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Wilhelmine Kähler (née Mohs or Moss, 3 April 1864 – 22 February 1941) was a German labour and women's rights activist, and politician.
Activism and politics
From 1890, Kähler was part of the labour movement. She co-founded and led the Verband der Fabrik- und Handarbeiterinnen, making her the only woman to lead a trade union in Germany during the 1890s. She sat on the General Commission of German Trade Unions. Her union became part of the Union of Domestic Workers of Germany, and she was acting president of that union in 1913.Around 1900 Kähler lived in Dresden, where she primarily worked on improving the situation of working women.Kähler wrote for the social democratic women's magazine Die Gleichheit and the Düsseldorf newspaper Volkszeitung starting in 1906. She was an editor of Für unsere Frauen, a women's movement correspondence, the yearbook Der Frauenhausschatz.From 1919 until 1923 Kähler worked as a civil servant for the Reich Ministry of Economy. In 1919 she also became a member of the Weimar National Assembly, which drafted the Weimar Constitution. She was subsequently a member of the Reichstag until 1921, and then a member of the Landtag of Prussia until 1924. Kähler represented the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD/MSPD).After 1926 she led a local Arbeiterwohlfahrt organisation in her home town of Kellinghusen until 1931.
Personal life
Kähler was born in 1864 in Kellinghusen, where she also went to school. She was a seamstress and a housekeeper. In 1882 she married her first husband who was a cigar factory worker.Kähler later remarried in 1924 and moved to Bonn with her husband in 1931, retiring from political activism. She died in Bonn in 1941.
== References == | name in native language | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Wilhelmine Kähler"
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} |
The Army of National Defence (Greek: Στρατός Εθνικής Αμύνης) was the military force of the Provisional Government of National Defence, a pro-Allied government led by Eleftherios Venizelos in Thessaloniki in 1916–17, against the royal government of King Constantine I in Athens, during the so-called National Schism. By the spring of 1917, it comprised three infantry divisions that formed the National Defence Army Corps (Σώμα Στρατού Εθνικής Αμύνης) and fought in the Macedonian front. Following the ousting of King Constantine and the reunification of Greece under the leadership of Venizelos in June 1917, the Corps continued as part of the reconstituted Hellenic Army until 1920, when it became the Army of Thrace.
Background
The question of Greece's participation in World War I had led to acute political divisions, with the pro-Allied Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos opposed by the pro-German King Constantine I, who favoured neutrality. This led to Venizelos' resignation, and the establishment of a series of royalist governments in Athens. In the meantime, however, the Allies had landed at Thessaloniki to aid Serbia, and Greece found herself threatened by both the Allies and the Central Powers. On 5 August 1916, the Bulgarian invasion of eastern Macedonia commenced, facing little resistance, since the Athens government refused to condone any firm action. The surrender of the hard-won territories gained in the recent Balkan Wars led to a military mutiny in Thessaloniki on 17 August. The mutiny, conducted in the name of "National Defence", led by pro-Venizelos officers like Leonidas Paraskevopoulos, Konstantinos Mazarakis-Ainian, or Epameinondas Zymvrakakis, was supported by the Allied commander-in-chief, Maurice Sarrail, and quickly established control over the city against loyalist officers.
Venizelos himself with his closest aides left Athens on 12 September, initially for his home island of Crete, and from there via Chios and Lesbos to Thessaloniki, where he arrived on 26 September. There he formed a provisional government under the supreme leadership of a triumvirate comprising himself, General Panagiotis Danglis and Admiral Pavlos Koundouriotis (the "Triumvirate of National Defence", Τριανδρία της Εθνικής Αμύνης). Major General Emmanouil Zymvrakakis was appointed Minister of Military Affairs of the new government.
Establishment of the Army of National Defence
As soon as the revolt was successfully established, individual officers from across northern Greece began to flock to Thessaloniki. On 2 September, the "National Defence" received its first substantial reinforcement, as Colonel Nikolaos Christodoulou arrived in the city with the remnants of units of the IV Army Corps that had refused to surrender to the Bulgarians and instead withdrawn via Kavala and Thasos. These were about 2,000 men of the 6th Infantry Division, as well as a battalion of the 2/21 Cretan Regiment and the bulk of the weapons and equipment of the 7th Field Artillery Regiment—the men of the latter had overwhelmingly opted to return to southern Greece, but their equipment had been intercepted by a French warship. The first unit of the new army was the "I National Defence Battalion" (Α' Τάγμα Εθνικής Αμύνης), which was created from the few men of the 11th Division that joined the coup, and the 1st Company of the 29th Infantry Regiment in Veroia, which under its commander, Captain Neokosmos Grigoriadis, had joined the uprising. Grigoriadis was appointed commander of the battalion, which already on 15 September was posted in the front along the Strymon river.The new Provisional Government made the creation of a credible fighting force a priority. Its resources were meagre—some 65 artillery pieces of various origin, and less than 10,000 shells, as well as clothing sufficient for a regiment—and it was heavily dependent both for equipment as well as funds on the Allies. However, it controlled Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean islands, and hoped that it would attract volunteers from southern Greece—following pressure by the Allies, the Athens government gave its consent to allow this, provided that they resigned any office first—allowing it to create an army of 80,000–90,000 men.These first step entailed the establishment of three infantry divisions:
the Serres Division (under Col. Christodoulou) from the forces already available (IV Corps remnants and volunteers),
the Crete Division (under Major General Zymvrakakis) on Crete,
the Archipelago Division (under Major General Dimitrios Ioannou) in the islands of the Aegean.Quickly it became apparent that volunteers would not suffice, and forced conscription and mobilization of the reserves took place in the areas under National Defence control, despite local resistance in places like Chalcidice, where reactions had to be suppressed by force.As a higher command, on 13 October the "Macedonia Army Corps" (Σώμα Στρατοῦ Μακεδονίας) under Major General Leonidas Paraskevopoulos was established, giving way on 16 December to the I Corps (Serres and Archipelago Divisions) under Paraskevopoulos and II Corps (Crete, Cyclades, and Thessaloniki Divisions) under Zymvrakakis.
The Thessaloniki and Cyclades Divisions existed only at the depot level, and eventually were never established due to the lack in equipment and personnel (particularly trained officers and NCOs).
Combat on the Macedonian Front
Nevertheless, by spring 1917 the National Defence had brought her three divisions to the Macedonian front, and formed the National Defence Army Corps under Zymvrakakis. The victorious Battle of Skra-di-Legen in May 1917 served as the baptism of fire for the Army of National Defence. A month later, King Constantine I was forced to abdicate by the Allies, and was succeeded by his second son, Alexander. Venizelos returned to Athens as Prime Minister and virtual dictator.
With Venizelos back in power, the reconstitution of the Hellenic Army began, a long and arduous process. In the meantime, the three extant divisions were employed under Allied command, and were usually combined with other Allied forces. The Greek GHQ planned the creation of three army corps, i.e., the reconstituted I and II Corps, and the "National Defence Army Corps", but delays in the reconstitution of the Greek army meant that Greece could not claim a decisive voice in the conduct of operations; the "National Defence Army Corps" continued to exist, but most Greek divisions continued to serve under Allied commanders for much of the duration of the war.
Operations in Western Thrace
After the Armistice of November 1918, the National Defence Army Corps remained in Macedonia. In early 1919, the Crete and Archipelago divisions were sent to Asia Minor, where the Asia Minor Campaign began; the Corps was reinforced with the reconstituted 9th Infantry Division. As part of the Allied occupation of Western Thrace, which had belonged to Bulgaria following the Balkan Wars, on 16 October 1919 the Corps occupied Xanthi, where the Xanthi Division was raised. In May 1920, subsequent to the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, the Serres Division occupied Komotini and the Xanthi Division and 9th Division occupied the modern Evros Prefecture. On 3 June 1920, it was renamed as the Army of Thrace.
References
Sources
Επίτομη ιστορία της συμμετοχής του Ελληνικού Στρατού στον Πρώτο Παγκόσμιο Πόλεμο 1914 - 1918 [Concise History of the Hellenic Army's Participation in the First World War 1914–1918] (in Greek). Athens: Hellenic Army History Directorate. 1993. | country | {
"answer_start": [
554
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"text": [
"Greece"
]
} |
The Army of National Defence (Greek: Στρατός Εθνικής Αμύνης) was the military force of the Provisional Government of National Defence, a pro-Allied government led by Eleftherios Venizelos in Thessaloniki in 1916–17, against the royal government of King Constantine I in Athens, during the so-called National Schism. By the spring of 1917, it comprised three infantry divisions that formed the National Defence Army Corps (Σώμα Στρατού Εθνικής Αμύνης) and fought in the Macedonian front. Following the ousting of King Constantine and the reunification of Greece under the leadership of Venizelos in June 1917, the Corps continued as part of the reconstituted Hellenic Army until 1920, when it became the Army of Thrace.
Background
The question of Greece's participation in World War I had led to acute political divisions, with the pro-Allied Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos opposed by the pro-German King Constantine I, who favoured neutrality. This led to Venizelos' resignation, and the establishment of a series of royalist governments in Athens. In the meantime, however, the Allies had landed at Thessaloniki to aid Serbia, and Greece found herself threatened by both the Allies and the Central Powers. On 5 August 1916, the Bulgarian invasion of eastern Macedonia commenced, facing little resistance, since the Athens government refused to condone any firm action. The surrender of the hard-won territories gained in the recent Balkan Wars led to a military mutiny in Thessaloniki on 17 August. The mutiny, conducted in the name of "National Defence", led by pro-Venizelos officers like Leonidas Paraskevopoulos, Konstantinos Mazarakis-Ainian, or Epameinondas Zymvrakakis, was supported by the Allied commander-in-chief, Maurice Sarrail, and quickly established control over the city against loyalist officers.
Venizelos himself with his closest aides left Athens on 12 September, initially for his home island of Crete, and from there via Chios and Lesbos to Thessaloniki, where he arrived on 26 September. There he formed a provisional government under the supreme leadership of a triumvirate comprising himself, General Panagiotis Danglis and Admiral Pavlos Koundouriotis (the "Triumvirate of National Defence", Τριανδρία της Εθνικής Αμύνης). Major General Emmanouil Zymvrakakis was appointed Minister of Military Affairs of the new government.
Establishment of the Army of National Defence
As soon as the revolt was successfully established, individual officers from across northern Greece began to flock to Thessaloniki. On 2 September, the "National Defence" received its first substantial reinforcement, as Colonel Nikolaos Christodoulou arrived in the city with the remnants of units of the IV Army Corps that had refused to surrender to the Bulgarians and instead withdrawn via Kavala and Thasos. These were about 2,000 men of the 6th Infantry Division, as well as a battalion of the 2/21 Cretan Regiment and the bulk of the weapons and equipment of the 7th Field Artillery Regiment—the men of the latter had overwhelmingly opted to return to southern Greece, but their equipment had been intercepted by a French warship. The first unit of the new army was the "I National Defence Battalion" (Α' Τάγμα Εθνικής Αμύνης), which was created from the few men of the 11th Division that joined the coup, and the 1st Company of the 29th Infantry Regiment in Veroia, which under its commander, Captain Neokosmos Grigoriadis, had joined the uprising. Grigoriadis was appointed commander of the battalion, which already on 15 September was posted in the front along the Strymon river.The new Provisional Government made the creation of a credible fighting force a priority. Its resources were meagre—some 65 artillery pieces of various origin, and less than 10,000 shells, as well as clothing sufficient for a regiment—and it was heavily dependent both for equipment as well as funds on the Allies. However, it controlled Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean islands, and hoped that it would attract volunteers from southern Greece—following pressure by the Allies, the Athens government gave its consent to allow this, provided that they resigned any office first—allowing it to create an army of 80,000–90,000 men.These first step entailed the establishment of three infantry divisions:
the Serres Division (under Col. Christodoulou) from the forces already available (IV Corps remnants and volunteers),
the Crete Division (under Major General Zymvrakakis) on Crete,
the Archipelago Division (under Major General Dimitrios Ioannou) in the islands of the Aegean.Quickly it became apparent that volunteers would not suffice, and forced conscription and mobilization of the reserves took place in the areas under National Defence control, despite local resistance in places like Chalcidice, where reactions had to be suppressed by force.As a higher command, on 13 October the "Macedonia Army Corps" (Σώμα Στρατοῦ Μακεδονίας) under Major General Leonidas Paraskevopoulos was established, giving way on 16 December to the I Corps (Serres and Archipelago Divisions) under Paraskevopoulos and II Corps (Crete, Cyclades, and Thessaloniki Divisions) under Zymvrakakis.
The Thessaloniki and Cyclades Divisions existed only at the depot level, and eventually were never established due to the lack in equipment and personnel (particularly trained officers and NCOs).
Combat on the Macedonian Front
Nevertheless, by spring 1917 the National Defence had brought her three divisions to the Macedonian front, and formed the National Defence Army Corps under Zymvrakakis. The victorious Battle of Skra-di-Legen in May 1917 served as the baptism of fire for the Army of National Defence. A month later, King Constantine I was forced to abdicate by the Allies, and was succeeded by his second son, Alexander. Venizelos returned to Athens as Prime Minister and virtual dictator.
With Venizelos back in power, the reconstitution of the Hellenic Army began, a long and arduous process. In the meantime, the three extant divisions were employed under Allied command, and were usually combined with other Allied forces. The Greek GHQ planned the creation of three army corps, i.e., the reconstituted I and II Corps, and the "National Defence Army Corps", but delays in the reconstitution of the Greek army meant that Greece could not claim a decisive voice in the conduct of operations; the "National Defence Army Corps" continued to exist, but most Greek divisions continued to serve under Allied commanders for much of the duration of the war.
Operations in Western Thrace
After the Armistice of November 1918, the National Defence Army Corps remained in Macedonia. In early 1919, the Crete and Archipelago divisions were sent to Asia Minor, where the Asia Minor Campaign began; the Corps was reinforced with the reconstituted 9th Infantry Division. As part of the Allied occupation of Western Thrace, which had belonged to Bulgaria following the Balkan Wars, on 16 October 1919 the Corps occupied Xanthi, where the Xanthi Division was raised. In May 1920, subsequent to the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, the Serres Division occupied Komotini and the Xanthi Division and 9th Division occupied the modern Evros Prefecture. On 3 June 1920, it was renamed as the Army of Thrace.
References
Sources
Επίτομη ιστορία της συμμετοχής του Ελληνικού Στρατού στον Πρώτο Παγκόσμιο Πόλεμο 1914 - 1918 [Concise History of the Hellenic Army's Participation in the First World War 1914–1918] (in Greek). Athens: Hellenic Army History Directorate. 1993. | conflict | {
"answer_start": [
773
],
"text": [
"World War I"
]
} |
Joel Krosnick (born 1941, New Haven, Connecticut) is an American cellist who has performed as a soloist, recitalist, and chamber musician throughout the world for over 40 years. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet from 1974 to 2016, he performed the great quartet literature throughout North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.
Early life
Joel Krosnick was born in 1941 to a family of enthusiastic amateur musicians—his mother was a pianist, his father a violinist/doctor. There was so much recorded and live chamber music in his home that by the time Joel was twelve years old, he had played most of the Classical and Romantic piano trio literature with his mother and (now professional) violinist brother, Aaron. By the age of 17, he had read much of the standard quartet repertory with his family and friends.
Attending Columbia University, Joel became involved with composers and new music, eventually becoming a founding member of The Group for Contemporary Music. The connection with the music of his time has become a lifelong passion for Krosnick and has led to premieres and performances of the works by such composers as Roger Sessions, Elliott Carter, Charles Wuorinen, Ralph Shapey, Richard Wernick, Stefan Wolpe, Perry Goldstein, Milton Babbitt, Paul Zonn, Donald Martino, Stanley Walden, and Morton Subotnick.
His work
Krosnick has recorded the complete quartets of Beethoven, Bartók, Schoenberg, Janáček, Hindemith, and Brahms, as well as the last ten quartets of Mozart, four quartets of Elliott Carter, and works of Debussy, Ravel, Dutilleux, Berg, Smetana, Roger Sessions, Franck, Verdi, Donald Martino, Stefan Wolpe, Bach, and Haydn.
With his sonata partner of over twenty years, pianist Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has performed recitals throughout the United States and Europe. Since 1976, they have given an annual series of recitals at Weill and Merkin Halls, as well as at Miller and Juilliard Theatres. In 1984, Krosnick and Kalish gave a six-concert retrospective of twentieth-century music for cello and piano at the Juilliard Theatre and at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.With Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has recorded for the Arabesque label the Complete Sonatas and Variations of Beethoven and the Sonatas of Brahms, as well as works of Poulenc, Prokofiev, Elliott Carter, Hindemith, Debussy, Janáček, and Henry Cowell. Recently released was a disc of the cello and piano sonatas of Johannes Brahms. Especially noteworthy is a recording devoted to the cello and piano music of Ralph Shapey; soon to be released is a disc of Forgotten Americans, including music of Ernst Bacon, Hall Overton, Ben Weber, and Otto Luening.
In the season of 2002-2003, Krosnick and Kalish performed a pair of recitals at the Juilliard School of Lincoln Center. One of the recitals was a memorial to the composer Ralph Shapey, involving among other Shapey works the Sonata for Cello and Piano (1954), the Kroslish Sonata, and the Songs of Life, as well as the premiere of the Duo Variations for violin and cello, a composition from 1985. The other recital included premieres of works by Gunther Schuller and Richard Wernick, as well as works by Robert Stern and Francis Poulenc.
Particularly noteworthy are premieres of Martino's Cello Concerto in Cincinnati and New York City (with the Juilliard Orchestra); also significant were the premieres of the Shapey Double Concerto for Violin, Cello, and Orchestra (with Robert Mann and the composer conducting the Juilliard Orchestra) and of the Shapey Double Concerto for Cello, Piano, and Double String Orchestra (with Kalish and Shapey conducting the Tanglewood Music Center Orchestra). In October 1999, Krosnick premiered Wernick's Cello Concerto #2 with the Juilliard Orchestra. In January 2001, he played the concerto by Sir Donald Francis Tovey in three performances with the Jupiter Symphony under the baton of Jens Nygaard.
Academic activities
Krosnick has taught cello and chamber music since his earliest professional life. He held professorships at the Universities of Iowa and Massachusetts, and has been artist-in-residence at the California Institute of the Arts. Since 1974, he has been on the faculty of the Juilliard School, where since 1994 he has chaired the cello department. Krosnick has been associated with the Aspen Festival, Marlboro, the Tanglewood Music Center, the Daniel Days Music Festival, Ravinia, Yellow Barn and, presently, Kneisel Hall, of which he is an alumnus. In 1999, he joined for the second time the faculty of the Piatigorsky Seminar at the University of Southern California.
Krosnick holds honorary doctoral degrees from Michigan State University, Jacksonville University, and the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet, he has received numerous Grammy nominations, twice winning the Grammy Award (for the complete Schoenberg Quartets, and for the late quartets of Beethoven). His discs In the Shadow of World War II and In the Shadow of World War I (both with Kalish) won Indie Awards in 1997 and 1999. Their recording of the Brahms Sonatas won the 2002 award from the Classical Recording Foundation.
Krosnick has recorded for the Sony Classical, Nonesuch, Orion, CRI, New World, Koch International, and Arabesque labels.
== References == | educated at | {
"answer_start": [
835
],
"text": [
"Columbia University"
]
} |
Joel Krosnick (born 1941, New Haven, Connecticut) is an American cellist who has performed as a soloist, recitalist, and chamber musician throughout the world for over 40 years. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet from 1974 to 2016, he performed the great quartet literature throughout North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.
Early life
Joel Krosnick was born in 1941 to a family of enthusiastic amateur musicians—his mother was a pianist, his father a violinist/doctor. There was so much recorded and live chamber music in his home that by the time Joel was twelve years old, he had played most of the Classical and Romantic piano trio literature with his mother and (now professional) violinist brother, Aaron. By the age of 17, he had read much of the standard quartet repertory with his family and friends.
Attending Columbia University, Joel became involved with composers and new music, eventually becoming a founding member of The Group for Contemporary Music. The connection with the music of his time has become a lifelong passion for Krosnick and has led to premieres and performances of the works by such composers as Roger Sessions, Elliott Carter, Charles Wuorinen, Ralph Shapey, Richard Wernick, Stefan Wolpe, Perry Goldstein, Milton Babbitt, Paul Zonn, Donald Martino, Stanley Walden, and Morton Subotnick.
His work
Krosnick has recorded the complete quartets of Beethoven, Bartók, Schoenberg, Janáček, Hindemith, and Brahms, as well as the last ten quartets of Mozart, four quartets of Elliott Carter, and works of Debussy, Ravel, Dutilleux, Berg, Smetana, Roger Sessions, Franck, Verdi, Donald Martino, Stefan Wolpe, Bach, and Haydn.
With his sonata partner of over twenty years, pianist Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has performed recitals throughout the United States and Europe. Since 1976, they have given an annual series of recitals at Weill and Merkin Halls, as well as at Miller and Juilliard Theatres. In 1984, Krosnick and Kalish gave a six-concert retrospective of twentieth-century music for cello and piano at the Juilliard Theatre and at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.With Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has recorded for the Arabesque label the Complete Sonatas and Variations of Beethoven and the Sonatas of Brahms, as well as works of Poulenc, Prokofiev, Elliott Carter, Hindemith, Debussy, Janáček, and Henry Cowell. Recently released was a disc of the cello and piano sonatas of Johannes Brahms. Especially noteworthy is a recording devoted to the cello and piano music of Ralph Shapey; soon to be released is a disc of Forgotten Americans, including music of Ernst Bacon, Hall Overton, Ben Weber, and Otto Luening.
In the season of 2002-2003, Krosnick and Kalish performed a pair of recitals at the Juilliard School of Lincoln Center. One of the recitals was a memorial to the composer Ralph Shapey, involving among other Shapey works the Sonata for Cello and Piano (1954), the Kroslish Sonata, and the Songs of Life, as well as the premiere of the Duo Variations for violin and cello, a composition from 1985. The other recital included premieres of works by Gunther Schuller and Richard Wernick, as well as works by Robert Stern and Francis Poulenc.
Particularly noteworthy are premieres of Martino's Cello Concerto in Cincinnati and New York City (with the Juilliard Orchestra); also significant were the premieres of the Shapey Double Concerto for Violin, Cello, and Orchestra (with Robert Mann and the composer conducting the Juilliard Orchestra) and of the Shapey Double Concerto for Cello, Piano, and Double String Orchestra (with Kalish and Shapey conducting the Tanglewood Music Center Orchestra). In October 1999, Krosnick premiered Wernick's Cello Concerto #2 with the Juilliard Orchestra. In January 2001, he played the concerto by Sir Donald Francis Tovey in three performances with the Jupiter Symphony under the baton of Jens Nygaard.
Academic activities
Krosnick has taught cello and chamber music since his earliest professional life. He held professorships at the Universities of Iowa and Massachusetts, and has been artist-in-residence at the California Institute of the Arts. Since 1974, he has been on the faculty of the Juilliard School, where since 1994 he has chaired the cello department. Krosnick has been associated with the Aspen Festival, Marlboro, the Tanglewood Music Center, the Daniel Days Music Festival, Ravinia, Yellow Barn and, presently, Kneisel Hall, of which he is an alumnus. In 1999, he joined for the second time the faculty of the Piatigorsky Seminar at the University of Southern California.
Krosnick holds honorary doctoral degrees from Michigan State University, Jacksonville University, and the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet, he has received numerous Grammy nominations, twice winning the Grammy Award (for the complete Schoenberg Quartets, and for the late quartets of Beethoven). His discs In the Shadow of World War II and In the Shadow of World War I (both with Kalish) won Indie Awards in 1997 and 1999. Their recording of the Brahms Sonatas won the 2002 award from the Classical Recording Foundation.
Krosnick has recorded for the Sony Classical, Nonesuch, Orion, CRI, New World, Koch International, and Arabesque labels.
== References == | occupation | {
"answer_start": [
65
],
"text": [
"cellist"
]
} |
Joel Krosnick (born 1941, New Haven, Connecticut) is an American cellist who has performed as a soloist, recitalist, and chamber musician throughout the world for over 40 years. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet from 1974 to 2016, he performed the great quartet literature throughout North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.
Early life
Joel Krosnick was born in 1941 to a family of enthusiastic amateur musicians—his mother was a pianist, his father a violinist/doctor. There was so much recorded and live chamber music in his home that by the time Joel was twelve years old, he had played most of the Classical and Romantic piano trio literature with his mother and (now professional) violinist brother, Aaron. By the age of 17, he had read much of the standard quartet repertory with his family and friends.
Attending Columbia University, Joel became involved with composers and new music, eventually becoming a founding member of The Group for Contemporary Music. The connection with the music of his time has become a lifelong passion for Krosnick and has led to premieres and performances of the works by such composers as Roger Sessions, Elliott Carter, Charles Wuorinen, Ralph Shapey, Richard Wernick, Stefan Wolpe, Perry Goldstein, Milton Babbitt, Paul Zonn, Donald Martino, Stanley Walden, and Morton Subotnick.
His work
Krosnick has recorded the complete quartets of Beethoven, Bartók, Schoenberg, Janáček, Hindemith, and Brahms, as well as the last ten quartets of Mozart, four quartets of Elliott Carter, and works of Debussy, Ravel, Dutilleux, Berg, Smetana, Roger Sessions, Franck, Verdi, Donald Martino, Stefan Wolpe, Bach, and Haydn.
With his sonata partner of over twenty years, pianist Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has performed recitals throughout the United States and Europe. Since 1976, they have given an annual series of recitals at Weill and Merkin Halls, as well as at Miller and Juilliard Theatres. In 1984, Krosnick and Kalish gave a six-concert retrospective of twentieth-century music for cello and piano at the Juilliard Theatre and at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.With Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has recorded for the Arabesque label the Complete Sonatas and Variations of Beethoven and the Sonatas of Brahms, as well as works of Poulenc, Prokofiev, Elliott Carter, Hindemith, Debussy, Janáček, and Henry Cowell. Recently released was a disc of the cello and piano sonatas of Johannes Brahms. Especially noteworthy is a recording devoted to the cello and piano music of Ralph Shapey; soon to be released is a disc of Forgotten Americans, including music of Ernst Bacon, Hall Overton, Ben Weber, and Otto Luening.
In the season of 2002-2003, Krosnick and Kalish performed a pair of recitals at the Juilliard School of Lincoln Center. One of the recitals was a memorial to the composer Ralph Shapey, involving among other Shapey works the Sonata for Cello and Piano (1954), the Kroslish Sonata, and the Songs of Life, as well as the premiere of the Duo Variations for violin and cello, a composition from 1985. The other recital included premieres of works by Gunther Schuller and Richard Wernick, as well as works by Robert Stern and Francis Poulenc.
Particularly noteworthy are premieres of Martino's Cello Concerto in Cincinnati and New York City (with the Juilliard Orchestra); also significant were the premieres of the Shapey Double Concerto for Violin, Cello, and Orchestra (with Robert Mann and the composer conducting the Juilliard Orchestra) and of the Shapey Double Concerto for Cello, Piano, and Double String Orchestra (with Kalish and Shapey conducting the Tanglewood Music Center Orchestra). In October 1999, Krosnick premiered Wernick's Cello Concerto #2 with the Juilliard Orchestra. In January 2001, he played the concerto by Sir Donald Francis Tovey in three performances with the Jupiter Symphony under the baton of Jens Nygaard.
Academic activities
Krosnick has taught cello and chamber music since his earliest professional life. He held professorships at the Universities of Iowa and Massachusetts, and has been artist-in-residence at the California Institute of the Arts. Since 1974, he has been on the faculty of the Juilliard School, where since 1994 he has chaired the cello department. Krosnick has been associated with the Aspen Festival, Marlboro, the Tanglewood Music Center, the Daniel Days Music Festival, Ravinia, Yellow Barn and, presently, Kneisel Hall, of which he is an alumnus. In 1999, he joined for the second time the faculty of the Piatigorsky Seminar at the University of Southern California.
Krosnick holds honorary doctoral degrees from Michigan State University, Jacksonville University, and the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet, he has received numerous Grammy nominations, twice winning the Grammy Award (for the complete Schoenberg Quartets, and for the late quartets of Beethoven). His discs In the Shadow of World War II and In the Shadow of World War I (both with Kalish) won Indie Awards in 1997 and 1999. Their recording of the Brahms Sonatas won the 2002 award from the Classical Recording Foundation.
Krosnick has recorded for the Sony Classical, Nonesuch, Orion, CRI, New World, Koch International, and Arabesque labels.
== References == | employer | {
"answer_start": [
2752
],
"text": [
"Juilliard School"
]
} |
Joel Krosnick (born 1941, New Haven, Connecticut) is an American cellist who has performed as a soloist, recitalist, and chamber musician throughout the world for over 40 years. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet from 1974 to 2016, he performed the great quartet literature throughout North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.
Early life
Joel Krosnick was born in 1941 to a family of enthusiastic amateur musicians—his mother was a pianist, his father a violinist/doctor. There was so much recorded and live chamber music in his home that by the time Joel was twelve years old, he had played most of the Classical and Romantic piano trio literature with his mother and (now professional) violinist brother, Aaron. By the age of 17, he had read much of the standard quartet repertory with his family and friends.
Attending Columbia University, Joel became involved with composers and new music, eventually becoming a founding member of The Group for Contemporary Music. The connection with the music of his time has become a lifelong passion for Krosnick and has led to premieres and performances of the works by such composers as Roger Sessions, Elliott Carter, Charles Wuorinen, Ralph Shapey, Richard Wernick, Stefan Wolpe, Perry Goldstein, Milton Babbitt, Paul Zonn, Donald Martino, Stanley Walden, and Morton Subotnick.
His work
Krosnick has recorded the complete quartets of Beethoven, Bartók, Schoenberg, Janáček, Hindemith, and Brahms, as well as the last ten quartets of Mozart, four quartets of Elliott Carter, and works of Debussy, Ravel, Dutilleux, Berg, Smetana, Roger Sessions, Franck, Verdi, Donald Martino, Stefan Wolpe, Bach, and Haydn.
With his sonata partner of over twenty years, pianist Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has performed recitals throughout the United States and Europe. Since 1976, they have given an annual series of recitals at Weill and Merkin Halls, as well as at Miller and Juilliard Theatres. In 1984, Krosnick and Kalish gave a six-concert retrospective of twentieth-century music for cello and piano at the Juilliard Theatre and at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.With Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has recorded for the Arabesque label the Complete Sonatas and Variations of Beethoven and the Sonatas of Brahms, as well as works of Poulenc, Prokofiev, Elliott Carter, Hindemith, Debussy, Janáček, and Henry Cowell. Recently released was a disc of the cello and piano sonatas of Johannes Brahms. Especially noteworthy is a recording devoted to the cello and piano music of Ralph Shapey; soon to be released is a disc of Forgotten Americans, including music of Ernst Bacon, Hall Overton, Ben Weber, and Otto Luening.
In the season of 2002-2003, Krosnick and Kalish performed a pair of recitals at the Juilliard School of Lincoln Center. One of the recitals was a memorial to the composer Ralph Shapey, involving among other Shapey works the Sonata for Cello and Piano (1954), the Kroslish Sonata, and the Songs of Life, as well as the premiere of the Duo Variations for violin and cello, a composition from 1985. The other recital included premieres of works by Gunther Schuller and Richard Wernick, as well as works by Robert Stern and Francis Poulenc.
Particularly noteworthy are premieres of Martino's Cello Concerto in Cincinnati and New York City (with the Juilliard Orchestra); also significant were the premieres of the Shapey Double Concerto for Violin, Cello, and Orchestra (with Robert Mann and the composer conducting the Juilliard Orchestra) and of the Shapey Double Concerto for Cello, Piano, and Double String Orchestra (with Kalish and Shapey conducting the Tanglewood Music Center Orchestra). In October 1999, Krosnick premiered Wernick's Cello Concerto #2 with the Juilliard Orchestra. In January 2001, he played the concerto by Sir Donald Francis Tovey in three performances with the Jupiter Symphony under the baton of Jens Nygaard.
Academic activities
Krosnick has taught cello and chamber music since his earliest professional life. He held professorships at the Universities of Iowa and Massachusetts, and has been artist-in-residence at the California Institute of the Arts. Since 1974, he has been on the faculty of the Juilliard School, where since 1994 he has chaired the cello department. Krosnick has been associated with the Aspen Festival, Marlboro, the Tanglewood Music Center, the Daniel Days Music Festival, Ravinia, Yellow Barn and, presently, Kneisel Hall, of which he is an alumnus. In 1999, he joined for the second time the faculty of the Piatigorsky Seminar at the University of Southern California.
Krosnick holds honorary doctoral degrees from Michigan State University, Jacksonville University, and the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet, he has received numerous Grammy nominations, twice winning the Grammy Award (for the complete Schoenberg Quartets, and for the late quartets of Beethoven). His discs In the Shadow of World War II and In the Shadow of World War I (both with Kalish) won Indie Awards in 1997 and 1999. Their recording of the Brahms Sonatas won the 2002 award from the Classical Recording Foundation.
Krosnick has recorded for the Sony Classical, Nonesuch, Orion, CRI, New World, Koch International, and Arabesque labels.
== References == | given name | {
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Joel Krosnick (born 1941, New Haven, Connecticut) is an American cellist who has performed as a soloist, recitalist, and chamber musician throughout the world for over 40 years. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet from 1974 to 2016, he performed the great quartet literature throughout North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.
Early life
Joel Krosnick was born in 1941 to a family of enthusiastic amateur musicians—his mother was a pianist, his father a violinist/doctor. There was so much recorded and live chamber music in his home that by the time Joel was twelve years old, he had played most of the Classical and Romantic piano trio literature with his mother and (now professional) violinist brother, Aaron. By the age of 17, he had read much of the standard quartet repertory with his family and friends.
Attending Columbia University, Joel became involved with composers and new music, eventually becoming a founding member of The Group for Contemporary Music. The connection with the music of his time has become a lifelong passion for Krosnick and has led to premieres and performances of the works by such composers as Roger Sessions, Elliott Carter, Charles Wuorinen, Ralph Shapey, Richard Wernick, Stefan Wolpe, Perry Goldstein, Milton Babbitt, Paul Zonn, Donald Martino, Stanley Walden, and Morton Subotnick.
His work
Krosnick has recorded the complete quartets of Beethoven, Bartók, Schoenberg, Janáček, Hindemith, and Brahms, as well as the last ten quartets of Mozart, four quartets of Elliott Carter, and works of Debussy, Ravel, Dutilleux, Berg, Smetana, Roger Sessions, Franck, Verdi, Donald Martino, Stefan Wolpe, Bach, and Haydn.
With his sonata partner of over twenty years, pianist Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has performed recitals throughout the United States and Europe. Since 1976, they have given an annual series of recitals at Weill and Merkin Halls, as well as at Miller and Juilliard Theatres. In 1984, Krosnick and Kalish gave a six-concert retrospective of twentieth-century music for cello and piano at the Juilliard Theatre and at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.With Gilbert Kalish, Krosnick has recorded for the Arabesque label the Complete Sonatas and Variations of Beethoven and the Sonatas of Brahms, as well as works of Poulenc, Prokofiev, Elliott Carter, Hindemith, Debussy, Janáček, and Henry Cowell. Recently released was a disc of the cello and piano sonatas of Johannes Brahms. Especially noteworthy is a recording devoted to the cello and piano music of Ralph Shapey; soon to be released is a disc of Forgotten Americans, including music of Ernst Bacon, Hall Overton, Ben Weber, and Otto Luening.
In the season of 2002-2003, Krosnick and Kalish performed a pair of recitals at the Juilliard School of Lincoln Center. One of the recitals was a memorial to the composer Ralph Shapey, involving among other Shapey works the Sonata for Cello and Piano (1954), the Kroslish Sonata, and the Songs of Life, as well as the premiere of the Duo Variations for violin and cello, a composition from 1985. The other recital included premieres of works by Gunther Schuller and Richard Wernick, as well as works by Robert Stern and Francis Poulenc.
Particularly noteworthy are premieres of Martino's Cello Concerto in Cincinnati and New York City (with the Juilliard Orchestra); also significant were the premieres of the Shapey Double Concerto for Violin, Cello, and Orchestra (with Robert Mann and the composer conducting the Juilliard Orchestra) and of the Shapey Double Concerto for Cello, Piano, and Double String Orchestra (with Kalish and Shapey conducting the Tanglewood Music Center Orchestra). In October 1999, Krosnick premiered Wernick's Cello Concerto #2 with the Juilliard Orchestra. In January 2001, he played the concerto by Sir Donald Francis Tovey in three performances with the Jupiter Symphony under the baton of Jens Nygaard.
Academic activities
Krosnick has taught cello and chamber music since his earliest professional life. He held professorships at the Universities of Iowa and Massachusetts, and has been artist-in-residence at the California Institute of the Arts. Since 1974, he has been on the faculty of the Juilliard School, where since 1994 he has chaired the cello department. Krosnick has been associated with the Aspen Festival, Marlboro, the Tanglewood Music Center, the Daniel Days Music Festival, Ravinia, Yellow Barn and, presently, Kneisel Hall, of which he is an alumnus. In 1999, he joined for the second time the faculty of the Piatigorsky Seminar at the University of Southern California.
Krosnick holds honorary doctoral degrees from Michigan State University, Jacksonville University, and the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. As a member of the Juilliard String Quartet, he has received numerous Grammy nominations, twice winning the Grammy Award (for the complete Schoenberg Quartets, and for the late quartets of Beethoven). His discs In the Shadow of World War II and In the Shadow of World War I (both with Kalish) won Indie Awards in 1997 and 1999. Their recording of the Brahms Sonatas won the 2002 award from the Classical Recording Foundation.
Krosnick has recorded for the Sony Classical, Nonesuch, Orion, CRI, New World, Koch International, and Arabesque labels.
== References == | instrument | {
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Yu Hyoun-ji (born 12 October 1994) is a South Korean swimmer. She competed in the women's 50 metre backstroke event at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships.
References
External links
Yu Hyoun-ji at World Aquatics
Yu Hyoun-ji at SwimRankings.net | country of citizenship | {
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Yu Hyoun-ji (born 12 October 1994) is a South Korean swimmer. She competed in the women's 50 metre backstroke event at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships.
References
External links
Yu Hyoun-ji at World Aquatics
Yu Hyoun-ji at SwimRankings.net | occupation | {
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The Battle of Móng Cái was fought during the Sino-Vietnamese War between 16 February and 10 March 1979 over the city of Móng Cái and other districts of Quảng Ninh Province that bordered the People's Republic of China. The battle broke out as Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) units launched diversionary attacks in support of the Chinese invasion in the major fronts of Lạng Sơn, Cao Bằng and Lào Cai. However, the Chinese failed to attract any Vietnamese reinforcements into the battle.
Battle
Initiated earlier than the overall invasion, Chinese operations in Quảng Ninh area began at around 23:00 on 16 February with artillery shelling and an infantry assault against Hoành Mô, Bình Liêu District. On 17 February, the township of Móng Cái and the Xuan Hoa state farm were also subjected to Chinese artillery bombardment. On the same day, fighting broke out at nearby Pò Hèn Border Post. On 3 March, the PLA struck Hill 1050. Both of the attacks were repulsed at a loss of 750 Chinese casualties, according to a Vietnamese report. Chinese artillery continued pounding Vietnamese positions until 10 March in coordination with infantry raids in smaller scales. On 10 March alone, 3,000 shells were fired against Móng Cái and other border points in Quảng Ninh.
Aftermath
As Quảng Ninh was a place of minimal strategic importance, Chinese attacks in the province could have proved wrong and wasteful, unless they had been explained as an attempt to distract the Vietnam People's Army from the major offensives. In fact, however, the assaults failed, not only to draw Vietnamese reinforcements to the area, but also to capture or retain any positions from the enemy. The lack of military skills was illustrated by Chinese combat performance in the Battle of Cao Ba Lanh, a strategic peak located 9 km from the border crossing at Hoành Mô: a regiment-sized Chinese force, after five hours staging numerous waves of mass formation attacks and the toll of 360 casualties, were eventually able to capture a height defended by a single Vietnamese platoon - losing a total of 422 men during the battle. The People's Liberation Army’s failure to seize Hoanh Mo and Binh Lieu meant they could not sever Highway 4B at Tien Yen, which would have cut land supply lines to Mong Cai.The defeat in Quảng Ninh Province was clearly perceived by Chinese leadership. Among China's announcements about the war, there was no mention about the fighting in Quảng Ninh.
Notes
== References == | instance of | {
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The Battle of Móng Cái was fought during the Sino-Vietnamese War between 16 February and 10 March 1979 over the city of Móng Cái and other districts of Quảng Ninh Province that bordered the People's Republic of China. The battle broke out as Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) units launched diversionary attacks in support of the Chinese invasion in the major fronts of Lạng Sơn, Cao Bằng and Lào Cai. However, the Chinese failed to attract any Vietnamese reinforcements into the battle.
Battle
Initiated earlier than the overall invasion, Chinese operations in Quảng Ninh area began at around 23:00 on 16 February with artillery shelling and an infantry assault against Hoành Mô, Bình Liêu District. On 17 February, the township of Móng Cái and the Xuan Hoa state farm were also subjected to Chinese artillery bombardment. On the same day, fighting broke out at nearby Pò Hèn Border Post. On 3 March, the PLA struck Hill 1050. Both of the attacks were repulsed at a loss of 750 Chinese casualties, according to a Vietnamese report. Chinese artillery continued pounding Vietnamese positions until 10 March in coordination with infantry raids in smaller scales. On 10 March alone, 3,000 shells were fired against Móng Cái and other border points in Quảng Ninh.
Aftermath
As Quảng Ninh was a place of minimal strategic importance, Chinese attacks in the province could have proved wrong and wasteful, unless they had been explained as an attempt to distract the Vietnam People's Army from the major offensives. In fact, however, the assaults failed, not only to draw Vietnamese reinforcements to the area, but also to capture or retain any positions from the enemy. The lack of military skills was illustrated by Chinese combat performance in the Battle of Cao Ba Lanh, a strategic peak located 9 km from the border crossing at Hoành Mô: a regiment-sized Chinese force, after five hours staging numerous waves of mass formation attacks and the toll of 360 casualties, were eventually able to capture a height defended by a single Vietnamese platoon - losing a total of 422 men during the battle. The People's Liberation Army’s failure to seize Hoanh Mo and Binh Lieu meant they could not sever Highway 4B at Tien Yen, which would have cut land supply lines to Mong Cai.The defeat in Quảng Ninh Province was clearly perceived by Chinese leadership. Among China's announcements about the war, there was no mention about the fighting in Quảng Ninh.
Notes
== References == | location | {
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The Battle of Móng Cái was fought during the Sino-Vietnamese War between 16 February and 10 March 1979 over the city of Móng Cái and other districts of Quảng Ninh Province that bordered the People's Republic of China. The battle broke out as Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) units launched diversionary attacks in support of the Chinese invasion in the major fronts of Lạng Sơn, Cao Bằng and Lào Cai. However, the Chinese failed to attract any Vietnamese reinforcements into the battle.
Battle
Initiated earlier than the overall invasion, Chinese operations in Quảng Ninh area began at around 23:00 on 16 February with artillery shelling and an infantry assault against Hoành Mô, Bình Liêu District. On 17 February, the township of Móng Cái and the Xuan Hoa state farm were also subjected to Chinese artillery bombardment. On the same day, fighting broke out at nearby Pò Hèn Border Post. On 3 March, the PLA struck Hill 1050. Both of the attacks were repulsed at a loss of 750 Chinese casualties, according to a Vietnamese report. Chinese artillery continued pounding Vietnamese positions until 10 March in coordination with infantry raids in smaller scales. On 10 March alone, 3,000 shells were fired against Móng Cái and other border points in Quảng Ninh.
Aftermath
As Quảng Ninh was a place of minimal strategic importance, Chinese attacks in the province could have proved wrong and wasteful, unless they had been explained as an attempt to distract the Vietnam People's Army from the major offensives. In fact, however, the assaults failed, not only to draw Vietnamese reinforcements to the area, but also to capture or retain any positions from the enemy. The lack of military skills was illustrated by Chinese combat performance in the Battle of Cao Ba Lanh, a strategic peak located 9 km from the border crossing at Hoành Mô: a regiment-sized Chinese force, after five hours staging numerous waves of mass formation attacks and the toll of 360 casualties, were eventually able to capture a height defended by a single Vietnamese platoon - losing a total of 422 men during the battle. The People's Liberation Army’s failure to seize Hoanh Mo and Binh Lieu meant they could not sever Highway 4B at Tien Yen, which would have cut land supply lines to Mong Cai.The defeat in Quảng Ninh Province was clearly perceived by Chinese leadership. Among China's announcements about the war, there was no mention about the fighting in Quảng Ninh.
Notes
== References == | part of | {
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John Nada Saya (8 August 1978 – December 2011) is a Tanzanian long-distance runner. He was born in Arusha. He finished fifteenth in the short race at the 2000 World Cross Country Championships. He competed in the marathon race at the 2004 Summer Olympics, but did not finish. He also won the 2001 Milan Marathon, setting a personal best of 2:08:57 hours.
Achievements
All results regarding marathon, unless stated otherwise
Personal bests
Half Marathon - 1:01:19 hrs (2000)
Marathon - 2:08:57 hrs (2001)
External links
John Nada Saya at World Athletics
marathoninfo
John Nada Saya's profile at Sports Reference.com | place of birth | {
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John Nada Saya (8 August 1978 – December 2011) is a Tanzanian long-distance runner. He was born in Arusha. He finished fifteenth in the short race at the 2000 World Cross Country Championships. He competed in the marathon race at the 2004 Summer Olympics, but did not finish. He also won the 2001 Milan Marathon, setting a personal best of 2:08:57 hours.
Achievements
All results regarding marathon, unless stated otherwise
Personal bests
Half Marathon - 1:01:19 hrs (2000)
Marathon - 2:08:57 hrs (2001)
External links
John Nada Saya at World Athletics
marathoninfo
John Nada Saya's profile at Sports Reference.com | country of citizenship | {
"answer_start": [
52
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"text": [
"Tanzania"
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John Nada Saya (8 August 1978 – December 2011) is a Tanzanian long-distance runner. He was born in Arusha. He finished fifteenth in the short race at the 2000 World Cross Country Championships. He competed in the marathon race at the 2004 Summer Olympics, but did not finish. He also won the 2001 Milan Marathon, setting a personal best of 2:08:57 hours.
Achievements
All results regarding marathon, unless stated otherwise
Personal bests
Half Marathon - 1:01:19 hrs (2000)
Marathon - 2:08:57 hrs (2001)
External links
John Nada Saya at World Athletics
marathoninfo
John Nada Saya's profile at Sports Reference.com | given name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"John"
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} |
John Nada Saya (8 August 1978 – December 2011) is a Tanzanian long-distance runner. He was born in Arusha. He finished fifteenth in the short race at the 2000 World Cross Country Championships. He competed in the marathon race at the 2004 Summer Olympics, but did not finish. He also won the 2001 Milan Marathon, setting a personal best of 2:08:57 hours.
Achievements
All results regarding marathon, unless stated otherwise
Personal bests
Half Marathon - 1:01:19 hrs (2000)
Marathon - 2:08:57 hrs (2001)
External links
John Nada Saya at World Athletics
marathoninfo
John Nada Saya's profile at Sports Reference.com | participant in | {
"answer_start": [
234
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"text": [
"2004 Summer Olympics"
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John Nada Saya (8 August 1978 – December 2011) is a Tanzanian long-distance runner. He was born in Arusha. He finished fifteenth in the short race at the 2000 World Cross Country Championships. He competed in the marathon race at the 2004 Summer Olympics, but did not finish. He also won the 2001 Milan Marathon, setting a personal best of 2:08:57 hours.
Achievements
All results regarding marathon, unless stated otherwise
Personal bests
Half Marathon - 1:01:19 hrs (2000)
Marathon - 2:08:57 hrs (2001)
External links
John Nada Saya at World Athletics
marathoninfo
John Nada Saya's profile at Sports Reference.com | sports discipline competed in | {
"answer_start": [
213
],
"text": [
"marathon"
]
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | instrument | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | languages spoken, written or signed | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | birth name | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | name in native language | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | place of birth | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | occupation | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | Commons category | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | family name | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | given name | {
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Jimmy Lee Swaggart (; born March 15, 1935) is an American Pentecostal televangelist, gospel music recording artist, pianist, and Christian author.
His television ministry, which began in 1971, and was originally known as the Camp Meeting Hour, has a viewing audience both in the U.S. and internationally. The weekly Jimmy Swaggart Telecast and A Study in the Word programs are broadcast throughout the U.S. and on 78 channels in 104 countries, and over the Internet.At the height of his popularity in the 1980s, his telecast was transmitted to in excess of 3,000 stations and cable systems each week. His "crusades" enabled him to travel throughout the contiguous United States, Canada, Europe, Africa, and South America.
Swaggart plays the piano and he also sings in a baritone voice. During the 1970s and 1980s, he sold in excess of 17 million LP albums.In 1980, Swaggart received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Performance for Traditional Gospel.The Jimmy Swaggart Ministries owns and operates the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN). Swaggart is the senior pastor of the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Early life
Jimmy Lee Swaggart was born on March 15, 1935, in Ferriday, Louisiana, to fiddle player and Pentecostal preacher Willie Leon (known as "Sun" or "Son") Swaggart and Minnie Bell Herron, daughter of sharecropper William Herron. They were related by marriage, as Son's maternal uncle was Elmo Lewis, who was married to Minnie's sister Mamie. The extended family had a complex network of interrelationships: "cousins and in-laws and other relatives married each other until the clan was entwined like a big, tight ball of rubber bands."He is the cousin of rockabilly pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis and country music star Mickey Gilley. He also had a sister, Jeanette Ensminger (1942–1999). With his parents, Swaggart attended small Assemblies of God churches in Ferriday and Wisner.
In 1952, aged 17, Swaggart married 15-year-old Frances Anderson, whom he met in church in Wisner, Louisiana while he was playing music with his father, who pastored the Assembly of God Church there. They have a son named Donnie. Swaggart worked several part-time odd jobs to support his young family and also began singing Southern Gospel music at various churches.
According to his autobiography To Cross a River, Swaggart, along with his wife and son, lived in poverty during the 1950s as he preached throughout rural Louisiana, struggling to survive on an income of $30 a week (equivalent to $310 in 2022). Being too poor to own a home, the Swaggarts lived in church basements, homes of pastors, and small motels. Sun Records producer Sam Phillips wanted to start a gospel line of music for the label (perhaps to remain in competition with RCA Victor and Columbia, who also had gospel lines at the time) and wanted Swaggart for Sun as the first gospel artist for the label.
His cousin Jerry Lee Lewis, who had previously signed with Sun, was reportedly earning $20,000 per week at the time. Although the offer meant a promise for significant income for him and his family, Swaggart turned Phillips down, stating that he was called to preach the gospel.
Ordination and early career
Preaching from a flatbed trailer donated to him, Swaggart began full-time evangelistic work in 1955. He began developing a revival-meeting following throughout the American South. In 1960, he began recording gospel music record albums and transmitting on Christian radio stations. In 1961, Swaggart was ordained by the Assemblies of God; a year later he began his radio ministry. In the late 1960s, Swaggart founded what was then a small church named the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; the church eventually became district-affiliated with the Assemblies of God.
In 1971, Swaggart began transmitting a weekly 30-minute telecast over various local television stations in Baton Rouge and also purchased a local AM radio station, WLUX (now WPFC). The station broadcast Christian feature stories, preaching and teaching to various fundamentalist and Pentecostal denominations and playing black gospel, Southern gospel, and inspirational music. As Contemporary Christian music (CCM) became more prevalent, the station avoided playing it. However, Swaggart did cover Chuck Girard's CCM song "Sometimes Alleluia", using this as the theme to his weekly and flagship namesake program. Swaggart sold many of his radio stations gradually throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Jimmy Swaggart Ministries still operates several radio stations that operate under the name Sonlife Radio.
Swaggart wrote a book, Religious Rock n Roll: A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing, in 1987.In his monthly periodical known as "The Evangelist", he wrote against worldliness in worship music, particularly referring to a Carman concert.He also mentioned in the article that Christian leaders were in "terrible opposition" with him for preaching the truth against contemporary Christian music and its artists.
Swaggart has often preached that God does not borrow from the world to reach the youth, but has since changed his position on contemporary Christian music and has integrated its sound and style in his worship services such as Hillsong.
Shifting to television
By 1975, the television ministry had expanded to more stations around the United States, and he began to use television as his primary preaching forum. In 1978, the weekly telecast was increased to an hour.
In 1980, Swaggart began a daily weekday telecast featuring Bible study and music, and the weekend, hour-long telecast included a service from either Family Worship Center (Swaggart's church) or an on-location crusade in a major city. In the early 1980s, the broadcasts expanded to major cities nationwide. By 1983, more than 250 television stations broadcast the telecast.
Promotion of RENAMO
Throughout the 1980s, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries was one of many American Evangelical leaders who promoted the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance, aka RENAMO, which was accused of committing systematic war crimes during Mozambique's 15-year-long civil war. In addition to moral support and publicity, Swaggart Ministries was repeatedly accused of providing funding and material support to the group. In September 1985, government forces supported by Zimbabwe captured RENAMO's main HQ inside Mozambique, Casa Banana in Gorongosa district. Among the materials left behind by retreating rebels were piles of Swaggart's 1982 publication, "How to Receive The Baptism in the Holy Spirit" translated into Portuguese. During the 1988 trial of Australian missionary Ian Grey, who coordinated much of the private support to RENAMO, it was claimed by the defendant that Swaggart Ministries worked through ex-Rhodesian soldier Michael T Howard's Shekinah Ministries to provide support to RENAMO. That year, extensive media coverage of Swaggart and his businesses in the wake of a sex scandal largely excluded these allegations. In 1991, Covert Action Magazine and the government of Zimbabwe both accused Swaggart ministries of continuing to fund RENAMO.
Prostitution scandals
In 1988, Swaggart was accused of a sex scandal involving a prostitute, initially resulting in his suspension, and ultimately defrocking, by the Assemblies of God. Three years later Swaggart was implicated in another scandal involving prostitution. As a result, Swaggart's ministry became non-affiliated, nondenominational, and significantly smaller than it was in the ministry's pre-scandal years.
Feud with Marvin Gorman
Swaggart's first exposure was in retaliation for an incident in 1986 when he exposed fellow Assemblies of God minister Marvin Gorman, whom he accused of having several affairs. Once he was exposed, Gorman was defrocked from the Assemblies of God, and his ministry was all but ended. Gorman filed a successful lawsuit against Swaggart for defamation and conspiracy to ruin his reputation which led to the award of damages amounting to $10 million in 1991, reduced after an appeal and an out-of-court settlement to $1.75 million.However, as a retaliatory measure, Gorman hired his son Randy and son-in-law Garland Bilbo to watch the Travel Inn on Airline Highway in Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. A camera with a telephoto lens was placed in the window of the motel's Room 12, and draped with a black cloth. When Swaggart arrived, he reportedly went into Room 7. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo let the air out of the tires on Swaggart's vehicle. They called Marvin Gorman, whose church was located nearby. Randy Gorman and Garland Bilbo had taken photos of Swaggart outside Room 7 with Debra Murphree, a local prostitute. Gorman arrived at the Travel Inn a short while later and confronted Swaggart, although on details accounts from both sides differed.According to Swaggart: The Unauthorized Biography of an American Evangelist, by Ann Rowe Seaman, Gorman secured a promise from Swaggart that he would publicly apologize to Gorman and start the process of Gorman's reinstatement to the Assemblies of God. Gorman offered to remain silent if Swaggart would state publicly that he lied about Gorman's affairs. Gorman waited almost a year, then hand-delivered a note to Swaggart informing him his time was up; Swaggart did not respond. On February 16, 1988, Gorman contacted James Hamil, one of the 13-man Executive Presbytery of the Assemblies of God, who called G. Raymond Carlson, the Assemblies Superintendent. Carlson summoned Hamill and Gorman to fly to Assemblies of God headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, and arranged for an emergency meeting of the presbyters. He was shown photos of several men coming in and going out of Room 7 at the Travel Inn Motel in New Orleans. This was done to establish that the room was being used for prostitution. One of the men shown leaving Room 7 was Swaggart. The presbytery leadership of the Assemblies of God decided that Swaggart should be suspended from broadcasting his television program for three months.According to the Associated Press, Murphree, who claimed to have posed nude for Swaggart, failed a polygraph test administered by a New York City Police Department polygraph expert. The test administrator concluded that Murphree had failed to tell the truth on all key questions concerning her statement. The test was administered after Murphree offered to sell the story to the National Enquirer for $100,000. Paul Levy, senior editor for the Enquirer, stated that the polygraph examiner had concluded Murphree was not truthful on six key questions, including one in which she was reportedly asked if she had fabricated the story. Levy stated that the Enquirer decided not to print her story due to the test results, her drug use, and the fact that she had arrest warrants in three states. Murphree failed questions about whether she was paid or promised money to "set up" Swaggart, and whether she made up the story to make money from it. In place of Murphree's interview, Enquirer editor Levy published an accounting of Swaggart's family where they allegedly expressed their fears over Swaggart's health. Murphree, who blamed her failed polygraph on "cocaine use" the day before the test was given, went on to have her interview published by Penthouse magazine.
Swaggart's confession and defrocking
On February 21, 1988, without giving any details regarding his transgressions, Swaggart delivered what came to be known as his "I have sinned" speech on live television. He spoke tearfully to his family, congregation, TV audience, and ended it with a prayer, "I have sinned against You, my Lord, and I would ask that Your Precious Blood ... would wash and cleanse every stain until it is in the seas of God's forgetfulness never to be remembered against me anymore."The Louisiana presbytery of the Assemblies of God initially suspended Swaggart from the ministry for three months. The national presbytery of the Assemblies of God soon extended the suspension to their standard two-year suspension for sexual immorality. His return to the pulpit coincided with the end of a three-month suspension originally ordered by the denomination. Believing that Swaggart was not genuinely repentant in submitting to their authority, the hierarchy of the Assemblies of God defrocked him, removing his credentials and ministerial license.Swaggart then became an independent and non-denominational Pentecostal minister, establishing Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, based at the Family Worship Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the Sonlife Broadcasting Network (SBN) which can be seen in the United States and other countries.
1991 scandal
On October 11, 1991, Swaggart was found in the company of a prostitute for a second time. He was pulled over by a police officer in Indio, California, for driving on the wrong side of the road. With him in the vehicle was a woman named Rosemary Garcia. According to Garcia, Swaggart had stopped to propose sex to her on the side of the road. She later told reporters: "He asked me for sex. I mean, that's why he stopped me. That's what I do. I'm a prostitute." This time, rather than confessing his sins to his congregation, Swaggart told those at Family Worship Center, "The Lord told me it's flat none of your business." Swaggart's son Donnie then announced to the audience that his father would be temporarily stepping down as head of Jimmy Swaggart Ministries for "a time of healing and counseling".
Ministries
As of 2007 Jimmy Swaggart Ministries mainly comprised Family Worship Center, The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast, radio and television programs called A Study in the Word, SonLife Radio Network, a website, and a 24/7 cable and satellite television network, SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN).
Swaggart's wife Frances hosts a television program, Frances and Friends, shown daily on SBN. Swaggart also hosts a daily Bible study program on SBN, The Message of the Cross. His son Donnie preaches at Family Worship Center and also preaches in churches across America and abroad. Donnie's son Gabriel is the ministry's youth pastor who leads Crossfire, Family Worship Center's youth ministry. SBN also delivers live broadcasts of all of its weekly services at Family Worship Center, as well as live broadcasts of all of its camp meetings.
Radio
Swaggart started SonLife Radio on the noncommercial FM band. Unlike his previous stations, SonLife was commercial-free and it did not sell time to outside ministries; the preaching and teaching were all produced in-house. The music which it played was primarily Southern Gospel. SonLife Radio is also streamed on the Internet.
Some controversy arose concerning the ministry raising money for stations that were never built.
List of radio stations
The network's flagship station is WJFM in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Notes:
Translators
Television
In 1973, Swaggart proposed to television producers in Nashville, Tennessee a television program including a fairly large music segment, a short sermon, and time for talking about current ministry projects, after two faltering attempts to tape the half-hour program in Baton Rouge and New Orleans. They accepted, and within weeks the Jimmy Swaggart Telecast was being broadcast around the United States.
In 1981, Swaggart launched a daily television program titled A Study in the Word. From the beginning, the primary cable channels which the program was aired on were CBN Cable (now Freeform), TBN, and the old PTL Network (now the Inspiration Network).
In 1988, Swaggart lost some of his broadcast and merchandise rights following his first prostitution scandal. In 1991, Swaggart's career as standard televangelist came to an end after more local TV stations cancelled their contracts with him following a second prostitution scandal.In 2010, Jimmy Swaggart Ministries launched a 24 hour-a-day television network entitled the SonLife Broadcasting Network (SBN), on DirecTV channel 344, Dish Network channel 257, Glorystar channel 125, AT&T U-verse, Verizon Fios, and various cable TV providers and broadcast stations.SBN is available in the U.S. through Free To Air (FTA) satellite television. It is also available in Australia, via Foxtel nationally, and via Southern Cross Austereo in some regional areas, and New Zealand.SBN is also available 24 hours a day in the United Kingdom on SKY (Channel 593), Freesat (Channel 695) and Freeview (Channel 239). It is also shown on DSTV channel 345 for African viewers.
Jimmy Swaggart Bible College
In autumn 1984, Swaggart opened Jimmy Swaggart Bible College (JSBC). The college originally provided education and communication degrees. It flourished during the 1980s.
In 1986, Ray Trask was appointed as president of JSBC.
In the fall of 1987 enrollment peaked at 1,450 students.
JSBC enrollment dropped drastically in 1988 when students left as a result of Swaggart's scandal followed by accreditation issues. In 1988 the enrollment at the Bible college was projected to drop 72% that year but the school was planning to proceed with plans to open a theological seminary. Enrollment in August 1988 was projected to be about 400 students, compared to 1,451 students last year in 1987. The estimate was based on the number of students who had registered and the inquiries from potential students.In 1988, Ray Trask, left his position as president of JSBC. That July the college dormitories were re-branded and listed as apartments.
In 1991, JSBC was renamed the World Evangelism Bible College and enrollment dropped to 370 students. The college shut down programs in music, physical education, secretarial science, and communications that October and disbanded its basketball team. In November "the college laid off three Bible professors and an English professor, effective at the end of the fall semester."In 1992, Bernard Rossier resigned as president of Jimmy Swaggart's World Evangelism Bible College and Seminary.In 2019, JSBC offered Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees, both in Biblical Studies. The College was not accredited but was seeking accreditation at that time.In 2020, Ray Trask, former JSBC President at Jimmy Swaggart Bible College died. Mr. Trask served as JSBC president from 1986 to 1988.
In 2021, Gabriel Swaggart, grandson of Jimmy Swaggart, was the President of JSBC. JSBC stopped offering online classes around 2020 in one of many steps to seek accreditation. JSBC lists a total of six faculty/staff members.In 2022, Gabriel Swaggart remains as President of JSBC. Under "accreditation" the college website states "JSBC is a corresponding institution with The Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS)." JSBC lists five college administrators, six faculty, and one staff member.
Print
Swaggart has written about 50 Christian books offered through his ministry. He is the author of the Expositor's Study Bible, 13 study guides and 38 commentaries on the Bible. The ministry also publishes a monthly magazine, The Evangelist.
Family
Since October 10, 1952, Swaggart has been married to Frances Swaggart (née Anderson, born August 9, 1937). They have one son, Donnie (born October 18, 1954), named after Jimmy Swaggart's brother who died in infancy. He has three grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren—Abby, Caroline, Mackenzie, Samantha, Zack, Ryder, and many more.Donnie and his son Gabriel are also preachers, making four generations of the Swaggart family to have become involved in ministerial work.
Family Christian Academy
In 1982, Swaggart founded Family Christian Academy (FCA). The school was originally run by him but is now run by Carolyn Richards, Swaggart's grandson's mother-in-law.
Popular culture
The scandals inspired the Ozzy Osbourne song "Miracle Man" on Osbourne's 1988 album No Rest for the Wicked, and a reference in the Iron Maiden song "Holy Smoke", a UK number three hit single, from the 1990 album No Prayer for the Dying. During his 1988 concerts, Bruce Hornsby would begin his song "Defenders of the Flag" from Scenes from the Southside with a tongue-in-cheek dedication to Swaggart.Similarities were also noted between heel World Wrestling Federation character Brother Love and Swaggart's style of preaching.The Zodiac Mindwarp song "Airline Highway" is about Swaggart's hypocrisy, featuring the lyrics "Unoriginal sin led straight to my fall", and in the chorus, "Hey Jim, the crime's in your heart / You put love in a straitjacket, it tore you apart."
Swaggart was also referred to in several recorded live performances by Frank Zappa with a medley of the Beatles' songs featuring rewritten lyrics referencing him appearing on the album Zappa '88.
Swaggart is heard throughout the 1988 Front 242 song "Welcome to Paradise".
A tearful Swaggart is seen during the music video for the Def Leppard song "Slang", appearing on-screen during the lyric "God damn".
Part of Swaggart's confessional sermon ("I beg you ... forgive me") can be heard at the start of "Kill Eye" by Crowded House.In 1990, "the Jimmy Swaggart show" was included as part of a list of 64 disagreeable things read by Josie Jones and released as a spoken-word track under the name "Imperfect List" by "Big Hard Excellent Fish".
In 1999, rapper Eminem vaguely made reference to hypocritical preachers, most likely referring to many in the 1980s such as Swaggart and others in his song "Criminal" in the verse where he raps "...Oh, and please send me a brand new car/and a prostitute while my wife's sick in the hospital".
"Jesus He Knows Me", a 1991 song by Genesis, is a satire on televangelists, such as Swaggart, Robert Tilton, and Jim Bakker.
In November 2021 multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Lingua Ignota released a compilation of readings called EPISTOLARY GRIEVING FOR JIMMY SWAGGART, made from letters she penned to Swaggart. This follows her sampling Swaggart's confession in her song "The Sacred Linament of Judgement" on her album Sinner Get Ready.
Canadian rock band The New Pornographers took their name from a 1986 speech by Swaggart in which he lambasted rock music as "The new pornography."
References
External links
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries
Jimmy Swaggart at IMDb | relative | {
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Le Vignau (French pronunciation: [lə viɲo]; Occitan: Lo Vinhau) is a commune in the Landes department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in southwestern France.
Population
See also
Communes of the Landes department
== References == | country | {
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Le Vignau (French pronunciation: [lə viɲo]; Occitan: Lo Vinhau) is a commune in the Landes department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in southwestern France.
Population
See also
Communes of the Landes department
== References == | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
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Le Vignau (French pronunciation: [lə viɲo]; Occitan: Lo Vinhau) is a commune in the Landes department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in southwestern France.
Population
See also
Communes of the Landes department
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Le Vignau (French pronunciation: [lə viɲo]; Occitan: Lo Vinhau) is a commune in the Landes department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in southwestern France.
Population
See also
Communes of the Landes department
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Xanthium (cocklebur) is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Heliantheae within the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia and some parts of south Asia .
Description
Cockleburs are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 50–120 cm (20–47 in) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with deeply toothed margins. Some species, notably Xanthium spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.The flower heads are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur 8–20 mm (0.32–0.79 in) long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which stick to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to detach. These burs are carried long distances from the parent plant during seed dispersal by help of animals (zoochorous).
Biology
Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.
Diversity
Over 200 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and varieties within the genus. Most of these are regarded as synonyms of highly variable species. Some recognize as few as two or three species in the genus. The Global Compositae Checklist recognizes the following
Accepted speciesXanthium albinum (Widd.) Scholz & Sukopp – Mongolia
Xanthium argenteum Widder – Chile
Xanthium catharticum Kunth – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Xanthium cavanillesii Shouw – Argentina
Xanthium inaequilaterum DC. – China, India, Southeast Asia
Xanthium mongolicum Kitag. – Mongolia
Xanthium orientale L. – Europe, North Africa, Middle East
Xanthium pungens Wallr. – Australia; naturalized in Eurasia
Xanthium saccharosum
Xanthium spinosum L. – spiny cocklebur, burreed, Bathurst burr – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitan
Xanthium strumarium L. – clotbur, rough cocklebur, large cocklebur, common cocklebur – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitanformerly includedsee Ambrosia
Xanthium artemisioides – Ambrosia arborescens
Xanthium fruticosum – Ambrosia arborescens
Legal status
The cocklebur is legally listed as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa in the United States of America.
Toxicity and uses
The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a native of North America. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible.Xanthium strumarium is known as cang er zi (苍耳子) in traditional Chinese medicine. Xanthium is also used to treat nasal and sinus congestion.The spines and seeds of this fruit are rich in a chemical called carboxyatractyloside (CAT), formerly referred to as xanthostrumarin, which is the chemical that is responsible for most of the adverse effects from the use of cang er zi. CAT has been shown to be a growth inhibitor in Xanthium and other plants, serving two functions, delaying seed germination and inhibiting the growth of other plants. Most of the chemical is concentrated in the spines. When the bur is prepared as an herbal remedy, the spines are usually removed, reducing the CAT content of the finished product.
In literature
In the O. Henry novel Cabbages and Kings cockleburrs (spelt thus) are used as a plot device in the chapters Shoes and Ships to persuade the normally barefooted inhabitants of a town in the fictitious banana republic of Anchuria to buy shoes.
Gallery
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
References
Further reading
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L.; Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 | taxon rank | {
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Xanthium (cocklebur) is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Heliantheae within the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia and some parts of south Asia .
Description
Cockleburs are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 50–120 cm (20–47 in) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with deeply toothed margins. Some species, notably Xanthium spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.The flower heads are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur 8–20 mm (0.32–0.79 in) long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which stick to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to detach. These burs are carried long distances from the parent plant during seed dispersal by help of animals (zoochorous).
Biology
Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.
Diversity
Over 200 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and varieties within the genus. Most of these are regarded as synonyms of highly variable species. Some recognize as few as two or three species in the genus. The Global Compositae Checklist recognizes the following
Accepted speciesXanthium albinum (Widd.) Scholz & Sukopp – Mongolia
Xanthium argenteum Widder – Chile
Xanthium catharticum Kunth – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Xanthium cavanillesii Shouw – Argentina
Xanthium inaequilaterum DC. – China, India, Southeast Asia
Xanthium mongolicum Kitag. – Mongolia
Xanthium orientale L. – Europe, North Africa, Middle East
Xanthium pungens Wallr. – Australia; naturalized in Eurasia
Xanthium saccharosum
Xanthium spinosum L. – spiny cocklebur, burreed, Bathurst burr – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitan
Xanthium strumarium L. – clotbur, rough cocklebur, large cocklebur, common cocklebur – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitanformerly includedsee Ambrosia
Xanthium artemisioides – Ambrosia arborescens
Xanthium fruticosum – Ambrosia arborescens
Legal status
The cocklebur is legally listed as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa in the United States of America.
Toxicity and uses
The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a native of North America. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible.Xanthium strumarium is known as cang er zi (苍耳子) in traditional Chinese medicine. Xanthium is also used to treat nasal and sinus congestion.The spines and seeds of this fruit are rich in a chemical called carboxyatractyloside (CAT), formerly referred to as xanthostrumarin, which is the chemical that is responsible for most of the adverse effects from the use of cang er zi. CAT has been shown to be a growth inhibitor in Xanthium and other plants, serving two functions, delaying seed germination and inhibiting the growth of other plants. Most of the chemical is concentrated in the spines. When the bur is prepared as an herbal remedy, the spines are usually removed, reducing the CAT content of the finished product.
In literature
In the O. Henry novel Cabbages and Kings cockleburrs (spelt thus) are used as a plot device in the chapters Shoes and Ships to persuade the normally barefooted inhabitants of a town in the fictitious banana republic of Anchuria to buy shoes.
Gallery
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
References
Further reading
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L.; Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 | parent taxon | {
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Xanthium (cocklebur) is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Heliantheae within the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia and some parts of south Asia .
Description
Cockleburs are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 50–120 cm (20–47 in) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with deeply toothed margins. Some species, notably Xanthium spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.The flower heads are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur 8–20 mm (0.32–0.79 in) long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which stick to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to detach. These burs are carried long distances from the parent plant during seed dispersal by help of animals (zoochorous).
Biology
Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.
Diversity
Over 200 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and varieties within the genus. Most of these are regarded as synonyms of highly variable species. Some recognize as few as two or three species in the genus. The Global Compositae Checklist recognizes the following
Accepted speciesXanthium albinum (Widd.) Scholz & Sukopp – Mongolia
Xanthium argenteum Widder – Chile
Xanthium catharticum Kunth – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Xanthium cavanillesii Shouw – Argentina
Xanthium inaequilaterum DC. – China, India, Southeast Asia
Xanthium mongolicum Kitag. – Mongolia
Xanthium orientale L. – Europe, North Africa, Middle East
Xanthium pungens Wallr. – Australia; naturalized in Eurasia
Xanthium saccharosum
Xanthium spinosum L. – spiny cocklebur, burreed, Bathurst burr – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitan
Xanthium strumarium L. – clotbur, rough cocklebur, large cocklebur, common cocklebur – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitanformerly includedsee Ambrosia
Xanthium artemisioides – Ambrosia arborescens
Xanthium fruticosum – Ambrosia arborescens
Legal status
The cocklebur is legally listed as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa in the United States of America.
Toxicity and uses
The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a native of North America. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible.Xanthium strumarium is known as cang er zi (苍耳子) in traditional Chinese medicine. Xanthium is also used to treat nasal and sinus congestion.The spines and seeds of this fruit are rich in a chemical called carboxyatractyloside (CAT), formerly referred to as xanthostrumarin, which is the chemical that is responsible for most of the adverse effects from the use of cang er zi. CAT has been shown to be a growth inhibitor in Xanthium and other plants, serving two functions, delaying seed germination and inhibiting the growth of other plants. Most of the chemical is concentrated in the spines. When the bur is prepared as an herbal remedy, the spines are usually removed, reducing the CAT content of the finished product.
In literature
In the O. Henry novel Cabbages and Kings cockleburrs (spelt thus) are used as a plot device in the chapters Shoes and Ships to persuade the normally barefooted inhabitants of a town in the fictitious banana republic of Anchuria to buy shoes.
Gallery
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
References
Further reading
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L.; Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 | taxon name | {
"answer_start": [
0
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Xanthium (cocklebur) is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Heliantheae within the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia and some parts of south Asia .
Description
Cockleburs are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 50–120 cm (20–47 in) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with deeply toothed margins. Some species, notably Xanthium spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.The flower heads are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur 8–20 mm (0.32–0.79 in) long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which stick to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to detach. These burs are carried long distances from the parent plant during seed dispersal by help of animals (zoochorous).
Biology
Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.
Diversity
Over 200 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and varieties within the genus. Most of these are regarded as synonyms of highly variable species. Some recognize as few as two or three species in the genus. The Global Compositae Checklist recognizes the following
Accepted speciesXanthium albinum (Widd.) Scholz & Sukopp – Mongolia
Xanthium argenteum Widder – Chile
Xanthium catharticum Kunth – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Xanthium cavanillesii Shouw – Argentina
Xanthium inaequilaterum DC. – China, India, Southeast Asia
Xanthium mongolicum Kitag. – Mongolia
Xanthium orientale L. – Europe, North Africa, Middle East
Xanthium pungens Wallr. – Australia; naturalized in Eurasia
Xanthium saccharosum
Xanthium spinosum L. – spiny cocklebur, burreed, Bathurst burr – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitan
Xanthium strumarium L. – clotbur, rough cocklebur, large cocklebur, common cocklebur – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitanformerly includedsee Ambrosia
Xanthium artemisioides – Ambrosia arborescens
Xanthium fruticosum – Ambrosia arborescens
Legal status
The cocklebur is legally listed as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa in the United States of America.
Toxicity and uses
The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a native of North America. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible.Xanthium strumarium is known as cang er zi (苍耳子) in traditional Chinese medicine. Xanthium is also used to treat nasal and sinus congestion.The spines and seeds of this fruit are rich in a chemical called carboxyatractyloside (CAT), formerly referred to as xanthostrumarin, which is the chemical that is responsible for most of the adverse effects from the use of cang er zi. CAT has been shown to be a growth inhibitor in Xanthium and other plants, serving two functions, delaying seed germination and inhibiting the growth of other plants. Most of the chemical is concentrated in the spines. When the bur is prepared as an herbal remedy, the spines are usually removed, reducing the CAT content of the finished product.
In literature
In the O. Henry novel Cabbages and Kings cockleburrs (spelt thus) are used as a plot device in the chapters Shoes and Ships to persuade the normally barefooted inhabitants of a town in the fictitious banana republic of Anchuria to buy shoes.
Gallery
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
References
Further reading
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L.; Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 | Commons category | {
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Xanthium (cocklebur) is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Heliantheae within the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia and some parts of south Asia .
Description
Cockleburs are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 50–120 cm (20–47 in) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with deeply toothed margins. Some species, notably Xanthium spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.The flower heads are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur 8–20 mm (0.32–0.79 in) long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which stick to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to detach. These burs are carried long distances from the parent plant during seed dispersal by help of animals (zoochorous).
Biology
Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.
Diversity
Over 200 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and varieties within the genus. Most of these are regarded as synonyms of highly variable species. Some recognize as few as two or three species in the genus. The Global Compositae Checklist recognizes the following
Accepted speciesXanthium albinum (Widd.) Scholz & Sukopp – Mongolia
Xanthium argenteum Widder – Chile
Xanthium catharticum Kunth – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Xanthium cavanillesii Shouw – Argentina
Xanthium inaequilaterum DC. – China, India, Southeast Asia
Xanthium mongolicum Kitag. – Mongolia
Xanthium orientale L. – Europe, North Africa, Middle East
Xanthium pungens Wallr. – Australia; naturalized in Eurasia
Xanthium saccharosum
Xanthium spinosum L. – spiny cocklebur, burreed, Bathurst burr – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitan
Xanthium strumarium L. – clotbur, rough cocklebur, large cocklebur, common cocklebur – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitanformerly includedsee Ambrosia
Xanthium artemisioides – Ambrosia arborescens
Xanthium fruticosum – Ambrosia arborescens
Legal status
The cocklebur is legally listed as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa in the United States of America.
Toxicity and uses
The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a native of North America. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible.Xanthium strumarium is known as cang er zi (苍耳子) in traditional Chinese medicine. Xanthium is also used to treat nasal and sinus congestion.The spines and seeds of this fruit are rich in a chemical called carboxyatractyloside (CAT), formerly referred to as xanthostrumarin, which is the chemical that is responsible for most of the adverse effects from the use of cang er zi. CAT has been shown to be a growth inhibitor in Xanthium and other plants, serving two functions, delaying seed germination and inhibiting the growth of other plants. Most of the chemical is concentrated in the spines. When the bur is prepared as an herbal remedy, the spines are usually removed, reducing the CAT content of the finished product.
In literature
In the O. Henry novel Cabbages and Kings cockleburrs (spelt thus) are used as a plot device in the chapters Shoes and Ships to persuade the normally barefooted inhabitants of a town in the fictitious banana republic of Anchuria to buy shoes.
Gallery
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
References
Further reading
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L.; Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 | taxon common name | {
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Xanthium (cocklebur) is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Heliantheae within the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia and some parts of south Asia .
Description
Cockleburs are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 50–120 cm (20–47 in) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with deeply toothed margins. Some species, notably Xanthium spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.The flower heads are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur 8–20 mm (0.32–0.79 in) long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which stick to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to detach. These burs are carried long distances from the parent plant during seed dispersal by help of animals (zoochorous).
Biology
Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.
Diversity
Over 200 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and varieties within the genus. Most of these are regarded as synonyms of highly variable species. Some recognize as few as two or three species in the genus. The Global Compositae Checklist recognizes the following
Accepted speciesXanthium albinum (Widd.) Scholz & Sukopp – Mongolia
Xanthium argenteum Widder – Chile
Xanthium catharticum Kunth – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Xanthium cavanillesii Shouw – Argentina
Xanthium inaequilaterum DC. – China, India, Southeast Asia
Xanthium mongolicum Kitag. – Mongolia
Xanthium orientale L. – Europe, North Africa, Middle East
Xanthium pungens Wallr. – Australia; naturalized in Eurasia
Xanthium saccharosum
Xanthium spinosum L. – spiny cocklebur, burreed, Bathurst burr – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitan
Xanthium strumarium L. – clotbur, rough cocklebur, large cocklebur, common cocklebur – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitanformerly includedsee Ambrosia
Xanthium artemisioides – Ambrosia arborescens
Xanthium fruticosum – Ambrosia arborescens
Legal status
The cocklebur is legally listed as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa in the United States of America.
Toxicity and uses
The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a native of North America. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible.Xanthium strumarium is known as cang er zi (苍耳子) in traditional Chinese medicine. Xanthium is also used to treat nasal and sinus congestion.The spines and seeds of this fruit are rich in a chemical called carboxyatractyloside (CAT), formerly referred to as xanthostrumarin, which is the chemical that is responsible for most of the adverse effects from the use of cang er zi. CAT has been shown to be a growth inhibitor in Xanthium and other plants, serving two functions, delaying seed germination and inhibiting the growth of other plants. Most of the chemical is concentrated in the spines. When the bur is prepared as an herbal remedy, the spines are usually removed, reducing the CAT content of the finished product.
In literature
In the O. Henry novel Cabbages and Kings cockleburrs (spelt thus) are used as a plot device in the chapters Shoes and Ships to persuade the normally barefooted inhabitants of a town in the fictitious banana republic of Anchuria to buy shoes.
Gallery
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
References
Further reading
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L.; Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 | Flora of Australia ID (new) | {
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Xanthium (cocklebur) is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Heliantheae within the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia and some parts of south Asia .
Description
Cockleburs are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 50–120 cm (20–47 in) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with deeply toothed margins. Some species, notably Xanthium spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.The flower heads are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur 8–20 mm (0.32–0.79 in) long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which stick to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to detach. These burs are carried long distances from the parent plant during seed dispersal by help of animals (zoochorous).
Biology
Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.
Diversity
Over 200 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and varieties within the genus. Most of these are regarded as synonyms of highly variable species. Some recognize as few as two or three species in the genus. The Global Compositae Checklist recognizes the following
Accepted speciesXanthium albinum (Widd.) Scholz & Sukopp – Mongolia
Xanthium argenteum Widder – Chile
Xanthium catharticum Kunth – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Xanthium cavanillesii Shouw – Argentina
Xanthium inaequilaterum DC. – China, India, Southeast Asia
Xanthium mongolicum Kitag. – Mongolia
Xanthium orientale L. – Europe, North Africa, Middle East
Xanthium pungens Wallr. – Australia; naturalized in Eurasia
Xanthium saccharosum
Xanthium spinosum L. – spiny cocklebur, burreed, Bathurst burr – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitan
Xanthium strumarium L. – clotbur, rough cocklebur, large cocklebur, common cocklebur – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitanformerly includedsee Ambrosia
Xanthium artemisioides – Ambrosia arborescens
Xanthium fruticosum – Ambrosia arborescens
Legal status
The cocklebur is legally listed as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa in the United States of America.
Toxicity and uses
The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a native of North America. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible.Xanthium strumarium is known as cang er zi (苍耳子) in traditional Chinese medicine. Xanthium is also used to treat nasal and sinus congestion.The spines and seeds of this fruit are rich in a chemical called carboxyatractyloside (CAT), formerly referred to as xanthostrumarin, which is the chemical that is responsible for most of the adverse effects from the use of cang er zi. CAT has been shown to be a growth inhibitor in Xanthium and other plants, serving two functions, delaying seed germination and inhibiting the growth of other plants. Most of the chemical is concentrated in the spines. When the bur is prepared as an herbal remedy, the spines are usually removed, reducing the CAT content of the finished product.
In literature
In the O. Henry novel Cabbages and Kings cockleburrs (spelt thus) are used as a plot device in the chapters Shoes and Ships to persuade the normally barefooted inhabitants of a town in the fictitious banana republic of Anchuria to buy shoes.
Gallery
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
References
Further reading
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L.; Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 | SA Flora ID | {
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Xanthium (cocklebur) is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Heliantheae within the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia and some parts of south Asia .
Description
Cockleburs are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 50–120 cm (20–47 in) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with deeply toothed margins. Some species, notably Xanthium spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.The flower heads are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur 8–20 mm (0.32–0.79 in) long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which stick to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to detach. These burs are carried long distances from the parent plant during seed dispersal by help of animals (zoochorous).
Biology
Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.
Diversity
Over 200 names have been proposed for species, subspecies, and varieties within the genus. Most of these are regarded as synonyms of highly variable species. Some recognize as few as two or three species in the genus. The Global Compositae Checklist recognizes the following
Accepted speciesXanthium albinum (Widd.) Scholz & Sukopp – Mongolia
Xanthium argenteum Widder – Chile
Xanthium catharticum Kunth – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
Xanthium cavanillesii Shouw – Argentina
Xanthium inaequilaterum DC. – China, India, Southeast Asia
Xanthium mongolicum Kitag. – Mongolia
Xanthium orientale L. – Europe, North Africa, Middle East
Xanthium pungens Wallr. – Australia; naturalized in Eurasia
Xanthium saccharosum
Xanthium spinosum L. – spiny cocklebur, burreed, Bathurst burr – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitan
Xanthium strumarium L. – clotbur, rough cocklebur, large cocklebur, common cocklebur – very widespread, nearly cosmopolitanformerly includedsee Ambrosia
Xanthium artemisioides – Ambrosia arborescens
Xanthium fruticosum – Ambrosia arborescens
Legal status
The cocklebur is legally listed as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa in the United States of America.
Toxicity and uses
The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a native of North America. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible.Xanthium strumarium is known as cang er zi (苍耳子) in traditional Chinese medicine. Xanthium is also used to treat nasal and sinus congestion.The spines and seeds of this fruit are rich in a chemical called carboxyatractyloside (CAT), formerly referred to as xanthostrumarin, which is the chemical that is responsible for most of the adverse effects from the use of cang er zi. CAT has been shown to be a growth inhibitor in Xanthium and other plants, serving two functions, delaying seed germination and inhibiting the growth of other plants. Most of the chemical is concentrated in the spines. When the bur is prepared as an herbal remedy, the spines are usually removed, reducing the CAT content of the finished product.
In literature
In the O. Henry novel Cabbages and Kings cockleburrs (spelt thus) are used as a plot device in the chapters Shoes and Ships to persuade the normally barefooted inhabitants of a town in the fictitious banana republic of Anchuria to buy shoes.
Gallery
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
References
Further reading
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L.; Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 | edition humboldt digital Flora ID | {
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The 2004 Indian general election occurred in Haryana for 10 seats.
List of Elected MPs
== References == | country | {
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The 2004 Indian general election occurred in Haryana for 10 seats.
List of Elected MPs
== References == | part of | {
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The 2004 Indian general election occurred in Haryana for 10 seats.
List of Elected MPs
== References == | applies to jurisdiction | {
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Le Besco is a surname of Breton origin. It may refer to any the following people:
Besco derives from a Breton diminutive of besk which means curtailed or tailless.
Isild Le Besco (born 1982), a French actress
Jowan Le Besco (born 1981), a French actor, scriptwriter, director and chief cameraman
Maïwenn Le Besco (born 1976), a French actress
References
External links
Distribution of the surname Besco in France | different from | {
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Le Besco is a surname of Breton origin. It may refer to any the following people:
Besco derives from a Breton diminutive of besk which means curtailed or tailless.
Isild Le Besco (born 1982), a French actress
Jowan Le Besco (born 1981), a French actor, scriptwriter, director and chief cameraman
Maïwenn Le Besco (born 1976), a French actress
References
External links
Distribution of the surname Besco in France | language of work or name | {
"answer_start": [
195
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"text": [
"French"
]
} |
Le Besco is a surname of Breton origin. It may refer to any the following people:
Besco derives from a Breton diminutive of besk which means curtailed or tailless.
Isild Le Besco (born 1982), a French actress
Jowan Le Besco (born 1981), a French actor, scriptwriter, director and chief cameraman
Maïwenn Le Besco (born 1976), a French actress
References
External links
Distribution of the surname Besco in France | native label | {
"answer_start": [
0
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"text": [
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The Salt March, also known as the Salt Satyagraha, Dandi March and the Dandi Satyagraha, was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India led by Mahatma Gandhi. The twenty-four day march lasted from 12 March to 5 April 1930 as a direct action campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly. Another reason for this march was that the Civil Disobedience Movement needed a strong inauguration that would inspire more people to follow Gandhi's example. Gandhi started this march with 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march spanned 387 kilometres (240 mi), from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, which was called Navsari at that time (now in the state of Gujarat). Growing numbers of Indians joined them along the way. When Gandhi broke the British Raj salt laws at 8:30 am on 6 April 1930, it sparked large-scale acts of civil disobedience against the salt laws by millions of Indians.After making the salt by evaporation at Dandi, Gandhi continued southward along the coast, making salt and addressing meetings on the way. The Congress Party planned to stage a satyagraha at the Dharasana Salt Works, 40 km (25 mi) south of Dandi. However, Gandhi was arrested on the midnight of 4–5 May 1930, just days before the planned action at Dharasana. The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage. The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi's release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference. Although over 60,000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha, the British did not make immediate major concessions.The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi's principles of non-violent protest called satyagraha, which he loosely translated as "truth-force". Literally, it is formed from the Sanskrit words satya, "truth", and agraha, "insistence". In early 1920 the Indian National Congress chose satyagraha as their main tactic for winning Indian sovereignty and self-rule from British rule and appointed Gandhi to organise the campaign. Gandhi chose the 1882 British Salt Act as the first target of satyagraha. The Salt March to Dandi, and the beating by the colonial police of hundreds of nonviolent protesters in Dharasana, which received worldwide news coverage, demonstrated the effective use of civil disobedience as a technique for fighting social and political injustice. The satyagraha teachings of Gandhi and the March to Dandi had a significant influence on American activists Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and others during the Civil Rights Movement for civil rights for African Americans and other minority groups in the 1960s. The march was the most significant organised challenge to British authority since the Non-cooperation movement of 1920–22, and directly followed the Purna Swaraj declaration of sovereignty and self-rule by the Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930. It gained worldwide attention which gave impetus to the Indian independence movement and started the nationwide Civil Disobedience movement which continued until 1934 in Gujarat.
Civil disobedience movement
At midnight on 31 December 1929, the INC (Indian National Congress) raised the tricolour flag of India on the banks and the Ravi at Lahore. The Indian National Congress, led by Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, publicly issued the Declaration of sovereignty and self-rule, or Purna Swaraj, on 26 January 1930. (Literally in Sanskrit, purna, "complete," swa, "self," raj, "rule," so therefore "complete self-rule") The declaration included the readiness to withhold taxes, and the statement:
We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities for growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually. We believe, therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraji or complete sovereignty and self-rule.
The Congress Working Committee gave Gandhi the responsibility for organising the first act of civil disobedience, with Congress itself ready to take charge after Gandhi's expected arrest. Gandhi's plan was to begin civil disobedience with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax. The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt, limiting its handling to government salt depots and levying a salt tax. Violation of the Salt Act was a criminal offence. Even though salt was freely available to those living on the coast (by evaporation of sea water), Indians were forced to buy it from the colonial government.
Choice of salt as protest focus
Initially, Gandhi's choice of the salt tax was met with incredulity by the Working Committee of the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru and Divyalochan Sahu were ambivalent; Sardar Patel suggested a land revenue boycott instead. The Statesman, a prominent newspaper, wrote about the choice: "It is difficult not to laugh, and we imagine that will be the mood of most thinking Indians."The British colonial administration too was not disturbed by these plans of resistance against the salt tax. The Viceroy himself, Lord Irwin, did not take the threat of a salt protest seriously, writing to London, "At present, the prospect of a salt campaign does not keep me awake at night."However, Gandhi had sound reasons for his decision. An item of daily use could resonate more with all classes of citizens than an abstract demand for greater political rights. The salt tax represented 8.2% of the British Raj tax revenue, and hurt the poorest Indians the most significantly.
Explaining his choice, Gandhi said, "Next to air and water, salt is perhaps the greatest necessity of life." In contrast to the other leaders, the prominent Congress statesman and future Governor-General of India, C. Rajagopalachari, understood Gandhi's viewpoint. In a public meeting at Tuticorin, he said:
Suppose, a people rise in revolt. They cannot attack the abstract constitution or lead an army against proclamations and statutes ... Civil disobedience has to be directed against the salt tax or the land tax or some other particular point – not that; that is our final end, but for the time being it is our aim, and we must shoot straight.
Gandhi felt that this protest would dramatise Purna Swaraj in a way that was meaningful to every Indian. He also reasoned that it would build unity between Hindus and Muslims by fighting a wrong that touched them equally.After the protest gathered steam, the leaders realised the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, "it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released."
Satyagraha
Gandhi had a long-standing commitment to nonviolent civil disobedience, which he termed satyagraha, as the basis for achieving Indian sovereignty and self-rule. Referring to the relationship between satyagraha and Purna Swaraj, Gandhi saw "an inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree". He wrote, "If the means employed are impure, the change will not be in the direction of progress but very likely in the opposite. Only a change brought about in our political condition by pure means can lead to real progress."Satyagraha is a synthesis of the Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha (insistence on). For Gandhi, satyagraha went far beyond mere "passive resistance" and became strength in practicing nonviolent methods. In his words:
Truth (satya) implies love, and firmness (agraha) engenders and therefore serves as a synonym for force. I thus began to call the Indian movement Satyagraha, that is to say, the Force which is born of Truth and Love or nonviolence, and gave up the use of the phrase "passive resistance", in connection with it, so much so that even in English writing we often avoided it and used instead the word "satyagraha" ...
His first significant attempt in India at leading mass satyagraha was the non-cooperation movement from 1920 to 1922. Even though it succeeded in raising millions of Indians in protest against the British-created Rowlatt Act, violence broke out at Chauri Chaura, where a mob killed 22 unarmed policemen. Gandhi suspended the protest, against the opposition of other Congress members. He decided that Indians were not yet ready for successful nonviolent resistance. The Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928 was much more successful. It succeeded in paralysing the British government and winning significant concessions. More importantly, due to extensive press coverage, it scored a propaganda victory out of all proportion to its size. Gandhi later claimed that success at Bardoli confirmed his belief in satyagraha and Swaraj: "It is only gradually that we shall come to know the importance of the victory gained at Bardoli ... Bardoli has shown the way and cleared it. Swaraj lies on that route, and that alone is the cure ..." Gandhi recruited heavily from the Bardoli Satyagraha participants for the Dandi march, which passed through many of the same villages that took part in the Bardoli protests. This revolt gained momentum and had support from all parts of India.
Preparing to march
On 5 February, newspapers reported that Gandhi would begin civil disobedience by defying the salt laws. The salt satyagraha would begin on 12 March and end in Dandi with Gandhi breaking the Salt Act on 6 April. Gandhi chose 6 April to launch the mass breaking of the salt laws for a symbolic reason—it was the first day of "National Week", begun in 1919 when Gandhi conceived of the national hartal (strike) against the Rowlatt Act.Gandhi prepared the worldwide media for the march by issuing regular statements from the Ashram, at his regular prayer meetings, and through direct contact with the press. Expectations were heightened by his repeated statements anticipating arrest, and his increasingly dramatic language as the hour approached: "We are entering upon a life and death struggle, a holy war; we are performing an all-embracing sacrifice in which we wish to offer ourselves as an oblation." Correspondents from dozens of Indian, European, and American newspapers, along with film companies, responded to the drama and began covering the event.For the march itself, Gandhi wanted the strictest discipline and adherence to satyagraha and ahimsa. For that reason, he recruited the marchers not from Congress Party members, but from the residents of his own ashram, who were trained in Gandhi's strict standards of discipline. The 24-day march would pass through 4 districts and 48 villages. The route of the march, along with each evening's stopping place, was planned based on recruitment potential, past contacts, and timing. Gandhi sent scouts to each village ahead of the march so he could plan his talks at each resting place, based on the needs of the local residents. Events at each village were scheduled and publicised in Indian and foreign press.On 2 March 1930 Gandhi wrote to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, offering to stop the march if Irwin met eleven demands, including reduction of land revenue assessments, cutting military spending, imposing a tariff on foreign cloth, and abolishing the salt tax. His strongest appeal to Irwin regarded the salt tax:
If my letter makes no appeal to your heart, on the eleventh day of this month I shall proceed with such co-workers of the Ashram as I can take, to disregard the provisions of the Salt Laws. I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor man's standpoint. As the sovereignty and self-rule movement is essentially for the poorest in the land, the beginning will be made with this evil.
As mentioned earlier, the Viceroy held any prospect of a "salt protest" in disdain. After he ignored the letter and refused to meet with Gandhi, the march was set in motion. Gandhi remarked, "On bended knees, I asked for bread and I have received stone instead." The eve of the march brought thousands of Indians to Sabarmati to hear Gandhi speak at the regular evening prayer. American academic writing for The Nation reported that "60,000 persons gathered on the bank of the river to hear Gandhi's call to arms. This call to arms was perhaps the most remarkable call to war that has ever been made."
March to Dandi
On 12 March 1930, Gandhi and 78 satyagrahis, among whom were men belonging to almost every region, caste, creed, and religion of India, set out on foot for the coastal village of Dandi in Navsari district of Gujarat, 385 km from their starting point at Sabarmati Ashram. The Salt March was also called the White Flowing River because all the people were joining the procession wearing white Khadi.
According to The Statesman, the official government newspaper which usually played down the size of crowds at Gandhi's functions, 100,000 people crowded the road that separated Sabarmati from Ahmedabad. The first day's march of 21 km ended in the village of Aslali, where Gandhi spoke to a crowd of about 4,000. At Aslali, and the other villages that the march passed through, volunteers collected donations, registered new satyagrahis, and received resignations from village officials who chose to end co-operation with British rule.As they entered each village, crowds greeted the marchers, beating drums and cymbals. Gandhi gave speeches attacking the salt tax as inhuman, and the salt satyagraha as a "poor man's struggle". Each night they slept in the open. The only thing that was asked of the villagers was food and water to wash with. Gandhi felt that this would bring the poor into the struggle for sovereignty and self-rule, necessary for eventual victory.Thousands of satyagrahis and leaders like Sarojini Naidu joined him. Every day, more and more people joined the march, until the procession of marchers became at least 3 km long. To keep up their spirits, the marchers used to sing the Hindu Bhajan Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram while walking. At Surat, they were greeted by 30,000 people. When they reached the railhead at Dandi, more than 50,000 were gathered. Gandhi gave interviews and wrote articles along the way. Foreign journalists and three Bombay cinema companies shooting newsreel footage turned Gandhi into a household name in Europe and America (at the end of 1930, Time magazine made him "Man of the Year"). The New York Times wrote almost daily about the Salt March, including two front-page articles on 6 and 7 April. Near the end of the march, Gandhi declared, "I want world sympathy in this battle of right against might."Upon arriving at the seashore on 5 April, Gandhi was interviewed by an Associated Press reporter. He stated:
I cannot withhold my compliments from the government for the policy of complete non interference adopted by them throughout the march .... I wish I could believe this non-interference was due to any real change of heart or policy. The wanton disregard shown by them to popular feeling in the Legislative Assembly and their high-handed action leave no room for doubt that the policy of heartless exploitation of India is to be persisted in at any cost, and so the only interpretation I can put upon this non-interference is that the British Government, powerful though it is, is sensitive to world opinion which will not tolerate repression of extreme political agitation which civil disobedience undoubtedly is, so long as disobedience remains civil and therefore necessarily non-violent .... It remains to be seen whether the Government will tolerate as they have tolerated the march, the actual breach of the salt laws by countless people from tomorrow.
The following morning, after a prayer, Gandhi raised a lump of salty mud and declared, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire." He then boiled it in seawater, producing illegal salt. He implored his thousands of followers to likewise begin making salt along the seashore, "wherever it is convenient" and to instruct villagers in making illegal, but necessary, salt. The others followed him and Sarojini Naidu addressing Gandhi, shouted 'Hail, law breaker'. In a letter to her daughter, Naidu remarked:The little law breaker is sitting in a state of ‘Maun’ [silence] writing his article of triumph for Young India and I am stretched on a hard bench at the open window of a huge room that has 6 windows open to the sea breeze. As far as the eye can see there is a little Army—thousands of pilgrims who have been pouring in since yesterday to this otherwise deserted and exceedingly primitive village of fishermen.After the Gandhi broke the salt laws, about 700 telegrams were sent out from the post office nearest to Dandi, at Jalalpur. Most of them were by the journalists, who were there to break this news.
First 78 Marchers
78 marchers accompanied Gandhi on his march. Most of them were between the ages of 20 and 30. These men hailed from almost all parts of the country. The march gathered more people as it gained momentum, but the following list of names consists of Gandhi himself and the first 78 marchers who were with Gandhi from the beginning of the Dandi March until the end. Most of them simply dispersed after the march was over.
A memorial has been created inside the campus of IIT Bombay honouring these Satyagrahis who participated in the famous Dandi March.
Mass civil disobedience
Mass civil disobedience spread throughout India as millions broke the salt laws by making salt or buying illegal salt. Salt was sold illegally all over the coast of India. A pinch of salt made by Gandhi himself sold for 1,600 rupees (equivalent to $750 at the time). In reaction, the British government arrested over sixty thousand people by the end of the month.What had begun as a Salt Satyagraha quickly grew into a mass Satyagraha. British cloth and goods were boycotted. Unpopular forest laws were defied in the Bombay, Mysore and Central Provinces. Gujarati peasants refused to pay tax, under threat of losing their crops and land. In Midnapore, Bengalis took part by refusing to pay the chowkidar tax. The British responded with more laws, including censorship of correspondence and declaring the Congress and its associate organisations illegal. None of those measures slowed the civil disobedience movement.There were outbreaks of violence in Calcutta (now spelled Kolkata), Karachi, and Gujarat. Unlike his suspension of satyagraha after violence broke out during the Non-co-operation movement, this time Gandhi was "unmoved". Appealing for violence to end, at the same time Gandhi honoured those killed in Chittagong and congratulated their parents "for the finished sacrifices of their sons ... A warrior's death is never a matter for sorrow."During the first phase of the Indian civil disobedience movement from 1929 to 1931, the second MacDonald ministry headed by Ramsay MacDonald was in power in Britain. The attempted suppression of the movement was presided over by MacDonald and his cabinet (including the Secretary of State for India, William Wedgwood Benn). During this period, the MacDonald ministry also oversaw the suppression of the nascent trade unionist movement in India, which was described by historian Sumit Sarkar as "a massive capitalist and government counter-offensive" against workers' rights.
Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre
In Peshawar, satyagraha was led by a Muslim Pashtun disciple of Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan, who had trained 50,000 nonviolent activists called Khudai Khidmatgar. On 23 April 1930, Ghaffar Khan was arrested. A crowd of Khudai Khidmatgar gathered in Peshawar's Qissa Kahani (Storytellers) Bazaar. The 2/18 battalion of the Royal Garhwal Rifles were ordered to open fire with machine guns on the unarmed crowd, killing an estimated 200–250 people. The Pashtun satyagrahis acted in accord with their training in nonviolence, willingly facing bullets as the troops fired on them. One British Indian Army soldier, Chandra Singh Garhwali and some other troops from the renowned Royal Garhwal Rifles regiment refused to fire at the crowds. The entire platoon was arrested and many received heavy sentences, including life imprisonment.
Vedaranyam salt march
While Gandhi marched along India's west coast, his close associate C. Rajagopalachari, who would later become India's first Indian Governor-General, organized the Vedaranyam salt march in parallel on the east coast. His group started from Tiruchirappalli, in Madras Presidency (now part of Tamil Nadu), to the coastal village of Vedaranyam. After making illegal salt there, he too was arrested by the British.
Women in civil disobedience
The civil disobedience in 1930 marked the first time women became mass participants in the struggle for freedom. Thousands of women, from large cities to small villages, became active participants in satyagraha. Gandhi had asked that only men take part in the salt march, but eventually women began manufacturing and selling salt throughout India. It was clear that though only men were allowed within the march, that both men and women were expected to forward work that would help dissolve the salt laws. Usha Mehta, an early Gandhian activist, remarked that "Even our old aunts and great-aunts and grandmothers used to bring pitchers of salt water to their houses and manufacture illegal salt. And then they would shout at the top of their voices: 'We have broken the salt law!'" The growing number of women in the fight for sovereignty and self-rule was a "new and serious feature" according to Lord Irwin. A government report on the involvement of women stated "thousands of them emerged ... from the seclusion of their homes ... in order to join Congress demonstrations and assist in picketing: and their presence on these occasions made the work the police was required to perform particularly unpleasant." Though women did become involved in the march, it was clear that Gandhi saw women as still playing a secondary role within the movement, but created the beginning of a push for women to be more involved in the future."Sarojini Naidu was among the most visible leaders (male or female) of pre-independent India. As president of the Indian National Congress and the first woman governor of free India, she was a fervent advocate for India, avidly mobilizing support for the Indian independence movement. She was also the first woman to be arrested in the salt march."
Impact
British documents show that the British government was shaken by Satyagraha. Nonviolent protest left the British confused about whether or not to jail Gandhi. John Court Curry, an Indian Imperial Police officer from England, wrote in his memoirs that he felt nausea every time he dealt with Congress demonstrations in 1930. Curry and others in British government, including Wedgwood Benn, Secretary of State for India, preferred fighting violent rather than nonviolent opponents.
Dharasana Satyagraha and aftermath
Gandhi himself avoided further active involvement after the march, though he stayed in close contact with the developments throughout India. He created a temporary ashram near Dandi. From there, he urged women followers in Bombay (now Mumbai) to picket liquor shops and foreign cloth. He said that "a bonfire should be made of foreign cloth. Schools and colleges should become empty."For his next major action, Gandhi decided on a raid of the Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat, 40 km south of Dandi. He wrote to Lord Irwin, again telling him of his plans. Around midnight of 4 May, as Gandhi was sleeping on a cot in a mango grove, the District magistrate of Surat drove up with two Indian officers and thirty heavily armed constables. He was arrested under an 1827 regulation calling for the jailing of people engaged in unlawful activities, and held without trial near Poona (now Pune).
The Dharasana Satyagraha went ahead as planned, with Abbas Tyabji, a seventy-six-year-old retired judge, leading the march with Gandhi's wife Kasturba at his side. Both were arrested before reaching Dharasana and sentenced to three months in prison. After their arrests, the march continued under the leadership of Sarojini Naidu, a woman poet and freedom fighter, who warned the satyagrahis, "You must not use any violence under any circumstances. You will be beaten, but you must not resist: you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows." Soldiers began clubbing the satyagrahis with steel tipped lathis in an incident that attracted international attention. United Press correspondent Webb Miller reported that:
Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows. They went down like ten-pins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whacks of the clubs on unprotected skulls. The waiting crowd of watchers groaned and sucked in their breaths in sympathetic pain at every blow. Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders. In two or three minutes the ground was quilted with bodies. Great patches of blood widened on their white clothes. The survivors without breaking ranks silently and doggedly marched on until struck down ... Finally the police became enraged by the non-resistance ... They commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the abdomen and testicles. The injured men writhed and squealed in agony, which seemed to inflame the fury of the police ... The police then began dragging the sitting men by the arms or feet, sometimes for a hundred yards, and throwing them into ditches.
Vithalbhai Patel, former Speaker of the Assembly, watched the beatings and remarked, "All hope of reconciling India with the British Empire is lost forever." Miller's first attempts at telegraphing the story to his publisher in England were censored by the British telegraph operators in India. Only after threatening to expose British censorship was his story allowed to pass. The story appeared in 1,350 newspapers throughout the world and was read into the official record of the United States Senate by Senator John J. Blaine.Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world. Millions saw the newsreels showing the march. Time declared Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year, comparing Gandhi's march to the sea "to defy Britain's salt tax as some New Englanders once defied a British tea tax". Civil disobedience continued until early 1931, when Gandhi was finally released from prison to hold talks with Irwin. It was the first time the two held talks on equal terms, and resulted in the Gandhi–Irwin Pact. The talks would lead to the Second Round Table Conference at the end of 1931.
Long-term effect
The Salt Satyagraha did not produce immediate progress toward dominion status or self-rule for India, did not elicit major policy concessions from the British, or attract much Muslim support. Congress leaders decided to end satyagraha as official policy in 1934, and Nehru and other Congress members drifted further apart from Gandhi, who withdrew from Congress to concentrate on his Constructive Programme, which included his efforts to end untouchability in the Harijan movement. However, even though British authorities were again in control by the mid-1930s, Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of claims by Gandhi and the Congress Party for sovereignty and self-rule. The Satyagraha campaign of the 1930s also forced the British to recognise that their control of India depended entirely on the consent of the Indians – Salt Satyagraha was a significant step in the British losing that consent.Nehru considered the Salt Satyagraha the high-water mark of his association with Gandhi, and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians:
Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses ... Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance ... They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole ... It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhi's leadership, must have the credit for it.
More than thirty years later, Satyagraha and the March to Dandi exercised a strong influence on American civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr., and his fight for civil rights for blacks in the 1960s:
Like most people, I had heard of Gandhi, but I had never studied him seriously. As I read I became deeply fascinated by his campaigns of nonviolent resistance. I was particularly moved by his Salt March to the Sea and his numerous fasts. The whole concept of Satyagraha (Satya is truth which equals love, and agraha is force; Satyagraha, therefore, means truth force or love force) was profoundly significant to me. As I delved deeper into the philosophy of Gandhi, my skepticism concerning the power of love gradually diminished, and I came to see for the first time its potency in the area of social reform.
Re-enactment in 2005
To commemorate the Great Salt March, the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation re-enacted the Salt March on its 75th anniversary, in its exact historical schedule and route followed by the Mahatma and his band of 78 marchers. The event was known as the "International Walk for Justice and Freedom". What started as a personal pilgrimage for Mahatma Gandhi's great-grandson Tushar Gandhi turned into an international event with 900 registered participants from nine nations and on a daily basis the numbers swelled to a couple of thousands. There was extensive reportage in the international media.
The participants halted at Dandi on the night of 5 April, with the commemoration ending on 7 April. At the finale in Dandi, the prime minister of India, Dr Manmohan Singh, greeted the marchers and promised to build an appropriate monument at Dandi to commemorate the marchers and the historical event. The route from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi has now been christened as the Dandi Path and has been declared a historical heritage route.India issued a series of commemorative stamps in 1980 and 2005, on the 50th and 75th anniversaries of the Dandi March.
Memorial
The National Salt Satyagraha Memorial, a memorial museum, dedicated to the event was opened in Dandi on 30 January 2019.
See also
Boston Tea Party
Selma to Montgomery marches
Suffrage Hikes
Gandhi Heritage Portal
National Salt Satyagraha Memorial
References
Citations
Cited sources
Further reading
External links
Newsreel footage of Salt Satyagraha
Salt march re-enactment slide show
Gandhi's 1930 march re-enacted (BBC News)
Speech by Prime Minister of India on 75th anniversary of Dandi March.
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The Salt March, also known as the Salt Satyagraha, Dandi March and the Dandi Satyagraha, was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India led by Mahatma Gandhi. The twenty-four day march lasted from 12 March to 5 April 1930 as a direct action campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly. Another reason for this march was that the Civil Disobedience Movement needed a strong inauguration that would inspire more people to follow Gandhi's example. Gandhi started this march with 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march spanned 387 kilometres (240 mi), from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, which was called Navsari at that time (now in the state of Gujarat). Growing numbers of Indians joined them along the way. When Gandhi broke the British Raj salt laws at 8:30 am on 6 April 1930, it sparked large-scale acts of civil disobedience against the salt laws by millions of Indians.After making the salt by evaporation at Dandi, Gandhi continued southward along the coast, making salt and addressing meetings on the way. The Congress Party planned to stage a satyagraha at the Dharasana Salt Works, 40 km (25 mi) south of Dandi. However, Gandhi was arrested on the midnight of 4–5 May 1930, just days before the planned action at Dharasana. The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage. The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi's release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference. Although over 60,000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha, the British did not make immediate major concessions.The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi's principles of non-violent protest called satyagraha, which he loosely translated as "truth-force". Literally, it is formed from the Sanskrit words satya, "truth", and agraha, "insistence". In early 1920 the Indian National Congress chose satyagraha as their main tactic for winning Indian sovereignty and self-rule from British rule and appointed Gandhi to organise the campaign. Gandhi chose the 1882 British Salt Act as the first target of satyagraha. The Salt March to Dandi, and the beating by the colonial police of hundreds of nonviolent protesters in Dharasana, which received worldwide news coverage, demonstrated the effective use of civil disobedience as a technique for fighting social and political injustice. The satyagraha teachings of Gandhi and the March to Dandi had a significant influence on American activists Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and others during the Civil Rights Movement for civil rights for African Americans and other minority groups in the 1960s. The march was the most significant organised challenge to British authority since the Non-cooperation movement of 1920–22, and directly followed the Purna Swaraj declaration of sovereignty and self-rule by the Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930. It gained worldwide attention which gave impetus to the Indian independence movement and started the nationwide Civil Disobedience movement which continued until 1934 in Gujarat.
Civil disobedience movement
At midnight on 31 December 1929, the INC (Indian National Congress) raised the tricolour flag of India on the banks and the Ravi at Lahore. The Indian National Congress, led by Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, publicly issued the Declaration of sovereignty and self-rule, or Purna Swaraj, on 26 January 1930. (Literally in Sanskrit, purna, "complete," swa, "self," raj, "rule," so therefore "complete self-rule") The declaration included the readiness to withhold taxes, and the statement:
We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities for growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually. We believe, therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraji or complete sovereignty and self-rule.
The Congress Working Committee gave Gandhi the responsibility for organising the first act of civil disobedience, with Congress itself ready to take charge after Gandhi's expected arrest. Gandhi's plan was to begin civil disobedience with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax. The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt, limiting its handling to government salt depots and levying a salt tax. Violation of the Salt Act was a criminal offence. Even though salt was freely available to those living on the coast (by evaporation of sea water), Indians were forced to buy it from the colonial government.
Choice of salt as protest focus
Initially, Gandhi's choice of the salt tax was met with incredulity by the Working Committee of the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru and Divyalochan Sahu were ambivalent; Sardar Patel suggested a land revenue boycott instead. The Statesman, a prominent newspaper, wrote about the choice: "It is difficult not to laugh, and we imagine that will be the mood of most thinking Indians."The British colonial administration too was not disturbed by these plans of resistance against the salt tax. The Viceroy himself, Lord Irwin, did not take the threat of a salt protest seriously, writing to London, "At present, the prospect of a salt campaign does not keep me awake at night."However, Gandhi had sound reasons for his decision. An item of daily use could resonate more with all classes of citizens than an abstract demand for greater political rights. The salt tax represented 8.2% of the British Raj tax revenue, and hurt the poorest Indians the most significantly.
Explaining his choice, Gandhi said, "Next to air and water, salt is perhaps the greatest necessity of life." In contrast to the other leaders, the prominent Congress statesman and future Governor-General of India, C. Rajagopalachari, understood Gandhi's viewpoint. In a public meeting at Tuticorin, he said:
Suppose, a people rise in revolt. They cannot attack the abstract constitution or lead an army against proclamations and statutes ... Civil disobedience has to be directed against the salt tax or the land tax or some other particular point – not that; that is our final end, but for the time being it is our aim, and we must shoot straight.
Gandhi felt that this protest would dramatise Purna Swaraj in a way that was meaningful to every Indian. He also reasoned that it would build unity between Hindus and Muslims by fighting a wrong that touched them equally.After the protest gathered steam, the leaders realised the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, "it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released."
Satyagraha
Gandhi had a long-standing commitment to nonviolent civil disobedience, which he termed satyagraha, as the basis for achieving Indian sovereignty and self-rule. Referring to the relationship between satyagraha and Purna Swaraj, Gandhi saw "an inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree". He wrote, "If the means employed are impure, the change will not be in the direction of progress but very likely in the opposite. Only a change brought about in our political condition by pure means can lead to real progress."Satyagraha is a synthesis of the Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha (insistence on). For Gandhi, satyagraha went far beyond mere "passive resistance" and became strength in practicing nonviolent methods. In his words:
Truth (satya) implies love, and firmness (agraha) engenders and therefore serves as a synonym for force. I thus began to call the Indian movement Satyagraha, that is to say, the Force which is born of Truth and Love or nonviolence, and gave up the use of the phrase "passive resistance", in connection with it, so much so that even in English writing we often avoided it and used instead the word "satyagraha" ...
His first significant attempt in India at leading mass satyagraha was the non-cooperation movement from 1920 to 1922. Even though it succeeded in raising millions of Indians in protest against the British-created Rowlatt Act, violence broke out at Chauri Chaura, where a mob killed 22 unarmed policemen. Gandhi suspended the protest, against the opposition of other Congress members. He decided that Indians were not yet ready for successful nonviolent resistance. The Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928 was much more successful. It succeeded in paralysing the British government and winning significant concessions. More importantly, due to extensive press coverage, it scored a propaganda victory out of all proportion to its size. Gandhi later claimed that success at Bardoli confirmed his belief in satyagraha and Swaraj: "It is only gradually that we shall come to know the importance of the victory gained at Bardoli ... Bardoli has shown the way and cleared it. Swaraj lies on that route, and that alone is the cure ..." Gandhi recruited heavily from the Bardoli Satyagraha participants for the Dandi march, which passed through many of the same villages that took part in the Bardoli protests. This revolt gained momentum and had support from all parts of India.
Preparing to march
On 5 February, newspapers reported that Gandhi would begin civil disobedience by defying the salt laws. The salt satyagraha would begin on 12 March and end in Dandi with Gandhi breaking the Salt Act on 6 April. Gandhi chose 6 April to launch the mass breaking of the salt laws for a symbolic reason—it was the first day of "National Week", begun in 1919 when Gandhi conceived of the national hartal (strike) against the Rowlatt Act.Gandhi prepared the worldwide media for the march by issuing regular statements from the Ashram, at his regular prayer meetings, and through direct contact with the press. Expectations were heightened by his repeated statements anticipating arrest, and his increasingly dramatic language as the hour approached: "We are entering upon a life and death struggle, a holy war; we are performing an all-embracing sacrifice in which we wish to offer ourselves as an oblation." Correspondents from dozens of Indian, European, and American newspapers, along with film companies, responded to the drama and began covering the event.For the march itself, Gandhi wanted the strictest discipline and adherence to satyagraha and ahimsa. For that reason, he recruited the marchers not from Congress Party members, but from the residents of his own ashram, who were trained in Gandhi's strict standards of discipline. The 24-day march would pass through 4 districts and 48 villages. The route of the march, along with each evening's stopping place, was planned based on recruitment potential, past contacts, and timing. Gandhi sent scouts to each village ahead of the march so he could plan his talks at each resting place, based on the needs of the local residents. Events at each village were scheduled and publicised in Indian and foreign press.On 2 March 1930 Gandhi wrote to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, offering to stop the march if Irwin met eleven demands, including reduction of land revenue assessments, cutting military spending, imposing a tariff on foreign cloth, and abolishing the salt tax. His strongest appeal to Irwin regarded the salt tax:
If my letter makes no appeal to your heart, on the eleventh day of this month I shall proceed with such co-workers of the Ashram as I can take, to disregard the provisions of the Salt Laws. I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor man's standpoint. As the sovereignty and self-rule movement is essentially for the poorest in the land, the beginning will be made with this evil.
As mentioned earlier, the Viceroy held any prospect of a "salt protest" in disdain. After he ignored the letter and refused to meet with Gandhi, the march was set in motion. Gandhi remarked, "On bended knees, I asked for bread and I have received stone instead." The eve of the march brought thousands of Indians to Sabarmati to hear Gandhi speak at the regular evening prayer. American academic writing for The Nation reported that "60,000 persons gathered on the bank of the river to hear Gandhi's call to arms. This call to arms was perhaps the most remarkable call to war that has ever been made."
March to Dandi
On 12 March 1930, Gandhi and 78 satyagrahis, among whom were men belonging to almost every region, caste, creed, and religion of India, set out on foot for the coastal village of Dandi in Navsari district of Gujarat, 385 km from their starting point at Sabarmati Ashram. The Salt March was also called the White Flowing River because all the people were joining the procession wearing white Khadi.
According to The Statesman, the official government newspaper which usually played down the size of crowds at Gandhi's functions, 100,000 people crowded the road that separated Sabarmati from Ahmedabad. The first day's march of 21 km ended in the village of Aslali, where Gandhi spoke to a crowd of about 4,000. At Aslali, and the other villages that the march passed through, volunteers collected donations, registered new satyagrahis, and received resignations from village officials who chose to end co-operation with British rule.As they entered each village, crowds greeted the marchers, beating drums and cymbals. Gandhi gave speeches attacking the salt tax as inhuman, and the salt satyagraha as a "poor man's struggle". Each night they slept in the open. The only thing that was asked of the villagers was food and water to wash with. Gandhi felt that this would bring the poor into the struggle for sovereignty and self-rule, necessary for eventual victory.Thousands of satyagrahis and leaders like Sarojini Naidu joined him. Every day, more and more people joined the march, until the procession of marchers became at least 3 km long. To keep up their spirits, the marchers used to sing the Hindu Bhajan Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram while walking. At Surat, they were greeted by 30,000 people. When they reached the railhead at Dandi, more than 50,000 were gathered. Gandhi gave interviews and wrote articles along the way. Foreign journalists and three Bombay cinema companies shooting newsreel footage turned Gandhi into a household name in Europe and America (at the end of 1930, Time magazine made him "Man of the Year"). The New York Times wrote almost daily about the Salt March, including two front-page articles on 6 and 7 April. Near the end of the march, Gandhi declared, "I want world sympathy in this battle of right against might."Upon arriving at the seashore on 5 April, Gandhi was interviewed by an Associated Press reporter. He stated:
I cannot withhold my compliments from the government for the policy of complete non interference adopted by them throughout the march .... I wish I could believe this non-interference was due to any real change of heart or policy. The wanton disregard shown by them to popular feeling in the Legislative Assembly and their high-handed action leave no room for doubt that the policy of heartless exploitation of India is to be persisted in at any cost, and so the only interpretation I can put upon this non-interference is that the British Government, powerful though it is, is sensitive to world opinion which will not tolerate repression of extreme political agitation which civil disobedience undoubtedly is, so long as disobedience remains civil and therefore necessarily non-violent .... It remains to be seen whether the Government will tolerate as they have tolerated the march, the actual breach of the salt laws by countless people from tomorrow.
The following morning, after a prayer, Gandhi raised a lump of salty mud and declared, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire." He then boiled it in seawater, producing illegal salt. He implored his thousands of followers to likewise begin making salt along the seashore, "wherever it is convenient" and to instruct villagers in making illegal, but necessary, salt. The others followed him and Sarojini Naidu addressing Gandhi, shouted 'Hail, law breaker'. In a letter to her daughter, Naidu remarked:The little law breaker is sitting in a state of ‘Maun’ [silence] writing his article of triumph for Young India and I am stretched on a hard bench at the open window of a huge room that has 6 windows open to the sea breeze. As far as the eye can see there is a little Army—thousands of pilgrims who have been pouring in since yesterday to this otherwise deserted and exceedingly primitive village of fishermen.After the Gandhi broke the salt laws, about 700 telegrams were sent out from the post office nearest to Dandi, at Jalalpur. Most of them were by the journalists, who were there to break this news.
First 78 Marchers
78 marchers accompanied Gandhi on his march. Most of them were between the ages of 20 and 30. These men hailed from almost all parts of the country. The march gathered more people as it gained momentum, but the following list of names consists of Gandhi himself and the first 78 marchers who were with Gandhi from the beginning of the Dandi March until the end. Most of them simply dispersed after the march was over.
A memorial has been created inside the campus of IIT Bombay honouring these Satyagrahis who participated in the famous Dandi March.
Mass civil disobedience
Mass civil disobedience spread throughout India as millions broke the salt laws by making salt or buying illegal salt. Salt was sold illegally all over the coast of India. A pinch of salt made by Gandhi himself sold for 1,600 rupees (equivalent to $750 at the time). In reaction, the British government arrested over sixty thousand people by the end of the month.What had begun as a Salt Satyagraha quickly grew into a mass Satyagraha. British cloth and goods were boycotted. Unpopular forest laws were defied in the Bombay, Mysore and Central Provinces. Gujarati peasants refused to pay tax, under threat of losing their crops and land. In Midnapore, Bengalis took part by refusing to pay the chowkidar tax. The British responded with more laws, including censorship of correspondence and declaring the Congress and its associate organisations illegal. None of those measures slowed the civil disobedience movement.There were outbreaks of violence in Calcutta (now spelled Kolkata), Karachi, and Gujarat. Unlike his suspension of satyagraha after violence broke out during the Non-co-operation movement, this time Gandhi was "unmoved". Appealing for violence to end, at the same time Gandhi honoured those killed in Chittagong and congratulated their parents "for the finished sacrifices of their sons ... A warrior's death is never a matter for sorrow."During the first phase of the Indian civil disobedience movement from 1929 to 1931, the second MacDonald ministry headed by Ramsay MacDonald was in power in Britain. The attempted suppression of the movement was presided over by MacDonald and his cabinet (including the Secretary of State for India, William Wedgwood Benn). During this period, the MacDonald ministry also oversaw the suppression of the nascent trade unionist movement in India, which was described by historian Sumit Sarkar as "a massive capitalist and government counter-offensive" against workers' rights.
Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre
In Peshawar, satyagraha was led by a Muslim Pashtun disciple of Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan, who had trained 50,000 nonviolent activists called Khudai Khidmatgar. On 23 April 1930, Ghaffar Khan was arrested. A crowd of Khudai Khidmatgar gathered in Peshawar's Qissa Kahani (Storytellers) Bazaar. The 2/18 battalion of the Royal Garhwal Rifles were ordered to open fire with machine guns on the unarmed crowd, killing an estimated 200–250 people. The Pashtun satyagrahis acted in accord with their training in nonviolence, willingly facing bullets as the troops fired on them. One British Indian Army soldier, Chandra Singh Garhwali and some other troops from the renowned Royal Garhwal Rifles regiment refused to fire at the crowds. The entire platoon was arrested and many received heavy sentences, including life imprisonment.
Vedaranyam salt march
While Gandhi marched along India's west coast, his close associate C. Rajagopalachari, who would later become India's first Indian Governor-General, organized the Vedaranyam salt march in parallel on the east coast. His group started from Tiruchirappalli, in Madras Presidency (now part of Tamil Nadu), to the coastal village of Vedaranyam. After making illegal salt there, he too was arrested by the British.
Women in civil disobedience
The civil disobedience in 1930 marked the first time women became mass participants in the struggle for freedom. Thousands of women, from large cities to small villages, became active participants in satyagraha. Gandhi had asked that only men take part in the salt march, but eventually women began manufacturing and selling salt throughout India. It was clear that though only men were allowed within the march, that both men and women were expected to forward work that would help dissolve the salt laws. Usha Mehta, an early Gandhian activist, remarked that "Even our old aunts and great-aunts and grandmothers used to bring pitchers of salt water to their houses and manufacture illegal salt. And then they would shout at the top of their voices: 'We have broken the salt law!'" The growing number of women in the fight for sovereignty and self-rule was a "new and serious feature" according to Lord Irwin. A government report on the involvement of women stated "thousands of them emerged ... from the seclusion of their homes ... in order to join Congress demonstrations and assist in picketing: and their presence on these occasions made the work the police was required to perform particularly unpleasant." Though women did become involved in the march, it was clear that Gandhi saw women as still playing a secondary role within the movement, but created the beginning of a push for women to be more involved in the future."Sarojini Naidu was among the most visible leaders (male or female) of pre-independent India. As president of the Indian National Congress and the first woman governor of free India, she was a fervent advocate for India, avidly mobilizing support for the Indian independence movement. She was also the first woman to be arrested in the salt march."
Impact
British documents show that the British government was shaken by Satyagraha. Nonviolent protest left the British confused about whether or not to jail Gandhi. John Court Curry, an Indian Imperial Police officer from England, wrote in his memoirs that he felt nausea every time he dealt with Congress demonstrations in 1930. Curry and others in British government, including Wedgwood Benn, Secretary of State for India, preferred fighting violent rather than nonviolent opponents.
Dharasana Satyagraha and aftermath
Gandhi himself avoided further active involvement after the march, though he stayed in close contact with the developments throughout India. He created a temporary ashram near Dandi. From there, he urged women followers in Bombay (now Mumbai) to picket liquor shops and foreign cloth. He said that "a bonfire should be made of foreign cloth. Schools and colleges should become empty."For his next major action, Gandhi decided on a raid of the Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat, 40 km south of Dandi. He wrote to Lord Irwin, again telling him of his plans. Around midnight of 4 May, as Gandhi was sleeping on a cot in a mango grove, the District magistrate of Surat drove up with two Indian officers and thirty heavily armed constables. He was arrested under an 1827 regulation calling for the jailing of people engaged in unlawful activities, and held without trial near Poona (now Pune).
The Dharasana Satyagraha went ahead as planned, with Abbas Tyabji, a seventy-six-year-old retired judge, leading the march with Gandhi's wife Kasturba at his side. Both were arrested before reaching Dharasana and sentenced to three months in prison. After their arrests, the march continued under the leadership of Sarojini Naidu, a woman poet and freedom fighter, who warned the satyagrahis, "You must not use any violence under any circumstances. You will be beaten, but you must not resist: you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows." Soldiers began clubbing the satyagrahis with steel tipped lathis in an incident that attracted international attention. United Press correspondent Webb Miller reported that:
Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows. They went down like ten-pins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whacks of the clubs on unprotected skulls. The waiting crowd of watchers groaned and sucked in their breaths in sympathetic pain at every blow. Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders. In two or three minutes the ground was quilted with bodies. Great patches of blood widened on their white clothes. The survivors without breaking ranks silently and doggedly marched on until struck down ... Finally the police became enraged by the non-resistance ... They commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the abdomen and testicles. The injured men writhed and squealed in agony, which seemed to inflame the fury of the police ... The police then began dragging the sitting men by the arms or feet, sometimes for a hundred yards, and throwing them into ditches.
Vithalbhai Patel, former Speaker of the Assembly, watched the beatings and remarked, "All hope of reconciling India with the British Empire is lost forever." Miller's first attempts at telegraphing the story to his publisher in England were censored by the British telegraph operators in India. Only after threatening to expose British censorship was his story allowed to pass. The story appeared in 1,350 newspapers throughout the world and was read into the official record of the United States Senate by Senator John J. Blaine.Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world. Millions saw the newsreels showing the march. Time declared Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year, comparing Gandhi's march to the sea "to defy Britain's salt tax as some New Englanders once defied a British tea tax". Civil disobedience continued until early 1931, when Gandhi was finally released from prison to hold talks with Irwin. It was the first time the two held talks on equal terms, and resulted in the Gandhi–Irwin Pact. The talks would lead to the Second Round Table Conference at the end of 1931.
Long-term effect
The Salt Satyagraha did not produce immediate progress toward dominion status or self-rule for India, did not elicit major policy concessions from the British, or attract much Muslim support. Congress leaders decided to end satyagraha as official policy in 1934, and Nehru and other Congress members drifted further apart from Gandhi, who withdrew from Congress to concentrate on his Constructive Programme, which included his efforts to end untouchability in the Harijan movement. However, even though British authorities were again in control by the mid-1930s, Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of claims by Gandhi and the Congress Party for sovereignty and self-rule. The Satyagraha campaign of the 1930s also forced the British to recognise that their control of India depended entirely on the consent of the Indians – Salt Satyagraha was a significant step in the British losing that consent.Nehru considered the Salt Satyagraha the high-water mark of his association with Gandhi, and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians:
Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses ... Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance ... They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole ... It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhi's leadership, must have the credit for it.
More than thirty years later, Satyagraha and the March to Dandi exercised a strong influence on American civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr., and his fight for civil rights for blacks in the 1960s:
Like most people, I had heard of Gandhi, but I had never studied him seriously. As I read I became deeply fascinated by his campaigns of nonviolent resistance. I was particularly moved by his Salt March to the Sea and his numerous fasts. The whole concept of Satyagraha (Satya is truth which equals love, and agraha is force; Satyagraha, therefore, means truth force or love force) was profoundly significant to me. As I delved deeper into the philosophy of Gandhi, my skepticism concerning the power of love gradually diminished, and I came to see for the first time its potency in the area of social reform.
Re-enactment in 2005
To commemorate the Great Salt March, the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation re-enacted the Salt March on its 75th anniversary, in its exact historical schedule and route followed by the Mahatma and his band of 78 marchers. The event was known as the "International Walk for Justice and Freedom". What started as a personal pilgrimage for Mahatma Gandhi's great-grandson Tushar Gandhi turned into an international event with 900 registered participants from nine nations and on a daily basis the numbers swelled to a couple of thousands. There was extensive reportage in the international media.
The participants halted at Dandi on the night of 5 April, with the commemoration ending on 7 April. At the finale in Dandi, the prime minister of India, Dr Manmohan Singh, greeted the marchers and promised to build an appropriate monument at Dandi to commemorate the marchers and the historical event. The route from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi has now been christened as the Dandi Path and has been declared a historical heritage route.India issued a series of commemorative stamps in 1980 and 2005, on the 50th and 75th anniversaries of the Dandi March.
Memorial
The National Salt Satyagraha Memorial, a memorial museum, dedicated to the event was opened in Dandi on 30 January 2019.
See also
Boston Tea Party
Selma to Montgomery marches
Suffrage Hikes
Gandhi Heritage Portal
National Salt Satyagraha Memorial
References
Citations
Cited sources
Further reading
External links
Newsreel footage of Salt Satyagraha
Salt march re-enactment slide show
Gandhi's 1930 march re-enacted (BBC News)
Speech by Prime Minister of India on 75th anniversary of Dandi March.
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The Salt March, also known as the Salt Satyagraha, Dandi March and the Dandi Satyagraha, was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India led by Mahatma Gandhi. The twenty-four day march lasted from 12 March to 5 April 1930 as a direct action campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly. Another reason for this march was that the Civil Disobedience Movement needed a strong inauguration that would inspire more people to follow Gandhi's example. Gandhi started this march with 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march spanned 387 kilometres (240 mi), from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, which was called Navsari at that time (now in the state of Gujarat). Growing numbers of Indians joined them along the way. When Gandhi broke the British Raj salt laws at 8:30 am on 6 April 1930, it sparked large-scale acts of civil disobedience against the salt laws by millions of Indians.After making the salt by evaporation at Dandi, Gandhi continued southward along the coast, making salt and addressing meetings on the way. The Congress Party planned to stage a satyagraha at the Dharasana Salt Works, 40 km (25 mi) south of Dandi. However, Gandhi was arrested on the midnight of 4–5 May 1930, just days before the planned action at Dharasana. The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage. The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi's release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference. Although over 60,000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha, the British did not make immediate major concessions.The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi's principles of non-violent protest called satyagraha, which he loosely translated as "truth-force". Literally, it is formed from the Sanskrit words satya, "truth", and agraha, "insistence". In early 1920 the Indian National Congress chose satyagraha as their main tactic for winning Indian sovereignty and self-rule from British rule and appointed Gandhi to organise the campaign. Gandhi chose the 1882 British Salt Act as the first target of satyagraha. The Salt March to Dandi, and the beating by the colonial police of hundreds of nonviolent protesters in Dharasana, which received worldwide news coverage, demonstrated the effective use of civil disobedience as a technique for fighting social and political injustice. The satyagraha teachings of Gandhi and the March to Dandi had a significant influence on American activists Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and others during the Civil Rights Movement for civil rights for African Americans and other minority groups in the 1960s. The march was the most significant organised challenge to British authority since the Non-cooperation movement of 1920–22, and directly followed the Purna Swaraj declaration of sovereignty and self-rule by the Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930. It gained worldwide attention which gave impetus to the Indian independence movement and started the nationwide Civil Disobedience movement which continued until 1934 in Gujarat.
Civil disobedience movement
At midnight on 31 December 1929, the INC (Indian National Congress) raised the tricolour flag of India on the banks and the Ravi at Lahore. The Indian National Congress, led by Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, publicly issued the Declaration of sovereignty and self-rule, or Purna Swaraj, on 26 January 1930. (Literally in Sanskrit, purna, "complete," swa, "self," raj, "rule," so therefore "complete self-rule") The declaration included the readiness to withhold taxes, and the statement:
We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities for growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually. We believe, therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraji or complete sovereignty and self-rule.
The Congress Working Committee gave Gandhi the responsibility for organising the first act of civil disobedience, with Congress itself ready to take charge after Gandhi's expected arrest. Gandhi's plan was to begin civil disobedience with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax. The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt, limiting its handling to government salt depots and levying a salt tax. Violation of the Salt Act was a criminal offence. Even though salt was freely available to those living on the coast (by evaporation of sea water), Indians were forced to buy it from the colonial government.
Choice of salt as protest focus
Initially, Gandhi's choice of the salt tax was met with incredulity by the Working Committee of the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru and Divyalochan Sahu were ambivalent; Sardar Patel suggested a land revenue boycott instead. The Statesman, a prominent newspaper, wrote about the choice: "It is difficult not to laugh, and we imagine that will be the mood of most thinking Indians."The British colonial administration too was not disturbed by these plans of resistance against the salt tax. The Viceroy himself, Lord Irwin, did not take the threat of a salt protest seriously, writing to London, "At present, the prospect of a salt campaign does not keep me awake at night."However, Gandhi had sound reasons for his decision. An item of daily use could resonate more with all classes of citizens than an abstract demand for greater political rights. The salt tax represented 8.2% of the British Raj tax revenue, and hurt the poorest Indians the most significantly.
Explaining his choice, Gandhi said, "Next to air and water, salt is perhaps the greatest necessity of life." In contrast to the other leaders, the prominent Congress statesman and future Governor-General of India, C. Rajagopalachari, understood Gandhi's viewpoint. In a public meeting at Tuticorin, he said:
Suppose, a people rise in revolt. They cannot attack the abstract constitution or lead an army against proclamations and statutes ... Civil disobedience has to be directed against the salt tax or the land tax or some other particular point – not that; that is our final end, but for the time being it is our aim, and we must shoot straight.
Gandhi felt that this protest would dramatise Purna Swaraj in a way that was meaningful to every Indian. He also reasoned that it would build unity between Hindus and Muslims by fighting a wrong that touched them equally.After the protest gathered steam, the leaders realised the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, "it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released."
Satyagraha
Gandhi had a long-standing commitment to nonviolent civil disobedience, which he termed satyagraha, as the basis for achieving Indian sovereignty and self-rule. Referring to the relationship between satyagraha and Purna Swaraj, Gandhi saw "an inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree". He wrote, "If the means employed are impure, the change will not be in the direction of progress but very likely in the opposite. Only a change brought about in our political condition by pure means can lead to real progress."Satyagraha is a synthesis of the Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha (insistence on). For Gandhi, satyagraha went far beyond mere "passive resistance" and became strength in practicing nonviolent methods. In his words:
Truth (satya) implies love, and firmness (agraha) engenders and therefore serves as a synonym for force. I thus began to call the Indian movement Satyagraha, that is to say, the Force which is born of Truth and Love or nonviolence, and gave up the use of the phrase "passive resistance", in connection with it, so much so that even in English writing we often avoided it and used instead the word "satyagraha" ...
His first significant attempt in India at leading mass satyagraha was the non-cooperation movement from 1920 to 1922. Even though it succeeded in raising millions of Indians in protest against the British-created Rowlatt Act, violence broke out at Chauri Chaura, where a mob killed 22 unarmed policemen. Gandhi suspended the protest, against the opposition of other Congress members. He decided that Indians were not yet ready for successful nonviolent resistance. The Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928 was much more successful. It succeeded in paralysing the British government and winning significant concessions. More importantly, due to extensive press coverage, it scored a propaganda victory out of all proportion to its size. Gandhi later claimed that success at Bardoli confirmed his belief in satyagraha and Swaraj: "It is only gradually that we shall come to know the importance of the victory gained at Bardoli ... Bardoli has shown the way and cleared it. Swaraj lies on that route, and that alone is the cure ..." Gandhi recruited heavily from the Bardoli Satyagraha participants for the Dandi march, which passed through many of the same villages that took part in the Bardoli protests. This revolt gained momentum and had support from all parts of India.
Preparing to march
On 5 February, newspapers reported that Gandhi would begin civil disobedience by defying the salt laws. The salt satyagraha would begin on 12 March and end in Dandi with Gandhi breaking the Salt Act on 6 April. Gandhi chose 6 April to launch the mass breaking of the salt laws for a symbolic reason—it was the first day of "National Week", begun in 1919 when Gandhi conceived of the national hartal (strike) against the Rowlatt Act.Gandhi prepared the worldwide media for the march by issuing regular statements from the Ashram, at his regular prayer meetings, and through direct contact with the press. Expectations were heightened by his repeated statements anticipating arrest, and his increasingly dramatic language as the hour approached: "We are entering upon a life and death struggle, a holy war; we are performing an all-embracing sacrifice in which we wish to offer ourselves as an oblation." Correspondents from dozens of Indian, European, and American newspapers, along with film companies, responded to the drama and began covering the event.For the march itself, Gandhi wanted the strictest discipline and adherence to satyagraha and ahimsa. For that reason, he recruited the marchers not from Congress Party members, but from the residents of his own ashram, who were trained in Gandhi's strict standards of discipline. The 24-day march would pass through 4 districts and 48 villages. The route of the march, along with each evening's stopping place, was planned based on recruitment potential, past contacts, and timing. Gandhi sent scouts to each village ahead of the march so he could plan his talks at each resting place, based on the needs of the local residents. Events at each village were scheduled and publicised in Indian and foreign press.On 2 March 1930 Gandhi wrote to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, offering to stop the march if Irwin met eleven demands, including reduction of land revenue assessments, cutting military spending, imposing a tariff on foreign cloth, and abolishing the salt tax. His strongest appeal to Irwin regarded the salt tax:
If my letter makes no appeal to your heart, on the eleventh day of this month I shall proceed with such co-workers of the Ashram as I can take, to disregard the provisions of the Salt Laws. I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor man's standpoint. As the sovereignty and self-rule movement is essentially for the poorest in the land, the beginning will be made with this evil.
As mentioned earlier, the Viceroy held any prospect of a "salt protest" in disdain. After he ignored the letter and refused to meet with Gandhi, the march was set in motion. Gandhi remarked, "On bended knees, I asked for bread and I have received stone instead." The eve of the march brought thousands of Indians to Sabarmati to hear Gandhi speak at the regular evening prayer. American academic writing for The Nation reported that "60,000 persons gathered on the bank of the river to hear Gandhi's call to arms. This call to arms was perhaps the most remarkable call to war that has ever been made."
March to Dandi
On 12 March 1930, Gandhi and 78 satyagrahis, among whom were men belonging to almost every region, caste, creed, and religion of India, set out on foot for the coastal village of Dandi in Navsari district of Gujarat, 385 km from their starting point at Sabarmati Ashram. The Salt March was also called the White Flowing River because all the people were joining the procession wearing white Khadi.
According to The Statesman, the official government newspaper which usually played down the size of crowds at Gandhi's functions, 100,000 people crowded the road that separated Sabarmati from Ahmedabad. The first day's march of 21 km ended in the village of Aslali, where Gandhi spoke to a crowd of about 4,000. At Aslali, and the other villages that the march passed through, volunteers collected donations, registered new satyagrahis, and received resignations from village officials who chose to end co-operation with British rule.As they entered each village, crowds greeted the marchers, beating drums and cymbals. Gandhi gave speeches attacking the salt tax as inhuman, and the salt satyagraha as a "poor man's struggle". Each night they slept in the open. The only thing that was asked of the villagers was food and water to wash with. Gandhi felt that this would bring the poor into the struggle for sovereignty and self-rule, necessary for eventual victory.Thousands of satyagrahis and leaders like Sarojini Naidu joined him. Every day, more and more people joined the march, until the procession of marchers became at least 3 km long. To keep up their spirits, the marchers used to sing the Hindu Bhajan Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram while walking. At Surat, they were greeted by 30,000 people. When they reached the railhead at Dandi, more than 50,000 were gathered. Gandhi gave interviews and wrote articles along the way. Foreign journalists and three Bombay cinema companies shooting newsreel footage turned Gandhi into a household name in Europe and America (at the end of 1930, Time magazine made him "Man of the Year"). The New York Times wrote almost daily about the Salt March, including two front-page articles on 6 and 7 April. Near the end of the march, Gandhi declared, "I want world sympathy in this battle of right against might."Upon arriving at the seashore on 5 April, Gandhi was interviewed by an Associated Press reporter. He stated:
I cannot withhold my compliments from the government for the policy of complete non interference adopted by them throughout the march .... I wish I could believe this non-interference was due to any real change of heart or policy. The wanton disregard shown by them to popular feeling in the Legislative Assembly and their high-handed action leave no room for doubt that the policy of heartless exploitation of India is to be persisted in at any cost, and so the only interpretation I can put upon this non-interference is that the British Government, powerful though it is, is sensitive to world opinion which will not tolerate repression of extreme political agitation which civil disobedience undoubtedly is, so long as disobedience remains civil and therefore necessarily non-violent .... It remains to be seen whether the Government will tolerate as they have tolerated the march, the actual breach of the salt laws by countless people from tomorrow.
The following morning, after a prayer, Gandhi raised a lump of salty mud and declared, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire." He then boiled it in seawater, producing illegal salt. He implored his thousands of followers to likewise begin making salt along the seashore, "wherever it is convenient" and to instruct villagers in making illegal, but necessary, salt. The others followed him and Sarojini Naidu addressing Gandhi, shouted 'Hail, law breaker'. In a letter to her daughter, Naidu remarked:The little law breaker is sitting in a state of ‘Maun’ [silence] writing his article of triumph for Young India and I am stretched on a hard bench at the open window of a huge room that has 6 windows open to the sea breeze. As far as the eye can see there is a little Army—thousands of pilgrims who have been pouring in since yesterday to this otherwise deserted and exceedingly primitive village of fishermen.After the Gandhi broke the salt laws, about 700 telegrams were sent out from the post office nearest to Dandi, at Jalalpur. Most of them were by the journalists, who were there to break this news.
First 78 Marchers
78 marchers accompanied Gandhi on his march. Most of them were between the ages of 20 and 30. These men hailed from almost all parts of the country. The march gathered more people as it gained momentum, but the following list of names consists of Gandhi himself and the first 78 marchers who were with Gandhi from the beginning of the Dandi March until the end. Most of them simply dispersed after the march was over.
A memorial has been created inside the campus of IIT Bombay honouring these Satyagrahis who participated in the famous Dandi March.
Mass civil disobedience
Mass civil disobedience spread throughout India as millions broke the salt laws by making salt or buying illegal salt. Salt was sold illegally all over the coast of India. A pinch of salt made by Gandhi himself sold for 1,600 rupees (equivalent to $750 at the time). In reaction, the British government arrested over sixty thousand people by the end of the month.What had begun as a Salt Satyagraha quickly grew into a mass Satyagraha. British cloth and goods were boycotted. Unpopular forest laws were defied in the Bombay, Mysore and Central Provinces. Gujarati peasants refused to pay tax, under threat of losing their crops and land. In Midnapore, Bengalis took part by refusing to pay the chowkidar tax. The British responded with more laws, including censorship of correspondence and declaring the Congress and its associate organisations illegal. None of those measures slowed the civil disobedience movement.There were outbreaks of violence in Calcutta (now spelled Kolkata), Karachi, and Gujarat. Unlike his suspension of satyagraha after violence broke out during the Non-co-operation movement, this time Gandhi was "unmoved". Appealing for violence to end, at the same time Gandhi honoured those killed in Chittagong and congratulated their parents "for the finished sacrifices of their sons ... A warrior's death is never a matter for sorrow."During the first phase of the Indian civil disobedience movement from 1929 to 1931, the second MacDonald ministry headed by Ramsay MacDonald was in power in Britain. The attempted suppression of the movement was presided over by MacDonald and his cabinet (including the Secretary of State for India, William Wedgwood Benn). During this period, the MacDonald ministry also oversaw the suppression of the nascent trade unionist movement in India, which was described by historian Sumit Sarkar as "a massive capitalist and government counter-offensive" against workers' rights.
Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre
In Peshawar, satyagraha was led by a Muslim Pashtun disciple of Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan, who had trained 50,000 nonviolent activists called Khudai Khidmatgar. On 23 April 1930, Ghaffar Khan was arrested. A crowd of Khudai Khidmatgar gathered in Peshawar's Qissa Kahani (Storytellers) Bazaar. The 2/18 battalion of the Royal Garhwal Rifles were ordered to open fire with machine guns on the unarmed crowd, killing an estimated 200–250 people. The Pashtun satyagrahis acted in accord with their training in nonviolence, willingly facing bullets as the troops fired on them. One British Indian Army soldier, Chandra Singh Garhwali and some other troops from the renowned Royal Garhwal Rifles regiment refused to fire at the crowds. The entire platoon was arrested and many received heavy sentences, including life imprisonment.
Vedaranyam salt march
While Gandhi marched along India's west coast, his close associate C. Rajagopalachari, who would later become India's first Indian Governor-General, organized the Vedaranyam salt march in parallel on the east coast. His group started from Tiruchirappalli, in Madras Presidency (now part of Tamil Nadu), to the coastal village of Vedaranyam. After making illegal salt there, he too was arrested by the British.
Women in civil disobedience
The civil disobedience in 1930 marked the first time women became mass participants in the struggle for freedom. Thousands of women, from large cities to small villages, became active participants in satyagraha. Gandhi had asked that only men take part in the salt march, but eventually women began manufacturing and selling salt throughout India. It was clear that though only men were allowed within the march, that both men and women were expected to forward work that would help dissolve the salt laws. Usha Mehta, an early Gandhian activist, remarked that "Even our old aunts and great-aunts and grandmothers used to bring pitchers of salt water to their houses and manufacture illegal salt. And then they would shout at the top of their voices: 'We have broken the salt law!'" The growing number of women in the fight for sovereignty and self-rule was a "new and serious feature" according to Lord Irwin. A government report on the involvement of women stated "thousands of them emerged ... from the seclusion of their homes ... in order to join Congress demonstrations and assist in picketing: and their presence on these occasions made the work the police was required to perform particularly unpleasant." Though women did become involved in the march, it was clear that Gandhi saw women as still playing a secondary role within the movement, but created the beginning of a push for women to be more involved in the future."Sarojini Naidu was among the most visible leaders (male or female) of pre-independent India. As president of the Indian National Congress and the first woman governor of free India, she was a fervent advocate for India, avidly mobilizing support for the Indian independence movement. She was also the first woman to be arrested in the salt march."
Impact
British documents show that the British government was shaken by Satyagraha. Nonviolent protest left the British confused about whether or not to jail Gandhi. John Court Curry, an Indian Imperial Police officer from England, wrote in his memoirs that he felt nausea every time he dealt with Congress demonstrations in 1930. Curry and others in British government, including Wedgwood Benn, Secretary of State for India, preferred fighting violent rather than nonviolent opponents.
Dharasana Satyagraha and aftermath
Gandhi himself avoided further active involvement after the march, though he stayed in close contact with the developments throughout India. He created a temporary ashram near Dandi. From there, he urged women followers in Bombay (now Mumbai) to picket liquor shops and foreign cloth. He said that "a bonfire should be made of foreign cloth. Schools and colleges should become empty."For his next major action, Gandhi decided on a raid of the Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat, 40 km south of Dandi. He wrote to Lord Irwin, again telling him of his plans. Around midnight of 4 May, as Gandhi was sleeping on a cot in a mango grove, the District magistrate of Surat drove up with two Indian officers and thirty heavily armed constables. He was arrested under an 1827 regulation calling for the jailing of people engaged in unlawful activities, and held without trial near Poona (now Pune).
The Dharasana Satyagraha went ahead as planned, with Abbas Tyabji, a seventy-six-year-old retired judge, leading the march with Gandhi's wife Kasturba at his side. Both were arrested before reaching Dharasana and sentenced to three months in prison. After their arrests, the march continued under the leadership of Sarojini Naidu, a woman poet and freedom fighter, who warned the satyagrahis, "You must not use any violence under any circumstances. You will be beaten, but you must not resist: you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows." Soldiers began clubbing the satyagrahis with steel tipped lathis in an incident that attracted international attention. United Press correspondent Webb Miller reported that:
Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows. They went down like ten-pins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whacks of the clubs on unprotected skulls. The waiting crowd of watchers groaned and sucked in their breaths in sympathetic pain at every blow. Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders. In two or three minutes the ground was quilted with bodies. Great patches of blood widened on their white clothes. The survivors without breaking ranks silently and doggedly marched on until struck down ... Finally the police became enraged by the non-resistance ... They commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the abdomen and testicles. The injured men writhed and squealed in agony, which seemed to inflame the fury of the police ... The police then began dragging the sitting men by the arms or feet, sometimes for a hundred yards, and throwing them into ditches.
Vithalbhai Patel, former Speaker of the Assembly, watched the beatings and remarked, "All hope of reconciling India with the British Empire is lost forever." Miller's first attempts at telegraphing the story to his publisher in England were censored by the British telegraph operators in India. Only after threatening to expose British censorship was his story allowed to pass. The story appeared in 1,350 newspapers throughout the world and was read into the official record of the United States Senate by Senator John J. Blaine.Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world. Millions saw the newsreels showing the march. Time declared Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year, comparing Gandhi's march to the sea "to defy Britain's salt tax as some New Englanders once defied a British tea tax". Civil disobedience continued until early 1931, when Gandhi was finally released from prison to hold talks with Irwin. It was the first time the two held talks on equal terms, and resulted in the Gandhi–Irwin Pact. The talks would lead to the Second Round Table Conference at the end of 1931.
Long-term effect
The Salt Satyagraha did not produce immediate progress toward dominion status or self-rule for India, did not elicit major policy concessions from the British, or attract much Muslim support. Congress leaders decided to end satyagraha as official policy in 1934, and Nehru and other Congress members drifted further apart from Gandhi, who withdrew from Congress to concentrate on his Constructive Programme, which included his efforts to end untouchability in the Harijan movement. However, even though British authorities were again in control by the mid-1930s, Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of claims by Gandhi and the Congress Party for sovereignty and self-rule. The Satyagraha campaign of the 1930s also forced the British to recognise that their control of India depended entirely on the consent of the Indians – Salt Satyagraha was a significant step in the British losing that consent.Nehru considered the Salt Satyagraha the high-water mark of his association with Gandhi, and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians:
Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses ... Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance ... They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole ... It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhi's leadership, must have the credit for it.
More than thirty years later, Satyagraha and the March to Dandi exercised a strong influence on American civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr., and his fight for civil rights for blacks in the 1960s:
Like most people, I had heard of Gandhi, but I had never studied him seriously. As I read I became deeply fascinated by his campaigns of nonviolent resistance. I was particularly moved by his Salt March to the Sea and his numerous fasts. The whole concept of Satyagraha (Satya is truth which equals love, and agraha is force; Satyagraha, therefore, means truth force or love force) was profoundly significant to me. As I delved deeper into the philosophy of Gandhi, my skepticism concerning the power of love gradually diminished, and I came to see for the first time its potency in the area of social reform.
Re-enactment in 2005
To commemorate the Great Salt March, the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation re-enacted the Salt March on its 75th anniversary, in its exact historical schedule and route followed by the Mahatma and his band of 78 marchers. The event was known as the "International Walk for Justice and Freedom". What started as a personal pilgrimage for Mahatma Gandhi's great-grandson Tushar Gandhi turned into an international event with 900 registered participants from nine nations and on a daily basis the numbers swelled to a couple of thousands. There was extensive reportage in the international media.
The participants halted at Dandi on the night of 5 April, with the commemoration ending on 7 April. At the finale in Dandi, the prime minister of India, Dr Manmohan Singh, greeted the marchers and promised to build an appropriate monument at Dandi to commemorate the marchers and the historical event. The route from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi has now been christened as the Dandi Path and has been declared a historical heritage route.India issued a series of commemorative stamps in 1980 and 2005, on the 50th and 75th anniversaries of the Dandi March.
Memorial
The National Salt Satyagraha Memorial, a memorial museum, dedicated to the event was opened in Dandi on 30 January 2019.
See also
Boston Tea Party
Selma to Montgomery marches
Suffrage Hikes
Gandhi Heritage Portal
National Salt Satyagraha Memorial
References
Citations
Cited sources
Further reading
External links
Newsreel footage of Salt Satyagraha
Salt march re-enactment slide show
Gandhi's 1930 march re-enacted (BBC News)
Speech by Prime Minister of India on 75th anniversary of Dandi March.
Dandi March Timeline | participant | {
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The 2018–19 NCAA Division I men's ice hockey season began in October 2018 and ended with the Frozen Four in April 2019. This was the 72nd season in which an NCAA ice hockey championship was held, and United States college ice hockey's 125th year overall.
Polls
Regular season
Overtime rule changes
The NCAA Playing Rules Oversight Panel approved a proposal to allow conferences to use one of two alternative formats to award points in their league standings after the mandatory five-on-five, five-minute overtime period.
After a traditional five-minute, five-on-five overtime, conferences may use either a five-minute, three-on-three overtime period and a shootout or only a shootout to award additional conference points. Conferences are not required to use one of the alternative systems and may end play after the five-minute overtime.
During non-conference regular-season games, these alternative options are not permitted, and a game would end in a tie after the traditional five-minute overtime.
In regular-season tournaments that require advancement, a 20-minute sudden death format can be implemented for overtime, instead of the traditional five-minute overtime period. These tournaments also may use the three-on-three and shootout or the standalone shootout format.Each conference's approach if no goal is scored in the initial five-minute overtime:
Atlantic Hockey, ECAC & Hockey East: game ends in tie
Big Ten, NCHC & WCHA: Five-minute, three-on-three overtime; if still tied a sudden-death shootout followsPoints Explanation:
Atlantic Hockey, ECAC & Hockey East: Teams are awarded two points for each conference win in regulation or five-on-five overtime. Teams are awarded one point for a tie.
Big Ten, NCHC & WCHA: Teams are awarded three points for each conference win in regulation or five-on-five overtime. A three-on-three overtime or shootout win is worth two points in the standings while the team that loses the three-on-three overtime/shootout receives just one point. The three-on-three overtime and shootouts only affect conference standings while the game is officially a tie for NCAA purposes.
Season tournaments
Standings
PairWise Rankings
The PairWise Rankings (PWR) are a statistical tool designed to approximate the process by which the NCAA selection committee decides which teams get at-large bids to the 16-team NCAA tournament. Although the NCAA selection committee does not use the PWR as presented by USCHO, the PWR has been accurate in predicting which teams will make the tournament field.
For Division I men, all teams are included in comparisons starting in the 2013–14 season (formerly, only teams with a Ratings Percentage Index of .500 or above, or teams under consideration, were included). The PWR method compares each team with every other such team, with the winner of each “comparison” earning one PWR point. After all comparisons are made, the points are totaled up and rankings listed accordingly.
With 60 Division I men's teams, the greatest number of PWR points any team could earn is 59, winning the comparison with every other team. Meanwhile, a team that lost all of its comparisons would have no PWR points.
Teams are then ranked by PWR point total, with ties broken by the teams’ RPI ratings, which starting in 2013–14 is weighted for home and road games and includes a quality wins bonus (QWB) for beating teams in the top 20 of the RPI (it also is weighted for home and road).
When it comes to comparing teams, the PWR uses three criteria which are combined to make a comparison: RPI, record against common opponents and head-to-head competition. Starting in 2013–14, the comparison of record against teams under consideration was dropped because all teams are now under comparison.
2019 NCAA tournament
Note: * denotes overtime period
Player stats
Scoring leaders
GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; PIM = Penalty minutes
Leading goaltenders
The following goaltenders lead the NCAA in goals against average.GP = Games played; Min = Minutes played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; GA = Goals against; SO = Shutouts; SV% = Save percentage; GAA = Goals against average
== Awards == | sport | {
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Psoroptes is a genus of mites, including the agents that cause psoroptic mange.
Psoroptic mange
Psoroptes mites are responsible for causing psoroptic mange in various animals, leading to economic losses among farmers of cattle, sheep and goats. It is also known as sheep scab and cattle scab. The disease is highly infectious, and is transmitted via fenceposts and other structures that livestock use when scratching themselves. The mites have mouthparts which do not pierce the skin, but are adapted to feeding on the surface, where the mites abrade the stratum corneum. See Mites of livestock for photographs of infestations by Psoroptes.
Taxonomy
Psoroptes has been traditionally considered to include five species living on different host species, but genetic analysis has reduced the genus to a single species, Psoroptes ovis.
References
External links
van Praag, Esther. "Ear mite: Psoroptes cuniculi". | taxon rank | {
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Psoroptes is a genus of mites, including the agents that cause psoroptic mange.
Psoroptic mange
Psoroptes mites are responsible for causing psoroptic mange in various animals, leading to economic losses among farmers of cattle, sheep and goats. It is also known as sheep scab and cattle scab. The disease is highly infectious, and is transmitted via fenceposts and other structures that livestock use when scratching themselves. The mites have mouthparts which do not pierce the skin, but are adapted to feeding on the surface, where the mites abrade the stratum corneum. See Mites of livestock for photographs of infestations by Psoroptes.
Taxonomy
Psoroptes has been traditionally considered to include five species living on different host species, but genetic analysis has reduced the genus to a single species, Psoroptes ovis.
References
External links
van Praag, Esther. "Ear mite: Psoroptes cuniculi". | taxon name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Psoroptes"
]
} |
Psoroptes is a genus of mites, including the agents that cause psoroptic mange.
Psoroptic mange
Psoroptes mites are responsible for causing psoroptic mange in various animals, leading to economic losses among farmers of cattle, sheep and goats. It is also known as sheep scab and cattle scab. The disease is highly infectious, and is transmitted via fenceposts and other structures that livestock use when scratching themselves. The mites have mouthparts which do not pierce the skin, but are adapted to feeding on the surface, where the mites abrade the stratum corneum. See Mites of livestock for photographs of infestations by Psoroptes.
Taxonomy
Psoroptes has been traditionally considered to include five species living on different host species, but genetic analysis has reduced the genus to a single species, Psoroptes ovis.
References
External links
van Praag, Esther. "Ear mite: Psoroptes cuniculi". | Commons category | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Psoroptes"
]
} |
Psoroptes is a genus of mites, including the agents that cause psoroptic mange.
Psoroptic mange
Psoroptes mites are responsible for causing psoroptic mange in various animals, leading to economic losses among farmers of cattle, sheep and goats. It is also known as sheep scab and cattle scab. The disease is highly infectious, and is transmitted via fenceposts and other structures that livestock use when scratching themselves. The mites have mouthparts which do not pierce the skin, but are adapted to feeding on the surface, where the mites abrade the stratum corneum. See Mites of livestock for photographs of infestations by Psoroptes.
Taxonomy
Psoroptes has been traditionally considered to include five species living on different host species, but genetic analysis has reduced the genus to a single species, Psoroptes ovis.
References
External links
van Praag, Esther. "Ear mite: Psoroptes cuniculi". | Australian Faunal Directory ID | {
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Anastácia Solange Sibo Dias (born 27 May 1982) is an Angolan handball player. She plays for the club Petro Atlético, and on the Angolan national team. She represented Angola at the 2013 World Women's Handball Championship in Serbia.
== References == | country of citizenship | {
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Anastácia Solange Sibo Dias (born 27 May 1982) is an Angolan handball player. She plays for the club Petro Atlético, and on the Angolan national team. She represented Angola at the 2013 World Women's Handball Championship in Serbia.
== References == | occupation | {
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Anastácia Solange Sibo Dias (born 27 May 1982) is an Angolan handball player. She plays for the club Petro Atlético, and on the Angolan national team. She represented Angola at the 2013 World Women's Handball Championship in Serbia.
== References == | sport | {
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61
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Devèze (French pronunciation: [dəvɛz]; Occitan: Devesa) is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department in south-western France.
See also
Communes of the Hautes-Pyrénées department
References
External links
Official website of the commune of Devèze | different from | {
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0
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Devèze (French pronunciation: [dəvɛz]; Occitan: Devesa) is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department in south-western France.
See also
Communes of the Hautes-Pyrénées department
References
External links
Official website of the commune of Devèze | country | {
"answer_start": [
121
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"France"
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Devèze (French pronunciation: [dəvɛz]; Occitan: Devesa) is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department in south-western France.
See also
Communes of the Hautes-Pyrénées department
References
External links
Official website of the commune of Devèze | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
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"Hautes-Pyrénées"
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Devèze (French pronunciation: [dəvɛz]; Occitan: Devesa) is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department in south-western France.
See also
Communes of the Hautes-Pyrénées department
References
External links
Official website of the commune of Devèze | official name | {
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0
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"Devèze"
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Devèze (French pronunciation: [dəvɛz]; Occitan: Devesa) is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department in south-western France.
See also
Communes of the Hautes-Pyrénées department
References
External links
Official website of the commune of Devèze | native label | {
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Morro is a settlement in the west of the island of Maio in Cape Verde. It is located 5 km north of the island capital Porto Inglês and 6 km south of Calheta. As of the 2010 census, its population was 310. The beach north of the village, Praia do Morro, is a 6.66 km2 nature reserve.
See also
List of villages and settlements in Cape Verde
== References == | country | {
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Morro is a settlement in the west of the island of Maio in Cape Verde. It is located 5 km north of the island capital Porto Inglês and 6 km south of Calheta. As of the 2010 census, its population was 310. The beach north of the village, Praia do Morro, is a 6.66 km2 nature reserve.
See also
List of villages and settlements in Cape Verde
== References == | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
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51
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Morro is a settlement in the west of the island of Maio in Cape Verde. It is located 5 km north of the island capital Porto Inglês and 6 km south of Calheta. As of the 2010 census, its population was 310. The beach north of the village, Praia do Morro, is a 6.66 km2 nature reserve.
See also
List of villages and settlements in Cape Verde
== References == | population | {
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Stawki [ˈstafki] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Głowaczów, within Kozienice County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately 4 kilometres (2 mi) south of Głowaczów, 18 km (11 mi) west of Kozienice, and 74 km (46 mi) south of Warsaw.
== References == | country | {
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Stawki [ˈstafki] is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Głowaczów, within Kozienice County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately 4 kilometres (2 mi) south of Głowaczów, 18 km (11 mi) west of Kozienice, and 74 km (46 mi) south of Warsaw.
== References == | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
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Joseph Anthony Cackovic (February 21, 1923 – December 18, 1984) was an American professional basketball player and coach. He spent the majority of his career with the Harrisburg Senators / Capitols of the Eastern Professional Basketball League (EPBL).
Cackovic emerged as a star basketball player while at Steelton High School in Steelton, Pennsylvania, and graduated in 1941. He was signed by the Senators in 1947 after bargaining with general manager Bill Britsch. Cackovic had been playing for the York Victory in independent circles and negotiated to still be able to play with the team despite being contracted to the Senators.Cackovic led the EPBL in scoring during his first season with 430 points. He served as a player-coach for 9 games during the 1948–49 season. Cackovic was selected to the All-EPBL First Team during the 1949–50 season as he averaged 18.9 points per game. He was selected to the All-EPBL Second Team in the 1950–51 season as he averaged 14.8 points per game. Cackovic moved to the Lancaster Rockets for the 1951–52 season. He returned to Harrisburg as the team was renamed the Capitols for the 1952–53 season and served as the player-coach.
== References == | occupation | {
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Joseph Anthony Cackovic (February 21, 1923 – December 18, 1984) was an American professional basketball player and coach. He spent the majority of his career with the Harrisburg Senators / Capitols of the Eastern Professional Basketball League (EPBL).
Cackovic emerged as a star basketball player while at Steelton High School in Steelton, Pennsylvania, and graduated in 1941. He was signed by the Senators in 1947 after bargaining with general manager Bill Britsch. Cackovic had been playing for the York Victory in independent circles and negotiated to still be able to play with the team despite being contracted to the Senators.Cackovic led the EPBL in scoring during his first season with 430 points. He served as a player-coach for 9 games during the 1948–49 season. Cackovic was selected to the All-EPBL First Team during the 1949–50 season as he averaged 18.9 points per game. He was selected to the All-EPBL Second Team in the 1950–51 season as he averaged 14.8 points per game. Cackovic moved to the Lancaster Rockets for the 1951–52 season. He returned to Harrisburg as the team was renamed the Capitols for the 1952–53 season and served as the player-coach.
== References == | sport | {
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Yunganastes bisignatus is a species of frog in the family Strabomantidae. It is endemic to the La Paz Department, Bolivia, and known from between the Inquisivi and Nor Yungas Provinces. It has been considered synonym of Pristimantis fenestratus but is now treated as valid species.
Description
Adult males measure 28–35 mm (1.1–1.4 in) and adult females, based on a single specimen, 47 mm (1.9 in) in snout–vent length. The head is wider than it is long. The snout is short. The tympanum is visible but partly obscured by the prominent supratympanic fold. The fingers and toes have weakly to moderately enlarged discs but no lateral fringes nor webbing. The dorsum is dark reddish-brown; the flanks are lighter with cream ground color. There are various dark brown markings, including a narrow dark brown band running from the tip of snout to the eye along canthus. The ventral surfaces are cream, with dense, fine grey mottling on the throat.
Habitat and conservation
Yunganastes bisignatus inhabits tropical moist montane forests at elevations of 1,850–2,700 m (6,070–8,860 ft) above sea level. It is diurnal. Males call from low positions (0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft) above the ground) on tree trunks and bushes at night, and provided that weather is suitably foggy and rainy, during the day.Yunganastes bisignatus is abundant at its type locality but its range is small and it is threatened by habitat loss. It occurs in the Cotapata National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area.
== References == | taxon rank | {
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28
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Yunganastes bisignatus is a species of frog in the family Strabomantidae. It is endemic to the La Paz Department, Bolivia, and known from between the Inquisivi and Nor Yungas Provinces. It has been considered synonym of Pristimantis fenestratus but is now treated as valid species.
Description
Adult males measure 28–35 mm (1.1–1.4 in) and adult females, based on a single specimen, 47 mm (1.9 in) in snout–vent length. The head is wider than it is long. The snout is short. The tympanum is visible but partly obscured by the prominent supratympanic fold. The fingers and toes have weakly to moderately enlarged discs but no lateral fringes nor webbing. The dorsum is dark reddish-brown; the flanks are lighter with cream ground color. There are various dark brown markings, including a narrow dark brown band running from the tip of snout to the eye along canthus. The ventral surfaces are cream, with dense, fine grey mottling on the throat.
Habitat and conservation
Yunganastes bisignatus inhabits tropical moist montane forests at elevations of 1,850–2,700 m (6,070–8,860 ft) above sea level. It is diurnal. Males call from low positions (0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft) above the ground) on tree trunks and bushes at night, and provided that weather is suitably foggy and rainy, during the day.Yunganastes bisignatus is abundant at its type locality but its range is small and it is threatened by habitat loss. It occurs in the Cotapata National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area.
== References == | parent taxon | {
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Yunganastes bisignatus is a species of frog in the family Strabomantidae. It is endemic to the La Paz Department, Bolivia, and known from between the Inquisivi and Nor Yungas Provinces. It has been considered synonym of Pristimantis fenestratus but is now treated as valid species.
Description
Adult males measure 28–35 mm (1.1–1.4 in) and adult females, based on a single specimen, 47 mm (1.9 in) in snout–vent length. The head is wider than it is long. The snout is short. The tympanum is visible but partly obscured by the prominent supratympanic fold. The fingers and toes have weakly to moderately enlarged discs but no lateral fringes nor webbing. The dorsum is dark reddish-brown; the flanks are lighter with cream ground color. There are various dark brown markings, including a narrow dark brown band running from the tip of snout to the eye along canthus. The ventral surfaces are cream, with dense, fine grey mottling on the throat.
Habitat and conservation
Yunganastes bisignatus inhabits tropical moist montane forests at elevations of 1,850–2,700 m (6,070–8,860 ft) above sea level. It is diurnal. Males call from low positions (0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft) above the ground) on tree trunks and bushes at night, and provided that weather is suitably foggy and rainy, during the day.Yunganastes bisignatus is abundant at its type locality but its range is small and it is threatened by habitat loss. It occurs in the Cotapata National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area.
== References == | endemic to | {
"answer_start": [
114
],
"text": [
"Bolivia"
]
} |
Yunganastes bisignatus is a species of frog in the family Strabomantidae. It is endemic to the La Paz Department, Bolivia, and known from between the Inquisivi and Nor Yungas Provinces. It has been considered synonym of Pristimantis fenestratus but is now treated as valid species.
Description
Adult males measure 28–35 mm (1.1–1.4 in) and adult females, based on a single specimen, 47 mm (1.9 in) in snout–vent length. The head is wider than it is long. The snout is short. The tympanum is visible but partly obscured by the prominent supratympanic fold. The fingers and toes have weakly to moderately enlarged discs but no lateral fringes nor webbing. The dorsum is dark reddish-brown; the flanks are lighter with cream ground color. There are various dark brown markings, including a narrow dark brown band running from the tip of snout to the eye along canthus. The ventral surfaces are cream, with dense, fine grey mottling on the throat.
Habitat and conservation
Yunganastes bisignatus inhabits tropical moist montane forests at elevations of 1,850–2,700 m (6,070–8,860 ft) above sea level. It is diurnal. Males call from low positions (0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft) above the ground) on tree trunks and bushes at night, and provided that weather is suitably foggy and rainy, during the day.Yunganastes bisignatus is abundant at its type locality but its range is small and it is threatened by habitat loss. It occurs in the Cotapata National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area.
== References == | taxon name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Yunganastes bisignatus"
]
} |
Yunganastes bisignatus is a species of frog in the family Strabomantidae. It is endemic to the La Paz Department, Bolivia, and known from between the Inquisivi and Nor Yungas Provinces. It has been considered synonym of Pristimantis fenestratus but is now treated as valid species.
Description
Adult males measure 28–35 mm (1.1–1.4 in) and adult females, based on a single specimen, 47 mm (1.9 in) in snout–vent length. The head is wider than it is long. The snout is short. The tympanum is visible but partly obscured by the prominent supratympanic fold. The fingers and toes have weakly to moderately enlarged discs but no lateral fringes nor webbing. The dorsum is dark reddish-brown; the flanks are lighter with cream ground color. There are various dark brown markings, including a narrow dark brown band running from the tip of snout to the eye along canthus. The ventral surfaces are cream, with dense, fine grey mottling on the throat.
Habitat and conservation
Yunganastes bisignatus inhabits tropical moist montane forests at elevations of 1,850–2,700 m (6,070–8,860 ft) above sea level. It is diurnal. Males call from low positions (0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft) above the ground) on tree trunks and bushes at night, and provided that weather is suitably foggy and rainy, during the day.Yunganastes bisignatus is abundant at its type locality but its range is small and it is threatened by habitat loss. It occurs in the Cotapata National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area.
== References == | Commons category | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Yunganastes bisignatus"
]
} |
Christoph Lütge (born 10 November 1969) is a German philosopher and economist notable for his work on business ethics, AI ethics, experimental ethics and political philosophy. He is full professor of business ethics at the Technical University of Munich and director of its Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence.
Academic career
After studying philosophy and business informatics in Braunschweig, Göttingen and Paris, Lütge was a PhD student at Technical University of Berlin and Braunschweig University of Technology from 1997 to 1999. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Pittsburgh in 1997 and research fellow at the University of California, San Diego in 1998. In 1999, he received his doctorate in philosophy and became a research assistant at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He was visiting professor at Venice International University in 2003. From 2004, Lütge was assistant professor at the department of philosophy of Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, from which he also received his habilitation in 2005. Christoph Lütge was acting professor at Witten/Herdecke University from 2007 to 2008 and at Braunschweig University of Technology from 2008 to 2010. Since August 2010, he holds the newly created Peter Löscher Endowed Chair of Business Ethics at Technical University of Munich.In 2019, Lütge became director of the new Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence (IEAI) at Technical University of Munich. Facebook made a five-year contribution (with US$7.5 million.) in January 2019, to help launch the IEAI. The contractual agreement between the university and the company remained confidential, but parts of the agreements became public through media and caused controversy. Facebook retains according the agreement the right to discontinue further funding at any time after its initial payment and explicitly mandates that the institute must be headed by Christoph Lütge, unless Facebook approves a different head.
Philosophy
Business ethics
In his work on business ethics, Lütge advocates a contractarian approach termed „order ethics“. This approach focuses on the institutional and order framework of a society and its economy. Both formal and informal order elements are analyzed in order ethics, which especially highlights the relation of competition and ethics and reaches out into thematic fields such as Corporate Social Responsibility and Diversity.
Political philosophy
In his work on political philosophy, „Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?“, Lütge takes on a fundamental problem of contemporary political philosophy and ethics. He questions the often implicit assumption of many contemporary political philosophers according to which a society needs its citizens to adopt some shared basic qualities, views or capabilities (here termed a moral surplus). Lütge examines the respective theories of, among others, Jürgen Habermas, John Rawls, David Gauthier, James M. Buchanan, and Kenneth Binmore with a focus on their respective moral surpluses. He finds that each moral surplus is either not necessary for the stability of societies or cannot remain stable when faced with opposing incentives. Binmore’s idea of empathy is the only one that is, at least partly, not confronted with this dilemma. Lütge provides an alternative view termed "order ethics", which weakens the necessary assumptions for modern societies and basically only relies on mutual advantages as the fundamental basis of society.
Distinctions and awards
In 2007, Lütge received a Heisenberg Fellowship from the German Research Foundation. In the past, he has been a Member of the Senate and the Advisory Council of the Bavarian School of Public Policy, as well as a Member of the Ethics Advisory Board of the European Medical Information Framework (EMIF), Member of the Advisory Board of the Centre for Governance, Leadership and Global Responsibility of Leeds Metropolitan University and Vice chairman of the audit committee of the Bavarian Construction Industry Association. Among others, Lütge has held visiting positions at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society of Harvard University (2019), National Taipei University (2015) and Kyoto (2015). In 2016, he was appointed by Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure Alexander Dobrindt to serve on the German government’s Ethics Commission on Autonomous Driving. In 2017, Lütge was elected into the Executive Committee of the International Society for Business, Ethics and Economics (ISBEE). From 2018 to 2020, he was Liaison Professor of the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes (German Academic Scholarship Foundation) and, since 2018, Member of the Scientific Board of AI4People. Since 2019, Lütge is appointed as External Member of the Karel Čapek Center for Values in Science and Technology (Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Since 2021, he is also a member of the Academic Committee of the Institute for AI International Governance of Tsinghua University.
Academic bodies reviewer
Lütge has done reviewing work for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, Israel Science Foundation, Swiss National Science Foundation, German Research Foundation (DFG), German Council of Science and Humanities (Wissenschaftsrat), Society for Business Ethics, German National Academic Foundation, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and German Federal Environmental Foundation.
Research interests
Business Ethics
Ethics of Digital Technologies (AI, Autonomous Driving)
Ethics of Technology
Experimental Ethics
Corporate Social Responsibility
Foundations of Ethics
Contractualist Ethics
Ethics and Risk
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Music
Controversy
He was dismissed from the Bavarian Ethics Council. According to the Council's chair, Lütge had been evoking the impression that his personal opinion had been authorized by the Council. Lütge has rejected this claim in interviews.
Major books
Business Ethics: An Economically Informed Perspective, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2021 (with Matthias Uhl), ISBN 978-0-19-886477-6.
An Introduction to Ethics in Robotics and AI, Dordrecht: Springer, 2021, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-030-51109-8. Free OpenAccess download here: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-51110-4
The Praxis of Diversity, Basingstoke: Macmillan 2020, (ed., with C. Lütge, and M. Faltermeier), ISBN 978-3-030-26077-4.
Ethik in KI und Robotik, Munich: Hanser Verlag, 2019, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-446-46227-4.
The Ethics of Competition: How a Competitive Society is Good for All. Cheltenham: Elgar 2019, ISBN 978-1-78897-298-7.
The Honorable Merchant – Between Modesty and Risk-Taking: Intercultural and Literary Aspects, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2019, (ed., with C. Strosetzki), ISBN 978-3-030-04350-6.
The Idea of Justice in Literature, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2018, (ed., with H. Kabashima, S. Liu, A. de Prada Garcia), ISBN 978-3-658-21995-6.
Order Ethics: An Ethical Framework for the Social Market Economy, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2016, (ed., with N. Mukerji), ISBN 978-3-319-33149-2.
Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?, Lanham: Lexington 2015, ISBN 978-0-7391-9867-4.
Experimental Ethics: Toward an Empirical Moral Philosophy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2014, (ed., with H. Rusch and M. Uhl), ISBN 978-1-137-40979-9.
Ethik des Wettbewerbs: Über Konkurrenz und Moral. München: Beck 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-66964-4.
Business Ethics and Risk Management, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2014, (ed., with J. Jauernig), ISBN 978-94-007-7441-4.
Handbook of the Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2013 (ed.), ISBN 978-94-007-1495-3.
Einführung in die Wirtschaftsethik. 3rd ed., Münster: LIT 2013 (with K. Homann), ISBN 978-3-8258-7758-3.
Wirtschaftsethik ohne Illusionen: Ordnungstheoretische Reflexionen. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2012, ISBN 978-3-16-151782-2.
Entscheidung und Urteil. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht 2009 (with H. Jungermann), ISBN 978-3-525-40419-5.
Corporate Citizenship, Contractarianism and Ethical Theory: On Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2008 (ed., with J. Conill and T. Schönwälder-Kuntze), ISBN 978-0-7546-7383-5.
Globalisation and Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2007 (ed., with K. Homann and P. Koslowski), ISBN 978-0-7546-4817-8.
Was hält eine Gesellschaft zusammen? Ethik im Zeitalter der Globalisierung. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2007, ISBN 978-3-16-149408-6.
Ökonomische Wissenschaftstheorie. Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann 2001, ISBN 978-3-8260-2017-9.
References
External links
Christoph Lütge's Homepage at TU Munich
Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence | languages spoken, written or signed | {
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45
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"text": [
"German"
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Christoph Lütge (born 10 November 1969) is a German philosopher and economist notable for his work on business ethics, AI ethics, experimental ethics and political philosophy. He is full professor of business ethics at the Technical University of Munich and director of its Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence.
Academic career
After studying philosophy and business informatics in Braunschweig, Göttingen and Paris, Lütge was a PhD student at Technical University of Berlin and Braunschweig University of Technology from 1997 to 1999. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Pittsburgh in 1997 and research fellow at the University of California, San Diego in 1998. In 1999, he received his doctorate in philosophy and became a research assistant at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He was visiting professor at Venice International University in 2003. From 2004, Lütge was assistant professor at the department of philosophy of Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, from which he also received his habilitation in 2005. Christoph Lütge was acting professor at Witten/Herdecke University from 2007 to 2008 and at Braunschweig University of Technology from 2008 to 2010. Since August 2010, he holds the newly created Peter Löscher Endowed Chair of Business Ethics at Technical University of Munich.In 2019, Lütge became director of the new Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence (IEAI) at Technical University of Munich. Facebook made a five-year contribution (with US$7.5 million.) in January 2019, to help launch the IEAI. The contractual agreement between the university and the company remained confidential, but parts of the agreements became public through media and caused controversy. Facebook retains according the agreement the right to discontinue further funding at any time after its initial payment and explicitly mandates that the institute must be headed by Christoph Lütge, unless Facebook approves a different head.
Philosophy
Business ethics
In his work on business ethics, Lütge advocates a contractarian approach termed „order ethics“. This approach focuses on the institutional and order framework of a society and its economy. Both formal and informal order elements are analyzed in order ethics, which especially highlights the relation of competition and ethics and reaches out into thematic fields such as Corporate Social Responsibility and Diversity.
Political philosophy
In his work on political philosophy, „Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?“, Lütge takes on a fundamental problem of contemporary political philosophy and ethics. He questions the often implicit assumption of many contemporary political philosophers according to which a society needs its citizens to adopt some shared basic qualities, views or capabilities (here termed a moral surplus). Lütge examines the respective theories of, among others, Jürgen Habermas, John Rawls, David Gauthier, James M. Buchanan, and Kenneth Binmore with a focus on their respective moral surpluses. He finds that each moral surplus is either not necessary for the stability of societies or cannot remain stable when faced with opposing incentives. Binmore’s idea of empathy is the only one that is, at least partly, not confronted with this dilemma. Lütge provides an alternative view termed "order ethics", which weakens the necessary assumptions for modern societies and basically only relies on mutual advantages as the fundamental basis of society.
Distinctions and awards
In 2007, Lütge received a Heisenberg Fellowship from the German Research Foundation. In the past, he has been a Member of the Senate and the Advisory Council of the Bavarian School of Public Policy, as well as a Member of the Ethics Advisory Board of the European Medical Information Framework (EMIF), Member of the Advisory Board of the Centre for Governance, Leadership and Global Responsibility of Leeds Metropolitan University and Vice chairman of the audit committee of the Bavarian Construction Industry Association. Among others, Lütge has held visiting positions at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society of Harvard University (2019), National Taipei University (2015) and Kyoto (2015). In 2016, he was appointed by Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure Alexander Dobrindt to serve on the German government’s Ethics Commission on Autonomous Driving. In 2017, Lütge was elected into the Executive Committee of the International Society for Business, Ethics and Economics (ISBEE). From 2018 to 2020, he was Liaison Professor of the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes (German Academic Scholarship Foundation) and, since 2018, Member of the Scientific Board of AI4People. Since 2019, Lütge is appointed as External Member of the Karel Čapek Center for Values in Science and Technology (Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Since 2021, he is also a member of the Academic Committee of the Institute for AI International Governance of Tsinghua University.
Academic bodies reviewer
Lütge has done reviewing work for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, Israel Science Foundation, Swiss National Science Foundation, German Research Foundation (DFG), German Council of Science and Humanities (Wissenschaftsrat), Society for Business Ethics, German National Academic Foundation, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and German Federal Environmental Foundation.
Research interests
Business Ethics
Ethics of Digital Technologies (AI, Autonomous Driving)
Ethics of Technology
Experimental Ethics
Corporate Social Responsibility
Foundations of Ethics
Contractualist Ethics
Ethics and Risk
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Music
Controversy
He was dismissed from the Bavarian Ethics Council. According to the Council's chair, Lütge had been evoking the impression that his personal opinion had been authorized by the Council. Lütge has rejected this claim in interviews.
Major books
Business Ethics: An Economically Informed Perspective, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2021 (with Matthias Uhl), ISBN 978-0-19-886477-6.
An Introduction to Ethics in Robotics and AI, Dordrecht: Springer, 2021, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-030-51109-8. Free OpenAccess download here: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-51110-4
The Praxis of Diversity, Basingstoke: Macmillan 2020, (ed., with C. Lütge, and M. Faltermeier), ISBN 978-3-030-26077-4.
Ethik in KI und Robotik, Munich: Hanser Verlag, 2019, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-446-46227-4.
The Ethics of Competition: How a Competitive Society is Good for All. Cheltenham: Elgar 2019, ISBN 978-1-78897-298-7.
The Honorable Merchant – Between Modesty and Risk-Taking: Intercultural and Literary Aspects, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2019, (ed., with C. Strosetzki), ISBN 978-3-030-04350-6.
The Idea of Justice in Literature, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2018, (ed., with H. Kabashima, S. Liu, A. de Prada Garcia), ISBN 978-3-658-21995-6.
Order Ethics: An Ethical Framework for the Social Market Economy, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2016, (ed., with N. Mukerji), ISBN 978-3-319-33149-2.
Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?, Lanham: Lexington 2015, ISBN 978-0-7391-9867-4.
Experimental Ethics: Toward an Empirical Moral Philosophy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2014, (ed., with H. Rusch and M. Uhl), ISBN 978-1-137-40979-9.
Ethik des Wettbewerbs: Über Konkurrenz und Moral. München: Beck 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-66964-4.
Business Ethics and Risk Management, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2014, (ed., with J. Jauernig), ISBN 978-94-007-7441-4.
Handbook of the Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2013 (ed.), ISBN 978-94-007-1495-3.
Einführung in die Wirtschaftsethik. 3rd ed., Münster: LIT 2013 (with K. Homann), ISBN 978-3-8258-7758-3.
Wirtschaftsethik ohne Illusionen: Ordnungstheoretische Reflexionen. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2012, ISBN 978-3-16-151782-2.
Entscheidung und Urteil. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht 2009 (with H. Jungermann), ISBN 978-3-525-40419-5.
Corporate Citizenship, Contractarianism and Ethical Theory: On Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2008 (ed., with J. Conill and T. Schönwälder-Kuntze), ISBN 978-0-7546-7383-5.
Globalisation and Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2007 (ed., with K. Homann and P. Koslowski), ISBN 978-0-7546-4817-8.
Was hält eine Gesellschaft zusammen? Ethik im Zeitalter der Globalisierung. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2007, ISBN 978-3-16-149408-6.
Ökonomische Wissenschaftstheorie. Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann 2001, ISBN 978-3-8260-2017-9.
References
External links
Christoph Lütge's Homepage at TU Munich
Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence | name in native language | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Christoph Lütge"
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Christoph Lütge (born 10 November 1969) is a German philosopher and economist notable for his work on business ethics, AI ethics, experimental ethics and political philosophy. He is full professor of business ethics at the Technical University of Munich and director of its Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence.
Academic career
After studying philosophy and business informatics in Braunschweig, Göttingen and Paris, Lütge was a PhD student at Technical University of Berlin and Braunschweig University of Technology from 1997 to 1999. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Pittsburgh in 1997 and research fellow at the University of California, San Diego in 1998. In 1999, he received his doctorate in philosophy and became a research assistant at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He was visiting professor at Venice International University in 2003. From 2004, Lütge was assistant professor at the department of philosophy of Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, from which he also received his habilitation in 2005. Christoph Lütge was acting professor at Witten/Herdecke University from 2007 to 2008 and at Braunschweig University of Technology from 2008 to 2010. Since August 2010, he holds the newly created Peter Löscher Endowed Chair of Business Ethics at Technical University of Munich.In 2019, Lütge became director of the new Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence (IEAI) at Technical University of Munich. Facebook made a five-year contribution (with US$7.5 million.) in January 2019, to help launch the IEAI. The contractual agreement between the university and the company remained confidential, but parts of the agreements became public through media and caused controversy. Facebook retains according the agreement the right to discontinue further funding at any time after its initial payment and explicitly mandates that the institute must be headed by Christoph Lütge, unless Facebook approves a different head.
Philosophy
Business ethics
In his work on business ethics, Lütge advocates a contractarian approach termed „order ethics“. This approach focuses on the institutional and order framework of a society and its economy. Both formal and informal order elements are analyzed in order ethics, which especially highlights the relation of competition and ethics and reaches out into thematic fields such as Corporate Social Responsibility and Diversity.
Political philosophy
In his work on political philosophy, „Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?“, Lütge takes on a fundamental problem of contemporary political philosophy and ethics. He questions the often implicit assumption of many contemporary political philosophers according to which a society needs its citizens to adopt some shared basic qualities, views or capabilities (here termed a moral surplus). Lütge examines the respective theories of, among others, Jürgen Habermas, John Rawls, David Gauthier, James M. Buchanan, and Kenneth Binmore with a focus on their respective moral surpluses. He finds that each moral surplus is either not necessary for the stability of societies or cannot remain stable when faced with opposing incentives. Binmore’s idea of empathy is the only one that is, at least partly, not confronted with this dilemma. Lütge provides an alternative view termed "order ethics", which weakens the necessary assumptions for modern societies and basically only relies on mutual advantages as the fundamental basis of society.
Distinctions and awards
In 2007, Lütge received a Heisenberg Fellowship from the German Research Foundation. In the past, he has been a Member of the Senate and the Advisory Council of the Bavarian School of Public Policy, as well as a Member of the Ethics Advisory Board of the European Medical Information Framework (EMIF), Member of the Advisory Board of the Centre for Governance, Leadership and Global Responsibility of Leeds Metropolitan University and Vice chairman of the audit committee of the Bavarian Construction Industry Association. Among others, Lütge has held visiting positions at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society of Harvard University (2019), National Taipei University (2015) and Kyoto (2015). In 2016, he was appointed by Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure Alexander Dobrindt to serve on the German government’s Ethics Commission on Autonomous Driving. In 2017, Lütge was elected into the Executive Committee of the International Society for Business, Ethics and Economics (ISBEE). From 2018 to 2020, he was Liaison Professor of the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes (German Academic Scholarship Foundation) and, since 2018, Member of the Scientific Board of AI4People. Since 2019, Lütge is appointed as External Member of the Karel Čapek Center for Values in Science and Technology (Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Since 2021, he is also a member of the Academic Committee of the Institute for AI International Governance of Tsinghua University.
Academic bodies reviewer
Lütge has done reviewing work for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, Israel Science Foundation, Swiss National Science Foundation, German Research Foundation (DFG), German Council of Science and Humanities (Wissenschaftsrat), Society for Business Ethics, German National Academic Foundation, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and German Federal Environmental Foundation.
Research interests
Business Ethics
Ethics of Digital Technologies (AI, Autonomous Driving)
Ethics of Technology
Experimental Ethics
Corporate Social Responsibility
Foundations of Ethics
Contractualist Ethics
Ethics and Risk
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Music
Controversy
He was dismissed from the Bavarian Ethics Council. According to the Council's chair, Lütge had been evoking the impression that his personal opinion had been authorized by the Council. Lütge has rejected this claim in interviews.
Major books
Business Ethics: An Economically Informed Perspective, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2021 (with Matthias Uhl), ISBN 978-0-19-886477-6.
An Introduction to Ethics in Robotics and AI, Dordrecht: Springer, 2021, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-030-51109-8. Free OpenAccess download here: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-51110-4
The Praxis of Diversity, Basingstoke: Macmillan 2020, (ed., with C. Lütge, and M. Faltermeier), ISBN 978-3-030-26077-4.
Ethik in KI und Robotik, Munich: Hanser Verlag, 2019, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-446-46227-4.
The Ethics of Competition: How a Competitive Society is Good for All. Cheltenham: Elgar 2019, ISBN 978-1-78897-298-7.
The Honorable Merchant – Between Modesty and Risk-Taking: Intercultural and Literary Aspects, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2019, (ed., with C. Strosetzki), ISBN 978-3-030-04350-6.
The Idea of Justice in Literature, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2018, (ed., with H. Kabashima, S. Liu, A. de Prada Garcia), ISBN 978-3-658-21995-6.
Order Ethics: An Ethical Framework for the Social Market Economy, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2016, (ed., with N. Mukerji), ISBN 978-3-319-33149-2.
Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?, Lanham: Lexington 2015, ISBN 978-0-7391-9867-4.
Experimental Ethics: Toward an Empirical Moral Philosophy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2014, (ed., with H. Rusch and M. Uhl), ISBN 978-1-137-40979-9.
Ethik des Wettbewerbs: Über Konkurrenz und Moral. München: Beck 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-66964-4.
Business Ethics and Risk Management, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2014, (ed., with J. Jauernig), ISBN 978-94-007-7441-4.
Handbook of the Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2013 (ed.), ISBN 978-94-007-1495-3.
Einführung in die Wirtschaftsethik. 3rd ed., Münster: LIT 2013 (with K. Homann), ISBN 978-3-8258-7758-3.
Wirtschaftsethik ohne Illusionen: Ordnungstheoretische Reflexionen. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2012, ISBN 978-3-16-151782-2.
Entscheidung und Urteil. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht 2009 (with H. Jungermann), ISBN 978-3-525-40419-5.
Corporate Citizenship, Contractarianism and Ethical Theory: On Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2008 (ed., with J. Conill and T. Schönwälder-Kuntze), ISBN 978-0-7546-7383-5.
Globalisation and Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2007 (ed., with K. Homann and P. Koslowski), ISBN 978-0-7546-4817-8.
Was hält eine Gesellschaft zusammen? Ethik im Zeitalter der Globalisierung. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2007, ISBN 978-3-16-149408-6.
Ökonomische Wissenschaftstheorie. Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann 2001, ISBN 978-3-8260-2017-9.
References
External links
Christoph Lütge's Homepage at TU Munich
Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence | occupation | {
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]
} |
Christoph Lütge (born 10 November 1969) is a German philosopher and economist notable for his work on business ethics, AI ethics, experimental ethics and political philosophy. He is full professor of business ethics at the Technical University of Munich and director of its Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence.
Academic career
After studying philosophy and business informatics in Braunschweig, Göttingen and Paris, Lütge was a PhD student at Technical University of Berlin and Braunschweig University of Technology from 1997 to 1999. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Pittsburgh in 1997 and research fellow at the University of California, San Diego in 1998. In 1999, he received his doctorate in philosophy and became a research assistant at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He was visiting professor at Venice International University in 2003. From 2004, Lütge was assistant professor at the department of philosophy of Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, from which he also received his habilitation in 2005. Christoph Lütge was acting professor at Witten/Herdecke University from 2007 to 2008 and at Braunschweig University of Technology from 2008 to 2010. Since August 2010, he holds the newly created Peter Löscher Endowed Chair of Business Ethics at Technical University of Munich.In 2019, Lütge became director of the new Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence (IEAI) at Technical University of Munich. Facebook made a five-year contribution (with US$7.5 million.) in January 2019, to help launch the IEAI. The contractual agreement between the university and the company remained confidential, but parts of the agreements became public through media and caused controversy. Facebook retains according the agreement the right to discontinue further funding at any time after its initial payment and explicitly mandates that the institute must be headed by Christoph Lütge, unless Facebook approves a different head.
Philosophy
Business ethics
In his work on business ethics, Lütge advocates a contractarian approach termed „order ethics“. This approach focuses on the institutional and order framework of a society and its economy. Both formal and informal order elements are analyzed in order ethics, which especially highlights the relation of competition and ethics and reaches out into thematic fields such as Corporate Social Responsibility and Diversity.
Political philosophy
In his work on political philosophy, „Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?“, Lütge takes on a fundamental problem of contemporary political philosophy and ethics. He questions the often implicit assumption of many contemporary political philosophers according to which a society needs its citizens to adopt some shared basic qualities, views or capabilities (here termed a moral surplus). Lütge examines the respective theories of, among others, Jürgen Habermas, John Rawls, David Gauthier, James M. Buchanan, and Kenneth Binmore with a focus on their respective moral surpluses. He finds that each moral surplus is either not necessary for the stability of societies or cannot remain stable when faced with opposing incentives. Binmore’s idea of empathy is the only one that is, at least partly, not confronted with this dilemma. Lütge provides an alternative view termed "order ethics", which weakens the necessary assumptions for modern societies and basically only relies on mutual advantages as the fundamental basis of society.
Distinctions and awards
In 2007, Lütge received a Heisenberg Fellowship from the German Research Foundation. In the past, he has been a Member of the Senate and the Advisory Council of the Bavarian School of Public Policy, as well as a Member of the Ethics Advisory Board of the European Medical Information Framework (EMIF), Member of the Advisory Board of the Centre for Governance, Leadership and Global Responsibility of Leeds Metropolitan University and Vice chairman of the audit committee of the Bavarian Construction Industry Association. Among others, Lütge has held visiting positions at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society of Harvard University (2019), National Taipei University (2015) and Kyoto (2015). In 2016, he was appointed by Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure Alexander Dobrindt to serve on the German government’s Ethics Commission on Autonomous Driving. In 2017, Lütge was elected into the Executive Committee of the International Society for Business, Ethics and Economics (ISBEE). From 2018 to 2020, he was Liaison Professor of the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes (German Academic Scholarship Foundation) and, since 2018, Member of the Scientific Board of AI4People. Since 2019, Lütge is appointed as External Member of the Karel Čapek Center for Values in Science and Technology (Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Since 2021, he is also a member of the Academic Committee of the Institute for AI International Governance of Tsinghua University.
Academic bodies reviewer
Lütge has done reviewing work for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, Israel Science Foundation, Swiss National Science Foundation, German Research Foundation (DFG), German Council of Science and Humanities (Wissenschaftsrat), Society for Business Ethics, German National Academic Foundation, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and German Federal Environmental Foundation.
Research interests
Business Ethics
Ethics of Digital Technologies (AI, Autonomous Driving)
Ethics of Technology
Experimental Ethics
Corporate Social Responsibility
Foundations of Ethics
Contractualist Ethics
Ethics and Risk
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Music
Controversy
He was dismissed from the Bavarian Ethics Council. According to the Council's chair, Lütge had been evoking the impression that his personal opinion had been authorized by the Council. Lütge has rejected this claim in interviews.
Major books
Business Ethics: An Economically Informed Perspective, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2021 (with Matthias Uhl), ISBN 978-0-19-886477-6.
An Introduction to Ethics in Robotics and AI, Dordrecht: Springer, 2021, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-030-51109-8. Free OpenAccess download here: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-51110-4
The Praxis of Diversity, Basingstoke: Macmillan 2020, (ed., with C. Lütge, and M. Faltermeier), ISBN 978-3-030-26077-4.
Ethik in KI und Robotik, Munich: Hanser Verlag, 2019, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-446-46227-4.
The Ethics of Competition: How a Competitive Society is Good for All. Cheltenham: Elgar 2019, ISBN 978-1-78897-298-7.
The Honorable Merchant – Between Modesty and Risk-Taking: Intercultural and Literary Aspects, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2019, (ed., with C. Strosetzki), ISBN 978-3-030-04350-6.
The Idea of Justice in Literature, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2018, (ed., with H. Kabashima, S. Liu, A. de Prada Garcia), ISBN 978-3-658-21995-6.
Order Ethics: An Ethical Framework for the Social Market Economy, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2016, (ed., with N. Mukerji), ISBN 978-3-319-33149-2.
Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?, Lanham: Lexington 2015, ISBN 978-0-7391-9867-4.
Experimental Ethics: Toward an Empirical Moral Philosophy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2014, (ed., with H. Rusch and M. Uhl), ISBN 978-1-137-40979-9.
Ethik des Wettbewerbs: Über Konkurrenz und Moral. München: Beck 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-66964-4.
Business Ethics and Risk Management, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2014, (ed., with J. Jauernig), ISBN 978-94-007-7441-4.
Handbook of the Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2013 (ed.), ISBN 978-94-007-1495-3.
Einführung in die Wirtschaftsethik. 3rd ed., Münster: LIT 2013 (with K. Homann), ISBN 978-3-8258-7758-3.
Wirtschaftsethik ohne Illusionen: Ordnungstheoretische Reflexionen. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2012, ISBN 978-3-16-151782-2.
Entscheidung und Urteil. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht 2009 (with H. Jungermann), ISBN 978-3-525-40419-5.
Corporate Citizenship, Contractarianism and Ethical Theory: On Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2008 (ed., with J. Conill and T. Schönwälder-Kuntze), ISBN 978-0-7546-7383-5.
Globalisation and Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2007 (ed., with K. Homann and P. Koslowski), ISBN 978-0-7546-4817-8.
Was hält eine Gesellschaft zusammen? Ethik im Zeitalter der Globalisierung. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2007, ISBN 978-3-16-149408-6.
Ökonomische Wissenschaftstheorie. Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann 2001, ISBN 978-3-8260-2017-9.
References
External links
Christoph Lütge's Homepage at TU Munich
Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence | employer | {
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"text": [
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Christoph Lütge (born 10 November 1969) is a German philosopher and economist notable for his work on business ethics, AI ethics, experimental ethics and political philosophy. He is full professor of business ethics at the Technical University of Munich and director of its Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence.
Academic career
After studying philosophy and business informatics in Braunschweig, Göttingen and Paris, Lütge was a PhD student at Technical University of Berlin and Braunschweig University of Technology from 1997 to 1999. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Pittsburgh in 1997 and research fellow at the University of California, San Diego in 1998. In 1999, he received his doctorate in philosophy and became a research assistant at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He was visiting professor at Venice International University in 2003. From 2004, Lütge was assistant professor at the department of philosophy of Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, from which he also received his habilitation in 2005. Christoph Lütge was acting professor at Witten/Herdecke University from 2007 to 2008 and at Braunschweig University of Technology from 2008 to 2010. Since August 2010, he holds the newly created Peter Löscher Endowed Chair of Business Ethics at Technical University of Munich.In 2019, Lütge became director of the new Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence (IEAI) at Technical University of Munich. Facebook made a five-year contribution (with US$7.5 million.) in January 2019, to help launch the IEAI. The contractual agreement between the university and the company remained confidential, but parts of the agreements became public through media and caused controversy. Facebook retains according the agreement the right to discontinue further funding at any time after its initial payment and explicitly mandates that the institute must be headed by Christoph Lütge, unless Facebook approves a different head.
Philosophy
Business ethics
In his work on business ethics, Lütge advocates a contractarian approach termed „order ethics“. This approach focuses on the institutional and order framework of a society and its economy. Both formal and informal order elements are analyzed in order ethics, which especially highlights the relation of competition and ethics and reaches out into thematic fields such as Corporate Social Responsibility and Diversity.
Political philosophy
In his work on political philosophy, „Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?“, Lütge takes on a fundamental problem of contemporary political philosophy and ethics. He questions the often implicit assumption of many contemporary political philosophers according to which a society needs its citizens to adopt some shared basic qualities, views or capabilities (here termed a moral surplus). Lütge examines the respective theories of, among others, Jürgen Habermas, John Rawls, David Gauthier, James M. Buchanan, and Kenneth Binmore with a focus on their respective moral surpluses. He finds that each moral surplus is either not necessary for the stability of societies or cannot remain stable when faced with opposing incentives. Binmore’s idea of empathy is the only one that is, at least partly, not confronted with this dilemma. Lütge provides an alternative view termed "order ethics", which weakens the necessary assumptions for modern societies and basically only relies on mutual advantages as the fundamental basis of society.
Distinctions and awards
In 2007, Lütge received a Heisenberg Fellowship from the German Research Foundation. In the past, he has been a Member of the Senate and the Advisory Council of the Bavarian School of Public Policy, as well as a Member of the Ethics Advisory Board of the European Medical Information Framework (EMIF), Member of the Advisory Board of the Centre for Governance, Leadership and Global Responsibility of Leeds Metropolitan University and Vice chairman of the audit committee of the Bavarian Construction Industry Association. Among others, Lütge has held visiting positions at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society of Harvard University (2019), National Taipei University (2015) and Kyoto (2015). In 2016, he was appointed by Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure Alexander Dobrindt to serve on the German government’s Ethics Commission on Autonomous Driving. In 2017, Lütge was elected into the Executive Committee of the International Society for Business, Ethics and Economics (ISBEE). From 2018 to 2020, he was Liaison Professor of the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes (German Academic Scholarship Foundation) and, since 2018, Member of the Scientific Board of AI4People. Since 2019, Lütge is appointed as External Member of the Karel Čapek Center for Values in Science and Technology (Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Since 2021, he is also a member of the Academic Committee of the Institute for AI International Governance of Tsinghua University.
Academic bodies reviewer
Lütge has done reviewing work for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, Israel Science Foundation, Swiss National Science Foundation, German Research Foundation (DFG), German Council of Science and Humanities (Wissenschaftsrat), Society for Business Ethics, German National Academic Foundation, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and German Federal Environmental Foundation.
Research interests
Business Ethics
Ethics of Digital Technologies (AI, Autonomous Driving)
Ethics of Technology
Experimental Ethics
Corporate Social Responsibility
Foundations of Ethics
Contractualist Ethics
Ethics and Risk
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Music
Controversy
He was dismissed from the Bavarian Ethics Council. According to the Council's chair, Lütge had been evoking the impression that his personal opinion had been authorized by the Council. Lütge has rejected this claim in interviews.
Major books
Business Ethics: An Economically Informed Perspective, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2021 (with Matthias Uhl), ISBN 978-0-19-886477-6.
An Introduction to Ethics in Robotics and AI, Dordrecht: Springer, 2021, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-030-51109-8. Free OpenAccess download here: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-51110-4
The Praxis of Diversity, Basingstoke: Macmillan 2020, (ed., with C. Lütge, and M. Faltermeier), ISBN 978-3-030-26077-4.
Ethik in KI und Robotik, Munich: Hanser Verlag, 2019, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-446-46227-4.
The Ethics of Competition: How a Competitive Society is Good for All. Cheltenham: Elgar 2019, ISBN 978-1-78897-298-7.
The Honorable Merchant – Between Modesty and Risk-Taking: Intercultural and Literary Aspects, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2019, (ed., with C. Strosetzki), ISBN 978-3-030-04350-6.
The Idea of Justice in Literature, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2018, (ed., with H. Kabashima, S. Liu, A. de Prada Garcia), ISBN 978-3-658-21995-6.
Order Ethics: An Ethical Framework for the Social Market Economy, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2016, (ed., with N. Mukerji), ISBN 978-3-319-33149-2.
Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?, Lanham: Lexington 2015, ISBN 978-0-7391-9867-4.
Experimental Ethics: Toward an Empirical Moral Philosophy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2014, (ed., with H. Rusch and M. Uhl), ISBN 978-1-137-40979-9.
Ethik des Wettbewerbs: Über Konkurrenz und Moral. München: Beck 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-66964-4.
Business Ethics and Risk Management, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2014, (ed., with J. Jauernig), ISBN 978-94-007-7441-4.
Handbook of the Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2013 (ed.), ISBN 978-94-007-1495-3.
Einführung in die Wirtschaftsethik. 3rd ed., Münster: LIT 2013 (with K. Homann), ISBN 978-3-8258-7758-3.
Wirtschaftsethik ohne Illusionen: Ordnungstheoretische Reflexionen. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2012, ISBN 978-3-16-151782-2.
Entscheidung und Urteil. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht 2009 (with H. Jungermann), ISBN 978-3-525-40419-5.
Corporate Citizenship, Contractarianism and Ethical Theory: On Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2008 (ed., with J. Conill and T. Schönwälder-Kuntze), ISBN 978-0-7546-7383-5.
Globalisation and Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2007 (ed., with K. Homann and P. Koslowski), ISBN 978-0-7546-4817-8.
Was hält eine Gesellschaft zusammen? Ethik im Zeitalter der Globalisierung. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2007, ISBN 978-3-16-149408-6.
Ökonomische Wissenschaftstheorie. Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann 2001, ISBN 978-3-8260-2017-9.
References
External links
Christoph Lütge's Homepage at TU Munich
Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence | given name | {
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Christoph Lütge (born 10 November 1969) is a German philosopher and economist notable for his work on business ethics, AI ethics, experimental ethics and political philosophy. He is full professor of business ethics at the Technical University of Munich and director of its Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence.
Academic career
After studying philosophy and business informatics in Braunschweig, Göttingen and Paris, Lütge was a PhD student at Technical University of Berlin and Braunschweig University of Technology from 1997 to 1999. He was a visiting scholar at the University of Pittsburgh in 1997 and research fellow at the University of California, San Diego in 1998. In 1999, he received his doctorate in philosophy and became a research assistant at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He was visiting professor at Venice International University in 2003. From 2004, Lütge was assistant professor at the department of philosophy of Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, from which he also received his habilitation in 2005. Christoph Lütge was acting professor at Witten/Herdecke University from 2007 to 2008 and at Braunschweig University of Technology from 2008 to 2010. Since August 2010, he holds the newly created Peter Löscher Endowed Chair of Business Ethics at Technical University of Munich.In 2019, Lütge became director of the new Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence (IEAI) at Technical University of Munich. Facebook made a five-year contribution (with US$7.5 million.) in January 2019, to help launch the IEAI. The contractual agreement between the university and the company remained confidential, but parts of the agreements became public through media and caused controversy. Facebook retains according the agreement the right to discontinue further funding at any time after its initial payment and explicitly mandates that the institute must be headed by Christoph Lütge, unless Facebook approves a different head.
Philosophy
Business ethics
In his work on business ethics, Lütge advocates a contractarian approach termed „order ethics“. This approach focuses on the institutional and order framework of a society and its economy. Both formal and informal order elements are analyzed in order ethics, which especially highlights the relation of competition and ethics and reaches out into thematic fields such as Corporate Social Responsibility and Diversity.
Political philosophy
In his work on political philosophy, „Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?“, Lütge takes on a fundamental problem of contemporary political philosophy and ethics. He questions the often implicit assumption of many contemporary political philosophers according to which a society needs its citizens to adopt some shared basic qualities, views or capabilities (here termed a moral surplus). Lütge examines the respective theories of, among others, Jürgen Habermas, John Rawls, David Gauthier, James M. Buchanan, and Kenneth Binmore with a focus on their respective moral surpluses. He finds that each moral surplus is either not necessary for the stability of societies or cannot remain stable when faced with opposing incentives. Binmore’s idea of empathy is the only one that is, at least partly, not confronted with this dilemma. Lütge provides an alternative view termed "order ethics", which weakens the necessary assumptions for modern societies and basically only relies on mutual advantages as the fundamental basis of society.
Distinctions and awards
In 2007, Lütge received a Heisenberg Fellowship from the German Research Foundation. In the past, he has been a Member of the Senate and the Advisory Council of the Bavarian School of Public Policy, as well as a Member of the Ethics Advisory Board of the European Medical Information Framework (EMIF), Member of the Advisory Board of the Centre for Governance, Leadership and Global Responsibility of Leeds Metropolitan University and Vice chairman of the audit committee of the Bavarian Construction Industry Association. Among others, Lütge has held visiting positions at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society of Harvard University (2019), National Taipei University (2015) and Kyoto (2015). In 2016, he was appointed by Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure Alexander Dobrindt to serve on the German government’s Ethics Commission on Autonomous Driving. In 2017, Lütge was elected into the Executive Committee of the International Society for Business, Ethics and Economics (ISBEE). From 2018 to 2020, he was Liaison Professor of the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes (German Academic Scholarship Foundation) and, since 2018, Member of the Scientific Board of AI4People. Since 2019, Lütge is appointed as External Member of the Karel Čapek Center for Values in Science and Technology (Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Since 2021, he is also a member of the Academic Committee of the Institute for AI International Governance of Tsinghua University.
Academic bodies reviewer
Lütge has done reviewing work for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, Israel Science Foundation, Swiss National Science Foundation, German Research Foundation (DFG), German Council of Science and Humanities (Wissenschaftsrat), Society for Business Ethics, German National Academic Foundation, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and German Federal Environmental Foundation.
Research interests
Business Ethics
Ethics of Digital Technologies (AI, Autonomous Driving)
Ethics of Technology
Experimental Ethics
Corporate Social Responsibility
Foundations of Ethics
Contractualist Ethics
Ethics and Risk
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Music
Controversy
He was dismissed from the Bavarian Ethics Council. According to the Council's chair, Lütge had been evoking the impression that his personal opinion had been authorized by the Council. Lütge has rejected this claim in interviews.
Major books
Business Ethics: An Economically Informed Perspective, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2021 (with Matthias Uhl), ISBN 978-0-19-886477-6.
An Introduction to Ethics in Robotics and AI, Dordrecht: Springer, 2021, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-030-51109-8. Free OpenAccess download here: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-51110-4
The Praxis of Diversity, Basingstoke: Macmillan 2020, (ed., with C. Lütge, and M. Faltermeier), ISBN 978-3-030-26077-4.
Ethik in KI und Robotik, Munich: Hanser Verlag, 2019, (ed. with C. Bartneck, A. Wagner and S. Welsh), ISBN 978-3-446-46227-4.
The Ethics of Competition: How a Competitive Society is Good for All. Cheltenham: Elgar 2019, ISBN 978-1-78897-298-7.
The Honorable Merchant – Between Modesty and Risk-Taking: Intercultural and Literary Aspects, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2019, (ed., with C. Strosetzki), ISBN 978-3-030-04350-6.
The Idea of Justice in Literature, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2018, (ed., with H. Kabashima, S. Liu, A. de Prada Garcia), ISBN 978-3-658-21995-6.
Order Ethics: An Ethical Framework for the Social Market Economy, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2016, (ed., with N. Mukerji), ISBN 978-3-319-33149-2.
Order Ethics or Moral Surplus: What Holds a Society Together?, Lanham: Lexington 2015, ISBN 978-0-7391-9867-4.
Experimental Ethics: Toward an Empirical Moral Philosophy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2014, (ed., with H. Rusch and M. Uhl), ISBN 978-1-137-40979-9.
Ethik des Wettbewerbs: Über Konkurrenz und Moral. München: Beck 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-66964-4.
Business Ethics and Risk Management, Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2014, (ed., with J. Jauernig), ISBN 978-94-007-7441-4.
Handbook of the Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2013 (ed.), ISBN 978-94-007-1495-3.
Einführung in die Wirtschaftsethik. 3rd ed., Münster: LIT 2013 (with K. Homann), ISBN 978-3-8258-7758-3.
Wirtschaftsethik ohne Illusionen: Ordnungstheoretische Reflexionen. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2012, ISBN 978-3-16-151782-2.
Entscheidung und Urteil. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht 2009 (with H. Jungermann), ISBN 978-3-525-40419-5.
Corporate Citizenship, Contractarianism and Ethical Theory: On Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2008 (ed., with J. Conill and T. Schönwälder-Kuntze), ISBN 978-0-7546-7383-5.
Globalisation and Business Ethics. Aldershot/London: Ashgate 2007 (ed., with K. Homann and P. Koslowski), ISBN 978-0-7546-4817-8.
Was hält eine Gesellschaft zusammen? Ethik im Zeitalter der Globalisierung. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2007, ISBN 978-3-16-149408-6.
Ökonomische Wissenschaftstheorie. Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann 2001, ISBN 978-3-8260-2017-9.
References
External links
Christoph Lütge's Homepage at TU Munich
Institute for Ethics in Artificial Intelligence | work location | {
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Immo may refer to:
2373 Immo, a main-belt asteroid
Immo (bishop of Noyon), Frankish prelate killed by Vikings in 859
Immobiliser | different from | {
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Immo may refer to:
2373 Immo, a main-belt asteroid
Immo (bishop of Noyon), Frankish prelate killed by Vikings in 859
Immobiliser | native label | {
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The following is a list of the 363 communes of the Charente department of France on 1 January 2023.
The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):
Communauté d'agglomération Grand Angoulême
Communauté d'agglomération du Grand Cognac
Communauté de communes des 4B Sud-Charente
Communauté de communes de Charente Limousine
Communauté de communes Cœur de Charente
Communauté de communes Lavalette Tude Dronne
Communauté de communes La Rochefoucauld - Porte du Périgord
Communauté de communes du Rouillacais
Communauté de communes Val de Charente
== References == | country | {
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Shane Leahy (born 27 November 1971) is an Irish former rugby union player.
Career
Leahy attended Crescent College in Limerick and won Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup titles in 1989 and 1990. His father, Mick, earned one cap for Ireland against Wales during the 1964 Five Nations Championship, whilst older brother Kelvin also earned a single cap for Ireland against New Zealand in 1992, and brothers Shane and Ross also won Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup titles with Crescent College.He played for Dublin club Lansdowne in the All-Ireland League, but work took Leahy back to Limerick, where he joined Garryowen. He played for Ireland A against South Africa A in November 1996, and made five appearances for Connacht during the 1996–97 Challenge Cup, before joining Munster ahead of the 1997–98 season and making 17 appearances for the province between 1997 and 1999. After rugby, Leahy became CEO of Oxygen8.
References
External links
Munster Profile
Shane Leahy at European Professional Club Rugby
Shane Leahy at LinkedIn | occupation | {
"answer_start": [
55
],
"text": [
"rugby union player"
]
} |
Shane Leahy (born 27 November 1971) is an Irish former rugby union player.
Career
Leahy attended Crescent College in Limerick and won Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup titles in 1989 and 1990. His father, Mick, earned one cap for Ireland against Wales during the 1964 Five Nations Championship, whilst older brother Kelvin also earned a single cap for Ireland against New Zealand in 1992, and brothers Shane and Ross also won Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup titles with Crescent College.He played for Dublin club Lansdowne in the All-Ireland League, but work took Leahy back to Limerick, where he joined Garryowen. He played for Ireland A against South Africa A in November 1996, and made five appearances for Connacht during the 1996–97 Challenge Cup, before joining Munster ahead of the 1997–98 season and making 17 appearances for the province between 1997 and 1999. After rugby, Leahy became CEO of Oxygen8.
References
External links
Munster Profile
Shane Leahy at European Professional Club Rugby
Shane Leahy at LinkedIn | sport | {
"answer_start": [
55
],
"text": [
"rugby"
]
} |
Shane Leahy (born 27 November 1971) is an Irish former rugby union player.
Career
Leahy attended Crescent College in Limerick and won Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup titles in 1989 and 1990. His father, Mick, earned one cap for Ireland against Wales during the 1964 Five Nations Championship, whilst older brother Kelvin also earned a single cap for Ireland against New Zealand in 1992, and brothers Shane and Ross also won Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup titles with Crescent College.He played for Dublin club Lansdowne in the All-Ireland League, but work took Leahy back to Limerick, where he joined Garryowen. He played for Ireland A against South Africa A in November 1996, and made five appearances for Connacht during the 1996–97 Challenge Cup, before joining Munster ahead of the 1997–98 season and making 17 appearances for the province between 1997 and 1999. After rugby, Leahy became CEO of Oxygen8.
References
External links
Munster Profile
Shane Leahy at European Professional Club Rugby
Shane Leahy at LinkedIn | family name | {
"answer_start": [
6
],
"text": [
"Leahy"
]
} |
Shane Leahy (born 27 November 1971) is an Irish former rugby union player.
Career
Leahy attended Crescent College in Limerick and won Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup titles in 1989 and 1990. His father, Mick, earned one cap for Ireland against Wales during the 1964 Five Nations Championship, whilst older brother Kelvin also earned a single cap for Ireland against New Zealand in 1992, and brothers Shane and Ross also won Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup titles with Crescent College.He played for Dublin club Lansdowne in the All-Ireland League, but work took Leahy back to Limerick, where he joined Garryowen. He played for Ireland A against South Africa A in November 1996, and made five appearances for Connacht during the 1996–97 Challenge Cup, before joining Munster ahead of the 1997–98 season and making 17 appearances for the province between 1997 and 1999. After rugby, Leahy became CEO of Oxygen8.
References
External links
Munster Profile
Shane Leahy at European Professional Club Rugby
Shane Leahy at LinkedIn | given name | {
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The Philadelphia Folk Festival is a folk music festival held annually at Old Pool Farm in Upper Salford, Pennsylvania, just outside of Philadelphia. The hosting organization, the Philadelphia Folksong Society announced a pause in production, cancelling the 2023 festival for the first time in its 50 year history.The four-night, three-day festival, which is produced and run by the non-profit Philadelphia Folksong Society and staffed almost entirely by volunteers.The event hosts contemporary and traditional artists in genres under the umbrella of Folk, including World/Fusion, Celtic, Singer/Songwriter, Folk Rock, Country, Klezmer, Blues, Bluegrass, Hip/Hop, Spoken Word, Storytelling, and Dance.
Gene Shay and folklorist Kenneth S. Goldstein founded the festival, along with George Britton, Bob Seigel, David Baskin, Esther Halpern, and others. Shay acted as Master of Ceremonies since its inception until shortly before his death and Goldstein served as Program Director for the first 15 years.Originally held on Wilson Farm in Paoli, Pennsylvania, each year the event hosts over 35,000 visitors and nearly 7,000 campers at the Old Pool Farm. The event presents over 75 hours of music with local, regional, and national talent on its stages. A special Camp Stage show takes place on Thursday night, hosted by WXPN radio for the nationally syndicated World Cafe with David Dye.The Philadelphia Folksong Society presents the Philadelphia Folk Festival and has a full-time, year-round staff. The most recent PFS Executive Director, Justin Nordell, served in that capacity from 2007-2023, while past E.D.s include Lauri Barish and Levi Landis.
This festival went online in 2020 and 2021, raising over $200,000 to support artists out of work, as live concerts were cancelled caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The Festival returned as a hybrid and in-person live event for 2022.
See also
Newport Folk Festival
== References == | instance of | {
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"music festival"
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The Philadelphia Folk Festival is a folk music festival held annually at Old Pool Farm in Upper Salford, Pennsylvania, just outside of Philadelphia. The hosting organization, the Philadelphia Folksong Society announced a pause in production, cancelling the 2023 festival for the first time in its 50 year history.The four-night, three-day festival, which is produced and run by the non-profit Philadelphia Folksong Society and staffed almost entirely by volunteers.The event hosts contemporary and traditional artists in genres under the umbrella of Folk, including World/Fusion, Celtic, Singer/Songwriter, Folk Rock, Country, Klezmer, Blues, Bluegrass, Hip/Hop, Spoken Word, Storytelling, and Dance.
Gene Shay and folklorist Kenneth S. Goldstein founded the festival, along with George Britton, Bob Seigel, David Baskin, Esther Halpern, and others. Shay acted as Master of Ceremonies since its inception until shortly before his death and Goldstein served as Program Director for the first 15 years.Originally held on Wilson Farm in Paoli, Pennsylvania, each year the event hosts over 35,000 visitors and nearly 7,000 campers at the Old Pool Farm. The event presents over 75 hours of music with local, regional, and national talent on its stages. A special Camp Stage show takes place on Thursday night, hosted by WXPN radio for the nationally syndicated World Cafe with David Dye.The Philadelphia Folksong Society presents the Philadelphia Folk Festival and has a full-time, year-round staff. The most recent PFS Executive Director, Justin Nordell, served in that capacity from 2007-2023, while past E.D.s include Lauri Barish and Levi Landis.
This festival went online in 2020 and 2021, raising over $200,000 to support artists out of work, as live concerts were cancelled caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The Festival returned as a hybrid and in-person live event for 2022.
See also
Newport Folk Festival
== References == | Commons category | {
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Pali Miska (19 May 1931 – September 2009) was an Albanian politician of the Communist Era. He served as Chairman of the Assembly of the Republic of Albania from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987.Miska was first as a party functionary in Fushë Arrëz, the largest Albanian state enterprise for timber production.
In 1970, he was elected first-deputy of the People's Assembly (Alb: Kuvendi Popullor), and served as member from the seventh to the end of the eleventh legislative term until 1991.
In 1971, he became candidate of the Central Committee (CC) of the selected PPSh, and simultaneously the First Party Secretary in Pukë District in northern Albania.
In September 1975, Miska succeeded the demised Koço Theodhosi as member of the Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania without previous candidate status. He became also member of the Central Committee of the Party. He had these positions until the metamorphosis of the Labour Party to Socialist Party (Alb: Partia Socialiste e Shqipërisë) in June 1991. Together with Hekuran Isai, Qirjako Mihali, and Llambi Gegprifti, Miska was part of a new generation of leaders within the party, which emerged and gained influence with the termination of relations with the People's Republic of China. (see Sino-Albanian split)
Miska held also government positions. On 1 September 1975, he succeeded Theodhosi as well as Minister of Industry and Mines in the Government of Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu. As part of a government reshuffle which took place on 13 November 1976, Miska was appointment Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, succeeding Spiro Koleka. He held his function until 23 November 1982.
On 1 July 1982, the newly elected Prime Minister Adil Çarçani, appointed him Minister of Energy, thus succeeding Prokop Murra. He held the position until 23 November 1982. He was subsequently appointed as successor to Simon Stefani as Chairman of the National Assembly, and therefore Parliament Speaker, from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987 before being succeeded by Petro Dode. In this capacity, he also participated in the state funeral for the late First Secretary of the PPSh Enver Hoxha in April 1985.On 2 February 1989, Albanian Prime Minister Çarçani chose him to replace Besnik Bekteshi and Themie Thomai as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture, positions he held until 21 February 1991.In 1993, Miska would be sentenced together with other nine former high-ranking officials (Muho Asllani , Besnik Bekteshi, Foto Çami, Hajredin Çeliku, Vangjel Çërrava, Lenka Çuko, Qirjako Mihali, and Prokop Murra), being accused of "funds abuse". He got sentenced to eight years in prison by a court in Tirana. Miska would serve only part of the sentence.
== References == | place of death | {
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Pali Miska (19 May 1931 – September 2009) was an Albanian politician of the Communist Era. He served as Chairman of the Assembly of the Republic of Albania from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987.Miska was first as a party functionary in Fushë Arrëz, the largest Albanian state enterprise for timber production.
In 1970, he was elected first-deputy of the People's Assembly (Alb: Kuvendi Popullor), and served as member from the seventh to the end of the eleventh legislative term until 1991.
In 1971, he became candidate of the Central Committee (CC) of the selected PPSh, and simultaneously the First Party Secretary in Pukë District in northern Albania.
In September 1975, Miska succeeded the demised Koço Theodhosi as member of the Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania without previous candidate status. He became also member of the Central Committee of the Party. He had these positions until the metamorphosis of the Labour Party to Socialist Party (Alb: Partia Socialiste e Shqipërisë) in June 1991. Together with Hekuran Isai, Qirjako Mihali, and Llambi Gegprifti, Miska was part of a new generation of leaders within the party, which emerged and gained influence with the termination of relations with the People's Republic of China. (see Sino-Albanian split)
Miska held also government positions. On 1 September 1975, he succeeded Theodhosi as well as Minister of Industry and Mines in the Government of Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu. As part of a government reshuffle which took place on 13 November 1976, Miska was appointment Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, succeeding Spiro Koleka. He held his function until 23 November 1982.
On 1 July 1982, the newly elected Prime Minister Adil Çarçani, appointed him Minister of Energy, thus succeeding Prokop Murra. He held the position until 23 November 1982. He was subsequently appointed as successor to Simon Stefani as Chairman of the National Assembly, and therefore Parliament Speaker, from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987 before being succeeded by Petro Dode. In this capacity, he also participated in the state funeral for the late First Secretary of the PPSh Enver Hoxha in April 1985.On 2 February 1989, Albanian Prime Minister Çarçani chose him to replace Besnik Bekteshi and Themie Thomai as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture, positions he held until 21 February 1991.In 1993, Miska would be sentenced together with other nine former high-ranking officials (Muho Asllani , Besnik Bekteshi, Foto Çami, Hajredin Çeliku, Vangjel Çërrava, Lenka Çuko, Qirjako Mihali, and Prokop Murra), being accused of "funds abuse". He got sentenced to eight years in prison by a court in Tirana. Miska would serve only part of the sentence.
== References == | country of citizenship | {
"answer_start": [
49
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"text": [
"Albania"
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Pali Miska (19 May 1931 – September 2009) was an Albanian politician of the Communist Era. He served as Chairman of the Assembly of the Republic of Albania from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987.Miska was first as a party functionary in Fushë Arrëz, the largest Albanian state enterprise for timber production.
In 1970, he was elected first-deputy of the People's Assembly (Alb: Kuvendi Popullor), and served as member from the seventh to the end of the eleventh legislative term until 1991.
In 1971, he became candidate of the Central Committee (CC) of the selected PPSh, and simultaneously the First Party Secretary in Pukë District in northern Albania.
In September 1975, Miska succeeded the demised Koço Theodhosi as member of the Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania without previous candidate status. He became also member of the Central Committee of the Party. He had these positions until the metamorphosis of the Labour Party to Socialist Party (Alb: Partia Socialiste e Shqipërisë) in June 1991. Together with Hekuran Isai, Qirjako Mihali, and Llambi Gegprifti, Miska was part of a new generation of leaders within the party, which emerged and gained influence with the termination of relations with the People's Republic of China. (see Sino-Albanian split)
Miska held also government positions. On 1 September 1975, he succeeded Theodhosi as well as Minister of Industry and Mines in the Government of Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu. As part of a government reshuffle which took place on 13 November 1976, Miska was appointment Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, succeeding Spiro Koleka. He held his function until 23 November 1982.
On 1 July 1982, the newly elected Prime Minister Adil Çarçani, appointed him Minister of Energy, thus succeeding Prokop Murra. He held the position until 23 November 1982. He was subsequently appointed as successor to Simon Stefani as Chairman of the National Assembly, and therefore Parliament Speaker, from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987 before being succeeded by Petro Dode. In this capacity, he also participated in the state funeral for the late First Secretary of the PPSh Enver Hoxha in April 1985.On 2 February 1989, Albanian Prime Minister Çarçani chose him to replace Besnik Bekteshi and Themie Thomai as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture, positions he held until 21 February 1991.In 1993, Miska would be sentenced together with other nine former high-ranking officials (Muho Asllani , Besnik Bekteshi, Foto Çami, Hajredin Çeliku, Vangjel Çërrava, Lenka Çuko, Qirjako Mihali, and Prokop Murra), being accused of "funds abuse". He got sentenced to eight years in prison by a court in Tirana. Miska would serve only part of the sentence.
== References == | member of political party | {
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"Party of Labour of Albania"
]
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Pali Miska (19 May 1931 – September 2009) was an Albanian politician of the Communist Era. He served as Chairman of the Assembly of the Republic of Albania from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987.Miska was first as a party functionary in Fushë Arrëz, the largest Albanian state enterprise for timber production.
In 1970, he was elected first-deputy of the People's Assembly (Alb: Kuvendi Popullor), and served as member from the seventh to the end of the eleventh legislative term until 1991.
In 1971, he became candidate of the Central Committee (CC) of the selected PPSh, and simultaneously the First Party Secretary in Pukë District in northern Albania.
In September 1975, Miska succeeded the demised Koço Theodhosi as member of the Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania without previous candidate status. He became also member of the Central Committee of the Party. He had these positions until the metamorphosis of the Labour Party to Socialist Party (Alb: Partia Socialiste e Shqipërisë) in June 1991. Together with Hekuran Isai, Qirjako Mihali, and Llambi Gegprifti, Miska was part of a new generation of leaders within the party, which emerged and gained influence with the termination of relations with the People's Republic of China. (see Sino-Albanian split)
Miska held also government positions. On 1 September 1975, he succeeded Theodhosi as well as Minister of Industry and Mines in the Government of Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu. As part of a government reshuffle which took place on 13 November 1976, Miska was appointment Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, succeeding Spiro Koleka. He held his function until 23 November 1982.
On 1 July 1982, the newly elected Prime Minister Adil Çarçani, appointed him Minister of Energy, thus succeeding Prokop Murra. He held the position until 23 November 1982. He was subsequently appointed as successor to Simon Stefani as Chairman of the National Assembly, and therefore Parliament Speaker, from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987 before being succeeded by Petro Dode. In this capacity, he also participated in the state funeral for the late First Secretary of the PPSh Enver Hoxha in April 1985.On 2 February 1989, Albanian Prime Minister Çarçani chose him to replace Besnik Bekteshi and Themie Thomai as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture, positions he held until 21 February 1991.In 1993, Miska would be sentenced together with other nine former high-ranking officials (Muho Asllani , Besnik Bekteshi, Foto Çami, Hajredin Çeliku, Vangjel Çërrava, Lenka Çuko, Qirjako Mihali, and Prokop Murra), being accused of "funds abuse". He got sentenced to eight years in prison by a court in Tirana. Miska would serve only part of the sentence.
== References == | occupation | {
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58
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"text": [
"politician"
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} |
Pali Miska (19 May 1931 – September 2009) was an Albanian politician of the Communist Era. He served as Chairman of the Assembly of the Republic of Albania from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987.Miska was first as a party functionary in Fushë Arrëz, the largest Albanian state enterprise for timber production.
In 1970, he was elected first-deputy of the People's Assembly (Alb: Kuvendi Popullor), and served as member from the seventh to the end of the eleventh legislative term until 1991.
In 1971, he became candidate of the Central Committee (CC) of the selected PPSh, and simultaneously the First Party Secretary in Pukë District in northern Albania.
In September 1975, Miska succeeded the demised Koço Theodhosi as member of the Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania without previous candidate status. He became also member of the Central Committee of the Party. He had these positions until the metamorphosis of the Labour Party to Socialist Party (Alb: Partia Socialiste e Shqipërisë) in June 1991. Together with Hekuran Isai, Qirjako Mihali, and Llambi Gegprifti, Miska was part of a new generation of leaders within the party, which emerged and gained influence with the termination of relations with the People's Republic of China. (see Sino-Albanian split)
Miska held also government positions. On 1 September 1975, he succeeded Theodhosi as well as Minister of Industry and Mines in the Government of Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu. As part of a government reshuffle which took place on 13 November 1976, Miska was appointment Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, succeeding Spiro Koleka. He held his function until 23 November 1982.
On 1 July 1982, the newly elected Prime Minister Adil Çarçani, appointed him Minister of Energy, thus succeeding Prokop Murra. He held the position until 23 November 1982. He was subsequently appointed as successor to Simon Stefani as Chairman of the National Assembly, and therefore Parliament Speaker, from 22 November 1982 to 19 February 1987 before being succeeded by Petro Dode. In this capacity, he also participated in the state funeral for the late First Secretary of the PPSh Enver Hoxha in April 1985.On 2 February 1989, Albanian Prime Minister Çarçani chose him to replace Besnik Bekteshi and Themie Thomai as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture, positions he held until 21 February 1991.In 1993, Miska would be sentenced together with other nine former high-ranking officials (Muho Asllani , Besnik Bekteshi, Foto Çami, Hajredin Çeliku, Vangjel Çërrava, Lenka Çuko, Qirjako Mihali, and Prokop Murra), being accused of "funds abuse". He got sentenced to eight years in prison by a court in Tirana. Miska would serve only part of the sentence.
== References == | name in native language | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Pali Miska"
]
} |
Taulov is a town located in Fredericia Municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark. The town is, with a population of 3,402 (1 January 2022), the second largest in the municipality.Taulov's history is not that well known and it was nothing more than a village until the first railroads in Jutland were built in the 1860s during the industrial revolution. It is now divided into Gammel Taulov (Old Taulov) and Taulov by the motorway, despite Taulov Kirke being located in Taulov. Old Taulov grew up around the train station and the new main street while the majority of Taulov is squeezed in between the E20 motorway and Kolding Landevej, the old main road between Kolding and Snoghøj, which was the main way to access Eastern Denmark for many centuries.
Taulov Church is a medieval church in traditional Danish style, and was constructed in the 13th century. It functioned as a seamark for sailors on Kolding Fjord and Little Belt until modern navigation was introduced. As the natural centre of Taulov, it is located approximate 9 km (5.6 mi) from Fredericia, 10 km (6.2 mi) from Kolding and 20 km (12 mi) from Vejle.
History
The name Taulov has existed for many hundreds of years, probably because of the word "tavle" as in Tavle Mark; this led to the name of Tavlov Nebel (Nebel meaning a place high above its surroundings) which eventually became Taulov.
Taulov has had settlements for the last 2,500 years, many of those resurfacing in these years of growth where fields are being turned into dwellings. The Church is from the 13th century and is placed on Tavlhøj, one of the highest points in the area, right on the edge of Elbodalen.
Taulov Parish is significant because of its proximity to the historically important city of Kolding. The parish had a castle designed to protect Kolding Fjord close to the church. The castle Høneborg is today nothing more than a small hill used for livestock. This castle has had a huge influence on Taulov Church, and the two royal sisters who were residents of the castle are buried in the apse of the church. The circular apse is in local history said to be the only one of its kind north of the Alps.
As Fredericia was completed only 12 km (7.5 mi) from Taulov in the 1650s, the king wanted to make sure the new town was successful. Several villages closer to Fredericia were demolished and moved into the new fortified city, which left few villages in this area. As the stone churches were destroyed to reuse the stones to the fortifications and the new churches in Fredericia, it has also left only a few medieval churches in the area. Taulov and Taulov Church is therefore some of the few medieval villages and churches in the area to survive.
Taulov was a village for centuries, but when the railroad between Kolding and Fredericia was built in the 1860s, Taulov started to grow around and along the railroad. Over the next hundred years, Taulov grew to the size of a town. The railroad allowed for industry and retail to grow in the area and the community eventually became a municipality in its own right, known as Taulov Kommune. It was run from Tavlhøj near the church and school. During this time, Taulov Bygade boasted several shops and the only co-operative supermarket, Brugsen, in the area.
It wasn't until the 1970s and the building of the Danish motorways that Taulov started to really develop. In the 1970s, the Danish municipalities were being reformed and Taulov Kommune became a part of Fredericia Kommune. Tavlhøj was later turned into an activity center for retired people. Since the 1990s, more and more shops have closed down or relocated to Fredericia or Kolding, leaving only few shops in the town.
Just south of Taulov at Kolding Fjord, another town grew up around a small harbour, Skærbæk. This town is the nearest town to Taulov and works as the harbour of Taulov, both recreational and commercial. These two towns have always had a close relationship with shared schools, sportscenter, church and various cultural functions and clubs. The area is often referred to as "Taulov-Skærbæk". Skærbæks power plant Skærbæk Værket which is among the most important in the country has been a mayor workplace for people in both towns but has been rationalised, though the nearby headquarters of DONG Energy is still a mayor employer for people in Taulov.
Industry
Due to the very central location in Denmark with both a railroad and a motorway, and the large Fredericia Harbour nearby, Taulov grew into a national cargo hub in the 1980s and 1990s. Today, Taulov boasts of the local firm Veksø, one of Denmark's largest producers of street furniture and fixtures as well as several international cargo firms, among them the largest cargo center in Scandinavia. Furthermore, the city has the largest cheese factory in Europe as well as two smaller cheese factories producing, among other things, Castello cheeses, exporting mostly products for Arla Foods. Taulov is one of the most important industrial and cargo areas in the combined network between seven municipalities known as Trekantsområdet.
With new industrial and retail park DanmarkC, the industrial areas of Fredercia and Taulov are gradually merging along the motorway and rail corridor creating a 10 km (6.2 mi) long industrial and retail corridor stretching from Taulov to the Little Belt Bridge along two international motorways.
Locations
Taulov doesn't contain many attractions, although it has some well known locations on a regional scale.
"Den dybe betydnings sted" is a Buddhist center placed in Taulov as part of the Karma Kadjy School. It is growing rapidly according to the center itself, and is considering expanding.
"Kryb-i-ly Kro" is a very popular and somewhat famous Kro (inn) on the edge of Taulov. The story goes that on a cold and windy night, the Danish king was heading from Kolding to Snoghøj to cross Little Belt as he decided to find some place to hide from the weather. As he saw a small farm, he allegedly said "kryb i ly"("seek shelter"), thereby naming the farm and the inn that was later built right next to it. The original inn was consumed by flames, but it was rebuilt and still sits on an impressive view over Kolding Fjord.
Taulov has been a popular site for settlements in the Iron Age and Bronze Age, and the area contains several tombs and findings of old settlements. One of the recent findings was found when the second motorway in the area was being built just north of the town. The tomb now sits at a gas station further north along the new E45 motorway and is one of the largest found in Jutland.
Elbohallen is the local sports center originally built on a field between the two towns, but now lies within the boundaries of Taulov. Other than being the home to most of the local sports teams, it has a community/party hall, a cafeteria, a youth centre and is used for balls, fairs and markets. It is also one of the preferred centers for disability sport events on a regional level.
Several times during the last couple of decades, Taulov has been connected with prestigious projects which could have given the town a boost. Some of the projects included a new International Standard stadium and an IKEA store, as well as a large indoor skiing ramp and vacation centres.
The latest discussions are concerning a large regional hospital replacing the hospitals in Kolding, Vejle and Fredericia.
Culture
Taulov has a population of 3,402 as of 1 January 2022, and the population growth has been slow for many years. But in recent years, the town has been growing, as Trekantsområdet has been growing in importance and size.
Sports clubs have had a few years of success in the combined club between Taulov and the neighbouring town Skærbæk at the Little Belt, Taulov-Skæbæk IF. But in recent years, the club has lost its best players who instead have moved to Kolding and Fredericia who have teams in the best leagues. Almost all sports clubs in the two towns are based in Elbohallen with a few clubs based on schools.
Taulov currently shares a monthly newsletter/paper with Skærbæk called Tau-bæk Nyt. It is a non-profit organisation dependent on volunteer writers and uses income from ads for printing and distribution. It is used by local clubs and organisations to share news and keep people up to date.
Notable people
Stine Knudsen (born 1992 in Taulov) a Danish handball player who currently plays for København Håndbold.
== References == | country | {
"answer_start": [
100
],
"text": [
"Denmark"
]
} |
Taulov is a town located in Fredericia Municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark. The town is, with a population of 3,402 (1 January 2022), the second largest in the municipality.Taulov's history is not that well known and it was nothing more than a village until the first railroads in Jutland were built in the 1860s during the industrial revolution. It is now divided into Gammel Taulov (Old Taulov) and Taulov by the motorway, despite Taulov Kirke being located in Taulov. Old Taulov grew up around the train station and the new main street while the majority of Taulov is squeezed in between the E20 motorway and Kolding Landevej, the old main road between Kolding and Snoghøj, which was the main way to access Eastern Denmark for many centuries.
Taulov Church is a medieval church in traditional Danish style, and was constructed in the 13th century. It functioned as a seamark for sailors on Kolding Fjord and Little Belt until modern navigation was introduced. As the natural centre of Taulov, it is located approximate 9 km (5.6 mi) from Fredericia, 10 km (6.2 mi) from Kolding and 20 km (12 mi) from Vejle.
History
The name Taulov has existed for many hundreds of years, probably because of the word "tavle" as in Tavle Mark; this led to the name of Tavlov Nebel (Nebel meaning a place high above its surroundings) which eventually became Taulov.
Taulov has had settlements for the last 2,500 years, many of those resurfacing in these years of growth where fields are being turned into dwellings. The Church is from the 13th century and is placed on Tavlhøj, one of the highest points in the area, right on the edge of Elbodalen.
Taulov Parish is significant because of its proximity to the historically important city of Kolding. The parish had a castle designed to protect Kolding Fjord close to the church. The castle Høneborg is today nothing more than a small hill used for livestock. This castle has had a huge influence on Taulov Church, and the two royal sisters who were residents of the castle are buried in the apse of the church. The circular apse is in local history said to be the only one of its kind north of the Alps.
As Fredericia was completed only 12 km (7.5 mi) from Taulov in the 1650s, the king wanted to make sure the new town was successful. Several villages closer to Fredericia were demolished and moved into the new fortified city, which left few villages in this area. As the stone churches were destroyed to reuse the stones to the fortifications and the new churches in Fredericia, it has also left only a few medieval churches in the area. Taulov and Taulov Church is therefore some of the few medieval villages and churches in the area to survive.
Taulov was a village for centuries, but when the railroad between Kolding and Fredericia was built in the 1860s, Taulov started to grow around and along the railroad. Over the next hundred years, Taulov grew to the size of a town. The railroad allowed for industry and retail to grow in the area and the community eventually became a municipality in its own right, known as Taulov Kommune. It was run from Tavlhøj near the church and school. During this time, Taulov Bygade boasted several shops and the only co-operative supermarket, Brugsen, in the area.
It wasn't until the 1970s and the building of the Danish motorways that Taulov started to really develop. In the 1970s, the Danish municipalities were being reformed and Taulov Kommune became a part of Fredericia Kommune. Tavlhøj was later turned into an activity center for retired people. Since the 1990s, more and more shops have closed down or relocated to Fredericia or Kolding, leaving only few shops in the town.
Just south of Taulov at Kolding Fjord, another town grew up around a small harbour, Skærbæk. This town is the nearest town to Taulov and works as the harbour of Taulov, both recreational and commercial. These two towns have always had a close relationship with shared schools, sportscenter, church and various cultural functions and clubs. The area is often referred to as "Taulov-Skærbæk". Skærbæks power plant Skærbæk Værket which is among the most important in the country has been a mayor workplace for people in both towns but has been rationalised, though the nearby headquarters of DONG Energy is still a mayor employer for people in Taulov.
Industry
Due to the very central location in Denmark with both a railroad and a motorway, and the large Fredericia Harbour nearby, Taulov grew into a national cargo hub in the 1980s and 1990s. Today, Taulov boasts of the local firm Veksø, one of Denmark's largest producers of street furniture and fixtures as well as several international cargo firms, among them the largest cargo center in Scandinavia. Furthermore, the city has the largest cheese factory in Europe as well as two smaller cheese factories producing, among other things, Castello cheeses, exporting mostly products for Arla Foods. Taulov is one of the most important industrial and cargo areas in the combined network between seven municipalities known as Trekantsområdet.
With new industrial and retail park DanmarkC, the industrial areas of Fredercia and Taulov are gradually merging along the motorway and rail corridor creating a 10 km (6.2 mi) long industrial and retail corridor stretching from Taulov to the Little Belt Bridge along two international motorways.
Locations
Taulov doesn't contain many attractions, although it has some well known locations on a regional scale.
"Den dybe betydnings sted" is a Buddhist center placed in Taulov as part of the Karma Kadjy School. It is growing rapidly according to the center itself, and is considering expanding.
"Kryb-i-ly Kro" is a very popular and somewhat famous Kro (inn) on the edge of Taulov. The story goes that on a cold and windy night, the Danish king was heading from Kolding to Snoghøj to cross Little Belt as he decided to find some place to hide from the weather. As he saw a small farm, he allegedly said "kryb i ly"("seek shelter"), thereby naming the farm and the inn that was later built right next to it. The original inn was consumed by flames, but it was rebuilt and still sits on an impressive view over Kolding Fjord.
Taulov has been a popular site for settlements in the Iron Age and Bronze Age, and the area contains several tombs and findings of old settlements. One of the recent findings was found when the second motorway in the area was being built just north of the town. The tomb now sits at a gas station further north along the new E45 motorway and is one of the largest found in Jutland.
Elbohallen is the local sports center originally built on a field between the two towns, but now lies within the boundaries of Taulov. Other than being the home to most of the local sports teams, it has a community/party hall, a cafeteria, a youth centre and is used for balls, fairs and markets. It is also one of the preferred centers for disability sport events on a regional level.
Several times during the last couple of decades, Taulov has been connected with prestigious projects which could have given the town a boost. Some of the projects included a new International Standard stadium and an IKEA store, as well as a large indoor skiing ramp and vacation centres.
The latest discussions are concerning a large regional hospital replacing the hospitals in Kolding, Vejle and Fredericia.
Culture
Taulov has a population of 3,402 as of 1 January 2022, and the population growth has been slow for many years. But in recent years, the town has been growing, as Trekantsområdet has been growing in importance and size.
Sports clubs have had a few years of success in the combined club between Taulov and the neighbouring town Skærbæk at the Little Belt, Taulov-Skæbæk IF. But in recent years, the club has lost its best players who instead have moved to Kolding and Fredericia who have teams in the best leagues. Almost all sports clubs in the two towns are based in Elbohallen with a few clubs based on schools.
Taulov currently shares a monthly newsletter/paper with Skærbæk called Tau-bæk Nyt. It is a non-profit organisation dependent on volunteer writers and uses income from ads for printing and distribution. It is used by local clubs and organisations to share news and keep people up to date.
Notable people
Stine Knudsen (born 1992 in Taulov) a Danish handball player who currently plays for København Håndbold.
== References == | instance of | {
"answer_start": [
12
],
"text": [
"town"
]
} |
Taulov is a town located in Fredericia Municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark. The town is, with a population of 3,402 (1 January 2022), the second largest in the municipality.Taulov's history is not that well known and it was nothing more than a village until the first railroads in Jutland were built in the 1860s during the industrial revolution. It is now divided into Gammel Taulov (Old Taulov) and Taulov by the motorway, despite Taulov Kirke being located in Taulov. Old Taulov grew up around the train station and the new main street while the majority of Taulov is squeezed in between the E20 motorway and Kolding Landevej, the old main road between Kolding and Snoghøj, which was the main way to access Eastern Denmark for many centuries.
Taulov Church is a medieval church in traditional Danish style, and was constructed in the 13th century. It functioned as a seamark for sailors on Kolding Fjord and Little Belt until modern navigation was introduced. As the natural centre of Taulov, it is located approximate 9 km (5.6 mi) from Fredericia, 10 km (6.2 mi) from Kolding and 20 km (12 mi) from Vejle.
History
The name Taulov has existed for many hundreds of years, probably because of the word "tavle" as in Tavle Mark; this led to the name of Tavlov Nebel (Nebel meaning a place high above its surroundings) which eventually became Taulov.
Taulov has had settlements for the last 2,500 years, many of those resurfacing in these years of growth where fields are being turned into dwellings. The Church is from the 13th century and is placed on Tavlhøj, one of the highest points in the area, right on the edge of Elbodalen.
Taulov Parish is significant because of its proximity to the historically important city of Kolding. The parish had a castle designed to protect Kolding Fjord close to the church. The castle Høneborg is today nothing more than a small hill used for livestock. This castle has had a huge influence on Taulov Church, and the two royal sisters who were residents of the castle are buried in the apse of the church. The circular apse is in local history said to be the only one of its kind north of the Alps.
As Fredericia was completed only 12 km (7.5 mi) from Taulov in the 1650s, the king wanted to make sure the new town was successful. Several villages closer to Fredericia were demolished and moved into the new fortified city, which left few villages in this area. As the stone churches were destroyed to reuse the stones to the fortifications and the new churches in Fredericia, it has also left only a few medieval churches in the area. Taulov and Taulov Church is therefore some of the few medieval villages and churches in the area to survive.
Taulov was a village for centuries, but when the railroad between Kolding and Fredericia was built in the 1860s, Taulov started to grow around and along the railroad. Over the next hundred years, Taulov grew to the size of a town. The railroad allowed for industry and retail to grow in the area and the community eventually became a municipality in its own right, known as Taulov Kommune. It was run from Tavlhøj near the church and school. During this time, Taulov Bygade boasted several shops and the only co-operative supermarket, Brugsen, in the area.
It wasn't until the 1970s and the building of the Danish motorways that Taulov started to really develop. In the 1970s, the Danish municipalities were being reformed and Taulov Kommune became a part of Fredericia Kommune. Tavlhøj was later turned into an activity center for retired people. Since the 1990s, more and more shops have closed down or relocated to Fredericia or Kolding, leaving only few shops in the town.
Just south of Taulov at Kolding Fjord, another town grew up around a small harbour, Skærbæk. This town is the nearest town to Taulov and works as the harbour of Taulov, both recreational and commercial. These two towns have always had a close relationship with shared schools, sportscenter, church and various cultural functions and clubs. The area is often referred to as "Taulov-Skærbæk". Skærbæks power plant Skærbæk Værket which is among the most important in the country has been a mayor workplace for people in both towns but has been rationalised, though the nearby headquarters of DONG Energy is still a mayor employer for people in Taulov.
Industry
Due to the very central location in Denmark with both a railroad and a motorway, and the large Fredericia Harbour nearby, Taulov grew into a national cargo hub in the 1980s and 1990s. Today, Taulov boasts of the local firm Veksø, one of Denmark's largest producers of street furniture and fixtures as well as several international cargo firms, among them the largest cargo center in Scandinavia. Furthermore, the city has the largest cheese factory in Europe as well as two smaller cheese factories producing, among other things, Castello cheeses, exporting mostly products for Arla Foods. Taulov is one of the most important industrial and cargo areas in the combined network between seven municipalities known as Trekantsområdet.
With new industrial and retail park DanmarkC, the industrial areas of Fredercia and Taulov are gradually merging along the motorway and rail corridor creating a 10 km (6.2 mi) long industrial and retail corridor stretching from Taulov to the Little Belt Bridge along two international motorways.
Locations
Taulov doesn't contain many attractions, although it has some well known locations on a regional scale.
"Den dybe betydnings sted" is a Buddhist center placed in Taulov as part of the Karma Kadjy School. It is growing rapidly according to the center itself, and is considering expanding.
"Kryb-i-ly Kro" is a very popular and somewhat famous Kro (inn) on the edge of Taulov. The story goes that on a cold and windy night, the Danish king was heading from Kolding to Snoghøj to cross Little Belt as he decided to find some place to hide from the weather. As he saw a small farm, he allegedly said "kryb i ly"("seek shelter"), thereby naming the farm and the inn that was later built right next to it. The original inn was consumed by flames, but it was rebuilt and still sits on an impressive view over Kolding Fjord.
Taulov has been a popular site for settlements in the Iron Age and Bronze Age, and the area contains several tombs and findings of old settlements. One of the recent findings was found when the second motorway in the area was being built just north of the town. The tomb now sits at a gas station further north along the new E45 motorway and is one of the largest found in Jutland.
Elbohallen is the local sports center originally built on a field between the two towns, but now lies within the boundaries of Taulov. Other than being the home to most of the local sports teams, it has a community/party hall, a cafeteria, a youth centre and is used for balls, fairs and markets. It is also one of the preferred centers for disability sport events on a regional level.
Several times during the last couple of decades, Taulov has been connected with prestigious projects which could have given the town a boost. Some of the projects included a new International Standard stadium and an IKEA store, as well as a large indoor skiing ramp and vacation centres.
The latest discussions are concerning a large regional hospital replacing the hospitals in Kolding, Vejle and Fredericia.
Culture
Taulov has a population of 3,402 as of 1 January 2022, and the population growth has been slow for many years. But in recent years, the town has been growing, as Trekantsområdet has been growing in importance and size.
Sports clubs have had a few years of success in the combined club between Taulov and the neighbouring town Skærbæk at the Little Belt, Taulov-Skæbæk IF. But in recent years, the club has lost its best players who instead have moved to Kolding and Fredericia who have teams in the best leagues. Almost all sports clubs in the two towns are based in Elbohallen with a few clubs based on schools.
Taulov currently shares a monthly newsletter/paper with Skærbæk called Tau-bæk Nyt. It is a non-profit organisation dependent on volunteer writers and uses income from ads for printing and distribution. It is used by local clubs and organisations to share news and keep people up to date.
Notable people
Stine Knudsen (born 1992 in Taulov) a Danish handball player who currently plays for København Håndbold.
== References == | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
"answer_start": [
28
],
"text": [
"Fredericia Municipality"
]
} |
Taulov is a town located in Fredericia Municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark. The town is, with a population of 3,402 (1 January 2022), the second largest in the municipality.Taulov's history is not that well known and it was nothing more than a village until the first railroads in Jutland were built in the 1860s during the industrial revolution. It is now divided into Gammel Taulov (Old Taulov) and Taulov by the motorway, despite Taulov Kirke being located in Taulov. Old Taulov grew up around the train station and the new main street while the majority of Taulov is squeezed in between the E20 motorway and Kolding Landevej, the old main road between Kolding and Snoghøj, which was the main way to access Eastern Denmark for many centuries.
Taulov Church is a medieval church in traditional Danish style, and was constructed in the 13th century. It functioned as a seamark for sailors on Kolding Fjord and Little Belt until modern navigation was introduced. As the natural centre of Taulov, it is located approximate 9 km (5.6 mi) from Fredericia, 10 km (6.2 mi) from Kolding and 20 km (12 mi) from Vejle.
History
The name Taulov has existed for many hundreds of years, probably because of the word "tavle" as in Tavle Mark; this led to the name of Tavlov Nebel (Nebel meaning a place high above its surroundings) which eventually became Taulov.
Taulov has had settlements for the last 2,500 years, many of those resurfacing in these years of growth where fields are being turned into dwellings. The Church is from the 13th century and is placed on Tavlhøj, one of the highest points in the area, right on the edge of Elbodalen.
Taulov Parish is significant because of its proximity to the historically important city of Kolding. The parish had a castle designed to protect Kolding Fjord close to the church. The castle Høneborg is today nothing more than a small hill used for livestock. This castle has had a huge influence on Taulov Church, and the two royal sisters who were residents of the castle are buried in the apse of the church. The circular apse is in local history said to be the only one of its kind north of the Alps.
As Fredericia was completed only 12 km (7.5 mi) from Taulov in the 1650s, the king wanted to make sure the new town was successful. Several villages closer to Fredericia were demolished and moved into the new fortified city, which left few villages in this area. As the stone churches were destroyed to reuse the stones to the fortifications and the new churches in Fredericia, it has also left only a few medieval churches in the area. Taulov and Taulov Church is therefore some of the few medieval villages and churches in the area to survive.
Taulov was a village for centuries, but when the railroad between Kolding and Fredericia was built in the 1860s, Taulov started to grow around and along the railroad. Over the next hundred years, Taulov grew to the size of a town. The railroad allowed for industry and retail to grow in the area and the community eventually became a municipality in its own right, known as Taulov Kommune. It was run from Tavlhøj near the church and school. During this time, Taulov Bygade boasted several shops and the only co-operative supermarket, Brugsen, in the area.
It wasn't until the 1970s and the building of the Danish motorways that Taulov started to really develop. In the 1970s, the Danish municipalities were being reformed and Taulov Kommune became a part of Fredericia Kommune. Tavlhøj was later turned into an activity center for retired people. Since the 1990s, more and more shops have closed down or relocated to Fredericia or Kolding, leaving only few shops in the town.
Just south of Taulov at Kolding Fjord, another town grew up around a small harbour, Skærbæk. This town is the nearest town to Taulov and works as the harbour of Taulov, both recreational and commercial. These two towns have always had a close relationship with shared schools, sportscenter, church and various cultural functions and clubs. The area is often referred to as "Taulov-Skærbæk". Skærbæks power plant Skærbæk Værket which is among the most important in the country has been a mayor workplace for people in both towns but has been rationalised, though the nearby headquarters of DONG Energy is still a mayor employer for people in Taulov.
Industry
Due to the very central location in Denmark with both a railroad and a motorway, and the large Fredericia Harbour nearby, Taulov grew into a national cargo hub in the 1980s and 1990s. Today, Taulov boasts of the local firm Veksø, one of Denmark's largest producers of street furniture and fixtures as well as several international cargo firms, among them the largest cargo center in Scandinavia. Furthermore, the city has the largest cheese factory in Europe as well as two smaller cheese factories producing, among other things, Castello cheeses, exporting mostly products for Arla Foods. Taulov is one of the most important industrial and cargo areas in the combined network between seven municipalities known as Trekantsområdet.
With new industrial and retail park DanmarkC, the industrial areas of Fredercia and Taulov are gradually merging along the motorway and rail corridor creating a 10 km (6.2 mi) long industrial and retail corridor stretching from Taulov to the Little Belt Bridge along two international motorways.
Locations
Taulov doesn't contain many attractions, although it has some well known locations on a regional scale.
"Den dybe betydnings sted" is a Buddhist center placed in Taulov as part of the Karma Kadjy School. It is growing rapidly according to the center itself, and is considering expanding.
"Kryb-i-ly Kro" is a very popular and somewhat famous Kro (inn) on the edge of Taulov. The story goes that on a cold and windy night, the Danish king was heading from Kolding to Snoghøj to cross Little Belt as he decided to find some place to hide from the weather. As he saw a small farm, he allegedly said "kryb i ly"("seek shelter"), thereby naming the farm and the inn that was later built right next to it. The original inn was consumed by flames, but it was rebuilt and still sits on an impressive view over Kolding Fjord.
Taulov has been a popular site for settlements in the Iron Age and Bronze Age, and the area contains several tombs and findings of old settlements. One of the recent findings was found when the second motorway in the area was being built just north of the town. The tomb now sits at a gas station further north along the new E45 motorway and is one of the largest found in Jutland.
Elbohallen is the local sports center originally built on a field between the two towns, but now lies within the boundaries of Taulov. Other than being the home to most of the local sports teams, it has a community/party hall, a cafeteria, a youth centre and is used for balls, fairs and markets. It is also one of the preferred centers for disability sport events on a regional level.
Several times during the last couple of decades, Taulov has been connected with prestigious projects which could have given the town a boost. Some of the projects included a new International Standard stadium and an IKEA store, as well as a large indoor skiing ramp and vacation centres.
The latest discussions are concerning a large regional hospital replacing the hospitals in Kolding, Vejle and Fredericia.
Culture
Taulov has a population of 3,402 as of 1 January 2022, and the population growth has been slow for many years. But in recent years, the town has been growing, as Trekantsområdet has been growing in importance and size.
Sports clubs have had a few years of success in the combined club between Taulov and the neighbouring town Skærbæk at the Little Belt, Taulov-Skæbæk IF. But in recent years, the club has lost its best players who instead have moved to Kolding and Fredericia who have teams in the best leagues. Almost all sports clubs in the two towns are based in Elbohallen with a few clubs based on schools.
Taulov currently shares a monthly newsletter/paper with Skærbæk called Tau-bæk Nyt. It is a non-profit organisation dependent on volunteer writers and uses income from ads for printing and distribution. It is used by local clubs and organisations to share news and keep people up to date.
Notable people
Stine Knudsen (born 1992 in Taulov) a Danish handball player who currently plays for København Håndbold.
== References == | Den Store Danske ID | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Taulov"
]
} |
Taulov is a town located in Fredericia Municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark. The town is, with a population of 3,402 (1 January 2022), the second largest in the municipality.Taulov's history is not that well known and it was nothing more than a village until the first railroads in Jutland were built in the 1860s during the industrial revolution. It is now divided into Gammel Taulov (Old Taulov) and Taulov by the motorway, despite Taulov Kirke being located in Taulov. Old Taulov grew up around the train station and the new main street while the majority of Taulov is squeezed in between the E20 motorway and Kolding Landevej, the old main road between Kolding and Snoghøj, which was the main way to access Eastern Denmark for many centuries.
Taulov Church is a medieval church in traditional Danish style, and was constructed in the 13th century. It functioned as a seamark for sailors on Kolding Fjord and Little Belt until modern navigation was introduced. As the natural centre of Taulov, it is located approximate 9 km (5.6 mi) from Fredericia, 10 km (6.2 mi) from Kolding and 20 km (12 mi) from Vejle.
History
The name Taulov has existed for many hundreds of years, probably because of the word "tavle" as in Tavle Mark; this led to the name of Tavlov Nebel (Nebel meaning a place high above its surroundings) which eventually became Taulov.
Taulov has had settlements for the last 2,500 years, many of those resurfacing in these years of growth where fields are being turned into dwellings. The Church is from the 13th century and is placed on Tavlhøj, one of the highest points in the area, right on the edge of Elbodalen.
Taulov Parish is significant because of its proximity to the historically important city of Kolding. The parish had a castle designed to protect Kolding Fjord close to the church. The castle Høneborg is today nothing more than a small hill used for livestock. This castle has had a huge influence on Taulov Church, and the two royal sisters who were residents of the castle are buried in the apse of the church. The circular apse is in local history said to be the only one of its kind north of the Alps.
As Fredericia was completed only 12 km (7.5 mi) from Taulov in the 1650s, the king wanted to make sure the new town was successful. Several villages closer to Fredericia were demolished and moved into the new fortified city, which left few villages in this area. As the stone churches were destroyed to reuse the stones to the fortifications and the new churches in Fredericia, it has also left only a few medieval churches in the area. Taulov and Taulov Church is therefore some of the few medieval villages and churches in the area to survive.
Taulov was a village for centuries, but when the railroad between Kolding and Fredericia was built in the 1860s, Taulov started to grow around and along the railroad. Over the next hundred years, Taulov grew to the size of a town. The railroad allowed for industry and retail to grow in the area and the community eventually became a municipality in its own right, known as Taulov Kommune. It was run from Tavlhøj near the church and school. During this time, Taulov Bygade boasted several shops and the only co-operative supermarket, Brugsen, in the area.
It wasn't until the 1970s and the building of the Danish motorways that Taulov started to really develop. In the 1970s, the Danish municipalities were being reformed and Taulov Kommune became a part of Fredericia Kommune. Tavlhøj was later turned into an activity center for retired people. Since the 1990s, more and more shops have closed down or relocated to Fredericia or Kolding, leaving only few shops in the town.
Just south of Taulov at Kolding Fjord, another town grew up around a small harbour, Skærbæk. This town is the nearest town to Taulov and works as the harbour of Taulov, both recreational and commercial. These two towns have always had a close relationship with shared schools, sportscenter, church and various cultural functions and clubs. The area is often referred to as "Taulov-Skærbæk". Skærbæks power plant Skærbæk Værket which is among the most important in the country has been a mayor workplace for people in both towns but has been rationalised, though the nearby headquarters of DONG Energy is still a mayor employer for people in Taulov.
Industry
Due to the very central location in Denmark with both a railroad and a motorway, and the large Fredericia Harbour nearby, Taulov grew into a national cargo hub in the 1980s and 1990s. Today, Taulov boasts of the local firm Veksø, one of Denmark's largest producers of street furniture and fixtures as well as several international cargo firms, among them the largest cargo center in Scandinavia. Furthermore, the city has the largest cheese factory in Europe as well as two smaller cheese factories producing, among other things, Castello cheeses, exporting mostly products for Arla Foods. Taulov is one of the most important industrial and cargo areas in the combined network between seven municipalities known as Trekantsområdet.
With new industrial and retail park DanmarkC, the industrial areas of Fredercia and Taulov are gradually merging along the motorway and rail corridor creating a 10 km (6.2 mi) long industrial and retail corridor stretching from Taulov to the Little Belt Bridge along two international motorways.
Locations
Taulov doesn't contain many attractions, although it has some well known locations on a regional scale.
"Den dybe betydnings sted" is a Buddhist center placed in Taulov as part of the Karma Kadjy School. It is growing rapidly according to the center itself, and is considering expanding.
"Kryb-i-ly Kro" is a very popular and somewhat famous Kro (inn) on the edge of Taulov. The story goes that on a cold and windy night, the Danish king was heading from Kolding to Snoghøj to cross Little Belt as he decided to find some place to hide from the weather. As he saw a small farm, he allegedly said "kryb i ly"("seek shelter"), thereby naming the farm and the inn that was later built right next to it. The original inn was consumed by flames, but it was rebuilt and still sits on an impressive view over Kolding Fjord.
Taulov has been a popular site for settlements in the Iron Age and Bronze Age, and the area contains several tombs and findings of old settlements. One of the recent findings was found when the second motorway in the area was being built just north of the town. The tomb now sits at a gas station further north along the new E45 motorway and is one of the largest found in Jutland.
Elbohallen is the local sports center originally built on a field between the two towns, but now lies within the boundaries of Taulov. Other than being the home to most of the local sports teams, it has a community/party hall, a cafeteria, a youth centre and is used for balls, fairs and markets. It is also one of the preferred centers for disability sport events on a regional level.
Several times during the last couple of decades, Taulov has been connected with prestigious projects which could have given the town a boost. Some of the projects included a new International Standard stadium and an IKEA store, as well as a large indoor skiing ramp and vacation centres.
The latest discussions are concerning a large regional hospital replacing the hospitals in Kolding, Vejle and Fredericia.
Culture
Taulov has a population of 3,402 as of 1 January 2022, and the population growth has been slow for many years. But in recent years, the town has been growing, as Trekantsområdet has been growing in importance and size.
Sports clubs have had a few years of success in the combined club between Taulov and the neighbouring town Skærbæk at the Little Belt, Taulov-Skæbæk IF. But in recent years, the club has lost its best players who instead have moved to Kolding and Fredericia who have teams in the best leagues. Almost all sports clubs in the two towns are based in Elbohallen with a few clubs based on schools.
Taulov currently shares a monthly newsletter/paper with Skærbæk called Tau-bæk Nyt. It is a non-profit organisation dependent on volunteer writers and uses income from ads for printing and distribution. It is used by local clubs and organisations to share news and keep people up to date.
Notable people
Stine Knudsen (born 1992 in Taulov) a Danish handball player who currently plays for København Håndbold.
== References == | Trap Danmark ID | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Taulov"
]
} |
The 1983 Northwestern Wildcats team represented Northwestern University during the 1983 NCAA Division I-A football season. In their third year under head coach Dennis Green, the Wildcats compiled a 2–9 record (2–7 against Big Ten Conference opponents) and finished in a tie for eighth place in the Big Ten Conference.The team's offensive leaders were quarterback Sandy Schwab with 1,838 passing yards, Ricky Edwards with 561 rushing yards, and Ricky Edwards with 570 receiving yards. Punter John Kidd received first-team All-Big Ten honors from both the Associated Press and the United Press International.
Schedule
Personnel
QB Sandy Schwab, Soph.
== References == | head coach | {
"answer_start": [
160
],
"text": [
"Dennis Green"
]
} |
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