was a distributor of European goods. He supplied large British trading companies with raw materials and also had business interests in the Gold Coast. At the time of his death he was the wealthiest man in West Africa. He is the great-grandfather of Aliko Dangote, the wealthiest person in Nigeria and Africa.
Early life
Parents
Dantata was born 1877 in Bebeji, Kano Emirate in the Sokoto Caliphate, one of several children of Abdullahi and his wife, Amarya. Abdullahi was the son of Baba Talatin, it was Baba Talatin who brought the family from Katsina to Madobi in Kano following the death of his father called Ali, Abdullahi continued to operate from Madobi until 1877, when having set out for a journey to Gonja headquarters of Kola nut trade at Ghana, his wife gave birth to Alhassan at the campsite (Zango) of Bebeji, upon his return from the journey he decided to abandon Madobi for Bebeji. Both his parents were wealthy Agalawa, a hereditary group of long-distance traders in the Hausa empire. Abdullahi died in Bebeji around 1885.
Abdullahi's children were too young to manage his considerable wealth. They all received their portion according to Islamic law when he died. Amarya, like her mother-in-law, was a trader of wealth in her own right. After her husband's death, she decided to leave Bebeji for Ghana, where she had commercial interests. She left the children in Bebeji, in the care of an old slave woman named Tata.
Kano Civil War and slavery
Dantata was still a teenager when the great upheavals occurred in the Kano Emirate from 1893 to 1895. There were two claimants to the Kano Emirate when Emir Muhammad Bello died in 1893. Tukur was his son. Tukur received his religious training from a Tijaniyya scholar and received the support of the Agalawa. Yusufu had been passed over when Bello became Emir. Yusufu received his religious training from Qaadiriyya schools. In the resulting civil war, Yusufu forces were victorious over Tukur, and claimed the title of emir. Because of the Agalawa support of Tukur, Dantata and the other Agalawa had their property confiscated and many were captured. Dantata and his brothers were held for ransom, under the threat of slavery. They paid it and Dantata returned to the trading business without his family lands around Kano.
Introduction to trading
Probably after being freed from slavery around 1894, Dantata joined a Gonja-bound caravan to see his mother. He purchased some items in Bebeji, he sold half of them on the way and the rest in Accra. He might have hoped his wealthy mother would allow him to live with her and find him work among the Gold Coast Agalawa community. However, this did not happen. After a rest of only one day, she took him to a mallam and asked Dantata to stay there until he was ready to return to Bebeji. Dantata worked harder in Ghana than he did in Bebeji. After the usual reading of the Qur'an, he had to go and beg for food for his mallam and himself. He worked for money on Thursdays and Fridays. As was the tradition, the bulk of his earnings went to his mallam. At some point he returned to Bebeji to his religious studies and work. There, Tata continued to insist that he must save something every year
Career
Dantata started to be a long-distance trader himself. He remained in Bebeji until matters had settled down. He used the new trade routes to Ibadan and Lagos to develop his network of trading associates. Instead of bringing kola nuts on pack animals, he used steamships to transport them between Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi and Lagos. He was the first to develop this route. This innovation and contact with Europeans helped establish his wealth and future.In 1906, he began broadening his interests by trading in beads, necklaces, European cloth, and trade goods. His mother, who had never remarried, died in Accra around 1908. After her death he focused his attention on new opportunities in Lagos and Kano.
Base of operations
Dantata maintained a house in Bebeji and had no property in the larger trading town of Kano. He did not own a house there, but was satisfied with the accommodation given to him by his patoma (landlord). When the British deposed the successor of Yusufu in 1903, they appointed Abbas as the Emir of Kano. As part of a recompilation, Abbas returned the confiscated lands around Kano to the Agalawa families. Dantata built his first house in the then empty Sarari area (an extension of Koki) in Kano.By all accounts, Dantata was hard working, frugal and unpretentious in his personal habits. He was also a good financial manager. He had the good sense to employ Alhaji Babba Na Alhassan who served as his chief accountant and Alhaji Garba Maisikeli as his financial controller for 38 years. Dantata did not manage from behind a desk but involved himself with his workers.
European trading companies
In 1912, when the Europeans started to show an interest in the export of groundnut, they contacted the already established Kano merchants through Emir Abbas and their chief agent, Adamu Jakada. Some established merchants of Kano like Umaru Sharubutu, Maikano Agogo accepted their offer.Dantata was already familiar with the manner by which traders could make fortunes by buying cocoa for Europeans in the Gold Coast. He had several advantages over other Kano business men: language, wealth and age. He could speak some English and already had direct dealings with Europeans in Lagos and Accra. He had substantial amounts of capital. Unlike other established Kano merchants, he was in his mid-thirties, with a small family and retinue to support. Despite the famine in Kano in 1914, he quickly dominated the groundnut purchasing business via promotions, loans and contacts.In 1918, the UK-based Royal Niger Company (later became the United Africa Company) searched for an agent to purchase groundnuts for them, and Dantata responded to their offer. It is said that he used to purchase about half of all the nuts purchased by the United Africa Company in northern Nigeria.By 1922 Dantata had become the richest businessman in Kano, surpassing other merchant traders. In 1929, when the Bank of British West Africa opened a branch in Kano, Dantata placed 20 camel-loads of silver coins in it. (For religious reasons, his money collected no interest). Shortly before his death, he pointed to sixty "groundnut pyramids" in Kano and said, "These are all mine".Dantata applied for a licence to purchase and export groundnuts in 1940, on the same level as the United Africa Company. However, it was not granted because of worldwide military and economic conditions. In 1953–54 he became a licensed buying agent, which allowed him to sell directly to the Nigerian Groundnut Marketing board instead of another firm.He had many business connections both in Nigeria and in other West African countries, particularly the Gold Coast. He dealt not only in groundnuts and kola but also in other merchandise. He traded in cattle, cloth, beads, precious stones, grains, rope and other things.
Pilgrimage to Mecca
Dantata made a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca via boat in the 1920s. On this trip he also went to England and was presented to George V. Dantata financed the pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca, a tradition that continues among his descendants. His son, Alhaji Aminu Dantata and his grandchildren like Hajiya Mariya Sunusi Dantata as well as his great-grandchildren, Aliko Dangote still finance pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca every year.
Death
In 1955, Dantata fell ill. Because of the seriousness of his illness, he summoned his chief financial controller, Garba Maisikeli and his children. He told them that his days were approaching their end and advised them to live together. He was particularly concerned about the company he had established (Alhassan Dantata & Sons). He asked them not to allow the company to collapse. He implored them to continue to marry within the family as much as possible. He urged them to avoid clashes with other wealthy Kano merchants. They should take care of their relatives, especially the poor among them. Three days later he died in his sleep on Wednesday 17 August 1955. He was buried in his house in the Sarari ward.
Descendants
Some descendants of Alhassan Dantata includes:
Ahmadu Dantata (1916–1960): son, a politicianSanusi Dantata (1917–1997): son, a successful businessmanAlhaji Abdulkadir Dantata: grandsonAliko Dangote (born 1957): great grandson, a billionaire
Mudi (Sulaiman) Dantata (1916–1960): son, a businessmanMahmud Dantata, popularly known as Mamuda Wapa (1922–1983): son. After graduating from Gold Coast University (Ghana) he became his father's chief scribe and Modernized his business activities. He later founded West African Pilgrims Agency in 1948 and pioneered parallel Market Currency Trading in West Africa. The Genius Shrewd Business Man brought more fame to Dantata Family within West African Countries.Aminu Dantata (born 1931): son, a businessman
== References ==
|
religion or worldview
|
{
"answer_start": [
1275
],
"text": [
"Islam"
]
}
|
Alhassan Dantata ((Listen); 1877 – 17 August 1955) was a Northern Nigerian trader in kola nuts and ground nuts, and he was a distributor of European goods. He supplied large British trading companies with raw materials and also had business interests in the Gold Coast. At the time of his death he was the wealthiest man in West Africa. He is the great-grandfather of Aliko Dangote, the wealthiest person in Nigeria and Africa.
Early life
Parents
Dantata was born 1877 in Bebeji, Kano Emirate in the Sokoto Caliphate, one of several children of Abdullahi and his wife, Amarya. Abdullahi was the son of Baba Talatin, it was Baba Talatin who brought the family from Katsina to Madobi in Kano following the death of his father called Ali, Abdullahi continued to operate from Madobi until 1877, when having set out for a journey to Gonja headquarters of Kola nut trade at Ghana, his wife gave birth to Alhassan at the campsite (Zango) of Bebeji, upon his return from the journey he decided to abandon Madobi for Bebeji. Both his parents were wealthy Agalawa, a hereditary group of long-distance traders in the Hausa empire. Abdullahi died in Bebeji around 1885.
Abdullahi's children were too young to manage his considerable wealth. They all received their portion according to Islamic law when he died. Amarya, like her mother-in-law, was a trader of wealth in her own right. After her husband's death, she decided to leave Bebeji for Ghana, where she had commercial interests. She left the children in Bebeji, in the care of an old slave woman named Tata.
Kano Civil War and slavery
Dantata was still a teenager when the great upheavals occurred in the Kano Emirate from 1893 to 1895. There were two claimants to the Kano Emirate when Emir Muhammad Bello died in 1893. Tukur was his son. Tukur received his religious training from a Tijaniyya scholar and received the support of the Agalawa. Yusufu had been passed over when Bello became Emir. Yusufu received his religious training from Qaadiriyya schools. In the resulting civil war, Yusufu forces were victorious over Tukur, and claimed the title of emir. Because of the Agalawa support of Tukur, Dantata and the other Agalawa had their property confiscated and many were captured. Dantata and his brothers were held for ransom, under the threat of slavery. They paid it and Dantata returned to the trading business without his family lands around Kano.
Introduction to trading
Probably after being freed from slavery around 1894, Dantata joined a Gonja-bound caravan to see his mother. He purchased some items in Bebeji, he sold half of them on the way and the rest in Accra. He might have hoped his wealthy mother would allow him to live with her and find him work among the Gold Coast Agalawa community. However, this did not happen. After a rest of only one day, she took him to a mallam and asked Dantata to stay there until he was ready to return to Bebeji. Dantata worked harder in Ghana than he did in Bebeji. After the usual reading of the Qur'an, he had to go and beg for food for his mallam and himself. He worked for money on Thursdays and Fridays. As was the tradition, the bulk of his earnings went to his mallam. At some point he returned to Bebeji to his religious studies and work. There, Tata continued to insist that he must save something every year
Career
Dantata started to be a long-distance trader himself. He remained in Bebeji until matters had settled down. He used the new trade routes to Ibadan and Lagos to develop his network of trading associates. Instead of bringing kola nuts on pack animals, he used steamships to transport them between Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi and Lagos. He was the first to develop this route. This innovation and contact with Europeans helped establish his wealth and future.In 1906, he began broadening his interests by trading in beads, necklaces, European cloth, and trade goods. His mother, who had never remarried, died in Accra around 1908. After her death he focused his attention on new opportunities in Lagos and Kano.
Base of operations
Dantata maintained a house in Bebeji and had no property in the larger trading town of Kano. He did not own a house there, but was satisfied with the accommodation given to him by his patoma (landlord). When the British deposed the successor of Yusufu in 1903, they appointed Abbas as the Emir of Kano. As part of a recompilation, Abbas returned the confiscated lands around Kano to the Agalawa families. Dantata built his first house in the then empty Sarari area (an extension of Koki) in Kano.By all accounts, Dantata was hard working, frugal and unpretentious in his personal habits. He was also a good financial manager. He had the good sense to employ Alhaji Babba Na Alhassan who served as his chief accountant and Alhaji Garba Maisikeli as his financial controller for 38 years. Dantata did not manage from behind a desk but involved himself with his workers.
European trading companies
In 1912, when the Europeans started to show an interest in the export of groundnut, they contacted the already established Kano merchants through Emir Abbas and their chief agent, Adamu Jakada. Some established merchants of Kano like Umaru Sharubutu, Maikano Agogo accepted their offer.Dantata was already familiar with the manner by which traders could make fortunes by buying cocoa for Europeans in the Gold Coast. He had several advantages over other Kano business men: language, wealth and age. He could speak some English and already had direct dealings with Europeans in Lagos and Accra. He had substantial amounts of capital. Unlike other established Kano merchants, he was in his mid-thirties, with a small family and retinue to support. Despite the famine in Kano in 1914, he quickly dominated the groundnut purchasing business via promotions, loans and contacts.In 1918, the UK-based Royal Niger Company (later became the United Africa Company) searched for an agent to purchase groundnuts for them, and Dantata responded to their offer. It is said that he used to purchase about half of all the nuts purchased by the United Africa Company in northern Nigeria.By 1922 Dantata had become the richest businessman in Kano, surpassing other merchant traders. In 1929, when the Bank of British West Africa opened a branch in Kano, Dantata placed 20 camel-loads of silver coins in it. (For religious reasons, his money collected no interest). Shortly before his death, he pointed to sixty "groundnut pyramids" in Kano and said, "These are all mine".Dantata applied for a licence to purchase and export groundnuts in 1940, on the same level as the United Africa Company. However, it was not granted because of worldwide military and economic conditions. In 1953–54 he became a licensed buying agent, which allowed him to sell directly to the Nigerian Groundnut Marketing board instead of another firm.He had many business connections both in Nigeria and in other West African countries, particularly the Gold Coast. He dealt not only in groundnuts and kola but also in other merchandise. He traded in cattle, cloth, beads, precious stones, grains, rope and other things.
Pilgrimage to Mecca
Dantata made a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca via boat in the 1920s. On this trip he also went to England and was presented to George V. Dantata financed the pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca, a tradition that continues among his descendants. His son, Alhaji Aminu Dantata and his grandchildren like Hajiya Mariya Sunusi Dantata as well as his great-grandchildren, Aliko Dangote still finance pilgrimages of other Muslims to Mecca every year.
Death
In 1955, Dantata fell ill. Because of the seriousness of his illness, he summoned his chief financial controller, Garba Maisikeli and his children. He told them that his days were approaching their end and advised them to live together. He was particularly concerned about the company he had established (Alhassan Dantata & Sons). He asked them not to allow the company to collapse. He implored them to continue to marry within the family as much as possible. He urged them to avoid clashes with other wealthy Kano merchants. They should take care of their relatives, especially the poor among them. Three days later he died in his sleep on Wednesday 17 August 1955. He was buried in his house in the Sarari ward.
Descendants
Some descendants of Alhassan Dantata includes:
Ahmadu Dantata (1916–1960): son, a politicianSanusi Dantata (1917–1997): son, a successful businessmanAlhaji Abdulkadir Dantata: grandsonAliko Dangote (born 1957): great grandson, a billionaire
Mudi (Sulaiman) Dantata (1916–1960): son, a businessmanMahmud Dantata, popularly known as Mamuda Wapa (1922–1983): son. After graduating from Gold Coast University (Ghana) he became his father's chief scribe and Modernized his business activities. He later founded West African Pilgrims Agency in 1948 and pioneered parallel Market Currency Trading in West Africa. The Genius Shrewd Business Man brought more fame to Dantata Family within West African Countries.Aminu Dantata (born 1931): son, a businessman
== References ==
|
languages spoken, written or signed
|
{
"answer_start": [
5477
],
"text": [
"English"
]
}
|
Bymainiella terraereginae is a species of funnel-web spider in the Hexathelidae family. It is endemic to Australia. It was described in 1976 by Australian arachnologist Robert Raven.
Distribution and habitat
The species occurs in south-eastern Queensland. The type locality is the Lamington Plateau.
Behaviour
The spiders are terrestrial predators that build silken tube retreats beneath rocks and logs.
== References ==
|
taxon rank
|
{
"answer_start": [
31
],
"text": [
"species"
]
}
|
Bymainiella terraereginae is a species of funnel-web spider in the Hexathelidae family. It is endemic to Australia. It was described in 1976 by Australian arachnologist Robert Raven.
Distribution and habitat
The species occurs in south-eastern Queensland. The type locality is the Lamington Plateau.
Behaviour
The spiders are terrestrial predators that build silken tube retreats beneath rocks and logs.
== References ==
|
parent taxon
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Bymainiella"
]
}
|
Bymainiella terraereginae is a species of funnel-web spider in the Hexathelidae family. It is endemic to Australia. It was described in 1976 by Australian arachnologist Robert Raven.
Distribution and habitat
The species occurs in south-eastern Queensland. The type locality is the Lamington Plateau.
Behaviour
The spiders are terrestrial predators that build silken tube retreats beneath rocks and logs.
== References ==
|
endemic to
|
{
"answer_start": [
105
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"text": [
"Australia"
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}
|
Bymainiella terraereginae is a species of funnel-web spider in the Hexathelidae family. It is endemic to Australia. It was described in 1976 by Australian arachnologist Robert Raven.
Distribution and habitat
The species occurs in south-eastern Queensland. The type locality is the Lamington Plateau.
Behaviour
The spiders are terrestrial predators that build silken tube retreats beneath rocks and logs.
== References ==
|
taxon name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Bymainiella terraereginae"
]
}
|
The Newton Centre Branch Library is a historic library building at 1294 Centre Street in Newton, Massachusetts. The building now houses municipal offices. (A new library building opened near city hall in 1991.) The 1+1⁄2-story brick building was designed by Newton resident James Ritchie of Ritchie, Parsons & Tyler, and was built in 1928. It was one of five branch libraries paid for by subscription of Newton citizens and built between 1926 and 1939. The building is basically Tudor Revival in its styling, although its entry has a Colonial Revival segmented arch surround.The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.
See also
Waban Branch Library
Plummer Memorial Library in Auburndale
National Register of Historic Places listings in Newton, Massachusetts
== References ==
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
47
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"text": [
"library"
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|
The Newton Centre Branch Library is a historic library building at 1294 Centre Street in Newton, Massachusetts. The building now houses municipal offices. (A new library building opened near city hall in 1991.) The 1+1⁄2-story brick building was designed by Newton resident James Ritchie of Ritchie, Parsons & Tyler, and was built in 1928. It was one of five branch libraries paid for by subscription of Newton citizens and built between 1926 and 1939. The building is basically Tudor Revival in its styling, although its entry has a Colonial Revival segmented arch surround.The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.
See also
Waban Branch Library
Plummer Memorial Library in Auburndale
National Register of Historic Places listings in Newton, Massachusetts
== References ==
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
"answer_start": [
97
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"text": [
"Massachusetts"
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|
Rahr and Sons Brewing Company is a brewery in Fort Worth, Texas. USA, owned by Fritz and Erin Rahr. Since opening in 2004 Rahr has released numerous beers. Their core lineup is made up of 6 year-round beers, including their newest year-round release, Rahr’s Original. Along with these, they release 4 seasonals, and several specialty beers throughout the year. Rahr is currently distributed in most of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas, and Nebraska.
Early history
The Rahr and Sons brewery was established in 2004 in a warehouse south of downtown Fort Worth by Frederick "Fritz" and Rahr, with a great deal of support from family and friends. Fritz Rahr, a former railroad company worker who has studied brewing in Germany and at the Siebel Institute, is a graduate of Texas Christian University in Fort Worth. When the brewery began production in the summer of 2004, its original head brewer was Jason Courtney, the 2002 Great American Beer Festival Small Brew Pub Brew Master of the Year, who had run Hub City Brewpub in Lubbock, Texas. Courtney installed the brewery and created the original recipes.
After Courtney's departure, James Hudec of Brenham Brewery was named brewer for the following six months. At first, all of the Rahr beers were self-distributed. Rahr's first two beers were Blonde Lager and Rahr's Red amber lager. These were not available in bottles until December 2004, the same month in which Rahr's third beer, Ugly Pug Black Lager, was released. In July 2005, after months of tap-only availability, Ugly Pug appeared in bottles as well.
Developments since 2005
In September 2005, Rahr introduced its first seasonal beer: Pecker Wrecker Imperial Pilsner, a Sterling- and Perle-hopped pilsener with the substantial strength of 7% alcohol by volume (ABV). This tap-only release was accompanied by a logo design contest, in which entries had to include a woodpecker in a tow truck. The winning logo appeared on tap handles, T-shirts, and beer glasses.At about the same time, Rahr was forced to lay off most of his employees due to financial pressures and take on the role of brewmaster himself. In the wake of this change, Rahr worked long hours and received help from a volunteer team of over two dozen local home brewers and beer enthusiasts, particularly with bottling and packaging. At this point, the company also shifted the task of distribution over to distributors in the Dallas-Fort Worth area, including the regional Coors distributor and Authentic Beverages Co., Inc.; as a result, Rahr beer became available across a larger geographic area. By the next year, the Miller distributor in Denton was handling the supply for the Denton/north Dallas region.Rahr's Bucking Bock appeared in the spring of 2006 and was preceded by a logo contest similar to the one for Pecker Wrecker. Summertime Wheat appeared on July 8, followed in November by Winter Warmer, the first non-German Rahr beer.In January 2007, Tony Formby joined Rahr as an equity partner. Following this, the company re-expanded its staff. Gavin Secchi of Addison was hired as brewer. Two new beers were introduced by Rahr in 2007: Stormcloud IPA, released in March, and Oktoberfest Fall Celebration Lager, released in September. Rahr began working with Andrews Distributing of Dallas in autumn 2007.
Current line of products
Blonde Lager is a light-bodied Munich Helles-style lager with a grainy character, a faint sweetness, and a bitter finish.
Rahr's Red is an amber lager with a malty character and light caramel notes.
Iron Thistle is a dark brown Scottish style ale characterized by a bold taste dominated by a smooth, sweet maltiness balanced with a low, hoppy bitterness. This brew is only featured from January through February.
Ugly Pug is a black lager, or Schwarzbier. While dark in color, it is light-bodied and has a moderately roasted flavor.
Stormcloud IPA is an India Pale Ale, a popular style among American craft breweries. What is unusual about Stormcloud IPA, however, is the use of German noble hops, German malts and Kölsch ale yeast to imbue the style with Fritz Rahr's own German brewing heritage (American IPAs are typically brewed with American hop styles and other varieties of ale yeast). Likewise, the beer is marketed with a German heritage backstory that reinforces this stylistic hybridity. "Stormcloud" is English for the German Sturmwolke, the name of the ship that carried brewer-ancestor William Rahr to the New World. According to the brewery's website, "During a fierce storm on his voyage across the ocean, William Rahr could be heard yelling from the tall masted ship: 'Roll on old sea! And when you are done, when the storm clouds have destroyed themselves, we will still be standing and drinking!'" According to local journalist Barry Shlachter, this beer may become Rahr's flagship product in the future.
Bucking Bock, a spring seasonal, is a sweet and full-flavored Maibock. With 8% ABV (alcohol by volume), it is also particularly strong. This brew is available from March through April.
Summertime Wheat, a summer seasonal, is a Bavarian-style wheat beer, or Hefeweizen, with rye added to the grist (the brewery has called it a Roggen-Weizen, or rye-wheat, for this reason). Unlike many American craft breweries that produce Hefeweizens with more neutral yeasts (e.g. Sierra Nevada, Pyramid, or Spoetzl (Shiner)), Rahr employs the characteristic Bavarian wheat beer yeast, resulting in clove- and banana-like flavors. This brew is available from May through June.
Gravel Road is a seasonal alt bier. This brew is available from July through August.
Oktoberfest Fall Celebration Lager is a fall seasonal in the Bavarian Märzen lager style. This brew is available from September through October.
Winter Warmer is a winter seasonal rendition of the traditional English "winter warmer" style. This is a toasty, nutty, lightly carbonated ale with about 8% ABV. This brew is available from November through December.
Iron Mash Competition
Since the summer of 2004, the Rahr and Sons Brewery has been the location of the annual Iron Mash Competition, a homebrewing competition based on the premise of the television show Iron Chef (that is, to brew a beer from provided ingredients) and hosted by the Cap and Hare Homebrewing Club of Fort Worth, TX.
Awards and recognition
At the summer 2005 semiannual United States Beer Tasting Championship (referred to as USBTC from this point on), Rahr's Blonde Lager won the award of Best of the Rockies/Southeast in the Dortmunder/Helles category. This beer won the same award again in summer 2006, while Bucking Bock won honorable mention in the division as a Maibock. Rahr's Ugly Pug won Best of the Rockies/Southwest at the winter 2006 USBTC in the Black Lager category. Most recently, Rahr's Summertime Wheat was recognized as the best wheat beer in the Rockies/Southwest division during the summer 2007 USBTC.The Dallas Observer awarded Rahr's Blonde Lager "Best Local Beer" in the summer of 2005.In the Zymurgy magazine reader's poll of summer 2006—the fourth annual Best Commercial Beers In America survey--, Rahr was voted the fifth best brewer in the United States. Among the poll's top ranked beers in the U.S., Ugly Pug tied for 15th place, Bucking Bock and Rahr's Red both tied for 21st place, and Blonde Lager tied for 32nd place.
Community Involvement
Rahr also sponsors a local adult soccer club, called the Rahr Football Club. The club has won 11 FWASA League titles and 3 Tournament titles to date. Currently, the club has 8 teams and roughly 120 members playing in the Fort Worth Adult Soccer Association.
References
External links
Official company website
|
product or material produced
|
{
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"text": [
"beer"
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|
Pilodeudorix ula, the cobalt playboy, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Nigeria (west and the Cross River loop), Cameroon, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda. The habitat consists of primary forests.
== References ==
|
parent taxon
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Pilodeudorix"
]
}
|
Pilodeudorix ula, the cobalt playboy, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Nigeria (west and the Cross River loop), Cameroon, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda. The habitat consists of primary forests.
== References ==
|
taxon name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Pilodeudorix ula"
]
}
|
Augusta Independent Schools is a school district in Bracken County Kentucky, United States, which was founded in 1887. This district's schools are among the smallest in the state with all grades PreK-12 in one building.
Schools
Augusta Independent School
Rankings
Augusta Independent School is ranked #117 of 359 schools for athletes in Kentucky
Augusta Independent School is ranked #149 of 244 schools for public high school teachers in Kentucky
Augusta Independent School is ranked #198 of 311 schools for public middle school teachers in Kentucky
The average math proficiency level is 32%
The average reading proficiency level is 37%
The average ACT score is 22
The average Graduation Rate is 95%
Student Body
There are on average 299 students attending Augusta Independent School
The Student-Teacher ratio is 14:1 (the national is 17:1)
Total minority enrollment is 4%. 1.7% of students are black, 1.7% students are hispanic, 0.3% students are two or more races, and 96.2% students are White
46% students are female and 54% students are male.
Sports
Augusta Independent Schools have cross country, volleyball, archery, tennis, basketball, softball, baseball, and golf.
History of Augusta Independent Schools
The first school located in Augusta Kentucky was a private school built in 1795 built by Robert Schoolfield. It was a log cabin located at 211 Riverside Drive. Later on, leaders in the community established The Bracken Academy in 1798. To grow the school, they were awarded a charter and a grant of land from the state in 1799. To accommodate the growing need for education, they constructed several classroom buildings, including one classroom on the southeast corner of Elizabeth and Third Streets. In 1822 Bracken Academy combined with Augusta College. In 1825 it was fully operational and became the first established Methodist college in Kentucky (and the third in the nation at that time).
Augusta Independent School was founded in 1887. The current principle is Robin Kelsch and the current superintendent is Lisa McCane.
External links
Official website
References
https://www.usnews.com/education/best-high-schools/kentucky/districts/augusta-independent/augusta-independent-school-8219
https://www.niche.com/k12/augusta-independent-school-augusta-ky/
https://www.augustaky.com/history-of-augusta
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
33
],
"text": [
"school district"
]
}
|
Augusta Independent Schools is a school district in Bracken County Kentucky, United States, which was founded in 1887. This district's schools are among the smallest in the state with all grades PreK-12 in one building.
Schools
Augusta Independent School
Rankings
Augusta Independent School is ranked #117 of 359 schools for athletes in Kentucky
Augusta Independent School is ranked #149 of 244 schools for public high school teachers in Kentucky
Augusta Independent School is ranked #198 of 311 schools for public middle school teachers in Kentucky
The average math proficiency level is 32%
The average reading proficiency level is 37%
The average ACT score is 22
The average Graduation Rate is 95%
Student Body
There are on average 299 students attending Augusta Independent School
The Student-Teacher ratio is 14:1 (the national is 17:1)
Total minority enrollment is 4%. 1.7% of students are black, 1.7% students are hispanic, 0.3% students are two or more races, and 96.2% students are White
46% students are female and 54% students are male.
Sports
Augusta Independent Schools have cross country, volleyball, archery, tennis, basketball, softball, baseball, and golf.
History of Augusta Independent Schools
The first school located in Augusta Kentucky was a private school built in 1795 built by Robert Schoolfield. It was a log cabin located at 211 Riverside Drive. Later on, leaders in the community established The Bracken Academy in 1798. To grow the school, they were awarded a charter and a grant of land from the state in 1799. To accommodate the growing need for education, they constructed several classroom buildings, including one classroom on the southeast corner of Elizabeth and Third Streets. In 1822 Bracken Academy combined with Augusta College. In 1825 it was fully operational and became the first established Methodist college in Kentucky (and the third in the nation at that time).
Augusta Independent School was founded in 1887. The current principle is Robin Kelsch and the current superintendent is Lisa McCane.
External links
Official website
References
https://www.usnews.com/education/best-high-schools/kentucky/districts/augusta-independent/augusta-independent-school-8219
https://www.niche.com/k12/augusta-independent-school-augusta-ky/
https://www.augustaky.com/history-of-augusta
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
"answer_start": [
67
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"text": [
"Kentucky"
]
}
|
Chrysoritis natalensis, the Natal opal, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in South Africa, where it is found from the Eastern Cape, along the coast of KwaZulu-Natal and inland to Zululand and the midlands.
The wingspan is 24–30 mm for males and 28–34 mm for females. Adults are on wing year-round with peaks in November and February.The larvae feed on Chrysanthemoides monilifera and Cotyledon orbiculata. They are associated with ants of the genus Crematogaster.
References
Data related to Chrysoritis natalensis at Wikispecies
|
taxon rank
|
{
"answer_start": [
543
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"text": [
"species"
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}
|
Philippe Keyaerts is a Belgian designer of German-style board games. His two first published games are Vinci and Evo. Those two games use the mechanism of allowing the players to spend victory points to improve the characteristics of their play. He also invented Space Blast, a small space battle game. Philippe Keyaerts is best known as the designer of Small World, a 2009 fantasy-themed board game based upon a remake of Vinci.
Keyaerts is also active in the organisation of board game conventions in Belgium.
External links
Philippe Keyaerts at BoardGameGeek
Game Designer Interview: Philippe Keyaerts by Derek Thompson, 06/2011
|
country of citizenship
|
{
"answer_start": [
505
],
"text": [
"Belgium"
]
}
|
Philippe Keyaerts is a Belgian designer of German-style board games. His two first published games are Vinci and Evo. Those two games use the mechanism of allowing the players to spend victory points to improve the characteristics of their play. He also invented Space Blast, a small space battle game. Philippe Keyaerts is best known as the designer of Small World, a 2009 fantasy-themed board game based upon a remake of Vinci.
Keyaerts is also active in the organisation of board game conventions in Belgium.
External links
Philippe Keyaerts at BoardGameGeek
Game Designer Interview: Philippe Keyaerts by Derek Thompson, 06/2011
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
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"text": [
"Philippe"
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|
Erhard Christoph Clemens Hartung von Hartungen (born 7 July 1880, Vienna - died 15 July 1962, Innsbruck) was an Austrian doctor and homeopath known for his work in sanatoria, including the sanatorium in Riva on Lake Garda established by his father.
Biography
Erhard Hartung von Hartungen was born on 7 July 1880 in Vienna. He was the eldest son of Christoph Hartung von Hartungen and his wife Clara. Hartungen received a private education at his parents house in Vienna before his family moved to Riva, on Lake Garda, where he studied at schools in Brixen and Trento. He graduated in 1899 and then studied at the University of Vienna and then in Florence. He qualified as a doctor in 1905 and was one of a line of 16 physicians. Hartungen married Eva von Arnim-Kröchlendorff, the great-niece of Otto von Bismarck. They had four children.After training in sanatoria in Engelberg in Switzerland and Arco in Italy, Hartungen ran the spas of Tobelbad in Graz and Agathenhof in Carinthia. He worked with Wilhelm Winternitz and Alois Strasser. Hartungen then took over the management of the sanatorium founded by his father in Riva. This was a nature and water cure spa, visited by aristocrats, writers, diplomats, scientists and artists. During the summers, the sanatorium relocated patients and staff to a facility in the Ulten Valley to escape the heat.During the war, from 1915 to 1918, von Hartungen worked as a senior medical officer of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. In the 1920s, he built a cold water spa at Lochau on Bodensee lake. He then ran a spa in the town of Hall in Tirol, worked at a Grape therapy resort in Merano, and worked as a doctor in Innsbruck, where he died on 15 July 1962.Magnus Hirschfeld visited the sanatorium as a guest and evening lecturer at the invitation of Hartungen. After World War I left them impoverished, Heinrich Mann and Thomas Mann wrote to one another of the happy and unforgettable times they had passed in Riva. Other notable patients treated by Hartungen included Albin Egger-Lienz, Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Franz Kafka, Christian Morgenstern, Eugen d’Albert, Hermann Sudermann, Henry Thode, Kurt Schuschnigg, Louis Kolitz, Max Brod, Prince Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Ernst Gunther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Princess Dorothea of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Prince Louis of Liechtenstein.
Publications
L'"Ora", fattore igienico. 1907-11-02.
Reform-Sanatorium Dr. von Hartungen. Riva am Gardasee. A. Edlinger. November 1907.
Der Fremdenverkehr und seine Förderung am Nordgestade des Gardasees. 1910-12-17.
Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt Dr. von Hartungen, Riva – Gardasee. 1911.
Dr. von Hartungen. Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt für Erwachsene und Kinder. Riva am Gardasee. Deutsche Buchdruckerei. January 1913.
== References ==
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
66
],
"text": [
"Vienna"
]
}
|
Erhard Christoph Clemens Hartung von Hartungen (born 7 July 1880, Vienna - died 15 July 1962, Innsbruck) was an Austrian doctor and homeopath known for his work in sanatoria, including the sanatorium in Riva on Lake Garda established by his father.
Biography
Erhard Hartung von Hartungen was born on 7 July 1880 in Vienna. He was the eldest son of Christoph Hartung von Hartungen and his wife Clara. Hartungen received a private education at his parents house in Vienna before his family moved to Riva, on Lake Garda, where he studied at schools in Brixen and Trento. He graduated in 1899 and then studied at the University of Vienna and then in Florence. He qualified as a doctor in 1905 and was one of a line of 16 physicians. Hartungen married Eva von Arnim-Kröchlendorff, the great-niece of Otto von Bismarck. They had four children.After training in sanatoria in Engelberg in Switzerland and Arco in Italy, Hartungen ran the spas of Tobelbad in Graz and Agathenhof in Carinthia. He worked with Wilhelm Winternitz and Alois Strasser. Hartungen then took over the management of the sanatorium founded by his father in Riva. This was a nature and water cure spa, visited by aristocrats, writers, diplomats, scientists and artists. During the summers, the sanatorium relocated patients and staff to a facility in the Ulten Valley to escape the heat.During the war, from 1915 to 1918, von Hartungen worked as a senior medical officer of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. In the 1920s, he built a cold water spa at Lochau on Bodensee lake. He then ran a spa in the town of Hall in Tirol, worked at a Grape therapy resort in Merano, and worked as a doctor in Innsbruck, where he died on 15 July 1962.Magnus Hirschfeld visited the sanatorium as a guest and evening lecturer at the invitation of Hartungen. After World War I left them impoverished, Heinrich Mann and Thomas Mann wrote to one another of the happy and unforgettable times they had passed in Riva. Other notable patients treated by Hartungen included Albin Egger-Lienz, Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Franz Kafka, Christian Morgenstern, Eugen d’Albert, Hermann Sudermann, Henry Thode, Kurt Schuschnigg, Louis Kolitz, Max Brod, Prince Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Ernst Gunther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Princess Dorothea of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Prince Louis of Liechtenstein.
Publications
L'"Ora", fattore igienico. 1907-11-02.
Reform-Sanatorium Dr. von Hartungen. Riva am Gardasee. A. Edlinger. November 1907.
Der Fremdenverkehr und seine Förderung am Nordgestade des Gardasees. 1910-12-17.
Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt Dr. von Hartungen, Riva – Gardasee. 1911.
Dr. von Hartungen. Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt für Erwachsene und Kinder. Riva am Gardasee. Deutsche Buchdruckerei. January 1913.
== References ==
|
place of death
|
{
"answer_start": [
94
],
"text": [
"Innsbruck"
]
}
|
Erhard Christoph Clemens Hartung von Hartungen (born 7 July 1880, Vienna - died 15 July 1962, Innsbruck) was an Austrian doctor and homeopath known for his work in sanatoria, including the sanatorium in Riva on Lake Garda established by his father.
Biography
Erhard Hartung von Hartungen was born on 7 July 1880 in Vienna. He was the eldest son of Christoph Hartung von Hartungen and his wife Clara. Hartungen received a private education at his parents house in Vienna before his family moved to Riva, on Lake Garda, where he studied at schools in Brixen and Trento. He graduated in 1899 and then studied at the University of Vienna and then in Florence. He qualified as a doctor in 1905 and was one of a line of 16 physicians. Hartungen married Eva von Arnim-Kröchlendorff, the great-niece of Otto von Bismarck. They had four children.After training in sanatoria in Engelberg in Switzerland and Arco in Italy, Hartungen ran the spas of Tobelbad in Graz and Agathenhof in Carinthia. He worked with Wilhelm Winternitz and Alois Strasser. Hartungen then took over the management of the sanatorium founded by his father in Riva. This was a nature and water cure spa, visited by aristocrats, writers, diplomats, scientists and artists. During the summers, the sanatorium relocated patients and staff to a facility in the Ulten Valley to escape the heat.During the war, from 1915 to 1918, von Hartungen worked as a senior medical officer of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. In the 1920s, he built a cold water spa at Lochau on Bodensee lake. He then ran a spa in the town of Hall in Tirol, worked at a Grape therapy resort in Merano, and worked as a doctor in Innsbruck, where he died on 15 July 1962.Magnus Hirschfeld visited the sanatorium as a guest and evening lecturer at the invitation of Hartungen. After World War I left them impoverished, Heinrich Mann and Thomas Mann wrote to one another of the happy and unforgettable times they had passed in Riva. Other notable patients treated by Hartungen included Albin Egger-Lienz, Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Franz Kafka, Christian Morgenstern, Eugen d’Albert, Hermann Sudermann, Henry Thode, Kurt Schuschnigg, Louis Kolitz, Max Brod, Prince Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Ernst Gunther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Princess Dorothea of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Prince Louis of Liechtenstein.
Publications
L'"Ora", fattore igienico. 1907-11-02.
Reform-Sanatorium Dr. von Hartungen. Riva am Gardasee. A. Edlinger. November 1907.
Der Fremdenverkehr und seine Förderung am Nordgestade des Gardasees. 1910-12-17.
Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt Dr. von Hartungen, Riva – Gardasee. 1911.
Dr. von Hartungen. Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt für Erwachsene und Kinder. Riva am Gardasee. Deutsche Buchdruckerei. January 1913.
== References ==
|
country of citizenship
|
{
"answer_start": [
112
],
"text": [
"Austria"
]
}
|
Erhard Christoph Clemens Hartung von Hartungen (born 7 July 1880, Vienna - died 15 July 1962, Innsbruck) was an Austrian doctor and homeopath known for his work in sanatoria, including the sanatorium in Riva on Lake Garda established by his father.
Biography
Erhard Hartung von Hartungen was born on 7 July 1880 in Vienna. He was the eldest son of Christoph Hartung von Hartungen and his wife Clara. Hartungen received a private education at his parents house in Vienna before his family moved to Riva, on Lake Garda, where he studied at schools in Brixen and Trento. He graduated in 1899 and then studied at the University of Vienna and then in Florence. He qualified as a doctor in 1905 and was one of a line of 16 physicians. Hartungen married Eva von Arnim-Kröchlendorff, the great-niece of Otto von Bismarck. They had four children.After training in sanatoria in Engelberg in Switzerland and Arco in Italy, Hartungen ran the spas of Tobelbad in Graz and Agathenhof in Carinthia. He worked with Wilhelm Winternitz and Alois Strasser. Hartungen then took over the management of the sanatorium founded by his father in Riva. This was a nature and water cure spa, visited by aristocrats, writers, diplomats, scientists and artists. During the summers, the sanatorium relocated patients and staff to a facility in the Ulten Valley to escape the heat.During the war, from 1915 to 1918, von Hartungen worked as a senior medical officer of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. In the 1920s, he built a cold water spa at Lochau on Bodensee lake. He then ran a spa in the town of Hall in Tirol, worked at a Grape therapy resort in Merano, and worked as a doctor in Innsbruck, where he died on 15 July 1962.Magnus Hirschfeld visited the sanatorium as a guest and evening lecturer at the invitation of Hartungen. After World War I left them impoverished, Heinrich Mann and Thomas Mann wrote to one another of the happy and unforgettable times they had passed in Riva. Other notable patients treated by Hartungen included Albin Egger-Lienz, Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Franz Kafka, Christian Morgenstern, Eugen d’Albert, Hermann Sudermann, Henry Thode, Kurt Schuschnigg, Louis Kolitz, Max Brod, Prince Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Ernst Gunther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Princess Dorothea of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Prince Louis of Liechtenstein.
Publications
L'"Ora", fattore igienico. 1907-11-02.
Reform-Sanatorium Dr. von Hartungen. Riva am Gardasee. A. Edlinger. November 1907.
Der Fremdenverkehr und seine Förderung am Nordgestade des Gardasees. 1910-12-17.
Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt Dr. von Hartungen, Riva – Gardasee. 1911.
Dr. von Hartungen. Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt für Erwachsene und Kinder. Riva am Gardasee. Deutsche Buchdruckerei. January 1913.
== References ==
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
132
],
"text": [
"homeopath"
]
}
|
Erhard Christoph Clemens Hartung von Hartungen (born 7 July 1880, Vienna - died 15 July 1962, Innsbruck) was an Austrian doctor and homeopath known for his work in sanatoria, including the sanatorium in Riva on Lake Garda established by his father.
Biography
Erhard Hartung von Hartungen was born on 7 July 1880 in Vienna. He was the eldest son of Christoph Hartung von Hartungen and his wife Clara. Hartungen received a private education at his parents house in Vienna before his family moved to Riva, on Lake Garda, where he studied at schools in Brixen and Trento. He graduated in 1899 and then studied at the University of Vienna and then in Florence. He qualified as a doctor in 1905 and was one of a line of 16 physicians. Hartungen married Eva von Arnim-Kröchlendorff, the great-niece of Otto von Bismarck. They had four children.After training in sanatoria in Engelberg in Switzerland and Arco in Italy, Hartungen ran the spas of Tobelbad in Graz and Agathenhof in Carinthia. He worked with Wilhelm Winternitz and Alois Strasser. Hartungen then took over the management of the sanatorium founded by his father in Riva. This was a nature and water cure spa, visited by aristocrats, writers, diplomats, scientists and artists. During the summers, the sanatorium relocated patients and staff to a facility in the Ulten Valley to escape the heat.During the war, from 1915 to 1918, von Hartungen worked as a senior medical officer of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. In the 1920s, he built a cold water spa at Lochau on Bodensee lake. He then ran a spa in the town of Hall in Tirol, worked at a Grape therapy resort in Merano, and worked as a doctor in Innsbruck, where he died on 15 July 1962.Magnus Hirschfeld visited the sanatorium as a guest and evening lecturer at the invitation of Hartungen. After World War I left them impoverished, Heinrich Mann and Thomas Mann wrote to one another of the happy and unforgettable times they had passed in Riva. Other notable patients treated by Hartungen included Albin Egger-Lienz, Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Franz Kafka, Christian Morgenstern, Eugen d’Albert, Hermann Sudermann, Henry Thode, Kurt Schuschnigg, Louis Kolitz, Max Brod, Prince Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Ernst Gunther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Princess Dorothea of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Prince Louis of Liechtenstein.
Publications
L'"Ora", fattore igienico. 1907-11-02.
Reform-Sanatorium Dr. von Hartungen. Riva am Gardasee. A. Edlinger. November 1907.
Der Fremdenverkehr und seine Förderung am Nordgestade des Gardasees. 1910-12-17.
Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt Dr. von Hartungen, Riva – Gardasee. 1911.
Dr. von Hartungen. Sanatorium und Wasserheilanstalt für Erwachsene und Kinder. Riva am Gardasee. Deutsche Buchdruckerei. January 1913.
== References ==
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given name
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90th Division may refer to:
Infantry90th Division (1st Formation)(People's Republic of China), 1949–1950
90th Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China), 1950–1952
90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)
90th Infantry Division (United States)
90th Guards Rifle Division (Soviet Union)Armour90th Guards Tank Division (Soviet Union, 1957–1985)
90th Guards Lvov Tank Division (1985–1997) (Soviet Union, 1985–1992 and Russia, 1992–1997)
90th Guards Tank Division (Russia, 2016–present)Aviation90th Air Division (United States)
See also
90th Regiment (disambiguation)
90 Squadron (disambiguation)
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country
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Sugar Creek Covered Bridge is a covered bridge which crosses Sugar Creek southeast of Chatham, Illinois. The Burr truss bridge is 110 feet (34 m) long and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide. The bridge was constructed by Thomas Black; sources disagree on the date of construction, placing it at either 1827 or 1880. The State of Illinois acquired the bridge in 1963 and extensively renovated it two years later. The bridge closed to traffic in 1984 and is now part of a local park with a picnic area. It is one of only five historic covered bridges in Illinois and is the oldest of the remaining bridges.The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 9, 1978.
See also
List of covered bridges in Illinois
== References ==
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instance of
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Sugar Creek Covered Bridge is a covered bridge which crosses Sugar Creek southeast of Chatham, Illinois. The Burr truss bridge is 110 feet (34 m) long and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide. The bridge was constructed by Thomas Black; sources disagree on the date of construction, placing it at either 1827 or 1880. The State of Illinois acquired the bridge in 1963 and extensively renovated it two years later. The bridge closed to traffic in 1984 and is now part of a local park with a picnic area. It is one of only five historic covered bridges in Illinois and is the oldest of the remaining bridges.The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 9, 1978.
See also
List of covered bridges in Illinois
== References ==
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crosses
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Sugar Creek Covered Bridge is a covered bridge which crosses Sugar Creek southeast of Chatham, Illinois. The Burr truss bridge is 110 feet (34 m) long and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide. The bridge was constructed by Thomas Black; sources disagree on the date of construction, placing it at either 1827 or 1880. The State of Illinois acquired the bridge in 1963 and extensively renovated it two years later. The bridge closed to traffic in 1984 and is now part of a local park with a picnic area. It is one of only five historic covered bridges in Illinois and is the oldest of the remaining bridges.The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 9, 1978.
See also
List of covered bridges in Illinois
== References ==
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Commons category
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The People's Committee to Protect Ukraine (Ukrainian: Народний комітет захисту України) was a political movement in Ukraine formed May 2010. The committee intended to hold a mass protest campaign in Ukraine against the policies of President Viktor Yanukovych, who ultimately fled amid violence in 2014.
History
On May 10, 2010 nine political parties and several non-governmental organizations signed a document on the creation of the committee:
Ukrainian Social-Democratic Party
European Party of Ukraine
All-Ukrainian Union "Fatherland"
People's Movement of Ukraine (Rukh)
Motherland Defenders Party
Reforms and Order Party
People's Self-Defence Party
All-Ukrainian Union "Freedom"
Ukrainian PartyThe parties Ukrainian Republican Party Assembly, Our Ukraine, Ukrainian Platform, Ukraine Cathedral and All-Ukrainian Public Organization Civil Position intended to make a decision about joining the committee.
One of the initiators of the committee is writer Dmytro Pavlychko. Present at the opening signing of the committee were among others: Yulia Tymoshenko, Borys Tarasyuk and Levko Lukyanenko. Although they were invited, and also in opposition to President Viktor Yanukovych, former President Viktor Yushchenko and former presidential candidate Arseniy Yatsenyuk were not present and did not publicly comment about the committee.After the first rally of the movement (near the Verkhovna Rada building on May 11, 2010) opposition supporters complained of being hassled by the police in an attempt to limit the number of participants in the rally. According to the police buses were only stopped because companies didn't have permits to travel in convoys or if buses were in bad technical shape. Ukrainian Minister of Internal Affairs Anatolii Mohyliov stated on May 13, 2010 “The law allows rallies but bans street barricades and loud shouts”.Mykola Tomenko, member of Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc, predicted on May 11, 2010 opposition rallies would get bigger and louder in the near future.On 8 August 2011 All-Ukrainian Union "Fatherland", Rukh, European Party of Ukraine, People's Self-Defense, Reforms and Order Party, Motherland Defenders Party, Civil Position and Front for Change formed the Dictatorship Resistance Committee "to better coordinate our efforts".
Goals
The organisation saw as its main tasks:
Protection of the territorial integrity of the state
Protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens
The cessation of "anti-Ukrainian humanitarian policies"
Rejection of any attempts to establish foreign monitoring over strategic enterprises and sectors of Ukrainian industry
Preservation of the Euro-Atlantic choice of Ukraine
Move forward towards civilized European values
Declaration of the People's Committee to Protect Ukraine
On the May 10, 2010 the committee released the following opening statement:
On the May 10, 2010, we, representatives of political
parties and civil organizations have created People's Committee to Protect Ukraine.
Taking into account the danger of losing the statehood and democratic freedoms by Ukrainian population in results of actions of Yanukovych's regime we announce the consolidation of all forces to coordinate the actions in order to protect Ukraine.
In the conditions of widely spread attacks of the Yanukovych's regime onto the
live-important national interest of Ukraine the first task of the Committee is to
organize all-Ukrainian opposition movement to:
protect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine;
protect the main freedoms and political rights;
stop anti-Ukrainian policy in Ukraine and protect Ukrainian identity;
stop any efforts to impose the foreign control over strategically important factories and sections of Ukrainian industry;
hold the Euro-Atlantic choice of Ukraine and keep orientation onto European values.Our actions will be carried out in accordance with the rights and freedoms defined by
the Constitution of Ukraine, will be open for equal rights partnership to protect Ukraine.
Authorities' response
In early May 2010, Prime Minister Mykola Azarov called the ideas of the committee "hysterical and hopeless". Meanwhile, one of the members of Party of Regions Valeriy Konovalyuk stated that "the committee is unlikely to receive support from the population".
See also
Politics of Ukraine
History of Ukraine
Ukraine without Kuchma
References
External links
Official site (in Ukrainian)
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country
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DYPJ (100.1 FM) Jagna Community Radio is a radio station owned and operated by the Government of Jagna through its Community Radio Council. The station's studio and transmitter are located in Brgy. Poblacion, Jagna, Bohol.
== References ==
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instance of
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
|
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
|
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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given name
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
|
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
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name in native language
|
{
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"text": [
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László Fejes Tóth (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László, pronounced [ˈfɛjɛʃ ˈtoːt ˈlaːsloː] 12 March 1915 – 17 March 2005) was a Hungarian mathematician who specialized in geometry. He proved that a lattice pattern is the most efficient way to pack centrally symmetric convex sets on the Euclidean plane (a generalization of Thue's theorem, a 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture). He also investigated the sphere packing problem. He was the first to show, in 1953, that proof of the Kepler conjecture can be reduced to a finite case analysis and, later, that the problem might be solved using a computer.
He was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1962) and a director of the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics (1970-1983). He received both the Kossuth Prize (1957) and State Award (1973).Together with H.S.M. Coxeter and Paul Erdős, he laid the foundations of discrete geometry.
Early life and career
As described in a 1999 interview with István Hargittai, Fejes Tóth's father was a railway worker, who advanced in his career within the railway organization ultimately to earn a doctorate in law. Fejes Tóth's mother taught Hungarian and German literature in a high school. The family moved to Budapest, when Fejes Tóth was five; there he attended elementary school and high school—the Széchenyi István Reálgimnázium—where his interest in mathematics began.Fejes Tóth attended Pázmány Péter University, now the Eötvös Loránd University. As a freshman, he developed a generalized solution regarding Cauchy exponential series, which he published in the proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences—1935. He then received his doctorate at Pázmány Péter University, under the direction of Lipót Fejér.After university, he served as a soldier for two years, but received a medical exemption. In 1941 he joined the University of Kolozsvár (Cluj). It was here that he became interested in packing problems. In 1944, he returned to Budapest to teach mathematics at Árpád High School. Between 1946 and 1949 he lectured at Pázmány Péter University and starting in 1949 became a professor at the University of Veszprém (now University of Pannonia) for 15 years, where he was the primary developer of the "geometric patterns" theory "of the plane, the sphere and the surface space" and where he "had studied non grid-like structures and quasicrystals" which later became an independent discipline, as reported by János Pach.The editors of a book dedicated to Fejes Tóth described some highlights of his early work; e.g. having shown that the maximum density of a packing of repeated symmetric convex bodies occurs with a lattice pattern of packing. He also showed that, of all convex polytopes of given surface area that are equivalent to a given Platonic solid (e.g. a tetrahedron or an octahedron), a regular polytope always has the largest possible volume. He developed a technique that proved Steiner's conjecture for the cube and for the dodecahedron. By 1953, Fejes Tóth had written dozens of papers devoted to these types of fundamental issues. His distinguished academic career allowed him to travel abroad beyond the Iron Curtain to attend international conferences and teach at various universities, including those at Freiburg; Madison, Wisconsin; Ohio; and Salzburg.
Fejes Tóth met his wife in university. She was a chemist. They were parents of three children, two sons—one a professor of mathematics at the Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, the other a professor of physiology at Dartmouth College—and one daughter, a psychologist. He enjoyed sports, being skilled at table tennis, tennis, and gymnastics. A family photograph shows him swinging by his arms over the top of a high bar when he was around fifty.Fejes Tóth held the following positions over his career:
Assistant instructor, University of Kolozsvár (Cluj) (1941–44)
Teacher, Árpád High School (1944–48)
Private Lecturer, Pázmány Péter University (1946–48)
Professor, University of Veszprém (1949–64)
Researcher, then director (in 1970), Mathematical Research Institute (Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics) (1965–83)In addition to his positions in residence, he was a corresponding member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, and of the Braunschweigische Wissenschaftlische Gesellschaft.
Work on regular figures
According to J. A. Todd, a reviewer of Fejes Tóth's book Regular Figures, Fejes Tóth divided the topic into two sections. One, entitled "Systematology of the Regular Figures", develops a theory of "regular and Archimedean polyhedra and of regular polytopes". Todd explains that the treatment includes:
Plane Ornaments, including two-dimensional crystallographic groups
Spherical arrangements, including an enumeration of the 32 crystal classes
Hyperbolic tessellations, those discrete groups generated by two operations whose product is involutary
Polyhedra, including regular solids and convex Archimedean solids
Regular polytopes
The other section, entitled "Genetics of the Regular Figures", covers a number of special problems, according to Todd. These problems include "packings and coverings of circles in a plane, and ... with tessellations on a sphere" and also problems "in the hyperbolic plane, and in Euclidean space of three or more dimensions." At the time, Todd opined that those problems were "a subject in which there is still much scope for research, and one which calls for considerable ingenuity in approaching its problems".
Honors and recognition
Imre Bárány credited Fejes Tóth with several influential proofs in the field of discrete and convex geometry, pertaining to packings and coverings by circles, to convex sets in a plane and to packings and coverings in higher dimensions, including the first correct proof of Thue's theorem. He credits Fejes Tóth, along with Paul Erdős, as having helped to "create the school of Hungarian discrete geometry."Fejes Tóth's monograph, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, which was translated into Russian and Japanese, won him the Kossuth Prize in 1957 and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences membership in 1962.William Edge, another reviewer of Regular Figures, cites Fejes Tóth's earlier work, Lagerungen in der Ebene, auf der Kugel und im Raum, as the foundation of his second chapter in Regular Figures. He emphasized that, at the time of this work, the problem of the upper bound for the density of a packing of equal spheres was still unsolved.
The approach that Fejes Tóth suggested in that work, which translates as "packing [of objects] in a plane, on a sphere and in a space", provided Thomas Hales a basis for a proof of the Kepler conjecture in 1998. The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. Hales used a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases, using complex computer calculations.Fejes Tóth received the following prizes:
Klug Lipót Prize (1943)
Kossuth Prize (1957)
State Prize (now the Széchenyi Prize) (1973)
Tibor Szele Prize (1977)
Gauss Bicentennial Medal (1977)
Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2002)He received honorary degrees from the University of Salzburg (1991) and the University of Veszprém (1997).
In 2008, a conference was convened in Fejes Tóth's memory in Budapest from June 30 – July 6; it celebrated the term, "Intuitive Geometry", coined by Fejes Tóth to refer to the kind of geometry, which is accessible to the "man in the street". According to the conference organizers, the term encompasses combinatorial geometry, the theory of packing, covering and tiling, convexity, computational geometry, rigidity theory, the geometry of numbers, crystallography and classical differential geometry.
The University of Pannonia administers the László Fejes Tóth Prize (Hungarian: Fejes Tóth László-díj) to recognize "outstanding contributions and development in the field of mathematical sciences". In 2015, the year of Fejes Tóth's centennial birth anniversary, the prize was awarded to Károly Bezdek of the University of Calgary in a ceremony held on 19 June 2015 in Veszprém, Hungary.
Partial bibliography
References
External links
László Fejes Tóth at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Hungarian Science: Hargittai István beszélgetése Fejes Tóth Lászlóval, Magyar Tudomány, March, 2005.
János Pach: Ötvenévesen a nyújtón, F. T. L. emlékezete, Népszabadság, April 9, 2005.
János Pach: A geometriai elrendezések diszkrét bája ("The Discrete Charm of Geometric Arrangements"), a memorial article in KöMaL (High School Mathematics and Physics Journal)
|
Erdős number
|
{
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84
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"1"
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Subterranean London refers to a number of subterranean structures that lie beneath London. The city has been occupied by humans for two millennia. Over time, the capital has acquired a vast number of these structures and spaces, often as a result of war and conflict.
Water and waste
The River Thames runs west–east through the centre of London. Many tributaries flow into it. Over time these changed from water sources to untreated sewers and disease sources. As the city developed from a cluster of villages, many of the Thames tributaries were buried or converted into canals.
The rivers failed to carry all the sewage of the growing metropolis. The resulting health crisis led to the creation of the London sewerage system (designed by Joseph Bazalgette) in the late nineteenth century. It was one of the world's first modern sewer systems and is still in use today, having been designed to account for the city's continued growth.
The Thames Water Ring Main is a notable large-scale water supply infrastructure, comprising 80 kilometres of wide-bore water-carrying tunnels.
The Thames Tideway Tunnel, due for completion in 2025, will be a deep tunnel 25 km (16 mi) long, running mostly under the tidal section of the River Thames through central London to capture, store and convey almost all the raw sewage and rainwater that currently overflows into the river.
Transport
The London Underground was the world's first underground railway and one of its most extensive. Its construction began in 1860 with the 3.7-mile (6.0 km) Metropolitan Railway from Farringdon to Paddington. It opened in 1863, after much disruption from the use of "cut-and-cover" techniques that involved digging large trenches along the course of existing roads, and then constructing a roof over the excavation to reinstate the road surface.Tube railways, which caused less disruption because they were constructed by boring a tunnel, arrived in 1890, with the opening of the City and South London Railway, a 3.5-mile (5.6 km) line from Stockwell to King William Street. It was planned as a cable-hauled railway, but the advent of electric traction resulted in a simpler solution, and the change was made before the cable system was built. It became the world's first electric tube railway. Although the system includes 249 miles (401 km) of track, only about 45 percent is actually below ground.Kingsway has an almost intact underground passageway for trams, which is occasionally open to the public.
Tunnels underneath the River Thames range from foot-tunnels to road tunnels and the tunnels of the Underground. The first of these, the Thames Tunnel, designed by Marc Brunel, was the first tunnel known to cross under a navigable river. It ran for 1,200 yards (1,100 m) from Rotherhithe to Wapping, and opened in 1843. It was used as a pedestrian subway, as the company did not have enough money or finance to build the intended access ramps for horse-drawn traffic. These tunnels were later used by the East London branch of the Metropolitan Railway from Shoreditch to New Cross. It was refurbished in 2011 and became part of the London Overground network.Several railway stations have cavernous vaults and tunnels running beneath them, often disused, or reopened with a new purpose. Examples include The Old Vic Tunnels, beneath London Waterloo station, and the vaults beneath London Bridge station, formerly utilised by the theatre company Shunt.
Defence
Many underground military citadels were built under London. Few are acknowledged, and even fewer are open to the public. One exception is the famous Cabinet War Rooms, used by Winston Churchill during the Second World War.
During the war, parts of the Underground were converted into air-raid shelters known as deep-level shelters. Some were converted for military and civil defence use, such as the now-disused Kingsway telephone exchange.
Other civil defence centres in London are wholly or partly underground, mostly remnants from the Cold War. Many other subterranean facilities exist around the centre of government in Whitehall, often linked by tunnels.In December 1980, the New Statesman revealed the existence of secret tunnels linking government buildings, which they claimed would be used in the event of a national emergency. It is believed these tunnels also link to Buckingham Palace. Author Duncan Campbell discussed these facilities in more detail, in the book War Plan UK: The Truth about Civil Defence in Britain (1982). Peter Laurie wrote a book about these facilities, titled Beneath the City Streets: A Private Inquiry into the Nuclear Preoccupations of Government (1970).
Utilities
London, like most other major cities, established an extensive underground infrastructure for electricity distribution, natural gas supply, water supply and telecommunications.
Starting in 1861, Victorian engineers built miles of purpose-built subways large enough to walk through, and through which they could run gas, electricity, water and hydraulic power pipes. These works removed the inconvenience of having to repeatedly excavate highways to allow access to underground utilities.
Abandoned structures
Some underground structures are no longer in use. These include:
The London Hydraulic Power Company, set up in 1883, installed a hydraulic power network of high-pressure cast-iron water mains. These were bought by Mercury Communications for use as telecommunications ducts.
Sections of the London Pneumatic Despatch Company tunnels linking the General Post Office and Euston Railway station.
An extensive private underground railway, the London Post Office Railway, was constructed by the Post Office, fell into disuse and has now become a tourist attraction.
Closed London Underground stations are generally not accessible to the public except on London Transport Museum guided tours.
See also
General topics:
List of former and unopened London Underground stations
Military citadels under London
London deep-level shelters
Tunnels underneath the River Thames
London sewerage system
Catacombs of London
Subterranean rivers of London
Neverwhere, a story set in a fantasy underground LondonIndividual sites of interest:
Kingsway tramway subway
Criterion Theatre
Tower Subway
King William Street tube station
Holborn Viaduct Low Level Station
Oxgate Admiralty Citadel
Bishopsgate railway station
Northern Outfall Sewer
Southern Outfall Sewer
Great Conduit
London Post Office Railway
References
Bibliography
Emmerson, A. and Beard, T. (2004) London's Secret Tubes, Capital Transport Publishing, ISBN 1-85414-283-6.
Trench, R. and Hillman, E. (1993) London Under London: A subterranean guide, second revised edition, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-5288-5.
Campbell, Duncan (1983) War Plan UK. Granada, UK. ISBN 0-586-08479-7 & ISBN 978-0-586-08479-3.
Ackroyd, Peter (2011) London Under. Vintage Books, 202pp. ISBN 9780099287377
External links
Subterranea Britannica
Disused stations on the London underground
Subterranea Britannica research group book list
http://www.mailrail.co.uk Unofficial MailRail website
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title
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Endra Mulyana Mulyajaya (born 11 April) is an Indonesian former badminton player, who now works as a badminton coach. Trained at the Tangkas club, he clinched the boys' doubles titles at the Dutch and German partnered with Hadi Saputra in 1996, and also settled a bronze medal at the World Junior Championships in Silkeborg, Denmark. In 1998, he won the mixed doubles title at the Jakarta International tournament partnered with Angeline de Pauw. Together with Saputra, he finished as a semi finalists at the World Grand Prix tournament 1999 Thailand Open. In 2000, Mulyajaya teammed-up with Nova Widianto, the duo competed in the Grand Prix event and became a quarter finalists at the Indonesia, Malaysia and Dutch Open.Mulyajaya started his career as a coach in Tangkas club for three years, and later join the Badminton Association of Indonesia for five years. In 2018, he moved as a coach in Turkey.
Achievements
World Junior Championships
Boys' doubles
IBF International
Men's doubles
Mixed doubles
References
Bibliography
Wondomisnowo, Broto Happy (2011). Baktiku Bagi Indonesia: 60 Tahun Tiada Henti Mencetak Juara Dunia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Gramedia. p. 499. ISBN 978-979-227-740-1.
External links
Endra Mulyajaya at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
country of citizenship
|
{
"answer_start": [
46
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"Indonesia"
]
}
|
Endra Mulyana Mulyajaya (born 11 April) is an Indonesian former badminton player, who now works as a badminton coach. Trained at the Tangkas club, he clinched the boys' doubles titles at the Dutch and German partnered with Hadi Saputra in 1996, and also settled a bronze medal at the World Junior Championships in Silkeborg, Denmark. In 1998, he won the mixed doubles title at the Jakarta International tournament partnered with Angeline de Pauw. Together with Saputra, he finished as a semi finalists at the World Grand Prix tournament 1999 Thailand Open. In 2000, Mulyajaya teammed-up with Nova Widianto, the duo competed in the Grand Prix event and became a quarter finalists at the Indonesia, Malaysia and Dutch Open.Mulyajaya started his career as a coach in Tangkas club for three years, and later join the Badminton Association of Indonesia for five years. In 2018, he moved as a coach in Turkey.
Achievements
World Junior Championships
Boys' doubles
IBF International
Men's doubles
Mixed doubles
References
Bibliography
Wondomisnowo, Broto Happy (2011). Baktiku Bagi Indonesia: 60 Tahun Tiada Henti Mencetak Juara Dunia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Gramedia. p. 499. ISBN 978-979-227-740-1.
External links
Endra Mulyajaya at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
64
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"text": [
"badminton player"
]
}
|
Endra Mulyana Mulyajaya (born 11 April) is an Indonesian former badminton player, who now works as a badminton coach. Trained at the Tangkas club, he clinched the boys' doubles titles at the Dutch and German partnered with Hadi Saputra in 1996, and also settled a bronze medal at the World Junior Championships in Silkeborg, Denmark. In 1998, he won the mixed doubles title at the Jakarta International tournament partnered with Angeline de Pauw. Together with Saputra, he finished as a semi finalists at the World Grand Prix tournament 1999 Thailand Open. In 2000, Mulyajaya teammed-up with Nova Widianto, the duo competed in the Grand Prix event and became a quarter finalists at the Indonesia, Malaysia and Dutch Open.Mulyajaya started his career as a coach in Tangkas club for three years, and later join the Badminton Association of Indonesia for five years. In 2018, he moved as a coach in Turkey.
Achievements
World Junior Championships
Boys' doubles
IBF International
Men's doubles
Mixed doubles
References
Bibliography
Wondomisnowo, Broto Happy (2011). Baktiku Bagi Indonesia: 60 Tahun Tiada Henti Mencetak Juara Dunia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Gramedia. p. 499. ISBN 978-979-227-740-1.
External links
Endra Mulyajaya at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
sport
|
{
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64
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"badminton"
]
}
|
Endra Mulyana Mulyajaya (born 11 April) is an Indonesian former badminton player, who now works as a badminton coach. Trained at the Tangkas club, he clinched the boys' doubles titles at the Dutch and German partnered with Hadi Saputra in 1996, and also settled a bronze medal at the World Junior Championships in Silkeborg, Denmark. In 1998, he won the mixed doubles title at the Jakarta International tournament partnered with Angeline de Pauw. Together with Saputra, he finished as a semi finalists at the World Grand Prix tournament 1999 Thailand Open. In 2000, Mulyajaya teammed-up with Nova Widianto, the duo competed in the Grand Prix event and became a quarter finalists at the Indonesia, Malaysia and Dutch Open.Mulyajaya started his career as a coach in Tangkas club for three years, and later join the Badminton Association of Indonesia for five years. In 2018, he moved as a coach in Turkey.
Achievements
World Junior Championships
Boys' doubles
IBF International
Men's doubles
Mixed doubles
References
Bibliography
Wondomisnowo, Broto Happy (2011). Baktiku Bagi Indonesia: 60 Tahun Tiada Henti Mencetak Juara Dunia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Gramedia. p. 499. ISBN 978-979-227-740-1.
External links
Endra Mulyajaya at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
languages spoken, written or signed
|
{
"answer_start": [
46
],
"text": [
"Indonesian"
]
}
|
Endra Mulyana Mulyajaya (born 11 April) is an Indonesian former badminton player, who now works as a badminton coach. Trained at the Tangkas club, he clinched the boys' doubles titles at the Dutch and German partnered with Hadi Saputra in 1996, and also settled a bronze medal at the World Junior Championships in Silkeborg, Denmark. In 1998, he won the mixed doubles title at the Jakarta International tournament partnered with Angeline de Pauw. Together with Saputra, he finished as a semi finalists at the World Grand Prix tournament 1999 Thailand Open. In 2000, Mulyajaya teammed-up with Nova Widianto, the duo competed in the Grand Prix event and became a quarter finalists at the Indonesia, Malaysia and Dutch Open.Mulyajaya started his career as a coach in Tangkas club for three years, and later join the Badminton Association of Indonesia for five years. In 2018, he moved as a coach in Turkey.
Achievements
World Junior Championships
Boys' doubles
IBF International
Men's doubles
Mixed doubles
References
Bibliography
Wondomisnowo, Broto Happy (2011). Baktiku Bagi Indonesia: 60 Tahun Tiada Henti Mencetak Juara Dunia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Gramedia. p. 499. ISBN 978-979-227-740-1.
External links
Endra Mulyajaya at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
country for sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
46
],
"text": [
"Indonesia"
]
}
|
Endra Mulyana Mulyajaya (born 11 April) is an Indonesian former badminton player, who now works as a badminton coach. Trained at the Tangkas club, he clinched the boys' doubles titles at the Dutch and German partnered with Hadi Saputra in 1996, and also settled a bronze medal at the World Junior Championships in Silkeborg, Denmark. In 1998, he won the mixed doubles title at the Jakarta International tournament partnered with Angeline de Pauw. Together with Saputra, he finished as a semi finalists at the World Grand Prix tournament 1999 Thailand Open. In 2000, Mulyajaya teammed-up with Nova Widianto, the duo competed in the Grand Prix event and became a quarter finalists at the Indonesia, Malaysia and Dutch Open.Mulyajaya started his career as a coach in Tangkas club for three years, and later join the Badminton Association of Indonesia for five years. In 2018, he moved as a coach in Turkey.
Achievements
World Junior Championships
Boys' doubles
IBF International
Men's doubles
Mixed doubles
References
Bibliography
Wondomisnowo, Broto Happy (2011). Baktiku Bagi Indonesia: 60 Tahun Tiada Henti Mencetak Juara Dunia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Gramedia. p. 499. ISBN 978-979-227-740-1.
External links
Endra Mulyajaya at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
name in native language
|
{
"answer_start": [
1216
],
"text": [
"Endra Mulyajaya"
]
}
|
Anschau is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz in Rhineland-Palatinate, western Germany.
== References ==
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
92
],
"text": [
"Germany"
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}
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Anschau is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz in Rhineland-Palatinate, western Germany.
== References ==
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
"answer_start": [
45
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"text": [
"Mayen-Koblenz"
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}
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Anschau is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz in Rhineland-Palatinate, western Germany.
== References ==
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Anschau"
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}
|
San Hilarion District is one of ten districts of the province Picota in Peru.
== References ==
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
72
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"text": [
"Peru"
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}
|
Kannadi Pookal (transl. Glass Flowers) is a 2005 Indian Tamil-language film released on 18 February 2005. It was directed by K. Shahjahan, who previously directed Punnagai Desam. The film was a remake of Malayalam film Ente Veedu Appuvinteyum, which in turn was inspired by a real-life incident in Kerala. The film received positive reviews from critics.
Plot
Meera marries her neighbour Sakthivel, after Sakthi's wife dies giving birth to Vasudevan. Meera decides not to have children and raises vasu as her own son, and the trio leads a very happy life. But, Meera's widowed father Big bird is unhappy as his lineage will die out and his wealth will get depleted, with Meera caring for someone else's child. When vasu reaches the age of 9, Meera accidentally becomes pregnant. This changes the focus of the entire family to the unborn child, deeply hurting vasu. He is often belittled for his attention-seeking actions, and ignored more when the baby boy is born. Within weeks, Vasu is pushed to the limits, and he kills the baby using bug spray. Due to a complaint filed by Sakthi, Vasu is arrested and put in a government-run juvenile prison. His family is devastated, but they forgive him wholeheartedly.
Slowly, Vasu regrets his actions, spirals into depression and his health worsens. The family doctor advises Sakthi that the only way to save Vasu from depression is for them to have another baby, and make Vasu raise that baby. That way, he will get over the guilt of his mistake. The couple agrees. Slowly, he begins to get along well with other children and wants to move back to his family. Eventually, Meera is pregnant, but the doctor tells Sakthi not tell Vasu until his release day. On the day he's released, Vasu meets his former schoolmates at an interschool event and realises that society will always see him as a murderer. Vasu refuses to return home after the competition. But the family manages to console him, and Vasu returns home to his waiting family. He sees his baby brother in the crib, is overjoyed and picks him up. Everything ends well with the family altogether.
Cast
Parthiban as Sakthivel.
Kaveri as Meera.
Master Ashwin as Vasudevan
Rajkapoor as Policeman.
M. N. Nambiar as Court Judge.
Fathima Babu as Meera's Mother.
Pyramid Natrajan as Meera's Father
Sarath Babu as child psychiatrist
Ponnambalam as jail warden
Anandaraj as Sakthivel's Friend
Nizhalgal Ravi as Vasudevan's Lawyer
Thalaivasal Vijay as Opposite Lawyer of Vasudevan
Mayilsamy as Jail Child Caretaker
Paravai Muniyamma as Dancer and Singer in Dey Vasu Song.
Soundtrack
The music was composed by S. A. Rajkumar.
References
External links
Kannadi Pookal at IMDb
|
instance of
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{
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71
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|
Kannadi Pookal (transl. Glass Flowers) is a 2005 Indian Tamil-language film released on 18 February 2005. It was directed by K. Shahjahan, who previously directed Punnagai Desam. The film was a remake of Malayalam film Ente Veedu Appuvinteyum, which in turn was inspired by a real-life incident in Kerala. The film received positive reviews from critics.
Plot
Meera marries her neighbour Sakthivel, after Sakthi's wife dies giving birth to Vasudevan. Meera decides not to have children and raises vasu as her own son, and the trio leads a very happy life. But, Meera's widowed father Big bird is unhappy as his lineage will die out and his wealth will get depleted, with Meera caring for someone else's child. When vasu reaches the age of 9, Meera accidentally becomes pregnant. This changes the focus of the entire family to the unborn child, deeply hurting vasu. He is often belittled for his attention-seeking actions, and ignored more when the baby boy is born. Within weeks, Vasu is pushed to the limits, and he kills the baby using bug spray. Due to a complaint filed by Sakthi, Vasu is arrested and put in a government-run juvenile prison. His family is devastated, but they forgive him wholeheartedly.
Slowly, Vasu regrets his actions, spirals into depression and his health worsens. The family doctor advises Sakthi that the only way to save Vasu from depression is for them to have another baby, and make Vasu raise that baby. That way, he will get over the guilt of his mistake. The couple agrees. Slowly, he begins to get along well with other children and wants to move back to his family. Eventually, Meera is pregnant, but the doctor tells Sakthi not tell Vasu until his release day. On the day he's released, Vasu meets his former schoolmates at an interschool event and realises that society will always see him as a murderer. Vasu refuses to return home after the competition. But the family manages to console him, and Vasu returns home to his waiting family. He sees his baby brother in the crib, is overjoyed and picks him up. Everything ends well with the family altogether.
Cast
Parthiban as Sakthivel.
Kaveri as Meera.
Master Ashwin as Vasudevan
Rajkapoor as Policeman.
M. N. Nambiar as Court Judge.
Fathima Babu as Meera's Mother.
Pyramid Natrajan as Meera's Father
Sarath Babu as child psychiatrist
Ponnambalam as jail warden
Anandaraj as Sakthivel's Friend
Nizhalgal Ravi as Vasudevan's Lawyer
Thalaivasal Vijay as Opposite Lawyer of Vasudevan
Mayilsamy as Jail Child Caretaker
Paravai Muniyamma as Dancer and Singer in Dey Vasu Song.
Soundtrack
The music was composed by S. A. Rajkumar.
References
External links
Kannadi Pookal at IMDb
|
composer
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{
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2602
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Kannadi Pookal (transl. Glass Flowers) is a 2005 Indian Tamil-language film released on 18 February 2005. It was directed by K. Shahjahan, who previously directed Punnagai Desam. The film was a remake of Malayalam film Ente Veedu Appuvinteyum, which in turn was inspired by a real-life incident in Kerala. The film received positive reviews from critics.
Plot
Meera marries her neighbour Sakthivel, after Sakthi's wife dies giving birth to Vasudevan. Meera decides not to have children and raises vasu as her own son, and the trio leads a very happy life. But, Meera's widowed father Big bird is unhappy as his lineage will die out and his wealth will get depleted, with Meera caring for someone else's child. When vasu reaches the age of 9, Meera accidentally becomes pregnant. This changes the focus of the entire family to the unborn child, deeply hurting vasu. He is often belittled for his attention-seeking actions, and ignored more when the baby boy is born. Within weeks, Vasu is pushed to the limits, and he kills the baby using bug spray. Due to a complaint filed by Sakthi, Vasu is arrested and put in a government-run juvenile prison. His family is devastated, but they forgive him wholeheartedly.
Slowly, Vasu regrets his actions, spirals into depression and his health worsens. The family doctor advises Sakthi that the only way to save Vasu from depression is for them to have another baby, and make Vasu raise that baby. That way, he will get over the guilt of his mistake. The couple agrees. Slowly, he begins to get along well with other children and wants to move back to his family. Eventually, Meera is pregnant, but the doctor tells Sakthi not tell Vasu until his release day. On the day he's released, Vasu meets his former schoolmates at an interschool event and realises that society will always see him as a murderer. Vasu refuses to return home after the competition. But the family manages to console him, and Vasu returns home to his waiting family. He sees his baby brother in the crib, is overjoyed and picks him up. Everything ends well with the family altogether.
Cast
Parthiban as Sakthivel.
Kaveri as Meera.
Master Ashwin as Vasudevan
Rajkapoor as Policeman.
M. N. Nambiar as Court Judge.
Fathima Babu as Meera's Mother.
Pyramid Natrajan as Meera's Father
Sarath Babu as child psychiatrist
Ponnambalam as jail warden
Anandaraj as Sakthivel's Friend
Nizhalgal Ravi as Vasudevan's Lawyer
Thalaivasal Vijay as Opposite Lawyer of Vasudevan
Mayilsamy as Jail Child Caretaker
Paravai Muniyamma as Dancer and Singer in Dey Vasu Song.
Soundtrack
The music was composed by S. A. Rajkumar.
References
External links
Kannadi Pookal at IMDb
|
performer
|
{
"answer_start": [
2602
],
"text": [
"S. A. Rajkumar"
]
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|
Kannadi Pookal (transl. Glass Flowers) is a 2005 Indian Tamil-language film released on 18 February 2005. It was directed by K. Shahjahan, who previously directed Punnagai Desam. The film was a remake of Malayalam film Ente Veedu Appuvinteyum, which in turn was inspired by a real-life incident in Kerala. The film received positive reviews from critics.
Plot
Meera marries her neighbour Sakthivel, after Sakthi's wife dies giving birth to Vasudevan. Meera decides not to have children and raises vasu as her own son, and the trio leads a very happy life. But, Meera's widowed father Big bird is unhappy as his lineage will die out and his wealth will get depleted, with Meera caring for someone else's child. When vasu reaches the age of 9, Meera accidentally becomes pregnant. This changes the focus of the entire family to the unborn child, deeply hurting vasu. He is often belittled for his attention-seeking actions, and ignored more when the baby boy is born. Within weeks, Vasu is pushed to the limits, and he kills the baby using bug spray. Due to a complaint filed by Sakthi, Vasu is arrested and put in a government-run juvenile prison. His family is devastated, but they forgive him wholeheartedly.
Slowly, Vasu regrets his actions, spirals into depression and his health worsens. The family doctor advises Sakthi that the only way to save Vasu from depression is for them to have another baby, and make Vasu raise that baby. That way, he will get over the guilt of his mistake. The couple agrees. Slowly, he begins to get along well with other children and wants to move back to his family. Eventually, Meera is pregnant, but the doctor tells Sakthi not tell Vasu until his release day. On the day he's released, Vasu meets his former schoolmates at an interschool event and realises that society will always see him as a murderer. Vasu refuses to return home after the competition. But the family manages to console him, and Vasu returns home to his waiting family. He sees his baby brother in the crib, is overjoyed and picks him up. Everything ends well with the family altogether.
Cast
Parthiban as Sakthivel.
Kaveri as Meera.
Master Ashwin as Vasudevan
Rajkapoor as Policeman.
M. N. Nambiar as Court Judge.
Fathima Babu as Meera's Mother.
Pyramid Natrajan as Meera's Father
Sarath Babu as child psychiatrist
Ponnambalam as jail warden
Anandaraj as Sakthivel's Friend
Nizhalgal Ravi as Vasudevan's Lawyer
Thalaivasal Vijay as Opposite Lawyer of Vasudevan
Mayilsamy as Jail Child Caretaker
Paravai Muniyamma as Dancer and Singer in Dey Vasu Song.
Soundtrack
The music was composed by S. A. Rajkumar.
References
External links
Kannadi Pookal at IMDb
|
original language of film or TV show
|
{
"answer_start": [
56
],
"text": [
"Tamil"
]
}
|
Kannadi Pookal (transl. Glass Flowers) is a 2005 Indian Tamil-language film released on 18 February 2005. It was directed by K. Shahjahan, who previously directed Punnagai Desam. The film was a remake of Malayalam film Ente Veedu Appuvinteyum, which in turn was inspired by a real-life incident in Kerala. The film received positive reviews from critics.
Plot
Meera marries her neighbour Sakthivel, after Sakthi's wife dies giving birth to Vasudevan. Meera decides not to have children and raises vasu as her own son, and the trio leads a very happy life. But, Meera's widowed father Big bird is unhappy as his lineage will die out and his wealth will get depleted, with Meera caring for someone else's child. When vasu reaches the age of 9, Meera accidentally becomes pregnant. This changes the focus of the entire family to the unborn child, deeply hurting vasu. He is often belittled for his attention-seeking actions, and ignored more when the baby boy is born. Within weeks, Vasu is pushed to the limits, and he kills the baby using bug spray. Due to a complaint filed by Sakthi, Vasu is arrested and put in a government-run juvenile prison. His family is devastated, but they forgive him wholeheartedly.
Slowly, Vasu regrets his actions, spirals into depression and his health worsens. The family doctor advises Sakthi that the only way to save Vasu from depression is for them to have another baby, and make Vasu raise that baby. That way, he will get over the guilt of his mistake. The couple agrees. Slowly, he begins to get along well with other children and wants to move back to his family. Eventually, Meera is pregnant, but the doctor tells Sakthi not tell Vasu until his release day. On the day he's released, Vasu meets his former schoolmates at an interschool event and realises that society will always see him as a murderer. Vasu refuses to return home after the competition. But the family manages to console him, and Vasu returns home to his waiting family. He sees his baby brother in the crib, is overjoyed and picks him up. Everything ends well with the family altogether.
Cast
Parthiban as Sakthivel.
Kaveri as Meera.
Master Ashwin as Vasudevan
Rajkapoor as Policeman.
M. N. Nambiar as Court Judge.
Fathima Babu as Meera's Mother.
Pyramid Natrajan as Meera's Father
Sarath Babu as child psychiatrist
Ponnambalam as jail warden
Anandaraj as Sakthivel's Friend
Nizhalgal Ravi as Vasudevan's Lawyer
Thalaivasal Vijay as Opposite Lawyer of Vasudevan
Mayilsamy as Jail Child Caretaker
Paravai Muniyamma as Dancer and Singer in Dey Vasu Song.
Soundtrack
The music was composed by S. A. Rajkumar.
References
External links
Kannadi Pookal at IMDb
|
country of origin
|
{
"answer_start": [
49
],
"text": [
"India"
]
}
|
Kannadi Pookal (transl. Glass Flowers) is a 2005 Indian Tamil-language film released on 18 February 2005. It was directed by K. Shahjahan, who previously directed Punnagai Desam. The film was a remake of Malayalam film Ente Veedu Appuvinteyum, which in turn was inspired by a real-life incident in Kerala. The film received positive reviews from critics.
Plot
Meera marries her neighbour Sakthivel, after Sakthi's wife dies giving birth to Vasudevan. Meera decides not to have children and raises vasu as her own son, and the trio leads a very happy life. But, Meera's widowed father Big bird is unhappy as his lineage will die out and his wealth will get depleted, with Meera caring for someone else's child. When vasu reaches the age of 9, Meera accidentally becomes pregnant. This changes the focus of the entire family to the unborn child, deeply hurting vasu. He is often belittled for his attention-seeking actions, and ignored more when the baby boy is born. Within weeks, Vasu is pushed to the limits, and he kills the baby using bug spray. Due to a complaint filed by Sakthi, Vasu is arrested and put in a government-run juvenile prison. His family is devastated, but they forgive him wholeheartedly.
Slowly, Vasu regrets his actions, spirals into depression and his health worsens. The family doctor advises Sakthi that the only way to save Vasu from depression is for them to have another baby, and make Vasu raise that baby. That way, he will get over the guilt of his mistake. The couple agrees. Slowly, he begins to get along well with other children and wants to move back to his family. Eventually, Meera is pregnant, but the doctor tells Sakthi not tell Vasu until his release day. On the day he's released, Vasu meets his former schoolmates at an interschool event and realises that society will always see him as a murderer. Vasu refuses to return home after the competition. But the family manages to console him, and Vasu returns home to his waiting family. He sees his baby brother in the crib, is overjoyed and picks him up. Everything ends well with the family altogether.
Cast
Parthiban as Sakthivel.
Kaveri as Meera.
Master Ashwin as Vasudevan
Rajkapoor as Policeman.
M. N. Nambiar as Court Judge.
Fathima Babu as Meera's Mother.
Pyramid Natrajan as Meera's Father
Sarath Babu as child psychiatrist
Ponnambalam as jail warden
Anandaraj as Sakthivel's Friend
Nizhalgal Ravi as Vasudevan's Lawyer
Thalaivasal Vijay as Opposite Lawyer of Vasudevan
Mayilsamy as Jail Child Caretaker
Paravai Muniyamma as Dancer and Singer in Dey Vasu Song.
Soundtrack
The music was composed by S. A. Rajkumar.
References
External links
Kannadi Pookal at IMDb
|
number of seasons
|
{
"answer_start": [
88
],
"text": [
"1"
]
}
|
Max Poole (born 1 March 2003) is a British cyclist, who currently rides for UCI WorldTeam Team DSM.
Major results
References
External links
Max Poole at UCI
Max Poole at Cycling Archives
Max Poole at ProCyclingStats
|
member of sports team
|
{
"answer_start": [
90
],
"text": [
"Team DSM"
]
}
|
Max Poole (born 1 March 2003) is a British cyclist, who currently rides for UCI WorldTeam Team DSM.
Major results
References
External links
Max Poole at UCI
Max Poole at Cycling Archives
Max Poole at ProCyclingStats
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
4
],
"text": [
"Poole"
]
}
|
Max Poole (born 1 March 2003) is a British cyclist, who currently rides for UCI WorldTeam Team DSM.
Major results
References
External links
Max Poole at UCI
Max Poole at Cycling Archives
Max Poole at ProCyclingStats
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Max"
]
}
|
Godneh (Persian: گدنه) is a village in Jowzam Rural District, Dehaj District, Shahr-e Babak County, Kerman Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 33, in 8 families.
== References ==
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
117
],
"text": [
"Iran"
]
}
|
Godneh (Persian: گدنه) is a village in Jowzam Rural District, Dehaj District, Shahr-e Babak County, Kerman Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 33, in 8 families.
== References ==
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
"answer_start": [
62
],
"text": [
"Dehaj District"
]
}
|
The Chapel at the College of St Mark and St John is a Grade II listed building at 459a Fulham Road, Chelsea, London SW10 9UZ.
History
It was built in 1841 by the architect Edward Blore who presented his designs, in various drafts, for approval by Rev. Derwent Coleridge, the first principal,
as the chapel of St. Mark's College, Chelsea, established by the charity renamed the National Society for Promoting Religious Education. The college soon specialised in teaching of education, arts and other areas and later moved to Devon to become the University of St Mark & St John also known as Plymouth Marjon University.
Conversion into two houses
As of 2017, the chapel is being redeveloped to create two houses, and has been renamed 1 and 2 The King's Chapel.
== References ==
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
300
],
"text": [
"chapel"
]
}
|
The Chapel at the College of St Mark and St John is a Grade II listed building at 459a Fulham Road, Chelsea, London SW10 9UZ.
History
It was built in 1841 by the architect Edward Blore who presented his designs, in various drafts, for approval by Rev. Derwent Coleridge, the first principal,
as the chapel of St. Mark's College, Chelsea, established by the charity renamed the National Society for Promoting Religious Education. The college soon specialised in teaching of education, arts and other areas and later moved to Devon to become the University of St Mark & St John also known as Plymouth Marjon University.
Conversion into two houses
As of 2017, the chapel is being redeveloped to create two houses, and has been renamed 1 and 2 The King's Chapel.
== References ==
|
heritage designation
|
{
"answer_start": [
54
],
"text": [
"Grade II listed building"
]
}
|
John Elvet was an English priest in the late 14th and early 15th centuries.Elvet was born in Durham and was in the service of John of Gaunt. The Master of the Jewel Office, he was Archdeacon of Leicester from 1392 to 1404. He was succeeded as Archdeacon by his brother Richard.
References
See also
Diocese of Lincoln
Diocese of Peterborough
Diocese of Leicester
Archdeacon of Leicester
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"John"
]
}
|
Ilex venezuelensis is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is endemic to Venezuela.
== References ==
|
taxon rank
|
{
"answer_start": [
24
],
"text": [
"species"
]
}
|
Ilex venezuelensis is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is endemic to Venezuela.
== References ==
|
parent taxon
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Ilex"
]
}
|
Ilex venezuelensis is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is endemic to Venezuela.
== References ==
|
taxon name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Ilex venezuelensis"
]
}
|
Gräfenstein Castle (German: Burg Gräfenstein) is a ruined rock castle about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of the village of Merzalben in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. It is in the county of Südwestpfalz within the Palatine Forest and is often called Merzalber Schloss ("Merzalben Castle"). It is built on a rock plateau 12 metres (39 ft) high at an elevation of 447 metres (1,467 ft) above sea level.
History
Gräfenstein Castle was built by the Saarbrücken counts, who had lost their fortress and were in need of a new one. Evidence for the exact date of the castle's building does not exist although the earliest record dates to a 1237 deed of partition by the counts of Leiningen. But from the castle's design and materials it can be deduced that it was built sometime between 1150 and 1200. Another clue is in the date of the restoration of the stone fortress, which took place in 1168, and coincides with first construction work on Gräfenstein Castle. The central element of the site, with its bergfried and palas probably dates to the 12th century and thus goes back to the Hohenstaufen era. The upper part of the castle was built on a rock shelf 12 metres high. The building's highlight is the peculiar seven-sided tower.
Possession of Gräfenstein was first given to the younger counts of the von Leiningen family. The House of Leiningen was related to the von Saarbrücken counts. The castle was built primarily for protection. It lies on the intersection of the Diocese of Worms, Speyer and Metz. The boundaries of these places were contiguous with that of Gräfenstein's, so the castle's main function was to maintain a hold on the uncertain borders. So was the protection of the surrounding forests and villages.
In 1317 the castle went into the possession of the collateral Leiningen-Dagsburg line. By 1367 they had to sell 7/8 of the estate to Prince Elector, Rupert I of the Palatinate. Through marriage, Gräfenstein went in 1421 to the Counts of Leiningen-Hardenburg. They had the castle expanded, particularly the lower ward.
The castle was first destroyed in 1525 during the German Peasants' War. Rebuilding work began in 1535 and, in 1540, the castle was sold by its owner, Count Palatine Johann von Simmern to the Count Palatine, Rupert, who used it from then on as his new residence and also introduced the Reformation locally. Rupert had been born in 1506 in Zweibrücken and died at Gräfenstein Castle on 28 July 1544.
Thereafter the castle continued to change hands, until in 1570 it was transferred, together with its associated villages, to Badenese ownership (Margraviate of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach). In 1635, during the Thirty Years' War, the castle was razed by fire (due to "carelessness on the part of the imperial forces...") and became unusable for a long time. In 1771, when the rule of the Counts of Baden-Baden ended, ownership of the castle passed into the hands of the government of Baden-Durlach. They held the castle until the French Revolution. The castle had at this point reached the crest of its glory, and after that it fell into dereliction.In spite of that the fortification is relatively well preserved. The first conservation measures on the ruins were carried out in 1909/10 and 1936/37. And from 1978 to 1986 the state of Rhineland-Palatinate had the ruins comprehensively restored at some cost.
Site
Gräfenstein is one of the most important, Hohenstaufen era castles in Rhineland-Palatinate. It is about 80 metres (260 ft) long and about 60 metres (200 ft) wide.
Bergfried
Gräfenstein is the only castle in Germany with a heptagonal keep or bergfried. This may still be climbed today up a narrow spiral staircase. The shape of the tower is based on a combination of an octagon (c.f. Steinsberg) and a triangle. Whilst on a pentagonal tower, a triangular point is added to the rectangular main body on the side facing the enemy, in the case of Gräfenstein two shoulders of the octagon have been extended into a point. Another feature is the fact that the bergfried at Gräfenstein is not oriented in the direction of an attack, because the castle stands on a conical hill with steep drops on all sides. This underscores the symbolism of military architecture, which was on an equal footing with functionality in the High Middle Ages. The ground-level entrance was not added until more recent times.
Upper ward
Around the bergfried there is a mantlet wall, which appears to represent five sides of a slightly irregular octagon, due to the nature of the terrain. The outer wall of the upper ward consists externally entirely of rusticated ashlars. Access was via a wooden staircase at the site of the present stone one. The gate at this point has not survived. In the northern part of the upper ward lies the Hohenstaufen era palas, whose walls have been preserved as far as the height of the rain gutters. Its plan resembles a pointed triangle. Its windows were replaced in the Late Middle Ages, but the Romanesque window arches in the upper storey can still be made out.
The most important late medieval additions to the upper ward are the toilet tower and a staircase tower dating to the 16th century. There were no other structural changes in the palas.
Lower ward
The lower ward, which is laid out in a ring around the foot of the rock on which the upper ward is built, goes back to Hohenstaufen times, at least in its southern and western sections. The shape of the irregular polygon is again repeated on the expected direction of attack, so that there is a triple defence here consisting of enceinte, mantlet wall and bergfried. Thus the southern part of the lower ward was built shortly after the upper ward at the end of the 13th century. The northern part with its zwinger may not have been added until the 15th century.
Two small round towers with loopholes for hand weapons guarded the approach on the northeastern side of the lower ward. In the entrance, original stone slabs with cartwheel grooves may still be seen. Two storey buildings were erected against the inside of the curtain wall on the southern side of the lower ward. Four chimneys and six garderobes from these buildings can still be seen. They indicate the presence of a large castle garrison.
References
Literature
Alexander Thon (ed.): ... wie eine gebannte, unnahbare Zauberburg. Burgen in der Südpfalz. 2. Auflage. Schnell & Steiner, Regensburg, 2005, ISBN 3-7954-1570-5, S. 58–63.
Jürgen Keddigkeit (2002), Jürgen Keddigkeit; Alexander Thon; Rolf Übel (eds.), "Gräfenstein", Pfälzisches Burgenlexikon. Vol. 2. F−H (in German), Kaiserslautern, vol. Bd. 12.2, pp. 199–212, ISBN 3-927754-48-X, ISSN 0936-7640
External links
Information at the homepage of the municipality of Merzalben
Extract from the Palatine Castles Lexicon
Photos of Gräfenstein Castle at Burgenparadies.de Archived 2013-11-05 at the Wayback Machine
Artist's impression by Wolfgang Braun
Entry on Gräfenstein Castle in EBIDAT, the databank of the European Castles Institute
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
3573
],
"text": [
"Germany"
]
}
|
Gräfenstein Castle (German: Burg Gräfenstein) is a ruined rock castle about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of the village of Merzalben in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. It is in the county of Südwestpfalz within the Palatine Forest and is often called Merzalber Schloss ("Merzalben Castle"). It is built on a rock plateau 12 metres (39 ft) high at an elevation of 447 metres (1,467 ft) above sea level.
History
Gräfenstein Castle was built by the Saarbrücken counts, who had lost their fortress and were in need of a new one. Evidence for the exact date of the castle's building does not exist although the earliest record dates to a 1237 deed of partition by the counts of Leiningen. But from the castle's design and materials it can be deduced that it was built sometime between 1150 and 1200. Another clue is in the date of the restoration of the stone fortress, which took place in 1168, and coincides with first construction work on Gräfenstein Castle. The central element of the site, with its bergfried and palas probably dates to the 12th century and thus goes back to the Hohenstaufen era. The upper part of the castle was built on a rock shelf 12 metres high. The building's highlight is the peculiar seven-sided tower.
Possession of Gräfenstein was first given to the younger counts of the von Leiningen family. The House of Leiningen was related to the von Saarbrücken counts. The castle was built primarily for protection. It lies on the intersection of the Diocese of Worms, Speyer and Metz. The boundaries of these places were contiguous with that of Gräfenstein's, so the castle's main function was to maintain a hold on the uncertain borders. So was the protection of the surrounding forests and villages.
In 1317 the castle went into the possession of the collateral Leiningen-Dagsburg line. By 1367 they had to sell 7/8 of the estate to Prince Elector, Rupert I of the Palatinate. Through marriage, Gräfenstein went in 1421 to the Counts of Leiningen-Hardenburg. They had the castle expanded, particularly the lower ward.
The castle was first destroyed in 1525 during the German Peasants' War. Rebuilding work began in 1535 and, in 1540, the castle was sold by its owner, Count Palatine Johann von Simmern to the Count Palatine, Rupert, who used it from then on as his new residence and also introduced the Reformation locally. Rupert had been born in 1506 in Zweibrücken and died at Gräfenstein Castle on 28 July 1544.
Thereafter the castle continued to change hands, until in 1570 it was transferred, together with its associated villages, to Badenese ownership (Margraviate of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach). In 1635, during the Thirty Years' War, the castle was razed by fire (due to "carelessness on the part of the imperial forces...") and became unusable for a long time. In 1771, when the rule of the Counts of Baden-Baden ended, ownership of the castle passed into the hands of the government of Baden-Durlach. They held the castle until the French Revolution. The castle had at this point reached the crest of its glory, and after that it fell into dereliction.In spite of that the fortification is relatively well preserved. The first conservation measures on the ruins were carried out in 1909/10 and 1936/37. And from 1978 to 1986 the state of Rhineland-Palatinate had the ruins comprehensively restored at some cost.
Site
Gräfenstein is one of the most important, Hohenstaufen era castles in Rhineland-Palatinate. It is about 80 metres (260 ft) long and about 60 metres (200 ft) wide.
Bergfried
Gräfenstein is the only castle in Germany with a heptagonal keep or bergfried. This may still be climbed today up a narrow spiral staircase. The shape of the tower is based on a combination of an octagon (c.f. Steinsberg) and a triangle. Whilst on a pentagonal tower, a triangular point is added to the rectangular main body on the side facing the enemy, in the case of Gräfenstein two shoulders of the octagon have been extended into a point. Another feature is the fact that the bergfried at Gräfenstein is not oriented in the direction of an attack, because the castle stands on a conical hill with steep drops on all sides. This underscores the symbolism of military architecture, which was on an equal footing with functionality in the High Middle Ages. The ground-level entrance was not added until more recent times.
Upper ward
Around the bergfried there is a mantlet wall, which appears to represent five sides of a slightly irregular octagon, due to the nature of the terrain. The outer wall of the upper ward consists externally entirely of rusticated ashlars. Access was via a wooden staircase at the site of the present stone one. The gate at this point has not survived. In the northern part of the upper ward lies the Hohenstaufen era palas, whose walls have been preserved as far as the height of the rain gutters. Its plan resembles a pointed triangle. Its windows were replaced in the Late Middle Ages, but the Romanesque window arches in the upper storey can still be made out.
The most important late medieval additions to the upper ward are the toilet tower and a staircase tower dating to the 16th century. There were no other structural changes in the palas.
Lower ward
The lower ward, which is laid out in a ring around the foot of the rock on which the upper ward is built, goes back to Hohenstaufen times, at least in its southern and western sections. The shape of the irregular polygon is again repeated on the expected direction of attack, so that there is a triple defence here consisting of enceinte, mantlet wall and bergfried. Thus the southern part of the lower ward was built shortly after the upper ward at the end of the 13th century. The northern part with its zwinger may not have been added until the 15th century.
Two small round towers with loopholes for hand weapons guarded the approach on the northeastern side of the lower ward. In the entrance, original stone slabs with cartwheel grooves may still be seen. Two storey buildings were erected against the inside of the curtain wall on the southern side of the lower ward. Four chimneys and six garderobes from these buildings can still be seen. They indicate the presence of a large castle garrison.
References
Literature
Alexander Thon (ed.): ... wie eine gebannte, unnahbare Zauberburg. Burgen in der Südpfalz. 2. Auflage. Schnell & Steiner, Regensburg, 2005, ISBN 3-7954-1570-5, S. 58–63.
Jürgen Keddigkeit (2002), Jürgen Keddigkeit; Alexander Thon; Rolf Übel (eds.), "Gräfenstein", Pfälzisches Burgenlexikon. Vol. 2. F−H (in German), Kaiserslautern, vol. Bd. 12.2, pp. 199–212, ISBN 3-927754-48-X, ISSN 0936-7640
External links
Information at the homepage of the municipality of Merzalben
Extract from the Palatine Castles Lexicon
Photos of Gräfenstein Castle at Burgenparadies.de Archived 2013-11-05 at the Wayback Machine
Artist's impression by Wolfgang Braun
Entry on Gräfenstein Castle in EBIDAT, the databank of the European Castles Institute
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
58
],
"text": [
"rock castle"
]
}
|
Gräfenstein Castle (German: Burg Gräfenstein) is a ruined rock castle about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of the village of Merzalben in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. It is in the county of Südwestpfalz within the Palatine Forest and is often called Merzalber Schloss ("Merzalben Castle"). It is built on a rock plateau 12 metres (39 ft) high at an elevation of 447 metres (1,467 ft) above sea level.
History
Gräfenstein Castle was built by the Saarbrücken counts, who had lost their fortress and were in need of a new one. Evidence for the exact date of the castle's building does not exist although the earliest record dates to a 1237 deed of partition by the counts of Leiningen. But from the castle's design and materials it can be deduced that it was built sometime between 1150 and 1200. Another clue is in the date of the restoration of the stone fortress, which took place in 1168, and coincides with first construction work on Gräfenstein Castle. The central element of the site, with its bergfried and palas probably dates to the 12th century and thus goes back to the Hohenstaufen era. The upper part of the castle was built on a rock shelf 12 metres high. The building's highlight is the peculiar seven-sided tower.
Possession of Gräfenstein was first given to the younger counts of the von Leiningen family. The House of Leiningen was related to the von Saarbrücken counts. The castle was built primarily for protection. It lies on the intersection of the Diocese of Worms, Speyer and Metz. The boundaries of these places were contiguous with that of Gräfenstein's, so the castle's main function was to maintain a hold on the uncertain borders. So was the protection of the surrounding forests and villages.
In 1317 the castle went into the possession of the collateral Leiningen-Dagsburg line. By 1367 they had to sell 7/8 of the estate to Prince Elector, Rupert I of the Palatinate. Through marriage, Gräfenstein went in 1421 to the Counts of Leiningen-Hardenburg. They had the castle expanded, particularly the lower ward.
The castle was first destroyed in 1525 during the German Peasants' War. Rebuilding work began in 1535 and, in 1540, the castle was sold by its owner, Count Palatine Johann von Simmern to the Count Palatine, Rupert, who used it from then on as his new residence and also introduced the Reformation locally. Rupert had been born in 1506 in Zweibrücken and died at Gräfenstein Castle on 28 July 1544.
Thereafter the castle continued to change hands, until in 1570 it was transferred, together with its associated villages, to Badenese ownership (Margraviate of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach). In 1635, during the Thirty Years' War, the castle was razed by fire (due to "carelessness on the part of the imperial forces...") and became unusable for a long time. In 1771, when the rule of the Counts of Baden-Baden ended, ownership of the castle passed into the hands of the government of Baden-Durlach. They held the castle until the French Revolution. The castle had at this point reached the crest of its glory, and after that it fell into dereliction.In spite of that the fortification is relatively well preserved. The first conservation measures on the ruins were carried out in 1909/10 and 1936/37. And from 1978 to 1986 the state of Rhineland-Palatinate had the ruins comprehensively restored at some cost.
Site
Gräfenstein is one of the most important, Hohenstaufen era castles in Rhineland-Palatinate. It is about 80 metres (260 ft) long and about 60 metres (200 ft) wide.
Bergfried
Gräfenstein is the only castle in Germany with a heptagonal keep or bergfried. This may still be climbed today up a narrow spiral staircase. The shape of the tower is based on a combination of an octagon (c.f. Steinsberg) and a triangle. Whilst on a pentagonal tower, a triangular point is added to the rectangular main body on the side facing the enemy, in the case of Gräfenstein two shoulders of the octagon have been extended into a point. Another feature is the fact that the bergfried at Gräfenstein is not oriented in the direction of an attack, because the castle stands on a conical hill with steep drops on all sides. This underscores the symbolism of military architecture, which was on an equal footing with functionality in the High Middle Ages. The ground-level entrance was not added until more recent times.
Upper ward
Around the bergfried there is a mantlet wall, which appears to represent five sides of a slightly irregular octagon, due to the nature of the terrain. The outer wall of the upper ward consists externally entirely of rusticated ashlars. Access was via a wooden staircase at the site of the present stone one. The gate at this point has not survived. In the northern part of the upper ward lies the Hohenstaufen era palas, whose walls have been preserved as far as the height of the rain gutters. Its plan resembles a pointed triangle. Its windows were replaced in the Late Middle Ages, but the Romanesque window arches in the upper storey can still be made out.
The most important late medieval additions to the upper ward are the toilet tower and a staircase tower dating to the 16th century. There were no other structural changes in the palas.
Lower ward
The lower ward, which is laid out in a ring around the foot of the rock on which the upper ward is built, goes back to Hohenstaufen times, at least in its southern and western sections. The shape of the irregular polygon is again repeated on the expected direction of attack, so that there is a triple defence here consisting of enceinte, mantlet wall and bergfried. Thus the southern part of the lower ward was built shortly after the upper ward at the end of the 13th century. The northern part with its zwinger may not have been added until the 15th century.
Two small round towers with loopholes for hand weapons guarded the approach on the northeastern side of the lower ward. In the entrance, original stone slabs with cartwheel grooves may still be seen. Two storey buildings were erected against the inside of the curtain wall on the southern side of the lower ward. Four chimneys and six garderobes from these buildings can still be seen. They indicate the presence of a large castle garrison.
References
Literature
Alexander Thon (ed.): ... wie eine gebannte, unnahbare Zauberburg. Burgen in der Südpfalz. 2. Auflage. Schnell & Steiner, Regensburg, 2005, ISBN 3-7954-1570-5, S. 58–63.
Jürgen Keddigkeit (2002), Jürgen Keddigkeit; Alexander Thon; Rolf Übel (eds.), "Gräfenstein", Pfälzisches Burgenlexikon. Vol. 2. F−H (in German), Kaiserslautern, vol. Bd. 12.2, pp. 199–212, ISBN 3-927754-48-X, ISSN 0936-7640
External links
Information at the homepage of the municipality of Merzalben
Extract from the Palatine Castles Lexicon
Photos of Gräfenstein Castle at Burgenparadies.de Archived 2013-11-05 at the Wayback Machine
Artist's impression by Wolfgang Braun
Entry on Gräfenstein Castle in EBIDAT, the databank of the European Castles Institute
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
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Gräfenstein Castle (German: Burg Gräfenstein) is a ruined rock castle about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of the village of Merzalben in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. It is in the county of Südwestpfalz within the Palatine Forest and is often called Merzalber Schloss ("Merzalben Castle"). It is built on a rock plateau 12 metres (39 ft) high at an elevation of 447 metres (1,467 ft) above sea level.
History
Gräfenstein Castle was built by the Saarbrücken counts, who had lost their fortress and were in need of a new one. Evidence for the exact date of the castle's building does not exist although the earliest record dates to a 1237 deed of partition by the counts of Leiningen. But from the castle's design and materials it can be deduced that it was built sometime between 1150 and 1200. Another clue is in the date of the restoration of the stone fortress, which took place in 1168, and coincides with first construction work on Gräfenstein Castle. The central element of the site, with its bergfried and palas probably dates to the 12th century and thus goes back to the Hohenstaufen era. The upper part of the castle was built on a rock shelf 12 metres high. The building's highlight is the peculiar seven-sided tower.
Possession of Gräfenstein was first given to the younger counts of the von Leiningen family. The House of Leiningen was related to the von Saarbrücken counts. The castle was built primarily for protection. It lies on the intersection of the Diocese of Worms, Speyer and Metz. The boundaries of these places were contiguous with that of Gräfenstein's, so the castle's main function was to maintain a hold on the uncertain borders. So was the protection of the surrounding forests and villages.
In 1317 the castle went into the possession of the collateral Leiningen-Dagsburg line. By 1367 they had to sell 7/8 of the estate to Prince Elector, Rupert I of the Palatinate. Through marriage, Gräfenstein went in 1421 to the Counts of Leiningen-Hardenburg. They had the castle expanded, particularly the lower ward.
The castle was first destroyed in 1525 during the German Peasants' War. Rebuilding work began in 1535 and, in 1540, the castle was sold by its owner, Count Palatine Johann von Simmern to the Count Palatine, Rupert, who used it from then on as his new residence and also introduced the Reformation locally. Rupert had been born in 1506 in Zweibrücken and died at Gräfenstein Castle on 28 July 1544.
Thereafter the castle continued to change hands, until in 1570 it was transferred, together with its associated villages, to Badenese ownership (Margraviate of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach). In 1635, during the Thirty Years' War, the castle was razed by fire (due to "carelessness on the part of the imperial forces...") and became unusable for a long time. In 1771, when the rule of the Counts of Baden-Baden ended, ownership of the castle passed into the hands of the government of Baden-Durlach. They held the castle until the French Revolution. The castle had at this point reached the crest of its glory, and after that it fell into dereliction.In spite of that the fortification is relatively well preserved. The first conservation measures on the ruins were carried out in 1909/10 and 1936/37. And from 1978 to 1986 the state of Rhineland-Palatinate had the ruins comprehensively restored at some cost.
Site
Gräfenstein is one of the most important, Hohenstaufen era castles in Rhineland-Palatinate. It is about 80 metres (260 ft) long and about 60 metres (200 ft) wide.
Bergfried
Gräfenstein is the only castle in Germany with a heptagonal keep or bergfried. This may still be climbed today up a narrow spiral staircase. The shape of the tower is based on a combination of an octagon (c.f. Steinsberg) and a triangle. Whilst on a pentagonal tower, a triangular point is added to the rectangular main body on the side facing the enemy, in the case of Gräfenstein two shoulders of the octagon have been extended into a point. Another feature is the fact that the bergfried at Gräfenstein is not oriented in the direction of an attack, because the castle stands on a conical hill with steep drops on all sides. This underscores the symbolism of military architecture, which was on an equal footing with functionality in the High Middle Ages. The ground-level entrance was not added until more recent times.
Upper ward
Around the bergfried there is a mantlet wall, which appears to represent five sides of a slightly irregular octagon, due to the nature of the terrain. The outer wall of the upper ward consists externally entirely of rusticated ashlars. Access was via a wooden staircase at the site of the present stone one. The gate at this point has not survived. In the northern part of the upper ward lies the Hohenstaufen era palas, whose walls have been preserved as far as the height of the rain gutters. Its plan resembles a pointed triangle. Its windows were replaced in the Late Middle Ages, but the Romanesque window arches in the upper storey can still be made out.
The most important late medieval additions to the upper ward are the toilet tower and a staircase tower dating to the 16th century. There were no other structural changes in the palas.
Lower ward
The lower ward, which is laid out in a ring around the foot of the rock on which the upper ward is built, goes back to Hohenstaufen times, at least in its southern and western sections. The shape of the irregular polygon is again repeated on the expected direction of attack, so that there is a triple defence here consisting of enceinte, mantlet wall and bergfried. Thus the southern part of the lower ward was built shortly after the upper ward at the end of the 13th century. The northern part with its zwinger may not have been added until the 15th century.
Two small round towers with loopholes for hand weapons guarded the approach on the northeastern side of the lower ward. In the entrance, original stone slabs with cartwheel grooves may still be seen. Two storey buildings were erected against the inside of the curtain wall on the southern side of the lower ward. Four chimneys and six garderobes from these buildings can still be seen. They indicate the presence of a large castle garrison.
References
Literature
Alexander Thon (ed.): ... wie eine gebannte, unnahbare Zauberburg. Burgen in der Südpfalz. 2. Auflage. Schnell & Steiner, Regensburg, 2005, ISBN 3-7954-1570-5, S. 58–63.
Jürgen Keddigkeit (2002), Jürgen Keddigkeit; Alexander Thon; Rolf Übel (eds.), "Gräfenstein", Pfälzisches Burgenlexikon. Vol. 2. F−H (in German), Kaiserslautern, vol. Bd. 12.2, pp. 199–212, ISBN 3-927754-48-X, ISSN 0936-7640
External links
Information at the homepage of the municipality of Merzalben
Extract from the Palatine Castles Lexicon
Photos of Gräfenstein Castle at Burgenparadies.de Archived 2013-11-05 at the Wayback Machine
Artist's impression by Wolfgang Braun
Entry on Gräfenstein Castle in EBIDAT, the databank of the European Castles Institute
|
Commons category
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Denver Township may refer to the following places in the United States:
Denver Township, Richland County, Illinois
Denver Township, Isabella County, Michigan
Denver Township, Newaygo County, Michigan
Denver Township, Rock County, Minnesota
Denver Township, Adams County, Nebraska
See also
Denver (disambiguation)
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
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176
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Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos (IEEE) is the research center about Strategic studies of the Ministerio de Defensa of Spain who is responsible for coordinating, promoting and disseminating the cultural action of the ministry. It is part of the Centro Superior de Estudios de la Defensa Nacional (CESEDEN).Its publications are Cuadernos de Estrategia, Panorama Estratégico, Energía y Geoestrategia, and Revista Digital.
References
External links
Official website
|
country
|
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129
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Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos (IEEE) is the research center about Strategic studies of the Ministerio de Defensa of Spain who is responsible for coordinating, promoting and disseminating the cultural action of the ministry. It is part of the Centro Superior de Estudios de la Defensa Nacional (CESEDEN).Its publications are Cuadernos de Estrategia, Panorama Estratégico, Energía y Geoestrategia, and Revista Digital.
References
External links
Official website
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
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129
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"Spain"
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}
|
Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos (IEEE) is the research center about Strategic studies of the Ministerio de Defensa of Spain who is responsible for coordinating, promoting and disseminating the cultural action of the ministry. It is part of the Centro Superior de Estudios de la Defensa Nacional (CESEDEN).Its publications are Cuadernos de Estrategia, Panorama Estratégico, Energía y Geoestrategia, and Revista Digital.
References
External links
Official website
|
part of
|
{
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256
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"Centro Superior de Estudios de la Defensa Nacional"
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}
|
Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos (IEEE) is the research center about Strategic studies of the Ministerio de Defensa of Spain who is responsible for coordinating, promoting and disseminating the cultural action of the ministry. It is part of the Centro Superior de Estudios de la Defensa Nacional (CESEDEN).Its publications are Cuadernos de Estrategia, Panorama Estratégico, Energía y Geoestrategia, and Revista Digital.
References
External links
Official website
|
official name
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0
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Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos (IEEE) is the research center about Strategic studies of the Ministerio de Defensa of Spain who is responsible for coordinating, promoting and disseminating the cultural action of the ministry. It is part of the Centro Superior de Estudios de la Defensa Nacional (CESEDEN).Its publications are Cuadernos de Estrategia, Panorama Estratégico, Energía y Geoestrategia, and Revista Digital.
References
External links
Official website
|
short name
|
{
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44
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"IEEE"
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|
Kwadwo Poku or Kwadwo Opoku may refer to:
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1985), Ghanaian professional footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1992), Ghanaian footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1993), Ghanaian footballer
See also
Kwadwo Opoku, born 2001, Ghanaian footballer
|
country of citizenship
|
{
"answer_start": [
80
],
"text": [
"Ghana"
]
}
|
Kwadwo Poku or Kwadwo Opoku may refer to:
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1985), Ghanaian professional footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1992), Ghanaian footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1993), Ghanaian footballer
See also
Kwadwo Opoku, born 2001, Ghanaian footballer
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
7
],
"text": [
"Poku"
]
}
|
Kwadwo Poku or Kwadwo Opoku may refer to:
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1985), Ghanaian professional footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1992), Ghanaian footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1993), Ghanaian footballer
See also
Kwadwo Opoku, born 2001, Ghanaian footballer
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Kwadwo"
]
}
|
Kwadwo Poku or Kwadwo Opoku may refer to:
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1985), Ghanaian professional footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1992), Ghanaian footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1993), Ghanaian footballer
See also
Kwadwo Opoku, born 2001, Ghanaian footballer
|
total goals in career
|
{
"answer_start": [
73
],
"text": [
"1"
]
}
|
Kwadwo Poku or Kwadwo Opoku may refer to:
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1985), Ghanaian professional footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1992), Ghanaian footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1993), Ghanaian footballer
See also
Kwadwo Opoku, born 2001, Ghanaian footballer
|
number of matches played/races/starts
|
{
"answer_start": [
73
],
"text": [
"1"
]
}
|
Kwadwo Poku or Kwadwo Opoku may refer to:
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1985), Ghanaian professional footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1992), Ghanaian footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1993), Ghanaian footballer
See also
Kwadwo Opoku, born 2001, Ghanaian footballer
|
country for sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
80
],
"text": [
"Ghana"
]
}
|
Kwadwo Poku or Kwadwo Opoku may refer to:
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1985), Ghanaian professional footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1992), Ghanaian footballer
Kwadwo Poku (footballer, born 1993), Ghanaian footballer
See also
Kwadwo Opoku, born 2001, Ghanaian footballer
|
Twitter username
|
{
"answer_start": [
7
],
"text": [
"Poku"
]
}
|
The 1963–64 National Hurling League was the 33rd season of the National Hurling League.
Division 1
Waterford came into the season as defending champions of the 1962-63 season.
On 31 May 1964, Tipperary won the title after a 4-16 to 6-6 aggregate win over New York in the final. It was their 11th league title overall and their first since 1960-61.In spite of finishing at the bottom of their respective groups, neither Clare or Carlow were relegated.
Tipperary's Jimmy Doyle was the Division 1 top scorer with 8-35.
Group 1A table
Group stage
Group 1B table
Group stage
Knock-out stage
Semi-finals
Home final
Final
Top scorers
Top scorers in a single game
Division 2
On 3 May 1964, Westmeath won the title after a 3-9 to 3-7 win over Laois in the final.
In spite of finishing at the bottom of their respective groups, neither Down or Wicklow were relegated.
Group 2C table
Group 2D table
Knock-out stage
Semi-finals
Final
== References ==
|
sports season of league or competition
|
{
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12
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"National Hurling League"
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|
Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric; it connotes an appeal to rational discourse that relies on inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
Background
Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason' is related to Ancient Greek: λέγω, romanized: légō, lit. 'I say' which is cognate with Latin: Legus, lit. 'law'. The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, choose, count, reckon, discern, say, speak". In modern usage, it typically connotes the verbs "account", "measure", "reason" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that logos is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.
Origins of the term
Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside ethos and pathos. Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD) integrated the term into Jewish philosophy.
Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ("the uttered word") and the logos endiathetos ("the word remaining within").The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun verbum for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le Verbe in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.
Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (λέξις, léxis) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb légō (λέγω), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".
Ancient Greek philosophy
Heraclitus
The writing of Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.
This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to ever understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.
Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one.
What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.
Aristotle's rhetorical logos
Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (πᾰ́θος, páthos), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (ἦθος, êthos), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:
For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.
Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through ethos—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the pathē [πᾰ́θη, páthē] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating:
Stoics
Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.The Stoics took all activity to imply a logos or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the logos was anima mundi to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that "Logos ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".
Isocrates' logos
Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos, while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and logos, and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful polis. Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work, but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of logos.
In Hellenistic Judaism
Philo of Alexandria
Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term logos to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the logos, but the logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the logos by Philo, who also said that the logos was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.
Targums
The concept of logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term memra (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.
Christianity
In Christology, the Logos (Koinē Greek: Λόγος, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from John 1:1, which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (c. 204/5 – 270 AD) used logos in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of logos appear to be accidental. The logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect (nous), and the One.Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term logos to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.Victorinus differentiated between the logos interior to God and the logos related to the world by creation and salvation.Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his Confessions, Augustine described logos as the Divine Eternal Word, by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sapientia) was present as in no other man.
Islam
The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including ʿaql ("Intellect"), al-insān al-kāmil ("Universal Man"), kalimat Allāh ("Word of God"), haqīqa muḥammadiyya ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and nūr muḥammadī ("The Muhammadan Light").
ʿAql
One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is ʿaql, which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek νοῦς (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950 AD) and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the ʿaql was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."The concept of logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the logos. The logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with logos providing the link between man and divinity.Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the logos concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic logos. In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the logos or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan (logos-Kalima) in his Hüsn ü Aşk (Beauty and Love) in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, Sühan appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.
Jung's analytical psychology
Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros. In Jung's approach, logos vs eros can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, eros:
Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.
Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:
In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.
And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.
Rhetoric
Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, logos is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.
Rhema
The word logos has been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms rhema and logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word dabar, as the Word of God.Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes rhema from logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (logos) is read, although this distinction has been criticized.
See also
-logy
Dabar
Dharma
Epeolatry
Imiaslavie
Logic
Logocracy
Logos (Christianity)
Logotherapy
Nous
Om
Parmenides
Ṛta
Shabda
Sophia (wisdom)
References
External links
The Apologist's Bible Commentary Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
Logos definition and example Archived 2016-06-25 at the Wayback Machine
"Logos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 919–921.
|
instance of
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10276
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"text": [
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Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric; it connotes an appeal to rational discourse that relies on inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
Background
Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason' is related to Ancient Greek: λέγω, romanized: légō, lit. 'I say' which is cognate with Latin: Legus, lit. 'law'. The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, choose, count, reckon, discern, say, speak". In modern usage, it typically connotes the verbs "account", "measure", "reason" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that logos is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.
Origins of the term
Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside ethos and pathos. Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD) integrated the term into Jewish philosophy.
Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ("the uttered word") and the logos endiathetos ("the word remaining within").The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun verbum for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le Verbe in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.
Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (λέξις, léxis) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb légō (λέγω), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".
Ancient Greek philosophy
Heraclitus
The writing of Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.
This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to ever understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.
Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one.
What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.
Aristotle's rhetorical logos
Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (πᾰ́θος, páthos), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (ἦθος, êthos), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:
For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.
Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through ethos—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the pathē [πᾰ́θη, páthē] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating:
Stoics
Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.The Stoics took all activity to imply a logos or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the logos was anima mundi to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that "Logos ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".
Isocrates' logos
Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos, while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and logos, and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful polis. Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work, but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of logos.
In Hellenistic Judaism
Philo of Alexandria
Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term logos to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the logos, but the logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the logos by Philo, who also said that the logos was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.
Targums
The concept of logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term memra (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.
Christianity
In Christology, the Logos (Koinē Greek: Λόγος, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from John 1:1, which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (c. 204/5 – 270 AD) used logos in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of logos appear to be accidental. The logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect (nous), and the One.Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term logos to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.Victorinus differentiated between the logos interior to God and the logos related to the world by creation and salvation.Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his Confessions, Augustine described logos as the Divine Eternal Word, by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sapientia) was present as in no other man.
Islam
The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including ʿaql ("Intellect"), al-insān al-kāmil ("Universal Man"), kalimat Allāh ("Word of God"), haqīqa muḥammadiyya ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and nūr muḥammadī ("The Muhammadan Light").
ʿAql
One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is ʿaql, which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek νοῦς (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950 AD) and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the ʿaql was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."The concept of logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the logos. The logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with logos providing the link between man and divinity.Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the logos concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic logos. In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the logos or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan (logos-Kalima) in his Hüsn ü Aşk (Beauty and Love) in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, Sühan appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.
Jung's analytical psychology
Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros. In Jung's approach, logos vs eros can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, eros:
Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.
Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:
In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.
And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.
Rhetoric
Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, logos is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.
Rhema
The word logos has been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms rhema and logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word dabar, as the Word of God.Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes rhema from logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (logos) is read, although this distinction has been criticized.
See also
-logy
Dabar
Dharma
Epeolatry
Imiaslavie
Logic
Logocracy
Logos (Christianity)
Logotherapy
Nous
Om
Parmenides
Ṛta
Shabda
Sophia (wisdom)
References
External links
The Apologist's Bible Commentary Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
Logos definition and example Archived 2016-06-25 at the Wayback Machine
"Logos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 919–921.
|
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|
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649
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Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric; it connotes an appeal to rational discourse that relies on inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
Background
Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason' is related to Ancient Greek: λέγω, romanized: légō, lit. 'I say' which is cognate with Latin: Legus, lit. 'law'. The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, choose, count, reckon, discern, say, speak". In modern usage, it typically connotes the verbs "account", "measure", "reason" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that logos is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.
Origins of the term
Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside ethos and pathos. Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD) integrated the term into Jewish philosophy.
Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ("the uttered word") and the logos endiathetos ("the word remaining within").The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun verbum for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le Verbe in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.
Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (λέξις, léxis) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb légō (λέγω), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".
Ancient Greek philosophy
Heraclitus
The writing of Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.
This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to ever understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.
Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one.
What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.
Aristotle's rhetorical logos
Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (πᾰ́θος, páthos), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (ἦθος, êthos), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:
For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.
Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through ethos—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the pathē [πᾰ́θη, páthē] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating:
Stoics
Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.The Stoics took all activity to imply a logos or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the logos was anima mundi to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that "Logos ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".
Isocrates' logos
Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos, while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and logos, and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful polis. Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work, but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of logos.
In Hellenistic Judaism
Philo of Alexandria
Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term logos to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the logos, but the logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the logos by Philo, who also said that the logos was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.
Targums
The concept of logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term memra (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.
Christianity
In Christology, the Logos (Koinē Greek: Λόγος, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from John 1:1, which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (c. 204/5 – 270 AD) used logos in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of logos appear to be accidental. The logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect (nous), and the One.Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term logos to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.Victorinus differentiated between the logos interior to God and the logos related to the world by creation and salvation.Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his Confessions, Augustine described logos as the Divine Eternal Word, by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sapientia) was present as in no other man.
Islam
The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including ʿaql ("Intellect"), al-insān al-kāmil ("Universal Man"), kalimat Allāh ("Word of God"), haqīqa muḥammadiyya ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and nūr muḥammadī ("The Muhammadan Light").
ʿAql
One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is ʿaql, which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek νοῦς (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950 AD) and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the ʿaql was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."The concept of logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the logos. The logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with logos providing the link between man and divinity.Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the logos concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic logos. In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the logos or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan (logos-Kalima) in his Hüsn ü Aşk (Beauty and Love) in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, Sühan appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.
Jung's analytical psychology
Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros. In Jung's approach, logos vs eros can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, eros:
Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.
Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:
In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.
And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.
Rhetoric
Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, logos is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.
Rhema
The word logos has been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms rhema and logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word dabar, as the Word of God.Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes rhema from logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (logos) is read, although this distinction has been criticized.
See also
-logy
Dabar
Dharma
Epeolatry
Imiaslavie
Logic
Logocracy
Logos (Christianity)
Logotherapy
Nous
Om
Parmenides
Ṛta
Shabda
Sophia (wisdom)
References
External links
The Apologist's Bible Commentary Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
Logos definition and example Archived 2016-06-25 at the Wayback Machine
"Logos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 919–921.
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Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric; it connotes an appeal to rational discourse that relies on inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
Background
Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason' is related to Ancient Greek: λέγω, romanized: légō, lit. 'I say' which is cognate with Latin: Legus, lit. 'law'. The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, choose, count, reckon, discern, say, speak". In modern usage, it typically connotes the verbs "account", "measure", "reason" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that logos is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.
Origins of the term
Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside ethos and pathos. Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD) integrated the term into Jewish philosophy.
Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ("the uttered word") and the logos endiathetos ("the word remaining within").The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun verbum for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le Verbe in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.
Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (λέξις, léxis) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb légō (λέγω), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".
Ancient Greek philosophy
Heraclitus
The writing of Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.
This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to ever understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.
Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one.
What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.
Aristotle's rhetorical logos
Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (πᾰ́θος, páthos), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (ἦθος, êthos), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:
For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.
Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through ethos—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the pathē [πᾰ́θη, páthē] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating:
Stoics
Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.The Stoics took all activity to imply a logos or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the logos was anima mundi to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that "Logos ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".
Isocrates' logos
Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos, while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and logos, and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful polis. Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work, but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of logos.
In Hellenistic Judaism
Philo of Alexandria
Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term logos to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the logos, but the logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the logos by Philo, who also said that the logos was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.
Targums
The concept of logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term memra (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.
Christianity
In Christology, the Logos (Koinē Greek: Λόγος, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from John 1:1, which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (c. 204/5 – 270 AD) used logos in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of logos appear to be accidental. The logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect (nous), and the One.Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term logos to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.Victorinus differentiated between the logos interior to God and the logos related to the world by creation and salvation.Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his Confessions, Augustine described logos as the Divine Eternal Word, by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sapientia) was present as in no other man.
Islam
The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including ʿaql ("Intellect"), al-insān al-kāmil ("Universal Man"), kalimat Allāh ("Word of God"), haqīqa muḥammadiyya ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and nūr muḥammadī ("The Muhammadan Light").
ʿAql
One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is ʿaql, which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek νοῦς (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950 AD) and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the ʿaql was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."The concept of logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the logos. The logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with logos providing the link between man and divinity.Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the logos concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic logos. In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the logos or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan (logos-Kalima) in his Hüsn ü Aşk (Beauty and Love) in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, Sühan appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.
Jung's analytical psychology
Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros. In Jung's approach, logos vs eros can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, eros:
Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.
Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:
In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.
And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.
Rhetoric
Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, logos is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.
Rhema
The word logos has been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms rhema and logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word dabar, as the Word of God.Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes rhema from logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (logos) is read, although this distinction has been criticized.
See also
-logy
Dabar
Dharma
Epeolatry
Imiaslavie
Logic
Logocracy
Logos (Christianity)
Logotherapy
Nous
Om
Parmenides
Ṛta
Shabda
Sophia (wisdom)
References
External links
The Apologist's Bible Commentary Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
Logos definition and example Archived 2016-06-25 at the Wayback Machine
"Logos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 919–921.
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Rate Your Music artist ID
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Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric; it connotes an appeal to rational discourse that relies on inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
Background
Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason' is related to Ancient Greek: λέγω, romanized: légō, lit. 'I say' which is cognate with Latin: Legus, lit. 'law'. The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, choose, count, reckon, discern, say, speak". In modern usage, it typically connotes the verbs "account", "measure", "reason" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that logos is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.
Origins of the term
Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside ethos and pathos. Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD) integrated the term into Jewish philosophy.
Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ("the uttered word") and the logos endiathetos ("the word remaining within").The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun verbum for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le Verbe in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.
Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (λέξις, léxis) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb légō (λέγω), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".
Ancient Greek philosophy
Heraclitus
The writing of Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.
This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to ever understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.
Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one.
What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.
Aristotle's rhetorical logos
Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (πᾰ́θος, páthos), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (ἦθος, êthos), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:
For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.
Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through ethos—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the pathē [πᾰ́θη, páthē] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating:
Stoics
Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.The Stoics took all activity to imply a logos or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the logos was anima mundi to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that "Logos ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".
Isocrates' logos
Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos, while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and logos, and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful polis. Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work, but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of logos.
In Hellenistic Judaism
Philo of Alexandria
Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term logos to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the logos, but the logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the logos by Philo, who also said that the logos was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.
Targums
The concept of logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term memra (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.
Christianity
In Christology, the Logos (Koinē Greek: Λόγος, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from John 1:1, which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (c. 204/5 – 270 AD) used logos in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of logos appear to be accidental. The logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect (nous), and the One.Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term logos to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.Victorinus differentiated between the logos interior to God and the logos related to the world by creation and salvation.Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his Confessions, Augustine described logos as the Divine Eternal Word, by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sapientia) was present as in no other man.
Islam
The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including ʿaql ("Intellect"), al-insān al-kāmil ("Universal Man"), kalimat Allāh ("Word of God"), haqīqa muḥammadiyya ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and nūr muḥammadī ("The Muhammadan Light").
ʿAql
One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is ʿaql, which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek νοῦς (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950 AD) and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the ʿaql was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."The concept of logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the logos. The logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with logos providing the link between man and divinity.Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the logos concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic logos. In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the logos or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan (logos-Kalima) in his Hüsn ü Aşk (Beauty and Love) in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, Sühan appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.
Jung's analytical psychology
Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros. In Jung's approach, logos vs eros can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, eros:
Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.
Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:
In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.
And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.
Rhetoric
Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, logos is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.
Rhema
The word logos has been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms rhema and logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word dabar, as the Word of God.Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes rhema from logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (logos) is read, although this distinction has been criticized.
See also
-logy
Dabar
Dharma
Epeolatry
Imiaslavie
Logic
Logocracy
Logos (Christianity)
Logotherapy
Nous
Om
Parmenides
Ṛta
Shabda
Sophia (wisdom)
References
External links
The Apologist's Bible Commentary Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
Logos definition and example Archived 2016-06-25 at the Wayback Machine
"Logos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 919–921.
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Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric; it connotes an appeal to rational discourse that relies on inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
Background
Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason' is related to Ancient Greek: λέγω, romanized: légō, lit. 'I say' which is cognate with Latin: Legus, lit. 'law'. The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, choose, count, reckon, discern, say, speak". In modern usage, it typically connotes the verbs "account", "measure", "reason" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that logos is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.
Origins of the term
Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside ethos and pathos. Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD) integrated the term into Jewish philosophy.
Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ("the uttered word") and the logos endiathetos ("the word remaining within").The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun verbum for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le Verbe in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.
Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (λέξις, léxis) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb légō (λέγω), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".
Ancient Greek philosophy
Heraclitus
The writing of Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.
This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to ever understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.
Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one.
What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.
Aristotle's rhetorical logos
Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (πᾰ́θος, páthos), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (ἦθος, êthos), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:
For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.
Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through ethos—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the pathē [πᾰ́θη, páthē] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating:
Stoics
Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.The Stoics took all activity to imply a logos or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the logos was anima mundi to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that "Logos ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".
Isocrates' logos
Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos, while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and logos, and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful polis. Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work, but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of logos.
In Hellenistic Judaism
Philo of Alexandria
Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term logos to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the logos, but the logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the logos by Philo, who also said that the logos was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.
Targums
The concept of logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term memra (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.
Christianity
In Christology, the Logos (Koinē Greek: Λόγος, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from John 1:1, which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (c. 204/5 – 270 AD) used logos in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of logos appear to be accidental. The logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect (nous), and the One.Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term logos to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.Victorinus differentiated between the logos interior to God and the logos related to the world by creation and salvation.Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his Confessions, Augustine described logos as the Divine Eternal Word, by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sapientia) was present as in no other man.
Islam
The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including ʿaql ("Intellect"), al-insān al-kāmil ("Universal Man"), kalimat Allāh ("Word of God"), haqīqa muḥammadiyya ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and nūr muḥammadī ("The Muhammadan Light").
ʿAql
One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is ʿaql, which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek νοῦς (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950 AD) and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the ʿaql was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."The concept of logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the logos. The logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with logos providing the link between man and divinity.Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the logos concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic logos. In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the logos or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan (logos-Kalima) in his Hüsn ü Aşk (Beauty and Love) in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, Sühan appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.
Jung's analytical psychology
Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros. In Jung's approach, logos vs eros can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, eros:
Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.
Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:
In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.
And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.
Rhetoric
Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, logos is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.
Rhema
The word logos has been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms rhema and logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word dabar, as the Word of God.Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes rhema from logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (logos) is read, although this distinction has been criticized.
See also
-logy
Dabar
Dharma
Epeolatry
Imiaslavie
Logic
Logocracy
Logos (Christianity)
Logotherapy
Nous
Om
Parmenides
Ṛta
Shabda
Sophia (wisdom)
References
External links
The Apologist's Bible Commentary Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
Logos definition and example Archived 2016-06-25 at the Wayback Machine
"Logos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 919–921.
|
ISO 4 abbreviation
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Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric; it connotes an appeal to rational discourse that relies on inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
Background
Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason' is related to Ancient Greek: λέγω, romanized: légō, lit. 'I say' which is cognate with Latin: Legus, lit. 'law'. The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, choose, count, reckon, discern, say, speak". In modern usage, it typically connotes the verbs "account", "measure", "reason" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that logos is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.
Origins of the term
Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside ethos and pathos. Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD) integrated the term into Jewish philosophy.
Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ("the uttered word") and the logos endiathetos ("the word remaining within").The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun verbum for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le Verbe in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.
Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (λέξις, léxis) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb légō (λέγω), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".
Ancient Greek philosophy
Heraclitus
The writing of Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.
This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to ever understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.
Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one.
What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.
Aristotle's rhetorical logos
Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (πᾰ́θος, páthos), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (ἦθος, êthos), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:
For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.
Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through ethos—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the pathē [πᾰ́θη, páthē] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating:
Stoics
Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.The Stoics took all activity to imply a logos or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the logos was anima mundi to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that "Logos ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".
Isocrates' logos
Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos, while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and logos, and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful polis. Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work, but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of logos.
In Hellenistic Judaism
Philo of Alexandria
Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term logos to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the logos, but the logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the logos by Philo, who also said that the logos was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.
Targums
The concept of logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term memra (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.
Christianity
In Christology, the Logos (Koinē Greek: Λόγος, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from John 1:1, which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (c. 204/5 – 270 AD) used logos in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of logos appear to be accidental. The logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect (nous), and the One.Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term logos to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.Victorinus differentiated between the logos interior to God and the logos related to the world by creation and salvation.Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his Confessions, Augustine described logos as the Divine Eternal Word, by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sapientia) was present as in no other man.
Islam
The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including ʿaql ("Intellect"), al-insān al-kāmil ("Universal Man"), kalimat Allāh ("Word of God"), haqīqa muḥammadiyya ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and nūr muḥammadī ("The Muhammadan Light").
ʿAql
One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is ʿaql, which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek νοῦς (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950 AD) and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the ʿaql was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."The concept of logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the logos. The logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with logos providing the link between man and divinity.Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the logos concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic logos. In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the logos or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan (logos-Kalima) in his Hüsn ü Aşk (Beauty and Love) in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, Sühan appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.
Jung's analytical psychology
Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros. In Jung's approach, logos vs eros can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, eros:
Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.
Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:
In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.
And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.
Rhetoric
Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, logos is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.
Rhema
The word logos has been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms rhema and logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word dabar, as the Word of God.Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes rhema from logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (logos) is read, although this distinction has been criticized.
See also
-logy
Dabar
Dharma
Epeolatry
Imiaslavie
Logic
Logocracy
Logos (Christianity)
Logotherapy
Nous
Om
Parmenides
Ṛta
Shabda
Sophia (wisdom)
References
External links
The Apologist's Bible Commentary Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
Logos definition and example Archived 2016-06-25 at the Wayback Machine
"Logos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 919–921.
|
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Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric; it connotes an appeal to rational discourse that relies on inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
Background
Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason' is related to Ancient Greek: λέγω, romanized: légō, lit. 'I say' which is cognate with Latin: Legus, lit. 'law'. The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, choose, count, reckon, discern, say, speak". In modern usage, it typically connotes the verbs "account", "measure", "reason" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that logos is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.
Origins of the term
Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside ethos and pathos. Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the logos spermatikos (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD) integrated the term into Jewish philosophy.
Philo distinguished between logos prophorikos ("the uttered word") and the logos endiathetos ("the word remaining within").The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (theos), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of in principio erat verbum was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun verbum for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as le Verbe in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected Zeitwort (verb) in favor of Wort (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.
Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (λέξις, léxis) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb légō (λέγω), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".
Ancient Greek philosophy
Heraclitus
The writing of Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.
This logos holds always but humans always prove unable to ever understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this logos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.
For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although the logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding.
Listening not to me but to the logos it is wise to agree that all things are one.
What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.
Aristotle's rhetorical logos
Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (πᾰ́θος, páthos), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (ἦθος, êthos), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:
For Aristotle, logos is something more refined than the capacity to make private feelings public: it enables the human being to perform as no other animal can; it makes it possible for him to perceive and make clear to others through reasoned discourse the difference between what is advantageous and what is harmful, between what is just and what is unjust, and between what is good and what is evil.
Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through ethos—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of logos "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the pathē [πᾰ́θη, páthē] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".Aristotle comments on the three modes by stating:
Stoics
Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium c. 300 BC, in which the logos was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal logos ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos.The Stoics took all activity to imply a logos or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the logos was anima mundi to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that "Logos ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".
Isocrates' logos
Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to logos, pathos, and ethos, while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and logos, and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful polis. Isocrates does not provide a single definition of logos in his work, but Isocratean logos characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of logos.
In Hellenistic Judaism
Philo of Alexandria
Philo (c. 20 BC – c. 50 AD), a Hellenized Jew, used the term logos to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the logos, but the logos also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the logos by Philo, who also said that the logos was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.
Targums
The concept of logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term memra (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.
Christianity
In Christology, the Logos (Koinē Greek: Λόγος, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from John 1:1, which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (c. 204/5 – 270 AD) used logos in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term logos was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of logos appear to be accidental. The logos was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting logos as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect (nous), and the One.Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of logos from the higher principle, and eros (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of logos, but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term logos to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.Victorinus differentiated between the logos interior to God and the logos related to the world by creation and salvation.Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his Confessions, Augustine described logos as the Divine Eternal Word, by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's logos had taken body in Christ, the man in whom the logos (i.e. veritas or sapientia) was present as in no other man.
Islam
The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including ʿaql ("Intellect"), al-insān al-kāmil ("Universal Man"), kalimat Allāh ("Word of God"), haqīqa muḥammadiyya ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and nūr muḥammadī ("The Muhammadan Light").
ʿAql
One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is ʿaql, which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek νοῦς (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950 AD) and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the ʿaql was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."The concept of logos in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the logos. The logos is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the logos, and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works The Ringstones of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam) and The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a logos (Kalimah), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with logos providing the link between man and divinity.Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the logos concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic logos. In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man. For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the logos or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan (logos-Kalima) in his Hüsn ü Aşk (Beauty and Love) in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, Sühan appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.
Jung's analytical psychology
Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of logos with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of eros. In Jung's approach, logos vs eros can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".For Jung, logos represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, eros:
Woman’s psychology is founded on the principle of Eros, the great binder and loosener, whereas from ancient times the ruling principle ascribed to man is Logos. The concept of Eros could be expressed in modern terms as psychic relatedness, and that of Logos as objective interest.
Jung attempted to equate logos and eros, his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.In his book Mysterium Coniunctionis Jung made some important final remarks about anima and animus:
In so far as the spirit is also a kind of "window on eternity"... it conveys to the soul a certain influx divinus... and the knowledge of a higher system of the world, wherein consists precisely its supposed animation of the soul.
And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates eros, while the anima compensates logos.
Rhetoric
Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes logos as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, logos is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.
Rhema
The word logos has been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions.The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms rhema and logos as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word dabar, as the Word of God.Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes rhema from logos (which here refers to the written scriptures) while rhema refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word (logos) is read, although this distinction has been criticized.
See also
-logy
Dabar
Dharma
Epeolatry
Imiaslavie
Logic
Logocracy
Logos (Christianity)
Logotherapy
Nous
Om
Parmenides
Ṛta
Shabda
Sophia (wisdom)
References
External links
The Apologist's Bible Commentary Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
Logos definition and example Archived 2016-06-25 at the Wayback Machine
"Logos" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 919–921.
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