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GALVESTON, Oct. 28, 2010 – Many residents of the state don’t know that one of every four Texans lives along the coast, or perhaps that Texas has 16 major ports and more than 3,300 miles of bays and estuaries. But that may be about to change as a Texas A&M University at Galveston professor is raising the learning curve and the awareness level when it comes to the Texas coastline.
Sam Brody, who heads the Center for Texas Beaches and Shores at the Galveston campus, has spent the last five years creating a unique web-based coastal atlas that has all sorts of benefits for anyone wanting to know more about the 18-county Texas coast. Thanks to grants from the Texas General Land Office, Sea Grant and NOAA, volumes of information that were never before available are now a mouse click away.
“We believe this is the most complete work of its kind ever created about the Texas coast,” Brody proudly says from his Galveston office.
“We have produced information that never before could be accessed, so much so that we had to create new software to pull it all together. But the result is the most detailed and comprehensive spatial database ever compiled for the Texas coast.”
How detailed? Brody and his research team have produced comprehensive information about every area of the Texas coast down not only to the city block, but also to any individual house or lot on that block.
One feature of the atlas shows the hazards of living along the Texas coast, and there are plenty. Flood zones are prevalent in most coastal areas and beach erosion – in some areas the shoreline is disappearing at the rate of 10 feet per year — transportation issues, population issues and other hazards are detailed in the atlas.
Also detailed are development and land-use patterns and where future growth is likely to occur along the Texas coast.
One of the most interesting features is a “what if” scenario dealing with storm-water runoff in Galveston County. Brody says this atlas component can help users understand the consequences of developing a specific parcel before the shovel hits the ground. It shows areas that are very susceptible to hurricane damage and how much damage might occur if a hurricane makes landfall.
“I think one of the biggest misconceptions that people who live along the Texas coast have is that they are not fully aware of the risks associated with living where they do,” Brody explains.
“The Galveston-Harris County area is one of the most flood-prone areas in the United States.” Also, erosion is a huge problem that is not going away any time soon, plus there are huge risks associated with storms, flooding and other weather-related issues.
“There are also what we call ’social vulnerabilities’ of living along the coast such as rising property values, increased hotspots of population and other risks,” he notes. “We have learned through experience that when a hurricane hits, it’s almost impossible to evacuate an entire city like Houston, so we have examined what might happen in such a scenario.”
Brody says the Texas coast is one of the fastest-growing coastal regions in the country.
The atlas is constantly updated, and Brody hopes to expand it further with future research funding.
“What I am most proud of is that we have taken just about every possible question someone might have about the Texas coast and we have produced an answer that is easy to understand,” Brody adds. “It’s a great educational and research tool for the general public to learn more about the Texas coast.”
The coastal atlas is a collaborative project between the Center for Texas Beaches and Shores and the Hazard Reduction and Recovery Center (HRRC) at Texas A&M. Walter Peacock, director of the HRRC, also helped to create the atlas.
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| 0.961519 | 819 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The Throwable Panoramic Ball Camera is an invention of Jonas Pfeil, and was done for his diploma thesis as an engineer.
It consists of a camera that takes truly spherical panoramic pictures solving two key problems of traditional panoramic images. The first is that there is no underlying tripod blocking the downward scene, because you actually have to throw the camera up in the air. The second is that, thanks to the Throwable Panoramic Ball Camera, all angles are captured simultaneously so there is no need to digitally stitch multiple panoramic images together.
The Throwable Panoramic Ball Camera has 36 fixed-focus 2 megapixel mobile phone camera modules attached to a ball-shaped enclosure. It has a built-in accelerometer, so the camera is able to automatically capture the spherical image at the highest point of its trajectory (which happens to be the most stable moment to photograph). After the image is taken, it is easy to download the spherical image to any computer.
The Throwable Panoramic Ball Camera allows you to relive your favorite moments and discover particulars that you never noticed before.
Spherical Sweeping Picture-Takers
1,775 clicks in 123 w
More Stats +/-
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| 0.936069 | 249 | 2.65625 | 3 |
chemistry question #327
Eric Johnson, a 17 year old male from the Internet asks on January 31, 1998,Q:
Is it harmful to inhale sulfur which has been heated?
viewed 13646 times
The burning of sulfur releases sulfur dioxide in the following reaction: S + O2 ---> SO2 SO2 is a pungent smelling gas that is VERY DAMAGING to lung tissue. The reason is that on contact with water, it forms sulfurous acid by the reaction: SO2 + H2O ---> H2SO3 So if you have inhaled a large amount of SO2, then you should definitely go to see your doctor or an emergency ward!
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| 0.948067 | 142 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Historical TV shows give viewers a look into the past that cannot be achieved to the same degree in historical fiction novels. The set designs, the character’s voices and expressions are able to bring a period of time which has been lost back to life. However, writing a historical show by definition requires the rewriting of history. Many historical shows are set so long ago that the source material is comprised of a few dusty parchments and some very old statues. But even more recent subjects of history, such as the world wars, and the Chernobyl disaster bring a host of difficulties when they are serialised for television.
Comedy provides a format that can get away with an awful lot more when it comes to making a historical show. Blackadder Goes Forth took a view of the First World War that cast British generals as maniacal butchers, a view that modern historians tend to criticise. Nonetheless, the final scene of the series, where Blackadder, Baldrick and company go over the top does an amazing job of conveying the paradoxical feelings of fear and duty that millions of soldiers would have surely felt as they faced the enemy.
Drama is not usually granted the same level of artistic license as comedy and viewers typically expect a more thorough accounting of the historical facts in such shows. The question arises though of how you approach a historical period for television. Looking at two contrasting shows, Peaky Blinders and The Crown, finds two different methods of writing history for TV.
Whilst The Crown is historically accurate, it presents a very narrow view of history
The Crown presents a top-down approach to history, where powerful, elite figures and their lives are examined. Downton Abbey also fits this criterion. Now, whilst The Crown is very historically accurate – the writers seem to have done a very good job of pouring over records and documents – it presents a very narrow view of history. The idea that the decisions of a few very powerful people, largely in isolation from the rest of British society, had huge national effects remains largely an idea. Most people would have struggled on with their lives regardless of Queen Elizabeth or how her cohorts dealt with the Aberfan disaster. The characters that you get to know through the programme all share one very small bubble and most of the country exist outside it, and outside of the show’s scope. The Crown represents a thoroughly well researched historical programme with a very narrow purview.
The struggles that the character and his fellow gangsters faced as members of an underclass in an incredibly divided society feels very real
Peaky Blinders, a very different show about a very different sort of power, looks at history from the bottom up. The Shelby’s are a working-class family living in interwar Birmingham who form a notorious gang. This programme is in many ways far less accurate than The Crown, the Shelby family never existed and the gang that inspired the show rose to prominence before the First World War, not after. Its also unlikely that they even hid razor blades in their caps, although its far more fun to imagine they did. This programme then, did not get the specific, nitty gritty facts anywhere close to correct, but where it really shines in terms of historical accuracy, is the social context that provides the shows backdrop.
The scenes of deprivation in early 1900s Britain, the antagonism between the working classes and the police, the racism suffered by Gypsies and people of colour, and of course the overt sexism of the time, this is all captured perfectly in the show’s 5 seasons. So, yes, there never was a real Tommy Shelby and he certainly never came into contact with the Mafia, or Oswald Mosley. But, the struggles that the character and his fellow gangsters faced as members of an underclass in a society that was incredibly divided feels very real.
Last modified: 20th May 2020
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| 0.968661 | 788 | 2.828125 | 3 |
- 1 Is working 32 hours considered full-time?
- 2 Is working 30 hours a week considered full-time?
- 3 What is the legal definition of full-time employment?
- 4 How many hours is full-time employment?
- 5 Is 35 hours a week full-time?
- 6 Is 21 hours a week part-time?
- 7 Can an employer increase my working hours without pay?
- 8 Is.8 considered full-time?
- 9 Can I work for 2 different employers?
- 10 How many hours is an employer required to give you?
- 11 What are the advantages of full-time employment?
- 12 How many hours can you work in a row?
- 13 Is 25 hours considered full-time?
- 14 Does full-time mean salary?
- 15 How many hours a week can you work by law?
Is working 32 hours considered full-time?
For most workers in NSW, maximum full – time hours are eight per day, and 38 per week. Full – time hours in industrial instruments usually range from 35 to 40 per week, with a standard of eight (or less) to 12 per day. These are called ordinary hours.
Is working 30 hours a week considered full-time?
Employed full-time – people who usually work 35 hours or more a week (in all jobs), and those who, although usually working less than 35 hours a week, worked 35 hours or more in the reference week. For example, in some occupations 40 hours may be a standard full-time week, while in others it may be 30 hours a week.
What is the legal definition of full-time employment?
Full-Time Employees means Employees with regularly scheduled and budgeted Working Hours of no less than forty (40) hours per week.
How many hours is full-time employment?
A full-time employee: usually works, on average, 38 hours each week (see hours of work)
Is 35 hours a week full-time?
Official employer designations regarding full-time employment generally range from 35 to 45 hours, with 40 hours being by far the most common standard. Some companies consider 50 hours a week full-time for exempt employees.
Is 21 hours a week part-time?
Short answer: Full-time employment is usually considered between 30-40 hours a week, while part-time employment is usually less than 30 hours a week. The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) has no definition for part-time or full-time employment, and employers may determine their own definitions.
Can an employer increase my working hours without pay?
Yes, in some cases. Generally, unless an employment contract or a collective bargaining agreement states otherwise, an employer may change an employee’s job duties, schedule or work location without the employee’s consent.
Is.8 considered full-time?
In the United States, the “standard workweek” is generally considered to be 40 hours, with employees working five days a week, for eight hours per day. Some employers consider 37.5 hours to be full time, giving 30-minute unpaid lunch breaks each day, while others give an hour and consider 35 hours to be full-time.
Can I work for 2 different employers?
There is no legal limit on the number of salaried jobs you can hold. Company directors sometimes hold dozens. What may limit this is the contracts you have with each company. It’s very common for a full-time employment contract to specify that you will not “undertake any other paid work” or a similar phrase.
How many hours is an employer required to give you?
According to California Wage Orders, working beyond the standard eight hours in any given workday is permissible so long as the employee is 18 years of age or older or at least 16 or 17 and not required to attend school.
What are the advantages of full-time employment?
Many full-time contracts include employee benefits, such as:
- Vacation days.
- Paid sick leave.
- Medical insurance.
- Dental insurance.
- Vision insurance.
- Retirement plans.
How many hours can you work in a row?
Under California labor laws, non-exempt employees shall not work more than eight (8) hours in any workday or more than 40 hours in any workweek unless they are compensated with overtime pay.
Is 25 hours considered full-time?
While most employers define full-time work as ranging between 32 and 40 hours a week, the Affordable Care Act specifies that a part-time worker works fewer than 30 hours a week on average. Under the Affordable Care Act, a 32-hour workweek is considered full-time.
Does full-time mean salary?
Many full-time employees are paid a base salary and are not eligible for overtime pay. However, if you work full time and go over the employer’s hours that define full-time work, you may be entitled to extra per-hour wages. The legal minimum for overtime starts at your base pay plus half.
How many hours a week can you work by law?
Legally, your employer can’t make you work more than 48 hours a week, including overtime. If they want you to work more than that, your employer has to ask you to opt out of the 48-hour limit. Find out more about the maximum weekly working time limit.
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| 0.953431 | 1,136 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Tags: Can you overcharge a cell phone, nickel based batteries, cell phone manuals
Nickel Based Batteries
Nickel-metal-hydride batteries are similar to lithium-ion; they cannot accept an overcharge and trickle charges must be kept low to avoid safety hazards.This type of battery is non-toxic and offers a higher specific energy than nickel-cadium.
The nickel-cadium battery was invented in 1899 by Waldmar Junger. Two waves of improvements were made subsequently, first right after World War II with casing technology and then in the 1980s when capacity was upped by around 60%. There are many claims on the Internet that leaving a cell phone battery plugged in overnight on a continual basis can permanently damage the power source. However, these claims are false. With few exceptions, a defective cell phone battery will have been caused by factory defect; not too much charging.
Conversely, some cell phone users may be doing themselves a disservice by never letting their battery completely die. Cell phone providers advise that at least once every couple of months, it is advisable to do just that.
Cell Phone Manuals
Despite all of the above, many instruction manuals for cell phone warn against overcharging. This is not because a battery can be overcharged per se, but because extended periods of incoming electrical charging may destabilize some of the battery cells.
In other words, once a battery reaches its full charge, it cannot be charged any further. At the same time, that electrical current that keeps coursing in has nowhere to go, creating a stressful electromagnetic environment and pushing the battery into more of an unknown realm. Depending on type, manufacturer and amount of time left plugged in, complications may or may not ensue.
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| 0.957942 | 356 | 3.03125 | 3 |
- ISBN: 9789681911577 | 9681911571
- Cover: Paperback
- Copyright: 1/1/2003
A complete guide to help understand and deal with children's communication problems. This book gives information as to where to find assistance to help children with language problems. In addition, it aids in identifying the symptoms, and offers the tools necessary to choose a type of doctor and a suitable treatment.
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There are a number of educational institutions spread out throughout the country which are constantly aiming a providing access to education to the needy and children of rural areas. Most of these schools are initiatives of the Indian government and they provide education to all those who really need it. Telangana state has a number of residential schools that were built and set up for this purpose. All these Telangana residential schools were formed under the supervision of the TREI society.
What is the TREI society?
TREI or the Telangana Residential Educational Institutions Society is an initiative of the Indian Government. It was first set up in the year 1972 and it has been growing strong and managing more and more residential schools with every passing year. The main aim of the Indian Government in setting up the TREI society was to make sure that this society oversees the establishment of various residential schools around the state and successfully manage their functioning to provide proper education to all the children who need it- mainly those children from economically strained background and those from rural areas, who have limited access to education.
There is quite a long history behind the setting up of these Telangana residential schools. In 1972, the state of Andhra Pradesh was yet to be divided into two. It was then that the Andhra Pradesh Residential Educational Institutions Society was first set up with the aim to impart education to children who need it. This body is basically an autonomous one and used to function with the state secretary of the government as its chairman. However, after 1988 there was a slight shift of authorities and today it is headed by the Education minister of the state as the chairman while the state secretary has become the vice-chairman. In order to ensure an effective functioning of the society, there is also a board of directors comprising of 22 people who spearhead the various functions of this society.
The beginning of the journey for TREI
During the years of 1971 and 1972, the first residential school was set up in the Nalgonda district at Sarvail. There was the Sarvodaya Trust Board which actually donated land and buildings in order for the first of the many more TREI Telangana residential schools to come. Since general government processing takes a lot of time because of a huge pile of paperwork, the idea for this TREI society was conceived, so that the schools that were being set up could be maintained effectively. With the passage of only two years, two other schools were set up and by 1975, permissions were also granted to set up junior level colleges. What started with a single school, is today managing a total of 13 junior level colleges and 123 schools!
The main objective of the TREI
Certain aims and objectives have been underlined for the TREI:
- The main aim is to establish and effectively controlling the proper functioning of the telangana residential schools so that education can be meted to out to children of the scheduled castes or other minority groups, who have little to no access to education.
- TREI is also entrusted with the responsibility of setting up a proper and updated syllabi and conducting the necessary examinations.
- It can also give recognition to other residential schools that are operative within the state.
- They also aim at organising various seminars, conferences and workshops so that both the students of these residential schools as well as the staff can benefit from the new ways of learning.
Facilities that are provided by the TREI schools
There are some salient features of these Telangana residential schools which make them one of the best learning centres of the country. Let us take a look at some of them:
- They provide free education and charge no boarding costs from the students because of which a lot of children are going to these schools.
- All the schools are provided with basic amenities like a clean and airy classroom, a well-stocked library, clean and hygienic bathrooms, large open playgrounds, laboratory with proper equipment etc.
- One of the most interesting features of these schools is that they function with the loco parent system. This system implies that a personnel will be arranged to a group of students who will function as their parent. This helps a lot in bringing out the best from underachievers or those with a low self-confidence.
- When students gear up for the competitive examinations, special classed and coaching is provided to them.
- The aim is to provide an all-round education because of which co-curricular activities are a very important part of these Telangana residential schools.
- Students wake up and get ready to exercise from 8 in the morning and various activities and classes continue for till about 10 in the night.
Locating some of the important Telangana residential schools
Let us take a look at some of the important Telangana schools and in which districts they are located:
|Hyderabad||1. TSR School, Borabanda
2. TSR School, Barkas
3. TSR School, Borabanda for Girls
4. TSR School, Ibrahimpatnam
|Mahabubnagar||1. TSR School, Beechupalli
2. TSE School, Wanaparthy
3. TSR School. Balanagar
4. TSR School, Mahbubnagar
|Rangareddy||1. TSR School, Keesaragutta
2. TSR School, Hayathnagar
3. TSR School, Tanduru
4. TSR School, Vikaraabd
5. TSR School, Ibrahimpatnam
|Nizamabad||1. TSR School, Pochambad (B)
2. TSR School, Pochambad (G)
3. TSR School, Madnoor
4. TSR School, Nagaram
5. TSR School, Kamareddy
6. TSR School, Bodhan
|Medak||1. TSR School, Lingampalli
2. TSR School, Toopran
3. TSR School, Sangareddy
4. TSR School, Zaheerabad
5. TSR School, Medak
6. TSR School, Siddipet-Medak
|Adilabad||1. TSR School, Bellampalli
2. TSR School, Nagaram
3. TSR School, Nirmal
|Nalgonda||1. TSR School, Thungathurthy
2. TSR School, Nalgonda
3. TSR School, Choutuppal
4. TSR School, Ramannapet
There is a total number of 10 districts where these Telangana residential schools have been established and functioning properly. While some are some girls and boys school, there are one for general category students and minority students as well, in order to make sure that education is provided to all.
Read more about the Top Schools in Telangana, here!
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| 0.973489 | 1,454 | 2.625 | 3 |
The bromeliad plant was very abundant in El Yunque rain forest before Hurricane Maria 140 MPH winds in 9/20/17 ravaged the forest canopy and affected all minor plants and many trees. It stores water for insects and frogs, like the coqui, and serves are their home! It mostly hangs on tree trunks and branches and needs to ground to grow - its an air plant. They can be micro size to large - over 4 feet. This depends on the wind and altitude.
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| 0.963475 | 101 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Hebrew Literature, Modern
HEBREW LITERATURE, MODERNdefinition and scope
the european period (1781–1917)
Haskalah Literature: The Beginnings of Modern Hebrew Literature in Europe (1781–1881)
Naphtali Herz (Hartwig) Wessely
Types of Literature
Ancillary Centers of the Early Haskalah
The End of the German Haskalah
the galician haskalah (1820–1860)
the russian haskalah (1840–1881)
The Modern Period (1881–1917)
russia and poland
The Age of Aḥad Ha-Am
The Age of Bialik.
the palestinian Ḥalutzic period (1905–1948)
The Ottoman Period (1905–1917)
The Mandate Period (1917–1948)
The Genesis of Women's Hebrew Literature
Women's Prose Writing in the Period of the Yishuv (1882–1948)
the israel period (1948–2005)
the new wave
The 1980s and After
National Renaissance Period (1880–1947)
realistic hebrew drama
symbolism and expressionism
the "Ḥalutz" play
Drama in Israel
the six-day (1967) and yom kippur (1973) wars as turning points
the mobilization of historical and biblical drama
the holocaust as socio-political metaphor
aloni and levin
the privatized era
Introduction – Beginnings of Literary Criticism
18th Century – Normative-Aesthetic Approach
encomiastic and epistolary criticism
Late 19th Century – The Limits of Hebrew Literature
aesthetic appreciation for its own sake
the ahad ha-am and berdyczewski controversy
Early 20th Century – Aesthetic and Ideological Concepts
criticism by poets and writers
beginnings of criticism in ereẒ israel
criticism in the united states
ereẒ israel after world war i – old and new criteria
Mid-20th Century – New Perspectives
The 1970s and After
translations of hebrew literature
Facts and Figures
Translations of Books for Children and Youth
Translations into Arabic
Translation into Special Languages
Anthologies and Special Journal Issues on Hebrew Literature
hebrew literature in the united states
Sporadic Publication and Literary Curiosities (1654–1870)
The Early Modern Period (1870–1918)
After World War i
The entry is arranged according to the following outline:
definition and scope
For the purposes of this article the term modern Hebrew literature designates belles lettres written in Hebrew during the modern period of Jewish history.
The definition is more limited than the generally accepted notion that modern Hebrew literature includes everything written in Hebrew during the modern period (e.g., Y.F. Lachower, Toledot ha-Sifrut ha-Ivrit ha-Ḥadashah (1928–48); J. Klausner, Historyah shel ha-Sifrut ha-Ivrit ha-Ḥadashah (1930–1950) and others). This view has some validity concerning Hebrew letters written before 1914 when most Hebrew authors, in addition to belles lettres, wrote historical or philosophical works, journalistic articles, and even popular science, all of which were generally held to be "literature." Dov Sadan has suggested that a history of modern Hebrew literature should also include rabbinic literature written in the modern period, literature composed in other Jewish languages (particularly Yiddish), and even works of Jewish content composed in European languages (Al Sifrutenu, 1950). However while the influence of these types of literary endeavors in modern Hebrew literature must be taken into account by the historian, they are not in themselves an integral part of it.
The development of modern Hebrew literature represents an almost unique phenomenon in world literature. It is now generally assumed that Hebrew ceased being the spoken language of most Palestinian Jews even before the close of the biblical period, albeit evidence exists that small pockets of Hebrew speakers persisted even in the mishnaic period. In the Middle Ages, it became leshon ha-kodesh ("the sacred tongue") and the overwhelming number of books written in Hebrew were of a religious nature. Side by side with these religious works a secular or quasi-secular literature also developed – in Spain, Provence, and Italy. By the time modern Hebrew literature began, however, this literature was on the wane, even in Italy, its last stronghold. Moreover, modern Hebrew is, on the whole, the work of Ashkenazi Jewry and among them secular literature rarely appeared before modern times.
Hebrew was not only the literary language of medieval Jewry but also served as its lingua franca. Nevertheless, it had to be rendered flexible before it could adequately be used as a language to depict modern life. The literary problem created by the radical difference between Hebrew and Yiddish, which most of the Hebrew writers and readers spoke, became crucial with the rise of realism on the Hebrew literary scene. It was difficult to write in Hebrew realistic dialogue which was spoken in another tongue.
To some degree, too, the command of Hebrew was a class phenomenon. Large segments of the Jewish working class never attained sufficient competence in the language. It is therefore no accident that as Yiddish literature developed at the close of the 19th century, it not only enjoyed greater popularity but politically tended to be more radical than Hebrew literature. Moreover, it was natural that Hebrew would become the vehicle of the Zionist movement, while Yiddish, the language of the Diaspora, was that of Jewish movements which were Diaspora orientated. On the other hand, it would be oversimplifying matters to claim that the Yiddish-speaking masses were capable of understanding many of the sophisticated modernist poets and writers of fiction who were the proponents of Yiddish literature in its heyday. In any society most significant literature has always been and is still produced and read by the educated segment.
Unlike the authors of many "folk" literatures which developed in Europe during the nationalist period (19th century), Hebrew writers had the advantage of possessing a rich tradition and a large corpus of "classical" literature: the Bible, the Talmud, the Midrashim, the prayer book, medieval religious and secular poetry and prose, and the prose works of various pietistic groups. As modern Hebrew literature developed, the classical tradition proved to be a mixed blessing. Writers were overwhelmed particularly by the literary excellence of the Bible and often became discouraged in the face of its achievement. It is, however, to the credit of contemporary Hebrew writers that this is no longer a major problem. Without abandoning its classics, Hebrew writing is no longer frustrated by them.
From a statistical point of view Hebrew is a minor literature. It is currently estimated that there are approximately seven million people who speak Hebrew, of whom the large majority are either children or semiliterates in the language (including both poorly educated Israel natives and the very large number of immigrants who are highly educated but read European languages). Hebrew bestsellers have a circulation of 10,000–50,000. Hebrew poetry on the other hand is read by a comparatively large group of Israelis and dozens of volumes of verse are published annually. Being a "small" literature, written and read by a society whose intellectuals belong to a variety of language cultures, Hebrew literature is strongly subject to multifarious European literary influences. The interplay of Russian, Polish, English, French, and German literatures with Hebrew literature has greatly enriched the Hebrew literary scope and has given it its special flavor.
Scholars disagree as to when modern Hebrew literature actually began. There are generally two schools of thought:
(1) those who adhere to Gershom *Scholem's views and consider the disruption of the medieval authority of the Jewish community in the wake of the Shabbatean debacle at the close of the 17th century the starting point of the modern age (Simon Halkin, Modern Hebrew Literature (1950), 29–32);
(2) those who hold that the German Haskalah (see below) of the latter half of the 18th century marks the beginning (J. Klausner; Historyah etc.; B. Kurzweil, Sifrutenu ha-Ḥadashah: Hemshekh o Mahpekhah?, 1959; Ḥ.N. Shapiro, Toledot ha-Sifrut ha-Ivrit ha-Ḥadashah, 1940). *Lachower, without reference to Scholem's thesis, opens his history with Moses Ḥayyim *Luzzatto (1707–1746) contending that not only was he the cultural heir to the Italian-Hebrew humanists of the 16th and 17th centuries, but was influenced by modern non-Jewish writers and by their secularist ideas (a view held by Ḥ.N. Bialik, Shalom Streit, N. Slouschz, and Avraham Shaanan). Scholem's thesis explains the inner causes which ultimately led to the development of the "anti-establishment" movements of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (Ḥasidism and Haskalah) and points out that proto-Haskalah ideas were current among the disillusioned Frankists in Prague during the 18th century ("Mitzvah ha-Ba'ah ba-Averah" in: Keneset, 2 (1937) see also Commentary, 51 (Jan. 1971), 41–70). However, the secularism which clearly identifies the modern period first received significant literary expression in Germany during the Enlightenment (for contrary opinions see B. Kurzweil, Ba-Ma'avak al Erkhei ha-Yahadut (1970), and Ḥ.N. Shapiro, Toledot ha-Sifrut ha-Ivrit ha-Ḥadashah).
Those who would begin modern Hebrew literature with Moses Ḥayyim Luzzatto agree that its basic characteristic is its secularism but assert that Luzzatto's plays were products of the "new spirit" and that these in turn affected subsequent modern Hebrew literature. Luzzatto's world view however was not modern. He was a kabbalist and the bulk of his works were religious and mystical. His poetics too are clearly based on medieval notions; Leshon Limmudim (1927) draws heavily on Quintilian. Moreover, while he influenced David *Franco-Mendes during his stay in Holland, his plays were not known to the early German Hebrew authors.
Historians also disagree as to the periodization of modern Hebrew literature. Lachower follows a geographical-chronological pattern in the first two volumes of his history: (1) "From the Growth of the New Literature in Italy until the Decline of the Haskalah in the West" – Italy, Holland, and Germany (1750–1830); (2) "The Early Days of the Haskalah in the East until the Close of the Haskalah Period" – Austria, Galicia, and Russia (1820–1880). In volume 3 he shifts to a conceptual definition: "From the Beginnings of the Jewish National Idea until our Times" – Russia (1860–1920). *Klausner, proposing a more "literary" scheme, limits his history to the Haskalah (1781–1881) dividing it into three periods which are also defined conceptually and geographically: (1) the rationalist, pseudoclassical period (1781–1830) – the defense of the Enlightenment in Germany against the attack of the traditionalists; (2) the romantic period (1830–1860) – the reconciliation between religion and the Haskalah in Galicia; (3) the realistic period (1860–1881) – the attack of the Haskalah on religion in Russia and Poland.
B. *Kurzweil prefers a cultural-historical scheme distinguishing between (1) the "naïve Haskalah" which attempts to reconcile modernism with religion (1781–1830); (2) the militant reformist Haskalah (1830–1881) with its humanist-European orientation; (3) the period of disillusionment with European humanism (1881–1948). He argues unconvincingly that a fourth period, characterized by an apocalyptic vision of national sovereignty, begins with Uri Ẓevi *Greenberg. The schemes of Klausner and Lachower are faulty because they treat early modern Hebrew literature as a mature literature when in reality it possessed little aesthetic value prior to 1881. Most of the authors were provincial, used a cumbersome language, and hardly had acquired the European education and the standards of judgment which they were avidly seeking. Their works must therefore be considered as precursors of a literature which was to reach maturity only at the close of the 19th century.
The following scheme reflects more accurately the periodization of modern Hebrew literature:
i. The European Period (1781–1921)
(1) Haskalah Literature: the beginnings of modern Hebrew literature in Europe (1781–1881): (a) The German Haskalah (1781–1830); (b) The Galician Haskalah (1820–1860); (c) The Russian Haskalah (1840–1881)
(2) Modern Hebrew Literature in Europe: in Russia and Poland (1881–1920)
ii. The Palestinian-Ḥalutzic Period (1905–1948)
(1) The Ottoman period (1905–1917)
(2) The Mandate period (1920–1948)
iii. The Israel Period (1948 to the present)
the european period (1781–1917)
Haskalah Literature: The Beginnings of Modern Hebrew Literature in Europe (1781–1881)
the german haskalah (1781–1830)
The first center of modern Hebrew literature developed in Prussia (particularly in the cities of Berlin and Koenigsberg) among the new Jewish merchant and managerial class, which had risen to social and economic prominence during the latter half of the 18th century. This new class discovered in the ideology of the German Aufklaerung ("Enlightenment"), with its emphasis on "reason," "good taste," and "the rights of man," a rationale that would justify their abandonment of many Jewish religious practices which had hindered their access to gentile society. It would also support their demand for social and political rights in a society which judged a man's worth by his ability and not by his origins. They believed that the realization of this ideology would transform the Jews into productive and enlightened citizens of the emerging modern state. When the Hebrew writers of Germany began propagating the "new philosophy" they selected the Hebrew word haskalah as the equivalent for the German Aufklaerung. Etymologically haskalah is derived from the root שׂכל denoting understanding, reason, or intelligence. Haskalah meant a commitment to reason rather than to revelation as the source of all truth, or, perhaps more correctly, the identification of revelation with reason. The maskilim averred that the practices, beliefs, and mores of Judaism and Jews must be in consonance with reason and that those which were not were basically not Jewish but distortions of the lofty purposes of Judaism.
The maskilim chose as a model the enlightened gentile merchant class which had accepted good taste and reason as its two social criteria. Their world view included not only the realms of science and philosophy but also the whole area of social behavior and aesthetics. Jews must not only abandon their medieval patterns of thought but also their outlandish manners, dress, and taste and adopt those which are in accord with the new order of things. The task of the maskil was lehaskil ("to be enlightened" and "to enlighten others"). For the maskil, education was not only the tool for the dissemination of the new truth but formed the very basis of his aesthetic theory. The prime purpose of literature was to educate the reader morally, socially, and aesthetically. Haskalah literature was therefore didactic and propagandist, aiming at bringing enlightenment to the "benighted" and backward Jewish communities of Germany and Eastern Europe.
It was natural for the Haskalah to choose Hebrew as its linguistic vehicle. The Yiddish dialects had no literary prestige at the time and were especially repugnant to maskilim who considered Yiddish to be a vulgar and ungrammatical corruption of German. Yiddish identified and isolated Jews from the general culture and underscored their cultural inferiority. On the other hand, Hebrew was not only the classical language of Judaism and the written language of its educated classes, but it also enjoyed enormous prestige in the non-Jewish world as the language of the Bible. Since educated and intelligent Jews of the old school could not read German, Hebrew served as the medium through which not only ideas of the Haskalah were disseminated but also, by means of appropriate translations and textbooks, as a vehicle to acquire German, the modern language most accessible to them. A major literary enterprise of the German Haskalah was the Biur (publ. 1780–1783), a German translation in Hebrew characters of the Pentateuch which was supplemented with a modern commentary in Hebrew (see Translations of *Bible). Thousands of Jews learned German through the Biur.
The most significant personage of the German Haskalah, Moses *Mendelssohn, wrote mainly in German. In his literary and philosophical works he attempted to harmonize traditional Judaism with the new rationalist-deistic philosophy of his times. Mendelssohn also dealt with general philosophical problems and was accepted as a cultural, if not a social, equal in gentile circles – a symbol of the new type of Jew for both gentiles and Jews. Though he wrote very little Hebrew, he was the unchallenged leader of the German Haskalah and the initiator (or at least the one who encouraged) its main literary projects: the Biur and Ha-Me'assef (see *Me'assef), the first Hebrew periodical. The Biur was at first favorably received by Western European traditional Jewry but soon, for fear that it would lead to cultural assimilation, was denounced as heretical. On the other hand, enlightened Jews hailed it as a major achievement. It served as a textbook to generations of East European Jews in the study of literary German, which in turn was a means to obtain secular knowledge. Ha-Me'assef, a Hebrew monthly magazine, modeled after the Berliner Monatsschrift, was founded in 1783 in Koenigsberg by a group of young maskilim. It appeared intermittently until 1829. All of the leading figures of the early Haskalah contributed to Ha-Me'assef including Moses Mendelssohn, Naphtali Herz *Wessely, Solomon *Maimon, David Franco-Mendes, Isaac Abraham *Euchel, Isaac *Satanow, and Shalom b. Jacob *Cohen. Its influence during the earlier years of the German Haskalah was great, but with the Germanization of Jewish intellectual life its circulation dropped off. Readers of German were unable to abide its lower literary and critical standards. From a purely literary point of view Ha-Me'asef was not very important. It is significant only as a pioneering project of modern Hebrew literature.
Naphtali Herz (Hartwig) Wessely
The leading Hebrew author of the German Haskalah, Naphtali Hartwig Wessely (Naphtali Hirsch Weisel), wrote only in Hebrew although he knew several European languages, including German. Through his pamphlet Divrei Shalom ve-Emet (1782), an impassioned plea in support of the edict of toleration (1781), he won renown as the foremost apologist of the Haskalah. In it he urged the adoption of modern educational methods and the need for "human" knowledge (science, history, and social ethics) as well as "religious" knowledge.
Wessely's main contribution to modern Hebrew literature however is Shirei Tiferet ("Poems of Splendor"), a long epic poem on the life of Moses; it is the major literary work of the German Haskalah (pts. 1–5, 1789–92; pt. 6 posthumously 1829). Judged by modern standards, the poem has small literary merit; while it is written in an almost purely biblical style, it is imitative and lacks the conciseness and concreteness of the original biblical account. Moses is cast in the rationalist image of the Haskalah and the entire work is permeated with Haskalah preachments. From a formal point of view, Wessely introduces the alexandrine (the 12-syllable heroic line prevailing in the French poetry of his day) which was to dominate early modern Hebrew poetry for half a century. Of particular interest are his prose introductions to the "books" of the poem which, although written in a period in which sentimentalism already predominates in German literature, still express earlier neoclassical views.
Types of Literature
The German Haskalah produced several epic poems besides the work of Wessely; most significant among them were Shalom b. Jacob Cohen's Nir David ("The Splendor of David," Vienna, 1834); Issachar Schlesinger's Ha-Ḥashmona'im ("The Hasmoneans," 1817); Ḥayyei Shimshon ("The Life of Samson") by Sueskind Raschkow (d. 1836); and Moses Frankfurt *Mendelsohn's Toledot Avraham and Toledot Yosef. Other poets influenced by the Italian Hebrew school of the 17th and 18th centuries composed closet dramas in verse which were either allegories imitating Moses Ḥayyim Luzzatto's La-Yesharim Tehillah ("Praise to the Upright," Amsterdam, 1743), or based on biblical themes: Shalom Cohen's Amel ve-Tirẓah (1862); Gemul Atalyah ("Athaliah's Retaliation," Amsterdam, 1770), by David Franco-Mendes (1713–1792), adapted from Racine's Athalie; and Joseph *Ha-Efrati's (Troppolowitz) Melukhat Sha'ul ("Saul's Reign," Vienna, 1794). A third genre was the Hebrew proverb or maxim in which Isaac Satanow excelled. He published Mishlei Asaf ("The Fables of Asaf") and its sequel Gam Elleh Mishlei Asaf ("Also These Are the Fables of Asaf"). Related to this genre are the mikhtamim (maxims in rhymed quatrain form) and the fable (Joel (Brill) *Loewe, Baruch *Jeiteles, and Judah Leib *Ben-Zeev). Except for the verse of Ephraim *Luzzatto, a contemporary of the German Haskalah who lived in Italy and later in London, no lyrical poetry of any merit was produced. Most of the poetry in this genre was a feeble imitation of contemporary German verse and moralistic or didactic in tone. Two poems worthy of mention are Aggadat Arba Kosot ("The Legend of the Four Goblets," Berlin, 1790), by the talented poet Solomon *Pappenheim, which after Wessely's epic is the most important poem of the period, and Solomon *Loewisohn's ode to the Hebrew language which he composed as a preface to his book Meliẓat Yeshurun ("The Poesy of Jeshurun," 1816).
The German Haskalah produced no remarkable narrative prose. The few pieces in Ha-Me'assef are merely sentimental prose poems. Mention should be made, however, of Aaron *Wolfsohn-Halle's Siḥah be-Ereẓ ha-Ḥayyim ("A Conversation in the Land of the Living"), a biting satirical sketch directed against the rabbis of his day, and Moses Frankfurt Mendelsohn's article on the history of the German Haskalah (in Penei Tevel, published posthumously in 1872). Solomon Maimon's contribution to Hebrew literature was insignificant compared to his role as a German post-Kantian philosopher and to his literary contribution as the author of an autobiography in German which influenced later autobiographical writing in Hebrew. He also wrote a number of works in Hebrew, almost all in philosophy, the physical sciences, and mathematics. His best Hebrew work, Givat ha-Moreh (Berlin, 1791), is a commentary on Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed.
Ancillary Centers of the Early Haskalah
Besides the German authors, a number of maskilim continued the tradition of Hebrew writing in Italy. Foremost among them were Ephraim Luzzatto, whose Elleh Benei ha-Ne'urim ("These Young Men," London, 1768) contain the best lyrical poetry of the period, and Samuel *Romanelli. In Amsterdam a group of writers appeared who were influenced by Moses Ḥayyim Luzzatto or his disciples. In Alsace several poets wrote patriotic Hebrew poetry, the most notable being Elie Ḥalfan *Halevy. Not all "German" maskilim were natives of Germany. Solomon Maimon and Solomon b. Joel *Dubino were born in Lithuania, Isaac Satanow in Podolia, and Judah Leib Ben-Zeev in Poland. In Lithuania a subcenter of the Haskalah developed in the town of Shklov and from there moved to St. Petersburg where a number of Shklov's wealthy merchants settled (Joshua *Zeitlin, Nathan *Notkin, and Abraham *Peretz; for a short time the Galician author Menahem Mendel *Levin (Lefin) was a tutor in Peretz's home). The most important St. Petersburg maskil, Judah Leib *Nevakhovitch (Ben Noah), published a pamphlet in Russian that he had originally composed in Hebrew, in which he urged the emancipation of Jews.
The End of the German Haskalah
The rapid Germanization of German Jewry led to the displacement of Hebrew as the language of the enlightened Jewish middle classes in Prussia. Between 1794 and 1797 one issue of Ha-Me'assef was published annually. By 1797 only 120 subscribers remained. In the meantime a Jewish literature in German, including a literary journal, began to develop. It is no accident that it was reported that Aaron Wolfsohn-Halle, one of the editors of Ha-Me'assef, was unable to write Hebrew in his old age.
the galician haskalah (1820–1860)
From Prussia, the Haskalah movement spread to Polish Galicia. Prosperous Jewish merchants from Galicia involved in the export-import trade (exporting agricultural products to Germany and importing manufactured goods) often frequented the great trade fair at Leipzig where they met the new, enlightened German Jewish merchants. German-Jewish salesmen in turn came to the larger cities of Galicia bearing the new way of life with their wares. Centers of the Haskalah were soon established in Brody, Tarnopol, Lemberg, and Cracow in the early 19th century.
Demographically the Jewish population of Galicia was larger and more concentrated than that of Prussia. Intellectually, however, it was uninfluenced by the indigenous Slavic communities of the area whose cultural level was on the whole inferior to that of the Jews. Galician maskilim looked to German as the language of European culture. Politically, it was in the interest of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy to encourage Jewish, pro-Austrian elements as a separatist counterforce to Polish nationalism. Consequently, the assimilationist factors which affected Prussian Jewry were far less felt in Galicia.
The first Haskalah leader to come to Galicia was Naphtali Herz *Homberg who, in 1787, upon Mendelssohn's recommendation, was appointed chief inspector of German Jewish schools in Galicia by Joseph ii. Despite the vigorous opposition of rabbinic and ḥasidic leaders, he established over a hundred modern Jewish schools in Galicia and Bukovina and opened a teachers seminary in Lemberg. Homberg's arrogance toward Jews and his subservience to the government earned him the hatred of Galician Jewry. They blamed him not only for the "heretical" views and practices taught at his schools but even more for his part in the imposition of the notorious and discriminatory candle tax from which he personally and illegally profited. Homberg also served as censor of Hebrew books. His critical and caustic reports about the backward social situation of the Jews and their inferior morals reinforced the antisemitic views of his patrons. In the wake of growing protests and accusations by the Jews, he was finally removed from his office in 1806 and the schools he established were gradually closed.
Far more significant for the development of the Haskalah in Galicia was M.M. *Levin (Lefin) who, like Homberg, came to Berlin in the 1780s and for a time was a member of Mendelssohn's circle. Mendel Levin ultimately returned to Galicia, living most of the time in Brody. There he became a leader of the first generation of the Galician Haskalah and a friend of N. *Krochmal, S. *Rapoport, Josef *Perl, and Jakob Samuel *Bick. Levin's major contribution to modern Hebrew literature, the development of a Hebrew prose style based on mishnaic Hebrew, was to affect subsequent prose writing. He is also one of the early writers of modern Yiddish.
A key literary figure of this early period is the poet Shalom Cohen. Polish born, he too came to Berlin in the 1780s joining N.H. Wessely's circle. After Ha-Me'assef ceased publication in 1797, he succeeded in reviving it in 1808 for a short time. In 1810, he was invited by Anton von *Schmidt, the Viennese gentile publisher of Hebrew books, to serve as editor of his publishing house. In Vienna he launched *Bikkurei ha-Ittim, the first Hebrew periodical in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Vienna). The journal was in the form of an almanac and at first served as a vehicle for the reprint of an anthology of Ha-Me'assef, but later included original articles. Anton von Schmidt's publishing house played a major role in encouraging the new Hebrew literature. He employed leading maskilim as editors and proofreaders, published many of their books, and printed the two periodicals which were to serve as the forum of the Galician Haskalah, Bikkurei ha-Ittim (1820–1831) and Kerem Ḥemed (1833–1856).
The major contribution of the Galician Haskalah was in the area of Jewish studies. The first generation of German maskilim had attempted studies in this field but, except for some grammatical works, their achievements were awkwardly unprofessional. Only after the succeeding generation had shifted to German as their medium of expression did the golden age of *Wissenschaft des Judenthums dawn in Germany. In Galicia, however, Hebrew remained the language of modern Jewish scholarship. Foremost in the ranks of its scholars was Nachman Krochmal, the mentor of an entire generation. His Moreh Nevukhei ha-Zeman ("Guide of the Perplexed of the Time," 1851) is considered to be the philosophical statement of the period. An amorphous work, unfinished by its author and put together and published posthumously in 1851 by Leopold Zunz, it attempts to reconcile Judaism with the post-Kantian (mainly Hegelian) idealism, the prevailing philosophy of the age. Krochmal is the first to outline a scheme for Jewish history which not only explains the survival of Jewry in time but attributes to it an eternal existence because of the special relationship of God (The Absolute Spirit) to the Jewish people. With great erudition and intelligence he discusses almost all of the major problems of Jewish historiography, thus laying the groundwork for future historical research.
Less profound but still significant are the monographs of Krochmal's disciple Solomon Judah Rapoport which, in the main, constitute scholarly biographies of leading Jewish scholars in the medieval period (the series Toledot Anshei Shem which was published in Bikkurei ha-Ittim and Kerem Ḥemed). Although Samuel David *Luzzatto lived in Italy, his works also belong to the Galician Haskalah in whose journals he published and with whose scholars he was intimately involved. Luzzatto was a prolific writer who was involved in almost every scholarly, theological, and communal problem of his times (see his voluminous correspondence, Iggerot Shadal (1882–94)). His best work was in the areas of Hebrew and Aramaic grammar, biblical exegesis, and medieval Hebrew poetry.
From a purely literary point of view, the Galician Hebrew authors are to be credited for evolving the Hebrew prose satire. They not only influenced Hebrew style but introduced character types which would receive more sophisticated development in subsequent Hebrew fiction.
Galicia's most important satirist Josef Perl was a communal leader involved in educational reform who used his connections with the monarchy to foster the Haskalah. Perl's two satires Megalleh Temirin ("The Revealer of Secrets," 1819) and Boḥen Ẓaddik ("The Ẓaddik on Trial," 1838) were primarily directed against the new ḥasidic movement which had captured the imagination of the lower classes of Galician Jewry during the first half of the 19th century. Perl evinced a profound, if hostile, interest in Ḥasidism, studied its sources diligently, wrote the article on Ḥasidism in Peter *Beer's book on Jewish sects, and is said to have completed a book on Ḥasidism in German which was never published. Megalleh Temirin, written in an epistolary style, parodies the folkish ungrammatical Hebrew of the Ḥasidim. In keeping with the rationalist-modernist prejudices of a maskil Perl draws a grotesque picture of the ignorance, superstition, and gullibility of the Ḥasidim and the cunning of their leaders. Unwittingly, he creates a Hebrew prose style which imitates the Yiddish speech of his characters. In Boḥen Ẓaddik, he widens his satiric scope to include other classes of Galician Jewish society, even the maskilim themselves. Despite the satirical distortion, Perl's is the first attempt to depict the social context in Hebrew fiction and his cast of types often served as prototypes for the more sophisticated characters of later East European fiction.
Stylistically, Isaac *Erter chose a different path than Perl's. The high style of biblical Hebrew in which his satires are written seems to Hebrew readers of today to be out of keeping with his subject matter. He uses dream sequences or imaginary visions as vehicles for his satires. He spares no one: impoverished Ḥasidim, enlightened physicians, corrupt tax farmers who exploit the poor. In Gilgul Nefesh ("Transmigration of Souls," 1845) he uses a bestiary to satirize his characters. Although Erter is less basic to the development of Hebrew prose than Perl, his influence, even on as late a writer as S.Y. *Agnon, is discernible. The Galician Haskalah did not produce great poetry. Maskilim continued the tradition of adapting European poetic drama to fit the taste of their Hebrew reading contemporaries. Rapoport, whose poetic talent was decidedly limited, adapted Racine's Esther and Athalie, justifying his choice in terms of the importance of historical themes for the restoration of Jewish pride. Meir *Letteris adapted Goethe's Faust; he eliminated Christological references, set it in the mishnaic period, and identified Faust with the heretical tanna*Elisha b. Avuyah.
Letteris and Samuel David Luzzatto were the best of a number of poets who wrote lyrical, meditative, and eulogistic poetry. Other poets deserving mention are Aryeh Leib Kinderfreund (1788–1837), Baruch Shenfield (1787–1852), and Dov Ginzberg (1776–1811).
the russian haskalah (1840–1881)
The Haskalah in Russia developed in two geographical centers – Lithuania (Vilna) and Belorussia (Kremenets Podolski). Vilna was influenced by the tradition of rationalist Orthodoxy developed among the disciples of *Elijah b. Solomon the Gaon of Vilna and by the German Haskalah. Haskalah came to Belorussia by way of Galicia with many of its earliest authors actually having lived in Galicia at various times.
Historians of the Russian Haskalah aver that already during the German period proto-maskilim were to be found in Vilna, Shklov, and St. Petersburg, but it is generally agreed that the first Russian maskil of major significance was Isaac Dov (Baer) *Levinsohn of Kremenets Podolski. Levinsohn came into contact with almost all the leaders of the Galician Haskalah during his long stay in that province (1813–24). Following his return to Volhynia, he began a period of prolific publication primarily in the area of Jewish history, theology, and philology. His first major work, Te'udah be-Yisrael (1828), attempts to justify the Haskalah in terms of traditions and urges a reformation of the ḥeder system and the introduction of Hebrew grammar and German translation as aids to the understanding of the Bible. More significant are his apologetic-theological works: Beit Yehudah (1839), Zerubbavel (1863–64), and Aḥiyyah ha-Shilloni ha-Ḥozeh (1863). Levinsohn lacks historical and scientific methodology and he was only vaguely aware of current philosophical views about religion in general, and Judaism and Christianity in particular. The works are a defense of Judaism, especially the Talmud; he contends that the latter is a great encyclopedic work, full of wisdom and deep faith, and Judaism is a liberal religion – far more rational, liberal, and comprehensive than Christianity. Jesus he saw as a rabbinic Jew who never intended to found a new religion and whose moral teachings are all to be found in the Talmud. Jews rejected Jesus' political views, not his ethical program. Levinsohn also wrote a book refuting blood libels (Efes Damin, 1837) and published works on Hebrew philology.
In the field of belles lettres, Levinsohn composed two satires against Ḥasidism which were clearly influenced by Josef Perl's and Isaac Erter's works, but are inferior to them. He also wrote a volume of verse comprised of epigrams, satires, and occasional poetry of no literary merit whatsoever.
Greater strides were made in the development of Hebrew poetry and prose fiction in Lithuania. Four important writers appeared at the close of the century who paved the way for the great Hebrew writers: Adam ha-Kohen *Lebensohn, his son Micah Joseph *Lebensohn, Judah Leib *Gordon, and the novelist Abraham *Mapu. Adam ha-Kohen Lebensohn is the first of a long line of Russian Hebrew poets. Essentially cerebral, his poetry is the product of the mental world of a Vilna maskil who viewed life as a somber enterprise and literature as having a serious ethical purpose. Lebensohn's personal life, beset as it was with economic difficulties in his early adult years and the untimely deaths of several of his sons, reinforced his basically tragic view of life. Restrained by the literary conventions of the times, his long poems, written in a pseudo-biblical style, were marred by verbosity, a penchant for punning, and an exaggerated tendency to intellectualize.
The emotional fire lacking in Adam ha-Kohen Lebensohn's intellectualized verse animates the poetry of his son Micah Joseph Lebensohn (Mikhal). Mikhal's talents were encouraged and nurtured by his father, who afforded him every opportunity to gain the European education which he, the father, lacked. Mikhal studied at German universities and was strongly influenced by the German Romantics. Although his style remains biblical, his Hebrew attains a remarkable flexibility and he does not hesitate to introduce neologisms. The poetry of his Berlin days is urban, with allusions to city parks, gas lamps, and carriages. He is also one of the first modern Hebrew poets to write love poetry. Many of his longer poems are on biblical themes but his attitude to biblical heroes often differs from the traditional view. For example, he is able to empathize with Sisera in Ya'el ve-Sisra ("Yael and Sisera"); the hero of Nikmat Shimshon ("Samson's Revenge") becomes a symbol of revolutionary ardor; and he identifies with Moses, in Mosheal Har ha-Avarim ("Moses on Mt. Abarim," all published in Mikhal's collection of poems Shirei Bat Ẓiyyon (1851)). Mikhal, sick with tuberculosis, like Moses will not reach the Promised Land. In Ḥag ha-Aviv ("Spring Holiday"), one of his most moving poems, the young poet bewails his tragic inability to relate to nature and to society because he is aware of his imminent death. In contrast to all his predecessors, Mikhal wrote genuine lyrical poetry. Unfortunately, he appeared too early on the Hebrew literary scene to attain the literary level to which his talents might have carried him had the language and the literature in which he wrote reached the maturity it was to gain half a century later.
The greatest literary figure of the Russian Haskalah, Judah Leib Gordon, was a poet, short-story writer, and militant journalist who dominated the literary scene until the 1880s. Emerging in the 1860s as a younger member of the Vilna Haskalah and a disciple of Lebensohn the elder, he was committed to what has been described as the realistic Haskalah. Although his poetry was written in biblical Hebrew and was often hampered by the bombast of biblical rhetoric, it reached beyond the limitations of its period. Most of it was also dominated by the reformist thrust of the Haskalah. Gordon, unlike his predecessors, not only questioned the "spirituality" of the traditional Jewish values of the rabbinic period but also those of the Bible. He demanded a more vital materialistic commitment to life. His rejection of the "impractical and overspiritualized" Jewish world of his childhood led him to depict traditional "villains" of the Bible in more positive terms. Thus in his long poem Ẓidkiyyahu be-Veit ha-Pekuddot ("Zedekiah in Prison," 1879), he justified Zedekiah's criticism of Jeremiah's unrealistic stress on the spiritual at a time of national crisis. Soldiers and statesmen, realistic men of affairs, and not prophets and scholars were needed to save the country. Gordon's poems frequently struck out against the unreasonable legalism of the rabbis and called vigorously for the improvement of the woman's status ("Koẓo shel Yod," 1869). A genuine lyricism pervades his poetic fables which, although drawn from the Midrash, Aesop, La Fontaine, and particularly Krylov, are original works. More than any of his predecessors, Gordon had an uncanny ear for the biblical idiom and was able to forge new phrases which retained the biblical cadences. Bialik was to acknowledge the debt which he and his generation owed to Gordon.
Abraham Mapu, the first modern Hebrew novelist, chose the historical novel (Ahavat Ẓiyyon (1853) and AshmatShomeron (1865)) as his genre and in keeping with the general tendency of Hebrew writers preferred biblical themes to current topics. The difficulties in writing a contemporary social novel in Hebrew became manifest when Mapu himself tried to do so later in his career. Mapu, who knew French, was clearly influenced by both Eugène Sue and Alexandre Dumas père, whose long, involved, historical and social novels enjoyed great popularity during the period. Ahavat Ẓiyyon ("Love of Zion), set in the days of the kings of Judah, was also influenced by Moses Ḥayyim Luzzatto's two works Migdal Oz and La-Yesharim Tehillah even to the point that there exists evidence that the names of its two main characters were initially to be the same as those in Migdal Oz. The pastoral quality of the novel reflects not only the Haskalah's attitude toward agriculture but Luzzatto's as well. Ahavat Ẓiyyon became the first "best seller" of modern Hebrew literature. More ambitious, but less successful artistically, was Mapu's social novel Ayit Ẓavu'a ("The Painted Eagle," 3 vols., 1857–64). For all its structural faults, long-windedness, and inability to go beyond typology in its characterization, it constitutes the first attempt at depicting contemporary Jewish life in fiction. The characters are types that Mapu transposed from historical novels into the social context of the day; he also drew upon the satires of Erter and Perl. The infant state of modern Hebrew literature, the yet undeveloped Hebrew prose idiom, and the social and cultural situation of Russian Jewry hampered Mapu's effort. Nevertheless, his was a daring attempt to extend the new literature, thus paving the way for the next generation of Hebrew novelists who were to draw upon his typology.
In the generation following Mapu, Peretz *Smolenskin and Reuben Asher *Braudes contributed to the development of the Hebrew novel. Smolenskin, by far the more influential of the two, founded *Ha-Shaḥar (1869–84), a journal which he was forced to publish outside of Russia to circumvent censorship restrictions. Abandoning his initial Haskalah assimilationism he embraced a fiery brand of Jewish nationalism which called for an ultimate return to Zion. Smolenskin's Ha-To'eh be-Darkhei-Ḥayyim ("Who Wanders in the Ways of Life," 3 vols. (1868–70)) became the novel of the generation. A character novel like Ayit Ẓavu'a, Ha-To'eh be-Darkhei ha-Ḥayyim is structured more competently than Mapu's work because it centers around the main protagonist (Joseph) who roams the Jewish Pale of Settlement in search of the meaning of life. The novel contains elements of the picaresque: Joseph wanders into the world of Jewish beggars, sees life in a yeshivah and the court of a ḥasidic rabbi, and travels as far as London, Paris, and Berlin. Smolenskin thus attempted to draw a panorama of Jewish life not only as it was lived inside Russia but also in Western Europe. Far more realistic than Mapu's, his fictional world is still considerably removed from life. The novel remained a rambling, poorly constructed work, full of Haskalah speculations about life, European culture and society, and the meaning of Jewish history. Although many of its characters were derived from Mapu and, like the latter's, are flat and drawn in black and white, Smolenskin extended their range.
More realistic and written with greater discipline were the novels of Reuben Asher Braudes. The plot of his unfinished novel Ha-Dat ve-ha-Ḥayyim ("Religion and Life," 1885) revolves around the struggle of a young maskil to liberate himself from the narrow world of his childhood town and become a European; it is, in part, drawn from the biography of Moses Leib Lilienblum. In Shetei ha-Keẓavot ("Two Extremes," 1888), the protagonist has liberated himself from tradition only to discover that the new secularism lacks the certainty and peace of mind afforded by the old Orthodoxy. Although Braudes was unable to free himself from the one-sided view of the Haskalah and often lapsed into ideological preachments, he came closer to the reality he attempted to depict than any other novelist of the period.
The Modern Period (1881–1917)
russia and poland
By the 1880s, literary and political factors earmarked a new period in modern Hebrew literature. Almost a century of literary endeavor had been completed by then. Writers had a large corpus of literature to fall back on, a literature which had struggled with language, genre, and motifs and was ready for real artistic achievement. The cultural situation of East European Jewry had also undergone a radical change. A generation of writers had emerged that expressed its awareness of the secular-scientific orientated European culture through Hebrew literature. Although few writers could be called totally "European" in their point of view, a degree of sophistication had been attained that had been lacking in the previous generations. In the meantime European Romanticism, intimately bound to idealist philosophy, had given way to naturalism and realism – literary movements which were rooted in a more materialistic view of the universe. Influential Russian literary critics, like Pisarev and Chernyshevski, called for a more realistic form of writing and demanded a literature of social criticism. These attitudes were quickly picked up by some of the younger Hebrew critics who began publishing in the journals of the Russian Haskalah. Abraham Uri *Kovner, well versed in Russian positivist criticism, called for a realistic literature which would mirror the true character of the nation and lead to economic and social reform. He attacked the artificial biblicism which dominated much of Hebrew literature and commended the satires of Erter and Perl and Mapu's Ayit Ẓavu'a. A more realistic-materialistic literature was also advocated by Abraham Jacob *Paperna. Moses Leib Lilienblum in his Olam ha-Tohu ("Desolate World," 1873) attacked the idealistic Haskalah; he ascribed its use of romantic and unrealistic subject matter and theme to an escapism nurtured by the tragic and hopeless reality of Jewish life. Critics of the 1870s attacked the batlanut ("the impracticability") of Hebrew literature and denigrated most of its achievements.
Political and social events reinforced these new views. The rise of Russian reaction during the reign of Nicholas ii, and particularly the pogroms of the early 1880s, which were either instigated by the czarist regime or at least actively encouraged by its political police, disillusioned the vast majority of the maskilim. The whole reformist program, grounded on the naïve belief that the only deterrent to the emancipation of Russian Jewry was its own religious obscurantism and its own economic and social backwardness, was thus put into question. A new empathy for the people, its way of life, and its aspirations now replaced the bitter sarcasm of the realistic Haskalah. The prejudice against the older way was softened by a more balanced evaluation of its significance. While Hebrew writers did not abandon their criticism of the old way, they were capable of greater artistic objectivity.
The new nationalism did not reject modernization; on the contrary, it defined Jewish life in terms of the values of European nationalism. A national literature must aim at an objective depiction of the condition of the people and it must use European aesthetic standards in the working out of its themes. The shift from universalism to particularism led also to the discovery of the individual. In the Haskalah period fiction and poetry tended to depict types. The literary type stood somewhere between the allegorical hero and the individualized character. With the new period a more individualized characterization manifested itself in fiction and poetry.
The literary activity of Moses Leib *Lilienblum serves as a paradigm of this transvaluation of values. Raised in an obscurantist ḥasidic environment, he began his literary career as a polemist advocating religious and social reforms. His autobiography Ḥatot Ne'urim ("Sins of Youth," 1876–99), a classic work of the period, eloquently describes his struggle toward freedom. Lilienblum, influenced by Joshua Heschel *Schorr, a radical Galician maskil, argues against the "divine authority" of the Talmud and the Shulḥan Arukh contending that although the halakhic laws had validity in their time, they should not be accepted uncritically by modern Jews. In the 1860s, he and J.L. Gordon were the leading proponents of reform. During the 1870s, he seems to have lost hope in theological solutions and turns to positivism, and even socialism, as the new alternative. After the 1880s, he despaired of Russian liberalism and embraced the Zionist nationalism of the Ḥibbat Zion movement, stressing the "Oriental" quality of Jewish life. He never lost his pragmatic view of the world and therefore rejected Aḥad Ha-Am's cultural nationalism as being unrealistic and vapid.
The Age of Aḥad Ha-Am
The most influential intellectual figure of the European period was *Aḥad Ha-Am (Asher Ginzberg), a brilliant essayist, who attempted to develop an integrated philosophy for the new nationalist movement. He was not an original thinker but was able to articulate an ideology out of contemporary ideas with which to meet the needs of many Hebrew intellectuals of his day. Aḥad Ha-Am had indicated, at various times in his career, that he planned to write a systematic exposition of his philosophy, but he did not carry out his program. Unfortunately the essay form, which was his medium, hardly lends itself to a systematic presentation of ideas.
Aḥad Ha-Am drew heavily on positivist, utilitarian ideas current in his days and on the then newly developed science of sociology. At the center of his philosophy he placed the nation, which he equated with society. Judaism was the system of ideas, laws, and mores which the Jewish nation had developed in order to preserve itself. Individuals are merely limbs of the nation. The nation is the constant factor in human history. The success and prosperity of the nation is the only reward which is vouchsafed to the ephemeral individual.
In times of national crisis or degeneracy, Judaism was forced to express itself in terms of the individual. Biblical Judaism was national and communal, but after the destruction of the Second Temple and the loss of national sovereignty, rabbinic Judaism was compelled to direct its appeal to the individual, and only then was the doctrine of individual salvation propounded. Natural redemption will follow when the center of gravity will shift from the selfish concern for individual prosperity, spiritual or material, to the broader concern for the welfare of the people as a whole.
In his system society, i.e. the nation, replaced God as the source of authority. Yet Aḥad Ha-Am was careful not to tamper with the sancta of Judaism. The traditional Jewish customs were justified in terms of the national culture and its values. At the center of the national culture he placed the prophetic ethic, its peculiar expression. "There is almost a general consensus about the moral genius of the Jewish people and that in this area the Jewish people stand above all other nations. It makes no difference as to how the Jewish people attained this talent or how it evolved among them" (in Shinui Arakhim). Aḥad Ha-Am obviously avoided a metaphysical explanation for the uniqueness of the Jew and yet at the same time asserted its existence. His definition of the national character, or as he called it the national spirit, saved him from a biological definition of nationality and lent a universalistic humanist dimension to his nationalism. The universal ethic finds its expression in the particularist culture of the Jew. Jewish cosmopolitanism was for Aḥad Ha-Am an inauthentic expression of the Jewish ethical idea. Universal values must be rooted in the concrete experiences of the people and within its culture, otherwise they will remain vapid generalities. Translated in terms of a specific culture, they must be properly assimilated so as to become a part of it.
The nation-society, an organic fact, has a will and a life of its own in his system. Nationhood is axiomatic and must be accepted on faith. The Jew who asked why he was a Jew was already inauthentic. In his past history, the Jew taught theology and played a central role in preserving the nation, but with the breakdown of religious authority the national idea became the rallying point of Judaism. Aḥad Ha-Am saw in Zionism the return to the national idea. The very effort to establish a Jewish settlement in Palestine would serve as a focal point around which the national "will" could rally. He did not believe that a mass return to the national homeland was possible; instead he conceived of the homeland as the future spiritual (cultural) center of the Jewish people wherever it resided. The spiritual center would not only preserve the people but would bring about a national cultural renaissance.
The national revival, however, cannot occur merely because of the practical needs of the nation for migration or for a refuge. Ereẓ Israel was a poor and underdeveloped country and settlement must be preceded by a renewal of the national will. The task of the nationalist intellectuals must be to educate the people toward the difficult struggle for national renewal. For the Jewish intellectuals who had lost their faith in traditional Judaism, Aḥad Ha-Am's cultural-humanist nationalism offered itself as a welcome solution. One could preserve not only one's group loyalty but a great part of Jewish mores and customs by shifting the source of authority from God to history and from community to nation. One could likewise retain the old ethical goals of Judaism by identifying them with the national culture. It is no small wonder that the majority of Hebrew authors rallied to Aḥad Ha-Am's banner.
Aḥad Ha-Am's role in modern Hebrew literature went beyond his ideology. From a literary point of view he is the father of the modern Hebrew essay. His Hebrew style, which draws a great deal on Maimonides' Hebrew, is lucid and well constructed. Moreover, as the editor (1897–1903) of the most influential Hebrew journal of the period, *Ha-Shilo'aḥ, he set a high standard of literary taste for an entire generation of Hebrew writers. His conservative literary views, however, discouraged radical experimentation. He also insisted that writers of Hebrew belles letters should confine themselves to Jewish subjects. These two attitudes ultimately led to a revolt against his literary domination and he finally resigned his editorship of Ha-Shilo'aḥ.
The career of Sholem Yankev *Abramovitsh (Mendele Mokher Seforim) stands at the crossroads between the Haskalah and the nationalist period. Sociologically he still belonged to the Russian Haskalah, but aesthetically he was the harbinger of the new period with its stress on realism and artistic discipline. To Mendele belongs the double crown as the father of the new Hebrew literary style and the first serious writer in Yiddish. He began writing in the biblically orientated Hebrew style of the Haskalah, although even then his work Ha-Avot ve-ha-Banim ("The Fathers and the Sons," 1865) was influenced by Turgenev and is cast in a realistic mode. Mendele's penchant for realism led him in 1864 to abandon the inflexible and literary Hebrew of the Haskalah for the more vivid and folk-like Yiddish. He returned to Hebrew in 1886, writing original fiction or translating and recasting his Yiddish works. The style of these later works are a landmark in the development of modern Hebrew literature. The more simple Hebrew prose of mishnaic and talmudic literature and of the Hebrew prayer book replaced the high biblical Haskalah style that had characterized his earlier works, and with it he forged an idiom more akin to the realism which had become dominant in Hebrew fiction. Mendele's long short stories and novels were better structured than any of the prose works of his predecessors. He drew on the modern Hebrew literary tradition for his characters but added a new, realistic subtlety. The picaresque Sefer ha-Kabẓanim (1909; Fishke the Lame, 1960), for example, recalls Smolenskin's description of the society of beggars in Ha-To'eh be-Darkhei ha-Ḥayyim, but the prose and the characterization are infinitely more sophisticated. Mendele satirized the Jewish life of Eastern Europe so mercilessly that later patriotic critics have urged to expunge his works from school curricula because they "desecrate the memory of European Jewry." His portrayal, however, is not one-sided and he often depicts the folk piety and warmth of the Jews of the townlet with deep sympathy. Despite his emphasis upon the grotesque, the world he describes has a Jewish unity which even pervades the natural world; he "Judaizes" nature. Mendele's characters rarely develop beyond typology. Yisrulik, for example, in "Susati" (1911; The Nag, 1949) is a typical Jewish external student preparing for state examinations, and Binyamin in Masot Binyamin ha-Shelishi (1911; "The Travels of Benjamin the Third") is a typical impoverished and impractical member of the scholarly lower middle class. Mendele never became an active Zionist but his later works reflect the disillusionment with Russian liberalism ("Susati"). His meticulous devotion to the craft of writing became a model for the disciples of his Odessa school. Two of them, Ḥayyim Naḥman *Bialik and Shalom *Aleichem, were to become major literary figures in Hebrew and Yiddish literature respectively.
In contrast to the realism of Mendele's Odessa school, a neoromantic, impressionist center developed in Warsaw whose leading authors are David *Frischmann, I.L. *Peretz, and Micha Josef *Berdyczewski. The Polish Haskalah was far less practical and doctrinaire than that of Odessa. It tended to stress form and beauty rather than a central idea. Poland, moreover, if not completely removed from the literary influences of the Russian utilitarians, was drawn to the continent and was more sensitive to the new aestheticism which in the 1880s had captured the European literary imagination. David Frischmann laid great stress on style and form. He was the self-declared European of Hebrew letters, but for him Europeanism had little to do with a materialist view of the universe or even scientism but was a matter of aesthetic values and literary taste. His Hebrew prose has a limpid and almost lyrical quality; his plots are carefully rounded although not devoid of impressionistic lapses. In keeping with his aestheticism, he no longer describes the struggle of the generations in Jewish life as a clash between reason and tradition but as a struggle between beauty and life on the one hand and an unrelenting tradition on the other (Be-Yom ha-Kippurim (1881)). Frischmann's characters are often individuals whose irrational passion leads them to break with their tradition. He can also sympathize with the rigid traditionalism of the older generation and at the same time poke fun at the rationalist absurdities of half-baked maskilim. His secularist lyrical, biblical "legends" are one of his original contributions to Hebrew literature. Frischmann, through his knowledge of folklore and myth, created stories almost devoid of biblical ethos but which attempt to reconstruct the passionate world of the primitive quasi-pagan Hebrews ("Meḥolot" = Dances). The mythical-pagan setting contrasts strongly with the biblical stories and poems produced by such writers as Mapu or even Micah Joseph Lebensohn.
I.L. Peretz continues the Polish tradition. Unlike Frischmann, he shifted to Yiddish (in which language he wrote most of his works) in the middle of his career and became the proponent of Yiddishism after the revolution of 1905. His contribution to modern Hebrew literature, however, is also of great significance. Like Frischmann he attacks the realism of the Odessa school, dubbing it anachronistic. "In the world of general literature the sun of realism has set. It has been followed by materialism and then the decadents have raised their banner, but among us, so removed from the battlefield, realism is the new slogan which excites the heart" (Ha-Ḥeẓ, 1884). Peretz earned his place in Hebrew literature primarily as a prose writer of the 1880s and 1890s. His earlier short stories: "Ha-Dibbuk ve-ha-Meshugga" ("The Dibbuk and the Madman") and "Hiẓtaddekut ha-Ne'esham" ("The Alibi") were influenced by the sentimentalism of German-Jewish authors who wrote about East European Jewish life. The stories emphasize the individual rebellion of young Jews against the traditionalistic puritanism of their environment. His stories often took a psychological turn: Be-Leil Zeva'ah ("Nightmare") and "Mi Anokhi" ("Who Am I"), whose characters display a split personality. Peretz's ḥasidic tales, in the main, represent a humanistic-secularist, and especially romantic, reading of ḥasidic themes. Although they have been described as ḥasid-like, rather then authentically ḥasidic, Peretz is nevertheless one of the earliest Hebrew writers to portray Ḥasidism in a positive rather than a critical light. In his folk ḥasidic tales he uses an impressionistic sentimental style in an attempt to capture the pious rapture of his characters (kabbalists) and he often resorts to lyrical monologues or dialogues – "Ha-Mekubbalim" ("The Kabbalists"), "Gilgulo shel Niggun" ("Metamorphosis of a Melody"), and "Bein Shenei Harim" ("Between Two Mountains"). One of his best short stories, "Oseh Nifla'ot" ("The Magician"), is a folktale in which Elijah the Prophet appears as a magician who miraculously provides a seder for an impoverished pious family. (All of I.L. Peretz's were published in Kol Kitvei I.L. Peretz (1947).)
Perhaps the most skillful proponent of the Polish neoromantic style was Micha Josef Berdyczewski, whose work reflects the Nietzschean demand for a transvaluation of values. He put into question the entire value system of traditional Judaism with its stress on communal discipline and religious conformism at the expense of individualism. Challenging Aḥad Ha-Am's contention that there exists a mainstream in Judaism and arguing that there is no unified Jewish culture, he advanced the concept of a heterodoxy of Jewish experience. There is no rational evolution of a tradition but rather a series of miraculous and irrational revelations. Tradition always strove toward discipline, it controlled the outbursts of the spirit but was never able to contain them for long. During these periods of restraint Judaism lost its vitality. Berdyczewski insisted that the Judaism of his day was stagnant and must free itself of its restraining legalism and its intellectualism. He opposed Aḥad Ha-Am's attempt to provide a utilitarian-nationalist apology for tradition and to reconstruct a unified nationalist culture. Only the creative spark of the individual and the individualist dissent can lead to a national renaissance. The call for individualism and the individualist rebellion against the yoke of tradition and society also form the core of Berdyczewski's fiction. His characters often are Jews who try to escape the narrow world of their childhood but are psychologically incapable of making the break. They are lost souls moving in a limbo between traditional puritanism and modern libertinism, impotent physically and psychologically to live the life they desire. The impotence is often accentuated, not only by feelings of guilt toward their former system of values, but also by their deep group loyalty and their feelings of familial love (e.g., Nathaniel in "Me-Ever la-Nahar" ("Across the River" in Kitvei M.Y. Bin-Gorion (1960)). In Ḥasidism Berdyczewski discovered a dissenting, individualist movement which had broken with the loyalism and conformism of rabbinism. Stylistically, his Hebrew bears affinities to Frischmann's impressionist lyricism, but unlike the latter, he often cuts the flow of his prose either with impassioned outbursts or to indicate moments of doubt and despair.
The writings of M.Z. *Feuerberg also mirror the tragedy of loss of faith but, unlike the Berdyczewskian hero, the Feuerbergian protagonist, although he rejects the simple faith of his fathers, never crosses the line into the secular world which remains beyond his grasp. Feuerberg's hero lives in an irresolvable crisis. Naḥman in Le'an ("Whither," 1927), having lost the living God of Israel (tradition), finds no solace in the God of Aristotle (reason) who to him is lifeless and impotent. His anxieties, resulting from his loss of faith, ultimately drive him mad.
Most of Feuerberg's stories are autobiographical in which the basic concept is a variation of the same theme: the world of childhood secure in its faith is disrupted as the child or young hero experiences life. The process is inevitable. In a letter to Aḥad Ha-Am he wrote: "The new life extends its domain among us without the consent of literature. The old life is disappearing despite its sanctity and sublimity." Feuerberg's outlook, however, was not devoid of hope. He saw his disrupted world in a state of crisis but believed in the ultimate revival of the spirit of man: "Europe is sick now, everyone senses that society is collapsing and that its very foundations are rotten. Human society is weary and yearns for the word of God. The minor prophets who arise, Kant and others, last for only a century. We need a great prophet and lawgiver… Not only do we turn our face eastward, the entire West is journeying to the East. The greatest enemy of Judaism is the West… Therefore when you journey to the East, my brothers, do not go as the enemies of the East but as its sons and lovers" (Le'an).
The Age of Bialik
The achievement of Ḥayyim Naḥman *Bialik marks the high point in form and content of the European period in Hebrew literature. Most of Bialik's poetry was written between 1892 and 1917, the turbulent years which immediately preceded the Russian Revolution and the decline of the East European Jewish community. At the brink of catastrophe, Russian Jewry produced its greatest poet. In the genius of Bialik, a delicate balance is attained between the old traditionalistic culture nurtured on sacred books and on a medieval religiosity and the new European culture to which the products of the old culture now turned.
Bialik consciously accepted the Aḥad Ha-Am view that through cultural nationalism a synthesis between these two polar cultures could be established ("Al Saf Beit ha-Midrash," 1894; "Le-Aḥad Ha-Am," 1905). Baruch Kurzweil and others, however, have demonstrated that Bialik often unconsciously rejected the all-too-pat Aḥad Ha-Am solution and gave vent to the tragic despair that the lost paradise of faith cannot be regained ("Levadi" ("Alone)" 1910) "Lifnei Aron ha-Sefarim" ("In Front of the Bookcase," 1910)). He also writes about the clash between traditional Jewish puritanism, with its religious ethical imperatives, and the hedonistic-aesthetical orientation of the secularized Jews (Ha-Matmid, 1894–95). In his Zionist poems "El ha-Ẓippor" ("To the Bird") and "La-Mitnaddevim be-Am" ("To the Volunteers") he castigates both the people and its leaders for their shortcomings and in Ha-Matmid nostalgically reflects upon the piety and devotion of the past. The desperate struggle to discover the link between the past and the present is central to Bialik's poetry.
From the very outset of his career Bialik was totally committed to the national revival. His is therefore a poetry of involvement in his people's quest for a national identity and it expresses its tragic experience of persecution and massacre: "Be-Ir ha-Haregah" ("In the City of Slaughter"), 1904; "Al ha-Sheḥitah" ("On the Slaughter"), 1903. These nationalist poems earned him the title of ha-meshorer ha-le'ummi ("the national poet"). It would be a mistake, however, to limit Bialik's achievement to his nationalist themes, as profound as his involvement in them, and expression of them, might be. He was also a great lyric poet whose thematic scope embraced love and nature poems, folk poetry, and even children's verse. Even these poems, because they could be read on several levels – personal, nationalistic, and universalistic – were often interpreted as nationalistic by the one-sided criticism of his generation. Contemporary criticism has corrected this imbalance.
No modern Hebrew poet possesses Bialik's command of the vast resources of Hebrew literature. His vocabulary and symbols are drawn from a literary tradition that spans the entire literature of his people from the biblical period to the latest works written by his contemporaries. Bialik's knowledge served him not simply as a means to reproduce old phrases but to forge a new idiom capable of meeting the literary needs of a modern literature. He freed Hebrew poetry from the bonds of the Haskalah rhetoric and yet his poetry style remained essentially biblical. Unlike his predecessors, his line is not a composite of biblical phrases and half verses. Mastering the source from the inside, he creates his phrasing in the image of the biblical diction. Although he was not a great innovator structurally, and generally preferred the more traditional patterns of meter and rhyme, he developed the Hebrew prose poem, "Megillat ha-Esh" ("The Scroll of Fire," 1905) and his occasional experiments with symbol and myth ("Megillat ha-Esh," "Metei Midbar" ("The Dead in the Desert," 1902) extended the frontier of modern Hebrew poetry.
Bialik's impact on Hebrew literature was not altogether positive. His literary genius cast an entire generation into the shadow; its writers were dominated by Bialik's style and themes. Yet a number of significant Hebrew poets of the period were able to maintain a great degree of artistic independence. Foremost among them was Saul *Tchernichowsky, who by education and temperament was much more "European" than many of his contemporaries. Thematically and structurally he strove to introduce a more European poetry and therefore utilizes a large variety of European poetic structures (sonnets, idylls, ballads) and rhyme patterns. His poetry also expresses revolt against the puritanism of the Jewish tradition and its shunning of the plastic and the physical. Like Berdyczewski, he stresses the individualism of his characters and the revolt of healthy passion against the suppressive puritanism of the Jewish society. More radical than Frischmann, he sought to bring to the fore the pagan undercurrent which he believed had flourished in the biblical period. He found it embodied not only in the erotic passion of the biblical woman (Ashtorti Li), but in the suppressed prophecies of the "false prophets." Yet it would be a mistake to stress only this aspect of Tchernichowsky's work. As a humanist, he remained committed to the universalist goals of European culture despite the tragedy of terror and war ("La-Shemesh," "To the Sun," 1919). He rejected, however, the traditionalistic belief that nature, passion, and physical prowess are antithetical to morality. Unlike Bialik, Tchernichowsky wrote extensively after his migration to Ereẓ Israel in 1931. Some of his landscape poems are among the finest composed in Israel ("Ayit, Ayit" 1936, "Eagle! Eagle!"). The Ereẓ Israel experience is also reflected in his patriotic verse ("Re'i Adamah" ("See Earth") 1938) and in his profound long poem "Amma de-Dahavah" ("People of Gold," 1937–40).
A third and less significant poet of Bialik's generation, Zalman *Shneour, expressed a rebellious and individualistic disillusionment with conventional mores. His poetry is often permeated with a pessimistic view of the future of European civilization as in Yemei ha-Beinayim Mitkarevim ("The Middle Ages are Approaching," 1915). In a literature which was in his day extremely puritanical, his verses are marked at times by a comparative erotic boldness. Shneour had a gift for descriptive poetry ("Be-Harim," "In the Mountains," 1908), but his diction often took on an immature and extravagant tone. His world is one of unbridled passion and instincts experienced by a sensitive poet who would have preferred a more idealist view of man but discovered that such a view is an illusion. Against this backdrop of blood and instinct, he describes the massacres of Jews in the Ukraine following the Russian Revolution and later in World War ii. Erotic motifs also appear in his later work, the less successful series of poems on the theme of Israel's false prophets in biblical times (Luḥot Genuzim, "Hidden Tablets," 1941).
A very prolific poet of Bialik's school, Ya'akov Cahan, wrote verse in keeping with the great European Romantics. His poems are highly nationalistic. He frequently wrote closet drama dealing with historical Jewish themes. Bialik's school also produced two poets whose meditative lyrical poems have elicited renewed enthusiasm of contemporary Israel students of literature. Jacob *Fichmann wrote impressive landscape poetry in a terse but simple verse and Jacob *Steinberg, elliptic philosophical poetry. Deeply personal and pessimistic, Steinberg's poetry is almost devoid of the social and nationalist idea which were the earmark of his generation.
the palestinian Ḥalutzic period (1905–1948)
The Ottoman Period (1905–1917)
The Second Aliyah brought an increasing number of Hebrew authors to Palestine; they settled mainly in the Jewish part of Jaffa. Among the major writers were: Shlomo *Ẓemach (1904); S. *Ben-Zion (1905); Yosef *Aharonovitch (1906); Mordecai ben Hillel *Hacohen, Rabbi *Binyamin (Radler), Uri Nissan *Gnessin, David *Shimoni (1907; Gnessin and Shimoni returned to Russia in 1908); S.Y. Agnon, J.Ḥ. *Brenner, *Raḥel (Bluwstein; 1909); Ya'akov *Rabinowitz, Ẓevi *Schatz (1910); Devorah *Baron, Yeshurun *Keshet (1911); and Asher *Barash, Jacob Steinberg (1914). They were preceded by several Hebrew writers who had settled in Ereẓ Israel during the 1880s (First Aliyah); the foremost among them, Eliezer *Ben-Yehuda, arrived in Jerusalem in 1881. Ben-Yehuda was not only the great advocate of the revival of spoken Hebrew but an important lexicographer who coined hundreds of new Hebrew words, many of which were absorbed by the revived language. He also was the father of modern Palestinian journalism. After serving on the editorial staff of I.D. *Frumkin's *Ḥavaẓẓelet, he founded his own weekly, Ha-Ẓevi, in 1885 and in 1909 converted it into a daily. The paper often appeared under different names to avoid censorship restrictions. As editor, Ben-Yehuda adopted the sensational journalistic style then current in Paris. The historian and essayist Ze'ev (Wolf) *Jawitz lived in Ereẓ Israel between 1888 and 1897 and published romantic stories about the early agricultural settlements in the Sharon. Moshe *Smilansky, who arrived in 1891, wrote slightly more realistic stories about Palestinian life. He was the first to write Hebrew fiction about Arab life, using the pseudonym "Ḥawajah Musa."
Hebrew literature in Palestine acquired significance during the Second Aliyah, particularly after the founding of *Ha-Po'el ha-Ẓa'ir (1907), the literary-political organ of the younger pioneers. The Palestinian short story grew out of the landscape of the old-new homeland. Jawitz's romantic picture of God-fearing, observant farmers who tilled their soil peacefully like their biblical ancestors gave way to the more realistic depiction of the hardships of pioneering, the life of disillusioned immigrants in Jaffa or Jerusalem (Brenner, Ẓevi Schatz, S. Ẓemach). Stylistically, the development of spoken Hebrew and its extension from the classroom, the library, and the study to the farm and the workshop not only lent a new flexibility to the language but also broadened its active vocabulary. Thus the poetry of Raḥel strives to capture the rhythms of new speech and, in contrast to the poetry of European Hebrew poets, scans in the Sephardi accent.
The most significant prose writer of the period is J.Ḥ. Brenner who began his literary career in Russia. Brenner was influenced by the Russian psychological school, particularly Dostoevski (he translated Crime and Punishment into Hebrew). His main characters are "underground" men, Jewish intellectuals who are unable to free themselves of the society against which they revolt because psychologically they have been thwarted by its restrictions. Brenner's writing, brutally honest, eschews sham or pretense; his sentences, clipped, often broken, and rarely polished, convey the hesitancy and the tension of his neurotic characters. The world he depicts is tragic and helpless, pervaded by a gloomy pessimism which holds no promise for a way out. His Palestinian stories followed those of his Russian period and except for the change of venue, the dark mood is hardly altered. His later works, however, point to a maturing of style and a greater concern for structure. Undoubtedly Shekhol ve-Khishalon ("Bereavement and Failure," 1920) is the best of his works.
Brenner's close friend, Uri Nissan Gnessin, spent only one year in Palestine and therefore geographically belongs to the European period of Hebrew literature. His experiments in style, particularly his use of the long, meditative, almost lyrical sentence to express the Angst ("anxiety") of his characters, his individual use of the interior monologue, and his psychological insight mark him as a forerunner of the Palestinian school.
S.Y. Agnon, who began writing in his native Galicia, arrived in Palestine in 1909, and at this time published his first mature works, including Agunot ("Forsaken Wives," 1909, in: Ha-Omer), under the pseudonym Agnon, which in 1924 became his official name. His best works which made such a great impact on Hebrew literature were, however, written after World War i.
The Mandate Period (1917–1948)
The upheavals which racked Russian Jewry in the wake of World War i and the Russian Revolution all but spelled the end of the Hebrew literary center in Russia. Following the revolution there was some attempt to start a Communist Hebrew literature in Russia but Hebrew was soon declared a counter-revolutionary language. Hebrew publications were banned, and many Hebrew writers, including Bialik, were thrown into prison. At the request of Maxim *Gorki, Lenin ordered their release. For a few years the exiled writers established a center in Berlin. In Poland and Lithuania a few writers maintained small subcenters. Some also migrated to New York where they reinforced the already existing U.S. Hebrew press (Ha-Toren and later Hadoar) and maintained a small center (see below, Hebrew Literature in the U.S.). But a seemingly inevitable process was propelling the majority of Hebrew writers to Palestine.
The pioneers of the Second Aliyah had begun to develop an indigenous Palestinian literature – the so-called "Ereẓ Israel genre." Their numbers, however, were small and they remained an annex of the European center. With the destruction of the old center, the Hebrew writers of Palestine came into their own. Bialik arrived in Tel Aviv in 1924 and shortly thereafter organized the Dvir Publishing House and the Hebrew Writers Association, and became the undisputed leader of the literary community. However, his contact with the new homeland left little impact upon his writing and the little poetry he wrote in the last decade of his life, which he spent in Palestine, was generally in the mode of his Odessa period. The writers of the Second Aliyah and the older immigrant authors who arrived after World War i formed a cohesive community. The younger writers of the Third Aliyah (1920–24) soon, however, began to question their literary leadership and gave expression to the radical changes in the social, political, and literary views which grew out of the trauma of World War i and the Russian Revolution.
Politically and socially, the younger writers were far more radical than their elders. While their Zionist commitment led them to reject the Leninist denial of Jewish nationalism (at least in the Zionist sense), they embraced the socialist ideal and its call for a radical change of the class structure of Jewish society. Whether Marxists or voluntarist socialists, they dreamt of a new social order often in terms of farm or city communes. Almost all of them were ḥalutzim who had come to build a new society. The Ukrainian pogroms and the general breakup of their home communities in Russia found expression in a somber pessimism which often led them to question the ideology they had embraced. Their youthful exuberance and a leap of faith which grew out of the camaraderie of fellow ḥalutzim, however, redeemed their idealism. Yiẓḥak *Lamdan's poem Massadah (1927), for all its expressionist rhetoric, is an honest document of the period.
From a literary point of view, the well-rounded, learned phrasing of Bialik's school and its preoccupation with classical structure and clarity of expression was hardly in consonance with the mood of the younger writers and of European letters. Russian revolutionary writers had broken with classicism: the rhythms and wild images of poets like Aleksandr Blok and Sergei Esenin more aptly expressed the psychological world of these younger writers. At the same time, the new poetic diction of the Russian symbolists, the acmeists, and the German neoromantics (Stefan George, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Hugo von Hoffmannsthal) also left its mark on Hebrew poetry. The latter trends made their appearance in such poets as Avraham ben Yiẓḥak *Sonne, David *Vogel, and Yehudah *Karni.
The new literary views found expression in Ketuvim, a magazine founded by the Hebrew Writers Association in 1926, but soon taken over by the younger generation. Under the editorship of Eliezer *Steinman, who was soon joined by the poet Abraham *Shlonsky, it became the organ of the modernist group and disassociated itself from the sponsorship of its founders. Among the new writers who published in Ketuvim were: Ya'akov *Horowitz, Yiẓḥak Norman, Yisrael *Zmora, and later Nathan *Alterman, Lea *Goldberg, and Ezra *Sussman.
Abraham Shlonsky, Nathan Alterman, Uri Ẓevi Greenberg, and Lea Goldberg were the leading poets of the Palestinian period. From the very beginning of his career Shlonsky was the staunch advocate of modernism. As coeditor of Ketuvim, and the editor of Turim (1933–38), he openly challenged Bialik's literary authority, calling for a modern, individualistic, "de-theologized" Hebrew poetry and rejecting both the "logical" rationalist poetry of Bialik's school as well as its collective-nationalist orientation. He demanded the acceptance of spoken Hebrew and even slang usage as a legitimate form of poetic diction. Under the influence of the Russian revolutionary poets, Blok, Esenin, Mayakovski, and the French symbolists (Shlonsky lived in Paris between 1924 and 1925), he wrote poems which gave expression to the ennui and despair of his generation, particularly of the Jew who has suffered so much from war, revolution, and pogroms. "Devai" (1923–24), the title poem of his first volume of verse, is a long symbol-laden poem which takes up the malaise and the horror of modern secularized urban life and offers little hope for the future. In other poems Shlonsky returns again and again to the sheltered world of childhood, contrasting it with the lonely, desperate life of the ḥalutz torn between his dream of rebirth and the reality of his pioneering hardships ("Le-Abba Imma" (1927), Ba-Galgal (1927)). In his later works these themes receive a more mature treatment; Shlonsky somehow strikes a balance between the low-key symbolist influences and the more blatant surrealistic and even expressionist imagery. His urban hell now also embraces the fascist threat. At the same time, he continuously harks back to the primordial themes of soil and agriculture with their blessings of fertility and security.
Nathan Alterman and Lea Goldberg may be considered Shlonsky's disciples. Both were discovered by him and he encouraged their writing during their crucial years as beginners. Alterman continued and extended Shlonsky's experiments with new rhythms and the syntax of the spoken idiom. Simultaneous with his serious poetry, he wrote light verse not only for the musical comedy theaters which staged political satires and enjoyed popularity in the 1920s and 1930s, but especially for his weekly verse column Ha-Tur ha-Shevi'i ("The Seventh Column"), which enjoyed great popularity during the struggle against the British. From a stylistic point of view these media enabled him to develop a saucy, slangy diction. In retrospect, like Shlonsky, he did not stray too far from classical Hebrew, perhaps because in the 1920s and 1930s a literal language was needed to fill the lacuna left by the yet inadequate spoken tongue. Alterman's serious poetry was punctuated with wild expressionist metaphors and slangy or slang-like neologism. At his best he produced a score of impressive modernist poems which in their day had a major impact on the works of his younger contemporaries. Many of his poems have a ballad-like quality and have as themes: the love and death motifs of the romantic agony with the recurring figure of the dead lover returning to haunt his living mate; the poet as a wandering troubadour for whom the world is an inn; the urban ennui of the European city dweller; The raw vitality of Tel Aviv in which the new city is projected against a background of the horror of the European catastrophe and the desperate hope of the reborn homeland.
Lea Goldberg was influenced by the Russian acmeists and the symbolist German poets. She shunned the verbal extravagance of the expressionist, preferring calmer tones. Like the acmeists, she aimed at simple conversational diction and gave preference to more conventional poetic forms. Her themes were modern, however, and her verse expresses the sad wisdom of an urbane and mature artist who, despite her sophistication, was able to experience and give voice to the miracle of the poetry which lies behind the ordinary phenomena of nature and life.
Perhaps the most talented poet of the age, and far less accessible to schematic definition, is Uri Ẓevi Greenberg. Unlike his contemporaries, Greenberg rejected the humanist socialist ideologies of his contemporaries, positing bold gigantic strokes, a mystic, anti-rational, and quasi-racial conception of the destiny of the Jewish people. He draws the Jew with bold gigantic strokes, a God-elected figure living outside history. His tragedy grows out of his great refusal to fulfill his historic destiny as the bearer of the holy seed. European civilization is a satanic fraud which beguiles him and leads to his massacre. Only by accepting his historic vocation with all the horror and the glory its fulfillment calls into being will the Jew survive. From a formal point of view Greenberg's rejection of Europe leads him to seek poetic forms and cadences which are historically Jewish. His language and metaphors are drawn not only from biblical sources but also from later Hebrew literature, frequently from the Kabbalah. Although he is also capable of writing terse lyrical verse, he prefers the expressive cadences of biblical rhetoric. He, himself, acknowledges his stylistic debt to Walt Whitman.
In his poetry Shin *Shalom wedded a strong nationalist commitment with a mystical individualistic experience which often showed a deep psychoanalytic insight into the world of the self. The increasing momentum of his nationalist enthusiasm in his later poetry overshadows his personal experience and much of his lyrical force is lost. Yonathan *Ratosh successfully endeavors to give formal expression to the cult of Canaanite primitivism and paganism whose first signs appear in the prose of Frischmann and the poetry of Tchernichowsky. Ratosh strove to revive ancient poetic forms and metaphors by reconstructing mythical remnants preserved in biblical narratives and by drawing upon ancient Ugaritic poetry. Ratosh's preoccupation with Canaanite myth is related to his Canaanite political ideology that views Israel as a new nation which is no longer Jewish and must reintegrate itself into the Middle Eastern culture of the Fertile Crescent. This he believes can be done by picking up those strands of ancient Near Eastern myths which were abandoned after the Jews forsook the Middle East and became Europeans.
The two leading prose writers of the period are S.Y. Agnon and Ḥayyim *Hazaz. Agnon's literary achievement is second only to Bailik's and his work encompasses large areas of the Jewish experience: Jewish Galicia of the remote past; the Galicia of his childhood; the Palestine of the Second Aliyah; the Jerusalem of the older traditionalistic settlement; Austria, Germany, and Galicia of the interbellum period; and Jerusalem of the British Mandate. His career marks the high point of the Polish-Galician strain in modern Hebrew literature with its stress on the emotional and nonrational experience of its protagonists. The influence of ḥasidic and Jewish pietistic folk literature are integrated in Agnon with the psychological, symbolistic, and existential mode of Scandinavian and Austro-Hungarian literature. His style is based, in the main, on the rabbinic-ḥasidic prose of the period immediately preceding the development of modern Hebrew but it also owes much to such early Galician Hebrew writers as Menahem Mendel Levin (Lefin) and Josef Perl and in its biblical tone (Bi-Demi Yamehah ("In the Prime of Life") for example) even to Erter. To the contemporary Hebrew reader it has a manneristic obsolescence deliberately reinforced by the Yiddish spelling of certain European words (zuker instead of the accepted sukar or kahve instead of kafe). Some critics see in his style an attempt to point up the paradox of writing modernistic stories in an ancient sacred tongue. Others explain it as an attempt to preserve the flavor of the Yiddish idiom used by many of his characters in his Galician stories.
Agnon's novels are landmarks in modern Hebrew literature. Hakhnasat Kallah (second rev. 1929; Bridal Canopy, 1937) is an attempt to depict the spiritual world of 18th-century Galician Jewry. From a structural point of view Agnon develops an indigenous Jewish literary form built around cyclical motifs drawn from pietistic literature (marriage, hospitality, wandering, etc.). It is essentially a character novel, and the hero R. Yidel is a quixotic personality who confronts life with a world view which is nurtured in the past. Traditional folk themes, the treasure and the cock, are imbued with modern symbolic significance. Ore'aḥ Nata Lalun ("A Guest for the Night," 1939), Agnon's attempt to describe the decline of East European Jewry after World War i, has for its hero a hesitant Palestinian Jew who returns to his native Galicia to seek the key to the forsaken synagogue. He is confounded by the realization that after the key turned up, it is he alone who is charged with the responsibility of keeping the synagogue open. Temol Shilshom ("The Days Before," 1945), probably the best modern Hebrew novel, is set in Ottoman Palestine and is a tale of two cities – Jaffa (Tel Aviv), symbolizing the new secular yishuv, and Jerusalem, representing the traditional Holy Land. Isaac Kummer ("he who comes" or "grief and sorrow") is torn between the two civilizations; unable to orientate himself toward either, he goes mad. The story within the story, that of Balak the dog, is one of the profoundest animal symbolistic fables in world literature. Agnon's use of fable (also the cock in Hakhnasat Kallah) has its roots in medieval Jewish literature and in early modern Hebrew literature (Erter and later in Mendele's "Susati"; "The Nag"). Agnon's range is wide and varied. Side by side with his pietistic fiction, there are modern existential love stories, such as: Panim Aḥerot ("Metamorphosis"), Givat ha-Ḥol, Ha-Rofe u-Gerushato ("The Doctor and his Divorcee"), and his posthumously published Shirah (1971). They are all animated by a profound understanding of the existential tragedy of modern man. Ḥayyim Hazaz's realism harks back to the Odessa school but is relieved by a penchant for the grotesque. His early works describe the milieu of Ukrainian Jewry during the period of the Russian Revolution (Pirkei Mahpekhah ("Chapters of the Revolution") and Shemu'el Frankfurter). Ukraine at the brink of the revolution forms the background of Be-Yishuv shel Ya'ar ("Forest Settlement"). After his migration to Palestine, Hazaz shifted to ḥalutzic themes and later to the depiction of the life of Israel's Yemenite Jews both in Israel (Ha-Yoshevet ba-Gannim and Mori Sa'id) and in Yemen before their migration (Ya'ish). Central to Hazaz's works is his insistence that Jewish redemption (Messianism and later Zionism) was not realized because the Diaspora Jew and Diaspora Judaism lacked the courage to risk everything for its fulfillment. Some of his characters also express the belief that redemption means the end of Judaism, others declare Zionism to be the negation of Diaspora Judaism: Ha-Derashah ("The Sermon") and Be-Keẓ ha-Yamim ("At the End of Days"), a play set in Poland during the time of Shabbetai Ẓevi (stories of Hazaz in Kol Kitvei Ḥayyim Hazaz, 1968). Like Agnon's, Hazaz's style is literary and its vocabulary and syntax differ from contemporary Israeli Hebrew. Unlike Agnon, he prefers the mishnaic, talmudic style developed by the Odessans which he, however, stamped with his own mark. To convey the speech of his various characters, he distorts his Hebrew, "Ukrainizing" it to record the speech of Ukrainian peasants, or Arabicizing it to convey that of Yemenite Jews.
Other leading prose writers of the Mandate period are Yehuda *Burla, one of the early modern writers of Sephardi descent, who wrote stories depicting Sephardi life in his native Jerusalem and in the Middle East; Asher Barash, a prolific short-story writer and novelist who wrote of Jewish life in his native Galicia and in Palestine; Devorah Baron whose short stories sensitively describe life in her native Belorussia; Gershon *Shofman whose psychological-lyrical short stories and sketches are an original type of narrative.
The Genesis of Women's Hebrew Literature
Only recently has it become known that the history of women's writing in Hebrew literature starts in the mid-19th century, during the Haskalah period. Hitherto, it was generally assumed that as a result of women's ignorance of Hebrew and the canonical texts, the Hebrew Haskalah was a male movement. The very few women who dared to compose poetry or fiction were never considered to have initiated women's literature. That picture has changed as a result of the discovery of Hebrew writings by some 25 women in manuscript archives and Hebrew-language literary periodicals of the Haskalah period. The few known women writers now appear to have been part of a wider phenomenon. Even in this early period, several others not only read Hebrew but also put their knowledge of the language, their ability to express themselves, and their creativity to active use in writing.
Women gained a significant place in Hebrew enlightenment circles only in the latter half of the 19th century, mainly in Russia and Lithuania. Most of them expressed themselves in non-literary genres: various kinds of correspondence, social essays, and translations (of which the best known example is Miriam Markel-Mosessohn's Hebrew translation of a German-language work of history, which she called Ha-Yehudim be-Angliyah, 1869).
The only extant complete archive of a woman's correspondence is that of Miriam Markel-Mosessohn (1839–1920). However, other letters have survived in men's archives, such as those of Judah Leib Gordon (which contains letters by Rivka Rottner, Sheyne Wolf, Sarah Shapira, Nehama Feinstein, and others), Dr. Judah Loeb Landau, Perez Smolenskin, and Shneur Sachs. Other letters (for example by Sarah Cohen Nevinsky, Bertha Kreidman, and Shifra Alchin) were published in Hebrew Haskalah periodicals or collections of correspondence. Most of the letters demonstrate an excellent knowledge of Hebrew and a strong commitment to Haskalah ideas.
Another way in which maskilot sought to participate in maskilic creative endeavor was to publish feminine social essays in Haskalah Hebrew periodicals. Some of these essays (for example Sara Feiga Foner Meinkin's "Ha-Aviv," 1876, and Marka Altschuler's "Thoughts on the Ninth of Av, My Birthday," 1880) focused on conventional maskilic "male" ideological themes. Others (like Taube Segal's "The Woman Question," 1879) expressed specifically female protests and a demand to improve girls' education.
Prior to the end of the Haskalah period, very few women published conventional literary works; we know of only three poets and one significant prose writer. Two of the poets wrote only two poems each: Hanna Blume Sulz of Vilna ("The Play," 1882, and "The Valley of Revelation," 1883) and Sara Shapira ("Remember the One Caught by a Horn," 1886, and "Zion," 1888). These poems display good knowledge of Hebrew and familiarity with canonical texts and Haskalah poetry. However, Sulz's poems are an example of the woman poet's failure when she surrendered to the masculine tastes of the time, losing her feminine authenticity. Shapira's poems are more authentic and therefore more successful, but her writing never developed into mature poetry.
A first poetic expression in Hebrew of the woman's world and her problems may be found in the writings of the Jewish-Italian poet Rachel *Morpurgo (1790–1879), whose works were collected in book form only after her death (Rachel's Organ, 1890). Morpurgo's main achievements are in her poems of personal contemplation (including "See, This Is New," "Lament of My Soul," "Why, Lord, So Many Cries," "O Troubled Valley," "Until I Am Old"). A careful reading of these poems reveals a hidden, subtle level of significance, formed by the contrast between the canonical texts to which the poem refers and the poem itself. At this level we hear the voice of a woman describing her suffering and protesting her inferior status in Jewish society and culture.
Only one woman dared to write novels during the 1880s, Sarah Feiga Foner Meinkin, who published four Hebrew books, three of them works of fiction: A Righteous Love, or The Pursued Family (first volume 1881; the second was never published) The Treachery of Traitors (1891), and a children's didactic story, Children's Way or A Story From Jerusalem (1886). The fourth book was her memoirs (Memories of My Childhood, or A Memoir of Dvinsk, 1903). A Righteous Love is the first Hebrew novel by a woman. Although it seems merely to imitate male Haskalah novel-writing conventions, the author did not abandon her authentic female voice (from which she retreats in her later works). It comes out in the lively, persuasive, and colorful descriptions of the character and world of the heroine, Finnalia, her relationships (especially with other women), and her domestic life. Feminist criticism of her society also finds expression: When describing arranged marriages in Galicia, the narrator critically comments on fathers who use their daughters for business deals, "like horses and donkeys."
Sarah Feiga Foner Meinkin, however, was a unique phenomenon in her own times. Further Hebrew short stories by women were not published in Russia until the first decade of the 20th century. Thus, in 1902 the first stories by Devorah *Baron appeared in Hamelitz and in 1909 a small collection of short stories (Koveẓ Ẓiyyurim) by Chava Shapira (1871–1943) was published. Both writers (Shapira wrote only a few more stories but Baron became a dominant writer) centered their stories around women's lives and thus mark the beginning of conscious female writing within a tradition of Hebrew women's writing.
[Tova Cohen (2nd ed.)]
Women's Prose Writing in the Period of the Yishuv (1882–1948)
From the very outset of the Zionist settlement movement, at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, a smattering of writings by women, setting out their own vision of Ereẓ Israel, can be seen in the pages of the Hebrew-language periodicals of the time. In the Jewish communities of Europe, despite the increasing acquisition of culture and learning by women, very few of them had made so bold as to make their writings public. A woman writer was seen as deviating from accepted social norms, compromising the natural occupations of women as homemakers and mothers, and invading, by way of her creative activity, a realm that was reserved exclusively for men. Those women who nevertheless had the courage to publish their writings were received with derision and criticism so harsh as to deter others (see Sarah Feiga Foner Meinkin). However, things were different in Ereẓ Israel. Here, too, the creative efforts of women writers were either roundly criticized or ignored, but this no longer put them off writing. To be sure, if the Zionist revolution, particularly in its socialist stripe, had declared its pioneering endeavor to be an equal partnership of men and women, it had retreated from this declaration on the practical level from the moment the settlement effort got underway. In keeping with the traditional conceptions characteristic of the Diaspora, women were kept in the margins of public and nationalist activity and were expected to serve as "helpmeets" rather than equal partners in the leadership of the yishuv. However, the women did not keep quiet. Unlike their Diaspora predecessors, they were cognizant of their roles and contributions in advancing the Zionist endeavor, and they set out to fight for their rightful place in both the public and the literary arenas. For the women who took part in that endeavor, as settlers, laborers, or pioneers, the national revival was also a women's revival, and so also a women's literary revival. Women insisted on making their voices heard in the male-dominated public sphere of the yishuv and on continuing to publish their creative work, even if they met with rejection.
On the other hand, a perusal of anthologies, historiographies, and Hebrew literary studies concerned with the period of the yishuv reveals very little in the way of prose writing by women. Their literary output, it would seem, was largely confined to poetry, including that of *Raḥel Blaustein, Esther Raab, Lea *Goldberg, Elisheva Bichovsky, Anda Pinkerfeld- *Amir, and others. These poets, too, never received the support and encouragement they deserved from contemporary male poets and critics, but their poems nevertheless made their way into the public consciousness and became an inseparable part of the literary repertoire of the period. This fortune was not shared by the women prose writers, notwithstanding their literary productivity, which enriched the Hebrew bookshelf with dozens of novels, novellas, short stories, plays, stories for children and young adults, non-fictional works, essays, memoirs, and biographies. Only the fiction of Devorah Baron attracted the interest of literary critics and scholars. Baron's works certainly were outstanding in their aesthetic quality, but the exclusive focus upon them gave rise to the unfounded historiographical thesis that there was nothing much in the way of women's prose writing from Devorah Baron until Amalia *Kahana-Carmon, who began publishing her work in the 1950s. The impression was of a void during the period of the yishuv that began to be filled only in the early period of the state.
Who were the "unknown" women prose writers, and what did they write? They began arriving in Ereẓ Israel with the first waves of settlers, with aspirations not only to give vent to their creative impulses but first and foremost to fulfill their Zionist, or socialist-Zionist, commitment to building the Jewish national homeland. They were working women – their writing always emerged as a secondary occupation – who engaged in public and ideological activity within the rural or urban frameworks in which they lived: in the kibbutzim (Emma Levine Talmi, Ruhamah Hazanov, Rivkah Gurfein, Yehudit Mensch); in the moshavot (Yehudit Harari, Shoshanah Shababo); in Jerusalem (Shulamit Kelugai); and in Tel Aviv (Rachel Feingenberg, Shoshanah Sherira). Some of them started out in rural communities and later moved on to the city (Batyah Kahana, Sarah Gluzman, Rivkah Alper). In the rural settings, they were usually employed in agriculture or in education, while in the cities, aside from school and kindergarten teaching (Shulamit Flaum, Sarah Levy), they worked as journalists (Bracha Habas, Shoshanah Sherira, Miriam Tal), in the theater (Miriam Bernstein Cohen), or as laborers (Rachel Adiv and Pnina Caspi were factory workers). Devorah Baron was the only woman writer of the period to devote all her time to writing, after becoming a recluse in her home, which she did not leave for over 30 years (1922–56).
Taken together, these writers do not present a uniform typological visage; rather, they represented a multicultural cross-section of the various sectors of the yishuv. If most of them were secular, there were those who were religiously observant (Malka Shapira); and if the majority originated in Eastern Europe, there were those who hailed from Western Europe (Hannah Trager) and several from the Yemenite (Sarah Levy, Yonah Wahab) and Sephardi (Shoshanah Shababo) communities. Politically, they belonged to several different streams in the Zionist movement, some to the labor sector (Rivkah Alper belonged to the moderate wing, Emma Levine Talmi to the radicals), and some to the "civil" sector (Ira Yan, Shoshanah Sherira). Most were new immigrants, but a few were born in the country (Hannah Lunz Bolotin, Shoshanah Shababo).
The women prose writers of the yishuv can be grouped into three generations. Those of the first generation, born in the second half of the 19th century, immigrated to Ereẓ Israel with the first and second aliyot, in the years immediately before and after the turn of the 20th century, and began publishing their works from this period onward (Nehamah Pukhachevsky, Hemdah *Ben-Yehuda, Devorah Baron). Those of the second generation, born in the first decade of the 20th century, immigrated to the country and began publishing their works in the period between the two world wars (1918–1939 – Batyah Kahana, Rivkah Gurfein, and the native-born Shoshanah Shababo). Those of the third generation, born during the second two decades of the 20th century and brought to the country as young children, grew up for all intents and purposes as native Israelis (Sarah Gluzman, Pnina Caspi, Shoshanah Sherira, Yehudit Hendel) and began publishing their works in the 1930s and 1940s.
This diverse community of writers naturally produced a spectrum of women's narratives that varied in their social, political, and cultural perspectives. The plots ranged around two principal foci: (1) women's experience qua women: their self-awareness, motherhood, male–female relations, sexuality, relationships among women, the exploitation and oppression of women, and so on; and (2) women's experience as a function of their situation in Ereẓ Israel: their encounter with the land, the transition from conservative ways of living to freer ones, the absence of the older generation, women's isolation within the "united" collective, their struggle for a place in public life, their critique of the masculine character of the Zionist endeavor, and so on. These women's themes contributed to the creation of a unique female narrative, an integral part of which was a female version of the national narrative that had a distinctly different character from the dominant masculine one. If the latter was one of dramatic struggle, danger, and heroic death, the female narrative was one of gray, ongoing struggle for survival. If the masculine national narrative presented itself as the collective subject, giving every plot the power of a statement of historic vision, the female national narrative focused on the private and the everyday, which it treated in a restrained but critical tone.
A further distinctive quality of the female narrative was the presence, to varying degrees, of critical "feminist" tendencies. From the very outset of women's prose writing in the yishuv, two principal feminist positions may be discerned in it: a constructivist trend, trail-blazed by Hemdah Ben-Yehuda, and a melancholic one, whose first representative was Nehamah Pukhachevsky. According to the constructivist stance, women were destined, with time, to emerge from their marginal position in the society of the yishuv. Their increasing acquisition of learning and culture, particularly their reeducation to Hebrew culture and national consciousness, would surely advance their equality and centrality in the evolving national community. Ben-Yehuda spoke primarily of the centrality of women as mothers in constructing the new generation and emphasized how the quality of their mothering conditioned that of the entire nation. This optimistic feminism emerged in a variety of fictional narratives in which alternatives to the conventional portrayal of women posed models of strong-willed, self-confident women, able to stand their ground against patriarchal men (as in the works of Batyah Kahana, Sarah Gluzman, and Shoshanah Sherira).
The melancholic position took the shape of a more critical type of feminism. It excoriated the masculine Zionist activity that in practice replicated all the ills of the past, so that instead of realizing the liberal-nationalist rebirth of the people and of humanity, it rebuilt a reactionary society characterized by overweening hegemonies, new class hierarchies, and indifference to the weaker members of society, such as laborers, members of the Oriental Jewish communities, "others," and, of course, women. The writers who took this position sought to recount, from the perspective of women, the national narrative of those who stood in the margins of Zionism and the society it was creating and to expose the oppressive situation in which they found themselves. However, this critical protest was not voiced aggressively or stridently. On the contrary; it was muted and introverted, fluctuating between anguish and melancholy in a kind of drawn-out lament (as may be seen in the works of Ruhamah Hazanov, Pnina Caspi, Yehudit Mensch, and Miriam Tal).
These and other features led to the coalescence of a female meta-poetics. Although the writers emerged from different sectors and were informed by different ideological and literary worldviews, they may be seen as belonging to an "imagined community" – one that worked and created, consciously or unconsciously, according to a shared meta-poetics with several distinctive qualities. (1) Unlike contemporary male writers, who devoted little space to representations of women in their pioneering narratives, the women writers completed the missing half of the map by filling that void with their own creations. Moreover, they endowed women in the yishuv with a more powerful presence, allowed them to articulate themselves, and gave voice to all those representations of silent or silenced women. (2) Prose-writing in the yishuv devoted much discussion to the development of the "new Hebrew," while continuing to represent the "Hebrew woman" according to men's traditional conceptions, represented by just two archetypal contrasts: that between Eve and the she-demon Lilith, and that between the lover and the wife-mother. But women's prose was different; it endeavored to mold a new woman with a female Israeli character, in possession of a female Hebrew culture (anticipating the appearance of the native-born sabra). (3) The "literature of the homeland," as written by men, developed two primary genres: novels on the theme of settling the land, and documentary novels. Women writers, too, dealt in their own way with these genres, but they narrated them along the lines of romance, or "national romance," interweaving them with elements of legend and fantasy.
It is perhaps because of these gendered differences in poetics that the male literary community showed little understanding for and interest in women's prose, to the point of excluding and banishing it from the collective memory. That exclusion was not entirely all-encompassing; here and there a few male writers and critics encouraged women writers, particular in the early stages of their careers. Thus, Joseph Klausner read and commented upon the writings of Batyah Kahana; Yitzhak Lamdan, editor of the literary periodical Gilyonot, published the work of Shoshanah Sherira; Avigdor Hameiri facilitated the publication of Miriam Tal's first book; and Asher Barash, as editor of the Mitzpeh publishing house, published works by Rivkah Alper, Shoshanah Shababo, and Miriam Bernstein Cohen. However, this kind of partial, fleeting recognition did not lead to the public embrace of their work, nor were women's journals like Ha-Ishah (1926–29), Devar ha-Po'elet (1934–70), and Olam ha-Ishah (1940–48) successful at keeping the women prose writers of the yishuv in the public eye.
Only in the 1980s, when literary scholarship began to take an interest in feminist and gender theory and so also to take up the status of women writers as a topic of study, were these nearly forgotten writers rediscovered, as works by Yaffah Berlovitz, Orly Lubin, Avivah Ufaz, Tamar Hess, and others began restoring their writings to the collective memory of contemporary Israeli culture.
[Yaffah Berlovitz (2nd ed.)]
the israel period (1948–2005)
The year of the establishment of the State of Israel, 1948, is a convenient date to mark the onset of the Israel period of modern Hebrew literature, although it actually began earlier. One of its leading literary figures, S. *Yizhar, published his first short story, Efrayim Ḥozer la-Aspeset, as early as 1938. Most of the younger generation of writers on the literary scene in 1948 were either native Palestinians or had come to Palestine in their childhood. The few who came in their youth or later had been so deeply involved in Zionist or Hebrew youth movements in the Diaspora that they too were culturally Palestinians. Hebrew was the mother tongue of these writers or at least their childhood language. The earlier Palestinian generation had by now forged a spoken language which had rid Hebrew of its somewhat pedantic character and the Hebrew of the new school was a natural language alive with colloquialisms and the echoes of childhood speech. Born into the Palestinian landscape, the younger authors viewed it more realistically than the older generation with its tendency to idealize the land of their Zionist dreams, on the one hand, and to recollect nostalgically the northern climes of their childhood on the other. For the new generation, the East European landscape existed only in the memory of childhood stories which they had read or heard from their parents. The change of geographic locus also affected their Hebrew style. The new secular Hebrew school de-emphasized rabbinic and medieval Hebrew studies and gave primacy to biblical and modern literature. The Hebrew of the new writers was more flexible than that of the older generation but not as learned. Yiddish language and literature hardly affected their style or choice of themes. While the older writers were generally influenced by Eastern or Central European literature, the new school, whose second language was usually English, was affected by British and, especially, American literature. Moreover, unlike many of their predecessors, whose knowledge of a European literature was intimate and acquired in the country in which it was spoken, most Israel writers knew European literature through translations or criticism in Hebrew. Many learned a European language only after they began to publish.
The more "natural" approach of the Israel writers often expressed itself in its questioning of the Zionist-Socialist ideology of the parent generation. This trend was discernible in the earliest of their works. S. Yizhar in Efrayim Ḥozer la-Aspeset questions the kibbutz ideology and whether it really succeeded in establishing an egalitarian society. Uri, the hero of M. *Shamir's Hu Halakh ba-Sadot ("He Walked Through the Fields," 1947), for all his sense of duty, is hardly representative of the new type of Jew which the kibbutz movement apparently intended to produce. The ideology crisis and its subsequent existential anxiety, already dominant in post-World War ii European literature, was delayed in the first phase of Israel literature by the struggle for national independence.
Many of the younger writers were members of kibbutzim and associated with various left-wing movements. They served in the Palmaḥ, the crack army units of the War of Liberation, and subscribed to a Socialist-Zionist ideology. During this early phase, they embraced Andrei Zhdanov's doctrine of socialist realism which called upon writers to preach socialism but at the same time point out aberrations within the system. They favored an ideological literature with its stress on the collective we rather than on the introspective I. But even in this early phase the rise of existential dissent is discernible. Poets like *Gilboa and *Gouri, for example, speak of the darker side of personal experience found already in their early "life affirming" period.
By the 1950s the ideology crisis had set in: "Utopia" realized came to be seen as "utopia" lost. The enthusiasm of the War of Liberation and its victory gave way to the harsh reality of building the new state. Mass immigration, the unresolved conflict with the Arabs, the shift of Russian foreign policy, the necessity to compromise ideals in order that the state might survive militarily and economically, and the rise of careerism tended to erode the utopian ideals of the soldier-writer. National independence and the creation of the state had not resolved all problems. During the national struggle egoisms had been harnessed, following it, they seemed to burst forth. After the War of Independence some of the idealism that had led to the creation of the state paled and people began to pursue their own private ends. On the literary scene, the writer, his finger on the pulse of the nation, aesthetically expressed what the man in the street unconsciously felt. He chose to no longer subordinate his talent to a national cause to which he had often in the past consciously sacrificed his originality. Writers began to question the possibility of any ideology except subjective expression of their inner world. The prose and poetry in the late 1950s therefore took on an individualistic, existentialist, and even surrealistic tone expressing the anxieties of a generation disillusioned with ideologies. Their central theme is the alienation of modern man; their world that of the secularized, non-ideological urbanite. Rarely, except for their cultural or geographical context, does their writing deal with parochial Jewish topics. Yet, even when the Israel writer had rejected ideologies, he could not entirely escape the ethical imperatives of his Jewish tradition. Even before the Six-Day War his conscience had been disturbed by the Arab problem: the plight of the refugees whose solution could endanger the survival of the nation. After the war, which had come as a natural consequence of a long-term conflict, while accepting its harsh reality, he was perturbed by the military atmosphere. Perhaps the crisis following the war had already shifted the pendulum back to ideology.
The leading poets of the early Israel period, Ḥaim Gouri, Amir Gilboa, Abba *Kovner, and T. *Carmi are connected in one way or another with the Palmaḥ. Gouri's early verse, Pirḥei Esh ("Flowers of Fire," 1949), perhaps more than any other poem, expresses the revolutionary Zionist ideology of his generation which "spoke in the first person plural." While throughout his career he retained his commitment to his youthful ideology (this was reinforced by the experience of the Six-Day War) his later poetry took on a more personal tone. His anguish, however, is often rooted in the lonely feeling of a man who has retained a truth that others have abandoned: "But I guard the walls of a city that died years ago." Amir Gilboa, unlike Gouri, was born in Europe and his poetry, even during the earliest phases, is permeated by the tragedy of the Holocaust in which his family perished. Gilboa also confronted the horror of the Holocaust when as a soldier in the Jewish brigade he encountered the remnants of European Jewry after World War ii. Breaking with the Shlonsky-Alterman tradition, he not only introduces his particular individual blend of traditional and colloquial elements but a surrealistic atmosphere pervaded by dream sequences and childish memories. In his later phase these characteristics became more pronounced and he added to them a remarkable experimentation with Hebrew sounds, extracting from them poetic implications. Abba Kovner, like Gilboa, is a product of the European Zionist left. Unlike Gilboa, who had arrived in Ereẓ Israel in 1937 and had experienced the Holocaust indirectly, Kovner was in Eastern Europe during the Nazi period. He was the partisan leader of the Vilna ghetto and later became a high-ranking resistance commander. His is a modernist poetry in which he fuses themes of the national struggle and the anti-Nazi resistance with the personal tragedy of the partisan or Palmaḥ fighter. Surrealistic symbols and visions which recur throughout his work project a complex image of the war and the Holocaust.
T. Carmi, an American by birth, was one of the earliest new poets to draw upon modernist American and French techniques for his verse. (Simon Halkin had preceded him.) He combines a deep knowledge of European and American poetry with a mastery of traditional sources. Although his earliest volumes deal with "national" themes, the Holocaust, and the war even they, like his later works, have a subjective, existentialist perspective. In the 1950s he moved completely to a personal poetry which is intelligent, playful, and commands all the skills of the trade.
The second phase of Israel poetry is dominated by the work of Yehudah *Amichai in which are integrated the author's German Jewish Orthodox heritage and his Ereẓ Israel experience (arrived in Palestine in 1936). His use of daily speech, irony, metaphysical metaphors, and existentialist Angst have become the hallmarks of much of the poetry written by his younger contemporaries, who freely acknowledge their debt to him. These younger writers formed a literary group called Akhshav ("Now") which proclaimed the end of ideological poetry and broke with the Alterman-Shlonsky tradition. In later years Amichai personally disassociated himself from the group. Among the many talented poets of this generation are Nathan *Zach, Tuvyah *Ruebner, Dan Pagis, David Avidan, Dalia *Ravikovitch, and David *Rokeaḥ. At the same time, a new generation of poets began publishing; among the most promising are Meir Wieseltier, Mordecai Geldman, Ya'ir Hourvitz, Aryeh Sivan, and Israel Pincas.
The Palmaḥ generation produced realistic literature dealing in the main with their kibbutz experience and with their experiences during the War of Liberation. Prominent among them is Moshe Shamir, who in his novel Hu Halakh ba-Sadot, a best seller set during the War of Liberation, gives a realistic description of a Palmaḥ commander whose sense of duty seemed greater than his ideological commitment. Pirkei Elik (1952; With his Own Hands, 1970), a quasi-biographical work, is artistically the more interesting. Shamir's historical novel Melekh Basar va-Dam (1954; A King of Flesh and Blood, 1958) was very popular, while his later works are somewhat more experimental and have not enjoyed the popularity of his earlier novels.
S. Yizhar writes a more lyrical prose and his long novel Yemei Ẓiklag ("The Days of Ziklag," 1958) is undoubtedly the most important novel of the Palmaḥ generation. Despite its amorphous style, its lyrical repetitions, and its rather limited range of characterization, it expresses more than any other work the crisis of belief which shook the entire generation in the wake of the establishment of the State. S. Yizhar is one of the earliest authors who dealt honestly with the Arab question and expressed certain moral reservations with regard to handling the Arab refugee problem ("Ha-Shavui" "The Prisoner," 1949) and "Sippur Ḥirbet Ḥizeh," 1949).
Aharon *Megged began his literary career by writing seafaring short stories (Ru'aḥ Yamim, "Sea Wind," 1950) but turned to humor in his popular work Ḥedvah va-Ani ("Hedvah and I," 1954) and later to existentialist short stories and novels, such as Yisrael Ḥaverim (1955), Mikreh ha-Kesil (1960; Fortunes of a Fool, 1962); and Ha-Ḥai al ha-Met ("Living off the Dead," 1965). His characters, foiled by their own human weaknesses, are unable to adhere to the ideals (humanist-Zionist-socialist value system) they advocate and are therefore in a constant state of conflict.
Hanoch *Bartov, like Megged, depicts the challenge of the value system of the native Israeli confronted by a state he helped to create in which the new immigrants are not ideologically orientated and natives have become careerists: Ha-Ḥeshbon ve-ha-Nefesh ("The Reckoning and the Soul," 1953) and Shesh Kenafayim le-Eḥad ("Each Has Six Wings," 1954). He, too, writes about the Nazi catastrophe, as seen through the eyes of a Jewish Brigade soldier from Israel Piẓei Bagrut (1965; The Brigade, 1968). In his novel Shel Mi Attah Yeled ("Whose Are You, Boy," 1969), he returns to his childhood in Petaḥ Tikvah.
Poets like Amichai and Gouri have also written serious fiction. Amichai's Lo me-Akhshav Lo mi-Kan ("Not from Now nor Here," 1963), set in Jerusalem and in Germany, plumbs the Nazi Holocaust in an attempt to find meaning in it. He also wrote a volume of surrealist stories. Gouri's Iskat ha-Shokolad (1965; The Chocolate Deal, 1968) approaches the Holocaust theme through the relationship of two refugees. Of the younger prose writers, the more significant are Amos Oz (1939– ), whose Mikha'el Shelli (1968) also alludes to the Arab problem; and Nissim *Aloni who writes brilliantly about his childhood in the Jaffa slums and is by far the most original Israel playwright. He combines a superb sense of the theater with a talent for the absurd. Benjamin *Tammuz writes nostalgically about his childhood in Tel Aviv (Ḥolot ha-Zahav, 1950; Sands of Gold, 1953); he has published a trilogy which centers around a picaresque hero, Eliyakum. Avraham B. *Yehoshua, published three volumes of short stories: Mot ha-Zaken ("Death of the Old Man," 1963); Mul ha-Ye'arot ("Facing the Forests," 1968); and Tishah Sippurim ("Nine Stories," 1970); Three Days and a Child (1970) is a collection of five short stories.
Aharon *Appelfeld delves into the inner world of his characters, who, like himself, are victims of the Holocaust. His central theme is the psychological residue of the Holocaust experienced by the characters years later. Thus he approaches the tragedy obliquely, writing in a lyrical prose which is simple, but freighted with nightmarish symbols. The deep religious mysticism which dominates Pinḥas *Sadeh's prose and poetry is not orthodox and at times takes on Christological overtones. Amaliah Cahana-Carmon's sensitive short stories deal with her childhood.
The 1970s marked the passing of most of the prolific writers of this generation: S.Y. *Agnon (d. 1970) and Ḥayyim *Hazaz (d. 1973), two outstanding writers of prose fiction, and Nathan *Alterman (d. 1970), Lea *Goldberg (d. 1970), and Abraham *Shlonsky (d. 1973), three eminent poets. Only Uri Ẓevi *Greenberg, in his eighties, continued to write his exceedingly powerful, expressionist-mystical verse until his death in 1981.
Collected works of these authors appeared either shortly before or soon after their deaths. Most significant were the posthumously published works of Agnon, which were edited by his daughter, Emunah Yaron. These include the novels Shirah (1971), depicting Jerusalem's intellectual community of the 1930s and 1940s, and Be-Ḥanuto shel Mar Lublin ("In Mr. Lublin's Shop," 1974), set in Leipzig during World War i, Ir U-Meloah ("A City and its Fullness"), a monumental portrayal of Agnon's home town and for that matter of 1,000 years of Jewish life in Poland (1973), and Sofer, Sippur ve-Sefer ("Writer, Story and Book," 1978), a collection of traditional vignettes relating to the art of writing. Despite their sometimes incomplete form, these works reinforce the generally accepted view that Agnon was the greatest fiction writer of modern Hebrew literature.
Older poets, like Sh. *Shalom (Ki Panah ha-Yom – "The Day is Setting"; Shai Lavan – "White Gift," 1974) and Avraham *Broides (Kol Od Odi – "While I Still Am"), continued to publish poetry whose very titles reflect their stage of life. Yehoshua Tan Pai (1975) and Yonatan *Ratosh (d. 1981), who 30 years ago were looked upon as innovating trailblazers, published their collected works. Ezra *Sussman's (d. 1973) reflective prose poems Keshet Nisan ("April Rainbow," 1976) were extolled by the critics. The collected verse of Simon *Halkin appeared in 1977 (Shirim). Halkin has also rendered a learned translation of George Seferis' early verse. Gabriel *Preil, the only Hebrew poet of distinction living in the United States who chronologically belongs to this generation, continued to create highly lyrical, subjective poetry. Ephraim *Broido's long awaited translation of Shakespeare's sonnets won critical acclaim (1977).
Writers associated with the "Generation of 1948," such as Ḥaim *Gouri, T. *Carmi, Abba *Kovner, and Amir *Gilboa, were active. In Mar'ot Geḥazi ("Visions of Geḥazi," 1973), Gouri seemed to be reliving vicariously the fears, anxieties and the glory of the War of Independence in poems reflecting the Yom Kippur War. Carmi's selected poems Davar Aḥer appeared in 1973. In Hitnaẓlut ha-Meḥaber ("The Author's Apology," 1974), he too reacts movingly to the trauma of the Yom Kippur War, and his El Ereẓ Aḥeret ("To Another Land," 1977), contains highly sophisticated, ironic lyric poetry reflecting his two-year stay at Oxford. In Raẓiti Likhtov Siftei Yeshenim ("I Wish to Write Sleeping Lips," 1968) and Ayalah Eshlaḥ Otakh ("Gazelle, I Dispatch You," 1972). Amir Gilboa moved away from his originally surrealistic poetry to a more realistic and concrete world. There is a thinning out of metaphor, yet at the same time a dazzling display of aural experimentalism. With Moaḥ ("Brain," 1975). Dan Pagis moved from a Rilkesque poetry to a more economical and cerebral idiom. Ozer Rabin, a poet who writes comparatively few poems, produced an impressive volume of delicately meditative verse (Be-Terem Ta'avor, 1976). *Zelda surprised Israeli readers with moving religious poetry (Al Tirḥak, "Do Not Go Far," 1975).
Fiction writers were equally productive. Moshe *Shamir's Yonah Be-Ḥaẓer Zarah ("Pigeon in a Strange Yard," 1975) is part of a trilogy written in a realistic vein which attempts to depict the saga of several generations of Israeli settlers. Aharon *Megged has made a more courageous effort to vary his themes and style. In Al Eẓim ve-Avanim ("Just About Everything," 1974), he tries to portray the ugly Israeli without the usual stereotyping. His anti-hero turns out be a frustrated human torn between the moral values he inherited from his Zionist past and a crass, almost self-destructive realism. Megged explores the theme of disillusionment with Zionist leaders rather than ideology in Maḥberot Evyatar ("Evyatar's Notebooks").
Benjamin Tammuz's Requiem le-Na'aman ("A Requiem for Na'aman," 1978) also deals with the failure of the Zionist dream to transform Jews into an earth-bound "normal" people. Like many contemporary novelists, Tammuz examines the naive ideals of the early settlers of Israel and the disillusionment of their descendants.
Aharon *Appelfeld's Badenheim, 1939 (English: Boston, 1981) recaptures the eerie inevitability of the approaching Holocaust as viewed through the eyes of alienated middle-class Jews vacationing at an Austrian summer resort. His novel Torha-Pelaot ("The Time of Wonders," 1978) tells the story of an assimilated Austrian-Jewish family before, during and after the Nazi period.
Interesting is the *Seneds' (Alexander and Yonat) experimentation with new techniques of novel writing, influenced by the modern anti-novel writers like Natalie Serraut (Tandu – "Tandem," 1974).
the new wave
The New Wave is a term coined by the Israeli critic Gershon Shaked for the generation of prose writers which began publishing in the late 1950s and the 1960s but is equally applicable to the poets of this period as well. The movement expressed itself not only in its rejection of the earlier Zionist Socialist certainties but in its proclaimed indifference toward all ideologies. In the words of Shimon Sandbank, there was a "Withdrawal to a no man's land of existential angst." The New Wave not only questioned the patriotic rhetoric which characterized some of the writing of the pre-State period, but called for a written idiom which was more concrete and closer to the spoken language. Their ideology was articulated in the avant garde magazines which were founded in the 1950s and 1960s, Li-Kerat ("Towards," 1953–54), Akhshav ("Now," 1957–to date) and Yokhani (1961–67).
Among the ideologists of the New Wave were the poet Nathan *Zach and the critic Gavriel Moked. Zach's iconoclastic criticism of poets like Alterman cleared the ground for the new poetry. Zach objected to Alterman's strict and regular metrics and what he called his high-blown diction and advocated the writing of more concrete, low-key poetry.
Zach, together with Yehuda *Amichai who chronologically belong to the 1948 group, and David *Avidan, wrote poetry which reflected the new poetics. When from time to time they had recourse to the phrasing of classical literature they would yank words and phrases out of their original context and give them an ironic twist. As is frequently the case the new style either influenced or was influenced by some of the more sensitive older poets such as Amir Gilboa and Abba Kovner. By the 1970s however, the poetry of the New Wave assumed an "after the battle" air. Nathan Zach almost ceased publishing poetry or criticism. Amichai appeared to be restating completely what he already had said (Ve-lo al Menat Lizkor – "So as Not to Remember," 1971; and Me'aḥorei Kol Zeh Mistater Osher Gadol – "Behind all This is Concealed Great Joy," 1974). David Avidan's troubador pyrotechnics, previously permeated by an air of youthful exuberance, have lost their verve.
The prose writers of the New Wave, on the other hand, played a leading role in Hebrew letters. A.B. *Yehoshua and Amos *Oz, whose short stories have been described by Hillel Barzel as meta-realistic, without entirely abandoning their symbolistic proclivities, moved closer to realism. This is evidenced in Yehoshua's bestselling novel Ha-Me'ahev (The Lover, 1976) and in Oz's Har ha-Eẓah ha-Ra'ah (The Hill of Evil Counsel, 1976). In The Lover the symbolic referents are less concealed. Although universal themes such as loss of innocence and aging underlie the story, it has specific Israeli-Zionist dimensions. There is not only veiled criticism of the failure of the post-1948 society to realize the Zionist-socialist ideologies of the past but an assertion of its inability to comprehend the present in terms of any ideology. Amos Oz's world is in a constant state of siege. The kibbutz, the fortified towns, are encircled by a primitive, vital and animal-like world which is ready to break in and destroy it. The state of siege is a hidden allegory pointing to the condition of modern man. In the end it is not Jews against Arabs but the clash between the destructive vital forces of the ego breaking against the ethical barriers of the id. In their quest for romantic fulfillment his female characters seem ready to surrender to the vitality of animal passion.
Amalia *Kahana-Carmon's work has greater affinity to that of the post-1948 generation. Her first collection of short stories appeared in 1966, Bi-Khefifah Aḥat ("Under One Roof"), and includes stories written in the late 1950s. With her novel Ve-Yare'aḥ be-Emek Ayalon ("And the Moon in the Valley of Ayalon," 1971) and her collection of three novellas, Sadot Magneti'im ("Magnetic Fields," 1977), she emerged as one of Israel's leading writers of fiction. Unlike Yehoshua and Oz, she uses a stream of consciousness technique influenced by Virginia Woolf. Kahana-Carmon's handling of narrative time is not chronological but psychological. Her major theme is the impossibility of sustained human relations, since such relationship means a surrender of that independence which alone can redeem one from the tragedy of the human condition. In the best short story in her latest book Ḥadar ha-Ḥadashot ("News Room"), Kahana-Carmon's style is elliptical, manneristic, elusive and freighted with all the ambivalences which mark an in-depth probing of the psychology of modern men and women.
Yiẓḥak *Orpaz, like Amaliah Kahana-Carmon, belongs to the 1948 age group but his writing is closer to that of the New Wave. While his earlier stories still retain a great deal of the realism of the 1948 group, his writing moves toward the more elliptical, involuted style of the psychological school. This is increasingly apparent in his post Six-Day War novels. Masa Daniel ("Daniel's Odyssey," 1969) describes how Daniel, a war-weary veteran, discovers the meaning of life through a mystical encounter with the well-springs of existence on an abandoned beach. His novel Bayit le-Adam Eḥad ("A House for One," 1975) is existentially religious in tone.
In Sus Eẓ (Rockinghorse, 1973) Yoram Kaniuk continues to explore the alienated Israeli. His hero Aminadav Sus Eẓ, an emigré living in New York, returns to his native Tel Aviv in the wake of the Six-Day War and proposes to make a film about the Tel Aviv of his childhood as an uncommercial exercise in self-examination. Kaniuk is at his best when he evokes the Israel of the 1930s. His artistic control of the spoken idiom and his masterful use of the stream of consciousness technique place him among the more effective writers of his generation. His story concludes with an ironic note; the film was a commercial success.
The achievement of the younger generation was mainly in poetry. The writers of prose have veered away from the fundamentally symbolist bias of their predecessors to a more realistic vein. Yitzḥak Ben-Ner, in Shekiah Kafrit ("Village Sunset," 1976), and Y. Koren, in Levayah ba-Ẓohorayim ("Funeral at Noon," 1976), set their stories in the more established communities of rural Israel.
Revolting against the anti-romantic, new-criticism type of poetry of the New Wave, the younger poets strive for a more decorative idiom. In part they take their cue from Amir Gilboa's experiments with sound and syntax. Many evoke a personal mythology in which beauty, music and free association are given free rein thus creating what Aharon Shabbetai called "the new sweet style," in which the logic of words gives way to the harmony of sound. Ya'ir Hourvitz speaks of his preferring "sea time" to "land time."'
Yonah Wallach's Shirah ("Poetry," 1976) tinkers with the subconscious mechanisms of feeling pushing boldly against the very borders which divide sanity from madness. In contrast, Moshe Sartal takes up the apocalyptical, mystical cadences of Uri Ẓevi Greenberg in Basar al Gabei Geḥalim ve-Shirim Aḥerim ("Meat Over the Coals & Other Poems," 1976). Aharon Shabbetai's Kibbutz (1974) was written when he was still much under the influence of the New Wave and is almost devoid of adjectives. His Ha-Po'ema ha-Beitit ("Domestic Poem," Siman Kriah, 6, 1974) is rich with images.
On the other hand, Mordecai Geldman, whose earlier poetry was suffused with pictorial opulence, began writing a sparser verse, without sacrificing musicality. "I want to say it still more/still more simply." Meir Wieseltier's approach to poetry is eclectic. He criticizes Zach for being "romantic" and "uncommitted." Zach took the "self" to be an autonomous being. Wieseltier considers his "self" exposed in all directions and susceptible to constant charges, to the direct impact of "things." In the title poem of his collected works Kaḥ ("Take," 1975), he takes on an anti-poetic, quasi-Mayakovskiesque tone.
Anti-romanticism carried to grotesque parody was characteristic of Hebrew playwright Ḥanoch Levin. His brutal exposé of the banality of urban living, its ugly loneliness, its cruel division between people "who make it" and "the slobs" excludes the slightest ray of hope in his society of the damned. Other playwrights who represent the New Wave in Hebrew drama of the 1970s are Hillel Mittlepunkt and Yehoshua Sobol.
The 1980s and After
Intense activity characterizes Hebrew prose since the 1980s, with members of various literary generations writing at the same time: From the "Palmaḥ Generation," which marked 60 years at the turn of the century since its appearance on the literary scene, to writers who were born in the 1960s and 1970s and made their debut in the 1980s and 1990s. The prose of this period is many-sided in theme and approach, enterprising and innovative in style and in its use of diverse literary techniques. Ideologically, this prose follows for the most part the long-established tradition which considered Hebrew literature to be a means for examining and grappling with the basic questions of Jewish-Israeli existence by exposing the collective tensions in individual characters and fates. Among the major concerns repeatedly treated are the making of Israeli identity and its relation to Jewish roots and Diaspora experience; the legitimacy and validity of the Zionist vision and the discrepancy between the initial Zionist project and its implementation; the recurrence of war and acts of terror and the inability to solve the more than 100-year old Arab/Palestinian-Israeli conflict in non-violent ways; the changes in the system of political, social, and moral values and in the mentality of the Israelis; the long shadow of the Holocaust, the inner world of the survivors as well as the duty and need to remember; problems of absorption, socio-ethnic differences and discrimination; and last, but not least, gender issues, primarily the status of women in Jewish/Israeli life and culture, and homoerotic proclivities. Grappling with these issues, writers turned to various genres and narrative modes such as the historical novel, the family saga, realistic allegories, expressionist and surrealist narratives or, more recently, to postmodernist narrative. Moreover, some authors, like Aharon *Megged, Moshe *Shamir, Abraham B. *Yehoshua, Amos *Oz, David *Grossman, Yoram *Kaniuk, and Gadi Taub, went beyond fiction and published collections of essays on social and political topics.
One of the striking phenomena is the astounding creative energy and tremendous output of the older writers, those commonly referred to as the "Palmaḥ Generation" or "Dor Ba-Areẓ." Moshe Shamir, one of the seminal voices of that group, completed his historical trilogy Raḥok Mi-Peninim in 1992, the saga of Zionist settlement and at the same time a sweeping epic following the various stages in the life of Leah Berman, a model type of the idealistic Jewish pioneer. During the last decade of his life, Shamir (d. 2004) published a book of poetry, a collection of stories, and a biographical novel on Avraham "Yair" Stern (2001), the legendary figure of the Leḥi underground organization, who in many respects personifies Shamir's national and political ideal. "The Jewish people faces a new Holocaust, initiated by the Muslim Arab world," Shamir warned, maintaining further that "the Arab terror has one goal: to annihilate the State of Israel."
Shamir's contemporary S. *Yizhar surprised Israeli readers in 1992: After 30 years of self-imposed silence, he published Mikdamot ("Foretellings"). This is a lyrical, impressionistic novel reconstructing the author's early childhood in pre-state Ereẓ Israel. The novel was followed by stories and novellas (Ẓalhavim, 1993, Malkomiyah Yefefiyah, 1998) in which the doyen of modern Hebrew prose displays his unparalleled art of storytelling, rich in sensual vivid images.
Two of the leading figures of the veteran generation passed away during the period. David *Shahar, who died in Paris in 1997, added further volumes to his monumental work Heikhal ha-Kelim ha-Shevurim ("The Palace of Shattered Vessels") and left behind a fragment Har ha-Zeytim ("The Mount of Olives"). Like Shahar, the other master of the modern Hebrew picaresque, Benjamin *Tammuz (d. 1989), also tried in his later works to view Zionism within the larger context of Jewish history, and to examine Zionist accomplishments and failings while reevaluating the Jewish heritage (e.g., Requiem le-Na'aman; 1987; Requiem for Na'aman, 1982). In his last work, Ha-Zikkit ve-ha-Zamir ("Chameleon and Nightingale," 1989), Tammuz presents the chronicles of a Jewish family over 1,300 years, integrating fiction, letters, diaries, and wills from the family archive. Ironically, the generation that celebrated the New Jew, the mythological Sabra, seems to have rediscovered the riches of the Jewish past. Tammuz, once committed to Canaanite ideology, was later fascinated by the mysteries of Diaspora existence. The belated encounter with Jewish life underlies also the works of Aharon Megged, Hanoch *Bartov, Nathan *Shaham, and other representatives of the "Palmaḥ Generation." Megged depicts the tensions between Hebrew and Jewish culture in his novel Foigelman (1987; Foiglman, 2003); deals with early idealists traveling to the Holy Land in Duda'im min ha-Areẓ ha-Kedoshah (1998; Mandrakes from the Holy Land, 2005); describes intrigues in the local literary scene in Ha-Gamal ha-Me'ofef ve-Dabeshet ha-Zahav (1982; "The Flying Camel and the Golden Hump"); recounts the joys and agonies of creative writing with humor and a touch of satire that verges on the grotesque in Ga'agu'im le-Olgah (1994) and Nikmat Yotam (2003). Bartov recollects the past in a realistic style, mingling humor with nostalgic longing (Be-Emẓa ha-Roman, 1988). He writes about loneliness in the big city of Tel Aviv (Lev Shafukh, 2001; "A Heart Poured Out"), and outlines the professional as well as personal frustrations of an aging Israeli (Zeh Ishel Medaber, 1990; "This is Ishel Speaking"). In 1987, Nathan Shaham published a story about four musicians and a writer in pre-State Israel, Rosendorf Kevartet (The Rosendorf Quartet, 1991), which many saw as his most accomplished work of fiction. Music figures in the novel as a metaphor for universal understanding and cosmopolitan identity, transcending nationalism and language. In the wake of the novel's success, both in Israel and abroad, Shaham followed up the adventures of the protagonists in the far less successful Ẓilo shel Rosendorf (2001; "Rosendorf's Shadow").
The writers known as "Dor ha-Medinah" (writers born in Ereẓ Israel in the 1930s) were equally prolific as was the movement known as the "New Wave" (G. Shaked) of the 1950s and 1960s. Yaakov *Shabtai's impressive final work, Sof Davar (Past Perfect), a masterpiece of Hebrew style and the stream-of-consciousness technique, appeared three years after his death in 1981. In her later works, Shulamit *Hareven (d. 2003) confronted seminal moments in Jewish history, going back to biblical times (Soneh ha-Nissim, 1983). Yehudit *Hendel was remarkably successful. Her early novels Reḥov ha-Madregot (1955; Street of Steps, 1963) and Ha-Ḥaẓer shel Momo ha-Gedolah ("The Yard of Momo the Great," 1969) were reissued (1998 and 1993, respectively) as was her first collection of stories Anashim Aḥerim Hem (2000; "They are Different"), one of the early literary attempts (1950) to confront the Holocaust. Hendel's trip to her native Poland resulted in a moving, perturbing book, Leyad Kefarim Sheketim (1987; "Near Quiet Places"). The death of her husband, painter Zvi Mairovitch, led to her extraordinary, lyrical memoir Ha-Ko'aḥ ha-Aḥer (1984; "The Other Power"). Love, betrayal, loss, and bereavement are recurring themes in her prose, as in Kesef Katan (1988; Small Change, 2002), Har Ha-To'im (1991), and the novella Terufo shel Rofe ha-Nefesh (2002; "Crack-Up"). Another female writer, Ruth *Almog, published novels and stories giving prominence to the fate and the concerns of women, elderly people, and immigrants (Shorshei Avir, 1987; Me'il Katon, 1993). Together with Esther Ettinger, Almog published two bestsellers (Me'ahev Mushlam, 1995, and Estelinah Ahuvati, 2002).
The vigorous and versatile author Yoram *Kaniuk, published numerous novels and stories such as the family portrait Post Mortem (1992), Od Sippur Ahavah (1996; "Another Love Story"); the delightful Hamalka ve-Ani (2001; "The Queen and I"); recollections of time spent in New York (Ḥayyim al Neyar Zekhukhit, 2003; "I Did It My Way"); a fictitious account of a perturbing journey through Germany (Ha-Berlinai ha-Aḥaron, 2004; "The Last Berliner"); and books for children (Wasserman, 1988). Dan *Tsalka published the monumental epic mosaic Elef Levavot (1991). Yossel *Birstein (1920–2003), a Yiddish author hailed by some critics as the Hebrew Shalom Aleichem, published the novel Panim ba-Anan (1991), among others. Yitzhak *Orpaz, David Schütz, Naomi *Frankel, Ehud Ben Ezer and Amos *Kenan came out with new novels and collections of stories, as did Yitzhak *Ben-Ner with his realistic, often somber portraits of decadent contemporary Israeli society (Protokol, 1982; Boker shel Shotim, 1992; Ir Miklat, 2000).
Special attention was paid by critics and readers to new works by Abraham B. Yehoshua, Amos Oz, Yehoshua *Kenaz, Meir *Shalev and David *Grossman. Yehoshua continued to explore and modify the realistic-psychological family novel and the narrative of mono-dialogues, while constructing parallel plots and playing with hidden ideas and allegories. Molcho (1987; Five Seasons, 1989) depicts the tumultuous first year in the life of the widower Molcho and the mental process he undergoes in his pursuit of a new life. Jewish history and Zionist dreams underlie the novel Mar Mani (1990; Mr. Mani, 1992), the story of a Sephardi family over five generations. Jewish history in Spain and in Ashkenaz is featured in Mas'a el Tom ha-Elef (1997; A Journey to the End of the Millennium, 1999). The physical journey as a voyage into the subconscious is a leitmotif in Yehoshua's prose as in Ha-Shivah mi-Hodu (1994; Open Heart, 1996). In his latest novels, Yehoshua has returned to the political scene: In Ha-Kalah ha-Meshaḥreret (2001; The Liberated Bride, 2003) the Orientalist Yohanan Rivlin confronts the traditions and hardships of Israeli Arabs living in Galilee and of Palestinians in the West Bank; in Sheliḥuto shel ha-Memuneh le-Mashabei Enosh (2004) he tells the story of a Russian worker who is killed in a terror attack in Jerusalem as a kind of modern Passion, at times comic, at others serene.
The many shades of the collective Israeli experience are present in the prose works which Amos Oz, the best-known Israeli author abroad, has published over the past two decades. Oz addressed the changes in the political climate in Israel (e.g., Menuḥah Nekhonah, 1982; A Perfect Peace, 1985; Kufsah Sheḥorah, 1987; Black Box, 1989) as well as the relationships between Ashekanzi and Sephardi Israelis (e.g., Kufsah Sheḥorah); His landscapes vary from the Negev desert (Al Tagidi Laylah, 1994; Don't Call It Night, 1995) to the unappealing cityscapes of Bat Yam (Oto ha-Yam, 1998; The Same Sea, 2001). In his later novels (Lada'at Ishah, 1989, To Know a Woman, 1991; Ha-Maẓav ha-Shelishi, 1991, Fima, 1993; Oto ha-Yam) he gives prominence to trials and dreams of anti-heroes, men like Fima or Albert Danon. Moving away from his highly symbolical early stories, Oz experimented with narrative modes: He turned to the epistolary novel (Kufsah Sheḥorah or the story "Ga'agu'im"), structured his novel Oto Ha-Yam as poetic prose fragments which at times even rhyme, and merged the autobiographical with the fictional in his universally acclaimed work, Sippur al Ahavah ve-Ḥoshekh (2002; A Tale of Love and Darkness, 2004) which he defined as an "autobiographical novel".
David Grossman, the outstanding author to emerge during the 1980s, is equally innovative. His wide-ranging works deal with the Arab-Israeli conflict (e.g., Ḥiyukh ha-Gedi, 1983; The Smile of the Lamb, 1990) as well as the inadequacy of language to confront the Holocaust (in the highly ambitious Ayen Erekh Ahavah, 1986; See Under Love, 1989). Grossman also revisits his youth in Jerusalem in the 1960s (Sefer ha-Dikduk ha-Penimi, 1991; The Book of Intimate Grammar, 1994) and depicts the peculiar love relationship, an affair in writing, between Miriam, a married woman, and the younger Yair in She-Tihiyi li Sakkin (1998; Be My Knife, 2001), an epistolary novel containing intertextual allusions to Kafka's Letters to Milena. Time and again Grossman tests the power of language to convey meaning and emotions, and reflects on his own métier, the world of fiction. In 2002 he published Ba-Guf Ani Mevinah.
Exceptionally popular among Israeli readers is Meir Shalev, who made his literary début with Roman Russi (1988; The Blue Mountain, 1991), the chronicle of pioneering settlers in the Jezreel Valley. Shalev's novels (Esav, 1991; Be-Veyto ba-Midbar, 1998; Fontanella, 2002) combine realistic and fantastic elements, and his multi-layered narrative teems with biblical and mythic associations.
Yehoshua Kenaz is one of two prominent Israeli authors who shun publicity, declining interviews as well as all forms of public relations. But this has in no way affected the success and high reputation which he and Yoel *Hoffman have enjoyed. Kenaz, whose first novel, Aḥarei ha-Ḥagim, appeared in 1964 (After the Holidays, 1987), published remarkable novels dealing with the frailty of human relations, the loneliness of individuals in urban society (Maḥzir Ahavot Kodmot, 1997; Returning Old Loves, 2001), physical and mental decline (Ha-Derekh el ha-Ḥatulim, 1991; The Way to the Cats, 1994), or the disruption of adolescence and rites of manhood (Moment Musikali, 1980; Musical Moment, 1995). One of his finest accomplishments is the novel Hitganvut Yeḥidim (Heart Murmur, 2003), a book which has been compared to Yizhar's seminal YemeiẒiklag: The story of a group of recruits in an Israeli army base in the 1950s presents individual lives and at the same time a kaleidoscope of Israeli society.
Like Kenaz, Yoel Hoffman was born in 1937, but unlike him – Kenaz is a Sabra who grew up in the "Moshava" – Hoffman's first year of life was spent in Hungary. He presents a world of uprooted Jews, Europeans who escaped the Holocaust by the skin of their teeth, yet remain strangers in Israeli society. They remain German Jews, their acquired Hebrew interspersed with German expressions, their dreams filled with longings for the culture they had to leave behind (Bernhart, Kristus shel Daggim). While Kenaz is a virtuoso of realistic style, Hoffman's prose is postmodern: instead of a traditional, linear plot, he writes an idiosyncratic narrative made up of enigmatic fragments in a private, Joyce-like language. Anecdotes, recollections, and observations both humorous and melancholy form a unique prose texture which poses a challenge to the reader.
The European world left behind and primarily the cataclysm of the Holocaust seem to engross the imagination of Israeli writers the more they recede in time. An attempt to map out the many prose works relating to the Shoah discloses various groups. The first comprises the survivors themselves. Innumerable books recollecting the traumatic years of humiliation, hunger, constant fear, brutal persecution, and above all the loss of family members, have appeared over the last 25 years. Quite a number of these "nonprofessional" authors, such as psychologist Shlomo Bresnitz (Sedot ha-Zikaron, 1993), Ruth Segal (Goyah im Nemashim, 2002), or Esther Eisen (Imi Tafrah Kokhavim, 2003), to name but a few, display remarkable literary subtlety. Established authors such as Uri *Orlev recounted their shattering experiences in the ghetto and the concentration camps in books for adults and young readers. Among the survivor-writers, however, Aharon *Appelfeld is unique in his obsessive descriptions of a world lost forever. In spare, unsentimental yet powerful prose, Appelfeld describes a prewar Jewish community that shut its eyes to reality; men and women who wander alone or in small groups across Europe, hoping to be saved; others who fail to escape death; antisemites, oppressors, and occasionally warm-hearted Christians who empathize with the victims and help them (Katarina). It is notable, however, that Appelfeld's survivors remain strangers in their new home, Israel. They cannot start a new life. Instead they are haunted by the past, or consciously indulge in memories of earlier days. Some even reject any hope for a new beginning, glorifying instead their years in the forests or in the camps, which they consider to have been their finest "heroic" hour.
Israeli writers born in Israel before the war, such as Yoram Kaniuk or Nathan Shaham, focused mainly on the emotional scars of the survivors while European-born authors who came to Palestine before the Holocaust – such as Naomi Frankel, Yehudit Hendel, or Shulamith Hareven – wrote about a childhood world left behind and the "otherness" of the survivors. David Schütz, born in Berlin in 1941, wrote compelling semi-autobiographical novels, such as Ha-Esev ve-ha-Ḥol (1978; "The Grass and the Sand"). Most impressive, however, is the prose written by the so-called "Second Generation": Israeli writers born after the Shoah who nonetheless felt the need to confront that unique chapter in Jewish history. David Grossman's novel Ayen Erekh Ahavah (1986) is a milestone in the works of Sabra authors on the Holocaust. Savyon *Liebrecht (b. 1948; Tapuḥim min ha-Midbar, 1986; Apples from the Desert, 1998; Susim al Kevish Gehah, 1988), Nava Semel (b. 1954; Kova Zekhukhit, 1985, "Hat of Glass"; Ẓeḥok shel Akhbarosh, 2001, "The Rat Laughs"), Ya'akov Buchan (b. 1946; Yeled Shakuf, 1998), Eleonora Lev (Sug Mesuyam shel Yatmut, 1999, "A Certain Kind of Orphanhood"), Hannah Herzig (Temunot Meḥapessot Koteret, 1997), Lizzie Doron (b. 1953; Lamah lo B'at lifnei ha-Milḥamah, 1998; Hayetah Po Pa'am Mishpaḥah, 2002), Lili Perry (b. 1953; Golem ba-Ma'agal, 1987, "Golem in the Circle"), Rachel Talshir (b.1957; Ha-Ahavah Meshaḥreret, 2001, "Love Macht frei"; Pegishah bi-Keẓeh ha-Erev, 2003, "Meeting at the Edge of the Evening"), Amir Gutfreund (b. 1963; Shoah Shelanu, 2000; "Our Holocaust"), to name but a few, depict the sufferings of the victims and the effect of the parents' traumatic experiences on their children who were often brought up amidst secrets and untold tales, and had to discover the truth for themselves years later.
The relationship between German persecutors and their Jewish victims is yet another aspect of the complex Holocaust theme, especially in the works of Savyon Liebrecht, Itamar Levy (b. 1956; Agadat ha-Agamim ha-Aḥuvim, 1990, "The Legend of the Sad Lakes") or Rivka Keren (b. 1946; Anatomiyah shel Nekamah, 1993, "Anatomy of Revenge").
Confronting the Holocaust inevitably sensitized the authors to the "otherness" of the survivors, who could not or would not conform to the model of the New Jew, the self-confident Sabra. The literature of the past decades shows that the survivors were only one group of outsiders who drew the attention of Israeli authors. Another group was the Oriental Jews, who immigrated to Israel from various Arab countries in the 1950s. Among the older generation (Sami *Michael, Shimon *Ballas, Amon Shamosh, Dan Benaya *Seri, Yitzhak Gormezano-Goren, Eli *Amir), recent years have seen many works on the hardships of and discrimination against immigrants and their children in overcrowded transit camp ("ma'barot"), in development towns or destitute city suburbs (such as south Tel Aviv). Among these are novels by Albert Suissa (b. 1951; Akud, "Bound," 1990), Sami Bardugo (b. 1970; Yaldah Sheḥorah, "Black Girl," 1999), Dudu Busi (b. 1969; Ha-Yare'aḥ Yarok ba-Vadi, "The Moon Goes Green in the Wadi," 2000; Pere Aẓil, "A Noble Savage," 2003), and Yossi Sucary (b. 1959; Emiliyah ve-Melakh ha-Areẓ, "Emilia," 2002). In fact, the growing self-awareness of the so-called Oriental writers combined with a feeling of long-suffering injustice have led to the founding of a press (Kedem) as well as a magazine (Ha-Kivvun Mizraḥ) promoting this literature.
Another social group which did not conform to the ideal of the secular, heroic Israeli and was thus ignored, occasionally even denounced by the dominant Zionist narrative, was that of religious and ultra-Orthodox Jews, who have recently become the subject of a growing number of novels and stories. Ḥaim *Be'er (Noẓot, Et ha-Zamir, Ḥavalim), wrote partly autobiographical novels, often marked by biting criticism, about the ultra-Orthodox Jerusalem milieu in which he grew up. The hermetic world of religious Jews is also depicted by Dov Elbaum (b. 1970; Zeman Elul, 1997; Ḥayyai im ha-Avot, 2001), Yisrael Segal (Ne'ilah, 1990; Vekhi Naḥash Memit?, 2004), and by a significant number of women writers, who turned their back on the restrictive ḥaredi milieu in which they grew up. Among these are Yehudit Rotem, Yochi Brandes, Mira Magen (with novels like Al Take ba-Kir, 1997), Haya Esther (Godlevsky), and Hanna Bat-Shahar (a nom de plume for an Orthodox woman writer).
Indeed, the "other" in his various configurations has ousted the mythologized, self-confident Israeli from his dominant position and moved from the margins of Hebrew literature to center stage. Along with stories about various ethnic minorities (Sephardi, Bukhari, Iraqi Jews, or "yekkes"), the voice of new immigrants from the Soviet Union has made itself heard. Writers like Alona Kimhi, who was born in Lvov in 1966 (Ani, Anastasia, 1996, I, Anastasia, 2000; Suzannah Bokhiyah, 1999, Weeping Susannah, 2001), Marina Groslerner, who came to Israel at the age of six (Lalya, 2001), or Suzane Adam (Kevisah, "Laundry," 2000; Maymia, 2002), who was born in Transylvania and came to Israel at the age of 10, have written about their native country and their experience as immigrants in Israel, particularly in their earlier works. Born in Leningrad, Alex Epstein (b. 1971) came to Israel in 1980 and is one of the younger original writers who experiment with various narrative techniques, as in Ahuvato shel Metapes Harim ("The Mountaineer's Beloved," 1999) or in his dictionary-like novel Milon Mahapakh ("Honey Dictionary," 2000).
Beside these religious and ethnic minorities, women have made a sweeping entrance into male-dominated Hebrew literature, both as fictional figures and as writers. Cynical observers of the contemporary Israeli scene maintain that being a woman and writing about female concerns guarantee the publication and commercial success of a novel. The list of female writers who started publishing over the past three decades is impressive, especially in view of the few women writers in previous generations and the fact that the main issues of Israeli life – war, army life, professional success, political involvement etc. – were almost always represented by male characters. Along with established women such as Amalia Kahana-Carmon – one of the first and most vehement champions of gender issues – and Yehudit Hendel, many new names have joined the literary scene. Among these are Dorit Abusch (1955– ), Leah Eini (1962– ), Marit Ben Israel, Gail Hareven (1959– ), Esty G. Ḥaim (1963– ), Yael Hedaya (1964– ), Shifra Horn, Avirama Golan, Judith *Katzir (1963– ), Ronit *Matalon (1959– ), Dorit Rabinyan (1972– ), Zeruyah *Shalev (1959– ), and Shoham Smith (1966– ). Their fiction addresses political and historical issues, social and ethnic themes as well as "typically" feminine concerns such as love, sexuality, betrayal and abandonment, menstruation, pregnancy, motherhood and female friendship, or the status and role of women in Israeli society.
The new gender-oriented literature also deals with homoerotic love. Yossi Avni (a pseudonym) published stories (Gan ha-Eẓim ha-Metim, "The Garden of the Dead Trees," 1995) and novels (Arba'ah Aḥim, "Four Brothers," 1998; Doda Farhumah lo Hayetah Zonah, "Auntie Farhuma Wasn't a Whore After All," 2002) depicting homosexual relations, as have Ilan Schoenfeld (Rak Attah, "Only You," 1998), Motti Auerbuch (Elohim Nekheh Me'ah Aḥuz, "God Is One Hundred Percent Disabled," 2003), Yossi Waxman (Alexandria Yakirati, "Dear Alexandria," 1988; Liebchen, 2004) and Dan Shavit (Pitom Ra'iti Oto, "Suddenly I Saw Him," 2004). Yehudit Katzir recounts a lesbian relationship between a young woman and her teacher in her novel Hineh Ani Matḥilah ("Here I Begin," 2003).
While the majority of Israeli writers cling to the realistic modes of expression and traditional conventions of characterization, some of the younger writers explore postmodernist techniques. No doubt the most outstanding of these (apart from Yoel Hoffman, mentioned above) is Orly *Castel-Bloom (b. 1960; Doli Siti, Ḥalakim Enoshiyim). Particularly popular among younger readers is Etgar Keret (1967– ), who has published collections of mini-narratives and comics that shift between the funny and the serious, the real and the imaginary. These and other postmodernist writers are eager to debunk prevailing myths, to experiment and to shock; they play with language, probe metaphors and clichés, and underscore the inadequacy of words while creating their own vocabulary.
Other original voices in contemporary Hebrew literature include Gabriela *Avigur-Rotem (b. 1946; Mozart Lo Hayah Yehudi; "Mozart Was Not a Jew"; Ḥamsin ve-Ẓipporim Meshuga'ot, "Heatwave and Crazy Birds"); Yitzhak *Laor (1948– ), Youval *Shimoni (b. 1955; Me'of ha-Yonah; "The Flight of the Dove," 1990; Ḥeder, "Room," 1999); Dror Burstein (b. 1970; Avner Brenner, 2003); Yoav Alvin (b. 1962; Marak, "Soup," 2002); Benny Barbash (b. 1951; My First Sony, 1994; Hilukh Ḥozer, "Rerun," 2003) Uzi Weill (b. 1964; Le'an Holekh ha-Zikaron ke-she-Anu Metim, 1996); Alon Ḥilu (with the historical-fictional novel Mot ha-Nazir, "Death of a Monk," 2004); Eran Bar-Gil (b. 1969, with his lyrical, reflective novel about identical twins handed over for adoption soon after their birth, titled Parsah ve-Kinor, "Horseshoe and Violin," 2005) and Eshkol Nevo (1971– ) with the novel Arba'ah Batim ve-Ga'agu'a ("Osmosis," 2004), a fine example of the way collective Israeli experience and questions concerning the Zionist narrative are intertwined with the experience of individual protagonists.
The reproach sometimes voiced is that the new writers are a "private generation," less preoccupied with collective national and political themes than with selfish concerns, materialistic gratification, and immediate pleasure, but this is inaccurate. In some prose writers, the political is clearly present between the lines; others, like Etgar Keret, handle it with less pathos than previous generations, but with equal urgency. Troubled by recent political developments, Itamar Levy published Otiyot ha-Shemesh, Otiyot ha-Yare'aḥ ("Letters of the Sun, Letters of the Moon," 1991), Semadar Herzfeld recounts a Romeo-and-Juliet love affair between a Palestinian and an Israeli woman in Inta Omari (1994). Yitzhak Laor published Am, Ma'akhal Melakhim (1993) and Ve-Im Ruḥi Geviyati, and Boaz Neuman (1971– ) wrote an autobiographical account with the ironic title Ḥayal Tov ("Good Soldier," 2001). Asher Kravitz (1969– ) wrote a disturbing, albeit funny novel about an Israeli soldier disguised as a Palestinian (Ani, Mustafah Rabinovitch, 2004) and Gilad Evron (1955– ) published a prose collection titled Mareh Makom (2003).
As the discussion on the literary canon continues and critics vary in their opinion of which prose works "qualify" as canonical, there has been a continuous expansion of so-called "popular literature." The weekly list of bestsellers features many writers who are often commercially more successful and popular than the leading canonical ones; their novels (e.g., Irit Linor, Shirat ha-Sirenah, Benot Braun) set up a mirror to the prevailing Israeli mentality and create a literary vogue that is later imitated by others (Michal Shalev, Shevua'at Rachel, 1997; Sheli Yechimowitz, Eshet Ish, 2001; Rakefet Zohar, Ha-Aḥayot Schuster Nikhnasot le-Herayon, 2002; Semadar Shir, Roman Amiti, 2002). Among the reasons for the proliferation of this inferior, titillating prose, is no doubt the ever-growing number of new publishing houses that are willing to take commercial risks and publish unknown young writers, as well as the dictates of a market that is dependent on ratings. Beside the long-standing publishing houses (Schocken, Am Oved Ha-Kibbuẓ ha-Me'uḥad and the associated Ha-Sifriah ha-Ḥadashah), new publishing enterprises have shot up like mushrooms. Among these are Keter, Zemorah-Bitan, Sifriat Maariv, Yedioth Ahronoth, Miskal, Kinneret and Kedem, Bavel, Ḥargol, Gevanim, Astrolog and Carmel. Mention should also be made of Keshet, Ram *Oren's privately owned press, which began by publishing its owner's commercially successful thrillers and later published also "pop"-literature (Kobi Oz) as well as bestsellers of considerable literary quality such as the novels of Avigur-Rotem and Zeruyah Shalev. Keshet is a major promoter of Israeli detective novels (Ram Oren), though others have followed suit. Amnon *Dankner has published a detective novel set against the emergence of Zionism, Ha-Ish le-Lo Aẓamot, "The Man without Bones," 2002; see also Malkodet ha-Devash, 1994). On the whole, the sophisticated Israeli thriller, a relatively new genre in Israeli fiction, has had tremendous success and includes writers of international repute such as Batya *Gur, Uri *Adelman, Shulamith Lapid, Amnon Jackont, and Agur Schiff.
Finally, at the initiative of publishers, editors, and literary scholars, major books by earlier generations have been reissued and some forgotten classics of early Hebrew literature rediscovered. These include the prose of David *Vogel, David Kimchi's family saga Beit Ḥefeẓ ("House of Hefetz"), Aharon *Reuveni's trilogy Ad Yerushalayim, as well as prose works by Y.H. *Brenner, M.Y. *Berdyczewski, D. *Frischmann, and A. *Hameiri, S. Yizhar, M. Shamir, H. Bartov, B. Tammuz, and others.
Over the past 25 years Israeli poets have alternated between politically oriented and meditative, personal poetry. The Lebanon War of 1982–83 as well as the First and Second Intifadas produced an impressive protest poetry. Two collections were published following the Lebanon War: Ḥaẓiyyat Gevul ("Crossing the Border") and Ve-Eyn Tikhlah li-Keravot u-le-Hereg ("Fighting and Killing No End"). The poetry that emerged in the wake of the Lebanon War and the uprisings of the Palestinians was written by established poets like Nathan *Zach, Yehuda *Amichai, Meir *Wieseltier, Moshe *Dor, Aryeh *Sivan, and Aharon *Shabtai as well as by newcomers to the literary scene: Maja *Bejerano (1949– ), Rami Ditzany, Yitzhak *Laor (1948– ), and Rami Sa'ari (1963– ). Poets expressed shame, fear, rage, and helplessness. The political poems of Dalia *Ravikovitch were particularly impressive (see: Ima im Yeled, "Mother with Child"), and focused on the sufferings of the individual victim, especially the agony of mothers and children. The impact of the Gulf War was reflected almost immediately in Hebrew poetry; see, for example, the collections published by David *Avidan and Ilan Schoenfeld.
The tendency of contemporary Hebrew poets to reflect on their own medium – language – was seen in two anthologies edited by Ruth Kartun-Blum: Shirah bi-Rei Aẓmah ("Poetry in its own Mirror," 1982) and Yad Kotevet Yad ("Self-Reflexive Hebrew Poetry," 1989). Kartun-Blum also edited the volume Me'ayin Naḥalti et Shiri ("Writers and Poets on Sources of Inspiration," 2002).
The past two decades have also seen the passing of prominent poets of the older generation like S. *Halkin, A. *Yeshurun, Z. *Gilead, K.A. *Bertini and *Zelda, as well as of poets belonging to the "Palmah Generation" and the "Generation of the State" such as A. *Gilboa, A. *Hillel (Hillel Omer), Y. *Shalev, A. *Kovner, D. *Pagis, A. Sachs, and, in 2000, the internationally famous Yehuda *Amichai. The "Tel Aviv Circle," which dominated the scene in the 1960s and 1970s, lost two of its seminal figures: Yona *Wallach (d. 1985) and Yair *Hourvitz (d. 1988). Meir *Wieseltier, who belonged to that group, published a number of collections which gave impressive expression to intimate experiences, childhood memories, and current events (Mikhtavim ve-Shirim Aḥerim, Maḥsan).
Artistic maturity and a tendency to reflect on time, old age, and transience characterize the writing of veteran poets of the "Palmaḥ Generation" and the "Generation of the State," with new collections coming out as well as the publication of the collected works of H. *Gouri, N. *Zach, M. *Dor, A. *Sivan, Moshe Ben Shaul (1930– ) and Ya'akov Besser (1934– ). A tone of maturity and sobriety prevails also in the poems of Ori *Bernstein (who also published a sensitive, melancholy autobiographical novel in the genre of the Bildungsroman, Safek Ḥayyim, 2002). Asher *Reich, Tuvia*Rübner, and Israel Pincas (b. 1935; Geneologia, 1997) published new books of poetry that tended to avoid abstraction and sentimentality. Instead, subtle reflection is expressed in a poetic language whose deeper connotations are masked by a simple, spoken style.
Blending together the world of scientific thought with recollections and immediate experiences scientist-poet Avner Treinin (1928– ) published a number of original collections (Euclidium, 1985; Zikhron ha-Mayim, 1991). One of the consequences of abandoning the "high" diction used by previous generations was a more intimate access to the psyche and the observation of mental processes and crises. Among the first to turn inward was Yona Wallach, followed by poets like Leah Ayalon (Daniel, Daniel, 1988; Yehudiyot ve-Yehudim, 2001), Maja Bejerano (1949–; Bat Ya'anah, 1978; Anaseh Laga'at be-Tabur Bitni, 1998), and others. Instead of romantic love, male poets (e.g., Aharon Shabtai in Zivah) and, more importantly, a considerable number of women depicted the sexual experience, celebrating the authentic erotic element and occasionally transforming their poetry into a manifesto for transsexuality. Indeed, bisexuality as well as homoeroticism figure prominently in contemporary Hebrew poetry as in the writing of Hezy Leskli (1952–1994; Leah Goldberg ve-ha-Akhbarim) and in poems by Ilan Schoenfeld (1960– ; Leta'ah Mekhushefet, 1981) or in the lesbian poetess known as Shez.
Others who made their debut during the past three decades and publish regularly are M. *Geldman (1946– ); Yosef Sharon (1952– ; Dibbur, 1978; Sippur Iti, 1994), Zali Gurevitch (1949– ; Shurah Pesukah, 1984; Sefer Yare'aḥ, 1998), Ronny *Someck (1951– ; Goleh, 1976; Bloody Mary, 1994), Pereẓ Dror Banay (1947– ; Ḥamẓan, 1980; Turkiz, 1993; Gevul Aḥaron le-Yofi, 1999), Erez Biton (1942– ; Minḥah Marokait, 1976; Ẓippor bein Yabashot, 1989), Zvi Azmon (1948– ; Kortekst, 1993), Leah Ayalon, Sabina Messeg (1942– ; Zeh ha-Yam ha-Zeh, Yam Kinneret, 1998); Hava Pincas-Gan (1955– ); Miron C. Izakson (1956– ), Yonadav Kaploun (1963– ; Ha-Keter ha-Afor, 1987; Bat Shelomo, 1994); and Admiel Kosman (1957– ; Higanu le-Elohim, 1998), the last two coming from a religious background. Some poets, like Rami Sa'ari (1963– ; Hineh Maẓati et Beiti, 1988; Kamah ve-Khama Miḥamah, 2002), Dori Manor (Bariton, 2005; notably poetry which reverts to traditional forms and rhymed verse), and Amir Or (1956– ) have also translated world poetry into Hebrew. An unusual voice is that of Maya Arad (1971– ), a linguist living in Stanford, Calif., in the United States, who published a novel in rhymed verse (Makom Aḥer Ir Zarah, 2003), which tells the story of Orit, a soldier who has been asked to write a leaflet about Israeli identity and to help a lonely soldier who has just immigrated from Canada to feel at home. Inspired by Pushkin's Eugene Onegin, she spices her unusual poetic text, written in a seemingly old-fashioned rhyme scheme, with wit and humor. The poetry of Agi *Mishol (1947– ) has attracted a great deal of attention from literary critics such as Dan Miron and from the media; as a result, she has advanced to the forefront of the contemporary scene. On the whole, however, Hebrew poetry arouses far less interest than prose. It is read by a coterie of loyal devotees, many of whom write and publish their own poetry. Poems are usually published in the literary supplements of the bigger newspapers, in literary journals such as Moznayim, Iton 77, Siman Keriah, Keshet ha-Ḥadashah, Akhsahv, Dimmu'i, Ho!, and Mita'am, or in special journals promoting poetry, such as Ḥadarim and Helikon. Publishers are reluctant to take the risk of publishing poetry; among the few who do so are Keshev, Eked, and Ha-Kibbuẓ ha-Me'uḥad, Tag, Even Ḥoshen, and Shufra. An important contribution to the dissemination of Hebrew poetry abroad is no doubt the English-language periodical Modern Hebrew Literature, published by the Institute for the Translation of Hebrew Literature, the Tel Aviv Review, and the magazine Ariel, which has been published intermittently for many years in various languages, including English, German, and French, and is sponsored by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. Along with the translation of individual poems in various foreign periodicals and anthologies (e.g., T. Carmi's Hebrew Verse), a number of poets have had books of poetry published in foreign languages (Amichai, Dor, Reich). The new and updated edition of The Modern Hebrew Poem Itself (edited by Stanley Burnshaw, T. Carmi, S. Glassman, Ariel Hirschfeld, and Ezra Spicehandler; Wayne University Press, 2003) is highly recommended. It includes translations, interpretations of individual poems, and general articles on Hebrew poetry and prosody.
Finally, one should mention new editions as well as the collected works of leading poets of previous generations. The two main projects, both directed by Dan Miron, were the scholarly edition of Ḥ.N. Bialik's poetry (two volumes: 1983, 1990) and the complete work of U.Z. *Greenberg. Avner Holtzman is responsible for a new edition of Bialik's poems (Devir Publishing House, 2005) marking the 70th anniversary of his death. There has been a new edition of Kol Kitvei Tschernichovsky (1990–98), a collection of Lea Goldberg's poems (1989) and a new edition of Shirei Raḥel (1997). Yehuda Amichai's collected poems were published in five volumes shortly after his death (2002–04). A previously unknown book of David Vogel's poetry, Le'ever ha-Demamah, was published by Menaḥem Peri in 1983. Other poets whose work was collected after their death are Y. *Katzenelson, A. *Ben-Yitzhak, Y. *Karni, E. *Raab, A. Chalfi, A. *Gilboa, D. *Pagis, and Y. *Hourvitz. A selection of poems by Y. *Orland appeared in 1997.
[Anat Feinberg (2nd ed.)]
The drama is one of the least developed forms of literary expressions in Hebrew literature. Some have attributed its modest achievements to the inherent contradiction between the monotheistic spirit of the Jewish religion and the dualism implicit in drama (A.J. *Paperna, I. *Zinberg, and others). Others have stressed the objection of the sages to the ritualistic and "heretical" aspects of the drama (J.H. *Schirmann) which emerged in the Western World (e.g., the medieval mystery, morality, miracle, and passion plays). Jewish tradition undoubtedly inhibited the development of the drama since the art of the theater was incompatible with the traditional way of life. The secularization of Jewish life, a process which started in the 18th century and stimulated the development of secular literature, did not, however, in its initial phases, mark a rise in dramatic art, nor lead to the establishment of independent Jewish theaters. The revival of spoken Hebrew lagged behind the revival of the written language, impeding the development of the Hebrew drama, a genre primarily dependent on the spoken idiom. Thus until Hebrew became a living tongue, there was little prospect that a vital Hebrew theater might flourish. The Jewish theatergoer, introduced to his secular foreign environment, found satisfaction for his dramatic needs beyond the limits of the Jewish pale.
Amateur and professional Hebrew troupes emerged in Eastern Europe and in Ereẓ Israel only at the close of the 19th century. The amateur Hebrew groups of Brody and Lodz and itinerant troupes, like I. *Katzenelson's, were the harbingers of the Hebrew theater in the Diaspora, where since Abraham *Goldfaden (1840–1906) the Yiddish theater had greatly flourished. The amateur theatrical troupe in Jaffa, on the other hand, was the precursor of the theater in Israel. By the 1920s there already existed in Ereẓ Israel a professional theater while in the Diaspora, *Habimah, the first professional Hebrew theatrical company (established 1917, premiere in 1918) gained a great reputation in Russia. It established itself in Tel Aviv in 1931.
The development of the Hebrew theater in the 20th century is linked with the Zionist movement, the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language, and the Jewish claim for cultural national autonomy. The linguistic and sociocultural reorientation in the attitude of the public to the theater gave new impetus to the Hebrew drama (intended for the stage) and brought about its continuous development in Hebrew literature.
Dramatic elements and dialogue are already found in the Book of Job and, at a later period, in the piyyut (the Hebrew liturgical hymn), for example "Ozlat Yokheved"; or in some of the polemical verse of Abraham *Ibn Ezra depicting the conflict between body and soul, summer and winter, water and wine. Hebrew drama as such was, however, written occasionally mainly in Italy and Holland as early as the end of the 16th century and during the 17th and 18th centuries. This period in the Hebrew drama is mainly characterized by sporadic isolated plays which failed to lead to a continuous development and by a "literary," nontheatrical structure of the play.
Judah Leone b. Isaac *Sommo's Ẓaḥut Bediḥuta de-Kiddushin ("An Eloquent Marriage Farce"), the first Hebrew play, was written in Italy under the influence of the 16th-century Italian comedy. Though first printed in 1618, it had apparently been written a few years earlier. Schirmann assumes that it was probably staged in connection with Purim. Unlike Jewish playwrights of the 17th and 18th centuries, Sommo was well versed in theatrical technique (his essay Trattato sul arte rappresentativa points to this fact); his language is not purely biblical but contains later Hebrew phrasing and idioms lending the play not merely a visual but also an auditory dimension. The plot, characters, and structure are borrowed from the commedia dell'arte and only the Jewish comic subject (related to halakhic problems) and the cultural atmosphere in the play are original.
Most Hebrew playwrights of the 17th and 18th centuries (from Sommo to Moses Ḥayyim *Luzzatto) were unable to free themselves from the influence of the "Mediterranean" culture. They tried to transpose the Italian and Spanish live theater into the Jewish cultural milieu. In their adaptation of dramatic elements to a language and themes remote from the theater, they forfeited the structural authenticity of the play.
Moses *Zacuto in Yesod Olam (Altona, 1874), a dramatization of the story of Abraham and Nimrod, imitates the Spanish auto, and in Tofteh Arukh (Venice, 1715, 18812), whose plot is the journey of the dead to hell, he follows the structure and content of medieval Christian allegorical plays. Asirei ha-Tikvah ("Prisoners of Hope," Amsterdam, 1673, Leghorn, 17712), by Joseph Penso de la Vega, is patterned according to the Spanish commedia. Both Zacuto and Penso published their plays in Amsterdam, which was then enjoying a late renaissance of Judeo-Spanish culture.
Plays written in Hebrew in Italy during this period drew on their foreign cultural environment for their dramatic form and style without reference to contemporary Hebrew drama, thus failing to create a continuous link. Immanuel *Frances wrote a few occasional plays for festivals, a dramatic dialogue on woman (1670), and a Purim play. The most significant playwright of the Italian school, Moses Ḥayyim *Luzzatto, had a definite effect on the development of the Hebrew drama. He wrote three different types of plays which had been influenced by the Italian allegorical and pastoral drama. Ma'aseh Shimshon ("The Story of Samson," 1724) serves as a paradigm to illustrate the dramatic genre in his work on literary theory, Leshon Limmudim (Mantua, 1727). The play, a monologue interspersed with a chorus and fragmentary dialogue, is not a genuine drama. His other two plays, Migdal Oz ("The Mighty Tower," 1837) and La-Yesharim Tehillah ("Praise to the Upright," Amsterdam 1743, 195425), show the influence of Guarini's pastoral drama, Pastor Fido. Luzzatto attempted to impose on Jewish moral themes and ethical language the Italian dramatic structure. (It has been suggested that these plays also allude to kabbalistic themes.) Migdal Oz, the story of young lovers who prevail over antagonists scheming against them, is an allegorical-pastoral drama. It is the earlier of the two plays and had no decisive influence on the Hebrew dramatic genre. Conversely, Luzzatto's La-Yesharim Tehillah greatly influenced the development of the Hebrew play in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is an allegorical drama in which the characters are personifications of positive and negative moral qualities. The theme is the victory of good over evil and the plot – the story of lovers who separate and then are reunited – represents the struggle of the forces of good to be united as one, and to have their virtue universally acknowledged. "Yosher" (uprighteousness) claims and finally wins "Tehillah" (praise). In his contest against "Tarmit" (deceit) and "Rahav" (conceit), he is helped by "Sekhel" (reason).
La-Yesharim Tehillah was the first Hebrew play which exerted direct influence upon the subsequent Hebrew drama. Its dramatic and didactic elements affected Hebrew authors caught up in the *Haskalah movement as it moved from Western to Eastern Europe. Unrighteousness was viewed as a symbol of the Haskalah – the rational good which struggles against evil – seen as the anti-Haskalah forces. Plays written in this tradition were Yaldut u-Vaḥarut (Berlin, 1786) by the bookseller Mendel b. Ḥayyim Judah Bresslau (d. 1829); Ha-Kolot Yeḥdalun o Mishpat Shalom (Berlin, 1791) by S.A. *Romanelli; Amal ve-Tirẓah (Roedelheim, 1812, 18623) by Shalom b. Jacob *Cohen; Tiferet li-Venei Binah (Zhitomir, 1867) by A.B. *Gottlober; Emet ve-Emunah (Vilna, 1867) by Abraham Dov *Lebensohn; and Mashal u-Meliẓah (Paris 1867) by Meir Leib *Malbim. While in these plays the maskilim were usually the protagonists, Malbim used the genre in order to attack them. All the plays lack real characters, genuine dramatic dialogue, and a proper plot, but were a means through which the Hebrew writer, to whom the dramatic art was still foreign, was initiated into writing dialogue. The Haskalah literature was nontheatrical, even nondramatic, yet it heralded the beginning of a genuine drama.
Another important trend in Haskalah dramatic literature was the translation and adaptation of European plays on biblical themes into Hebrew and the composing of original biblical drama. The first author to develop the technique of adapted translation was the 18th century writer David *Franco-Mendes. In Gemul Atalyah (first printed in Amsterdam 1770, 18603), an adaptation based on Racine and Pietro Metastasio, Franco-Mendes altered the plot and structure of his neoclassic sources but did not write an original play. Melukhat Sha'ul ha-Melekh ha-Rishon al Yeshurun (Vienna, 1794), by Joseph *Ha-Efrati, though influenced by the German Sturm und Drang movement, Shakespeare, and Albrecht von Haller, is an original work with an ingenious and imaginative structure. The dramatis personae (David, Saul, Michal, and Jonathan), characters in their own right, are protagonists in a dramatic action which is not a struggle between good and evil but between noble heroes who are invested with moral qualities. The structure is defective, yet designed for the stage, and while the text includes "literary" passages unrelated to the plot (e.g., the play ends with Haller's poem "On Honor") which detract from the play, it nevertheless (as Paperna, one of the earliest Hebrew drama critics, asserted) paved the way for original Hebrew theatrical works on biblical themes.
Most playwrights, however, followed in the footsteps of Franco-Mendes – translating and adapting into Hebrew European plays on biblical themes. They were incapable of producing an original viable drama during this early phase of Hebrew literature. Not steeped in a dramatic tradition and lacking experience in the genre, they could not go beyond rhetorical writing. Plays written or adapted during this period were Ma'asei Navot ha-Yizre'eli (Roedelheim, 1807) by Shalom b. Jacob Cohen; On Ben Pelet and Ḥananyah Misha'el va-Azaryah (in Kinnor Na'im, Vienna, 1825), by Samuel David *Luzzatto; She'erit Yehudah (Vienna, 1827), an adaptation and translation of Racine's Esther, by S.J. *Rapoport; and Shelom Ester (Vienna, 1843), another rendition of the same play and a translation of Racine's Athalie (1835), both by Meir ha-Levi *Letteris. Basically, all these plays are dramatic failures. In his translation and adaptation of Goethe's Faust, which he called Elisha ben Avuyah (Vienna, 1865), Letteris deviated somewhat from the accepted practice of adapting neoclassic plays. He judaized the text, renamed the dramatis personae ("Faust" becomes "Elisha b. Avuyah,") and introduced character changes. Yet he remained faithful to the original dialogue, the general structure and even to certain key ideas, thus aborting his own attempt at genuine Hebrew dramatic creation.
The two didactic biblical plays by Naḥman Isaac *Fischman: Mappelet Sisera (Lemberg, 1841) and Kesher Shevna (Lemberg, 1870), though original in theme, do not differ in structure and didactic purpose from the allegorical dramas of the period.
The Haskalah period did not produce any real dramatists. It is the *Ḥibbat Zion generation which first prepared the ground for genuine Hebrew theater.
National Renaissance Period (1880–1947)
Some of the trends of the Haskalah continued through the period of the national renaissance. Allegorical plays were still being written (cf. S. Zweibel's Milḥemet ha-Ḥokhmah im ha-Sikhlut, 1895) in the 1890s and some of the later historical and topical dramas also contain allegorical elements. The most common characteristic of the period was, however, the historical melodrama which had evolved from the Haskalah. Among the significant playwrights of the period is Judah Loeb *Landau, whose poetic dramas developed Haskalah themes and were written in the same ornate style. The theme is either the relationship of gentiles and Jews during crises in Jewish history, or the plays are permeated with the ideology of Ḥibbat Zion, as Yesh Tikvah (1893) and Lefanim o Le'aḥor (1923, 19442). Bar Kokhva (1884), and Aḥarit Yerushalayim (1886) are historical plays whose protagonists Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Johanan b. Zakkai expound ideas about freedom and the glory of Israel which were drawn from Nachman *Krochmal. F. Hebbel's Herodes und Mariamne served as a model for Landau's Hordos which is an attempt at ahistorical justification of Herod; it takes up his defense against the Jewish historical tradition which Landau felt had unjustly vilified him. The lofty spiritual values propounded by the raisonneur characters in the monologues of all three historical plays are neither complemented by the actual episodes in the play nor realized in the action. The plays are simple, not sophisticated, and their style and structure are as yet unsuited for the theater. His other two historical plays, written in prose, Don Yiẓḥak Abrabanel (1919) and Yisrael Besht (1923), are patterned on the historical "chronicle" drama. Thus the Hebrew historical play of that period is very much a "melodrama of ideas"; the playwrights were unable to create dramatic action that derived naturally from the cultural milieu it was supposed to represent.
One of the playwrights of the period was Meir Poner (1854–1936), whose Joseph della Reina (1904) is a dramatic adaptation of the story of this legendary character. The play is on two levels: the relationship of Jews and gentiles; and the relationship of man and God (in the manner of Faust). His other plays Beit Eli (1902), Yemei Hordos ha-Aḥaronim (1913), Mot ha-Melekh Hordos (1928), Yehudah ben Yeḥizkiyyahu ha-Gelili (1921), and others have as their main theme the freedom of the people of Israel; the plot, however, does not dramatically realize the rich texture of ideas. Poner's prose style, unlike Landau's uninspired, florid language, is quite original.
Hebrew writers of the 1930s and 1940s continued to write "melodramas of ideas," e.g., A.A. *Kabak's Be-Himmot Mamlakhah (1929) and Bat Sanballat (1934); and S. *Tchernichowsky's Bar Kokhva (1930). Bar Kokhva is replete with monologues on liberty by Rabbi Akiva and his wife Rachel; but the action of the plot centers around Bar Kokhba's betrayal of his people because of Havivah, the Samaritan. Tchernichowsky, however, failed to integrate the conceptual and melodramatic planes in the play. The ideas of the play are not realized in the action and therefore lack dramatic validity.
Most of Ya'akov *Cahan's plays are marked by a gap between a high view of existence and sentimental melodrama. In the King Solomon trilogy, Shelomo u-Vat Shelomo (1924, 1928), Shelomo ve-Shulammit (1942), Malkat Sheva (1945), the sentimental melodrama centers around Solomon's love for Shulamit, Ido's love for Solomon's daughter, and Solomon's love for the Queen of Sheba. Its ideological interpretation has a "Faustian" Weltanschauung. These plays are also marred by Cahan's inability to activate his ideas; his characters never gain the stature their positions demand, and the tone never rises above the sentimental. Most of his other plays are poetic drama but whether they are biblical like Hoshe'a (1956), David Melekh Yisrael (1921), Ha-Nefilim (1939–40), and Leyad ha-Piramidot (1939), or post-biblical plays: Aḥer (1950), Rabbi Me'ir u-Veruryah (1952) and Yannai u-Shelomit (1955); or nonhistorical prose plays: Ken ha-Nesher (1932), Ha-Shali'aḥ (1937), and Terufo shel Ben Adar (1939), they are mostly of the same caliber and texture. The style is very conventional and Cahan tends to embellish concrete dramatic reality with very ornate metaphors which are not always in keeping with the subject or theme. Some of Cahan's plays are, however, genuine melodrama: in Yiftaḥ (1945) no attempt is made to impose ideas on the plot and in Be-Luz (1940) they develop out of the action.
An earlier playwright, I.L. Mekler, in Pilegesh ba-Givah (1899), a dramatization of a biblical story, also stressed the drama of the play rather than its ideas. Yet most of the playwrights of "the melodrama of ideas" (S.D. Goitein, E.L. Jaffe, S. *Zemach, and others) created either stock characters or personifications of ideas which they failed to realize into fully developed dramatis personae. The American Jewish playwright Harry *Sackler made a significant contribution to the Jewish theater. Sackler wrote in Hebrew, in Yiddish, and in English. He was familiar with the theater and with stagecraft. Yosi min Yokrat (written in Yiddish, 1917, and translated into Hebrew by Sackler in 1921) is tragic in form. The plot revolves around the conflict between Yosi and his wife Yalta over the conduct of their daughter Ursilla, whose great beauty arouses men to passionate rivalry and ultimately to murder. The tragedy culminates in Ursilla's death. Yosi, prompted by rigid stringent moral convictions, kills his daughter because he believes that her beauty is an evil which spells disaster for all men. Although the play has dramatic impact, the dialogue fails to sustain the tragic intensity of the plot. In a number of other Hebrew plays (e.g., Raḥav (1934), Ha-Derekh l-Elohim (1964), Yizkor (1964)), which were printed in Yiddish before they were translated into Hebrew, the effect is basically melodramatic; Sackler fails to involve the characters in deep dramatic conflict. A mixture of humor and melodrama characterizes his Hebrew ḥasidic plays and playlets: Nesi'at ha-Ẓaddik (1936), Ha-Ḥozeh Ro'eh et Kallato (1932), Kelappei Mizraḥ (1933). Other works by Sackler resemble the chronicle play Orot me-Ofel (1936), a historical canvas of the persecution of Jews during the *Fettmilch riots in Frankfurt on the Main and alluding to Hitler's rise to power, and Mashi'aḥ – Nosaḥ Amerikah (Hebrew, 1933), a comic treatment of Mordecai Manuel *Noah's plan to found a Jewish state in the United States. Sackler's plays are well structured, the dialogue is simple and functional, and the stock characters find their actualization in social circumstances and historical garb. Some of them (Yosi min Yokrat and Raḥav) have been produced in the United States and in Israel.
The most frequently staged playwright of the 1930s and 1940s, Aharon *Ashman, began as a "ḥalutzic" writer (e.g., Min ha-Meẓar (1932); and Ha-Adamah ha-Zot (1942, which was successfully staged by Habimah) whose pioneering themes reflect the problems of his generation. He later wrote historical plays: the trilogy Mikhal Bat Sha'ul (first part printed in 1941), two parts of which were performed by Habimah; Aleksandrah ha-Ḥashmona'it (1947), used as a libretto for an opera by *Avidom; and Ha-Ḥomah (1938), written in the manner of the chronicle play. Most of Ashman's dramas have intricate plot structures in which simple characters become entangled in intrigues. The biblical or historical setting has little significance and serves only as an exotic background to the love story of the dramatis personae. While the melodramatic effects have a strong histrionic impact, his themes are superficial and trivial.
In contrast to the historical plays in which preference was given to the theatrical aspects over and against the poetic, dramatists like I. *Katzenelson, who is one of the finest Hebrew lyrical dramatists, stressed the lyricism of playwriting. Katzenelson, a prolific and versatile writer, wrote in a number of literary genres, both in Hebrew and Yiddish. Among the various types of plays he composed are Tarshish (1921), a realistic drama, produced in New York; Ha-Ḥammah! Ha-Ḥammah! (1907), a poetic, impressionistic one-act play performed at the gala opening of Habimah in Moscow (it later formed part of the trilogy Anu Ḥayyim u-Metim, 1913); Ha-Ma'gal (1911), a bedroom farce performed in Lodz; Istharah (1933); the biographical playlets Ha-Matmid ve-Ẓillo (1935) and Mendele im ha-Kabẓanim (1936); and plays for children about holidays and festivals. Katzenelson's most significant contribution to the Hebrew drama are his verse plays, poetic prose drama, and a number of lyrical dramatic fragments: Ha-Navi (Ha-olam 1912 – Act i; Ha-Ẓefirah 1918 – Act ii; published in book form 1922); Gilgal (1911–13); Amnon (1938); and Ḥanniba'al (1947). While his plays in prose are dramatically effective, their themes and structures are conventional. Katzenelson's value as a dramatist lies in the high literary quality of his impressionistic plays, which are written in poetic prose. Intense dramatic situations are rendered lyrically, though in no way detracting from the interaction of dialogue and plot. His original interpretations of biblical and post-biblical historical themes and their poetic dramatic rendering are most expressive of Katzenelson's dramatic genius. In Ha-Navi the relationship between *Elisha and *Geḥazi is the inescapable bond existing between a man and his shadow; in Amnon, Katzenelson characterizes Amnon, the heir-apparent to David, as a weakling, unfit to be king because he is incapable of rebelling against his father; in Ḥanniba'al, Hannibal, who is called upon to revenge the heinous crimes the Aryans committed against the Semites (the play was written in a German concentration camp), recoils from meting out vengeance. Katzenelson's verse plays have great literary merit from the point of view of language, but they are not theatrically effective.
Mattityahu *Shoham, a major figure in Hebrew literature, composed four biblical plays in verse which, because of their original style and structure and imaginative conception of historical events, are landmarks in Hebrew drama. Yeriḥo (1924), a dramatization of the fall of Jericho, has for its main characters Achan and Rahab, whose love for each other is symbolic of the attraction between the decadent culture of Jericho and the rigorous, vital Hebrew culture of the desert. In Bilam (1925–29), the subplot which portrays the tension between Balaam and Moses embodies the dramatic theme of conflict between the forces of darkness (Balaam) and the forces of light (Moses). The tension is resolved in Balaam's regeneration. Ẓor vi-Yerushalayim (1933) presents the theme of culture polarity through the characters of Jezebel, Elijah, and Elisha. Elisha's dissociation from Jezebel indicates a subtle change from Shoham's earlier view on the attraction between the Jewish culture and a foreign culture. In Elohei Barzel Lo Ta'aseh Lakh (1937) Gog, who personifies Aryanism, and Abraham, who represents Judaism, are locked in a relentless struggle which forms an allegorical superstructure to a plot that revolves around Sarah, Hagar, and Lot's daughters. Shoham through the power of his poetry endows language with a dimension of its own which is revealed in the dramatic tension between his symbols. While the dramatic content is embodied in symbols of fire and water (Yeriḥo), light and darkness (Bilam), and the vine and the lion (Ẓor vi-Yerushalayim), it is actualized not in the plot, or in the characters who remain mostly symbolic or allegoric, or in the dialogue. Shoham's dramas fall short as theater primarily because his "literary," idiosyncratic language is completely unsuited for the stage. Thus while his literary dramatic achievement is undisputed, his plays are theatrically not successful. Shoham's dramaturgical problems reflect those of contemporaneous Hebrew drama.
Among the writers who attempted to write expressionist-historical drama were Nathan *Agmon, Sh. *Shalom, and Ḥayyim *Hazaz. Agmon broke with the tradition of the conventional plot and in the plays Yehudah Ish Kerayot (1930), Shabbetai Ẓevi (1931), and Be-Leil Zeh (1934) emotional tension rather than coherent sequence is the cohesive factor. The dialogue is fragmentary and rhetorical; the characters tend to be symbolic and episodes grotesque. The structure of the plays, however, renders them unsuitable for the stage. Years later Agmon rewrote two of these plays: Shabbetai Ẓevi (1936) and Be-Leil Zeh, renamed Leil Yerushalayim (1953), trying to tone down the expressionistic effects. Although the adaptations are much closer to the realistic school, they lack the verve, spontaneity, and originality of the earlier plays. All three dramas have for theme crisis in Jewish history as manifest in the struggle between traditional conservatism, which acquiesces to exile, and the demand for messianic redemption. Yerushalayim ve-Romi (1939), a dramatization of *Josephus, and the Herzl trilogy, Ḥevlei Gilgul (appeared in complete form in 1960), are two of his plays which were originally written in a realistic style. Some later plays, Maḥlefot Avshalom, Harostrat, and Don Quixote (1960), while original and interesting in their approach and interpretation of the subject matter, fall short of their theatrical realization.
*Shin Shalom gave full vent to his expressionistic dramatic tendencies in the two poetic playlets Shabbat ha-Olam (1945, first appeared as Elisha ve-ha-Shabbat, 1932) and Me'arat Yosef (1934) which are not intended for the stage but are dialogues giving voice to the Schrei (the famous expressionist cry). *Elisha b. Avuyah, the protagonist of Shabbat ha-Olam, revolts against tradition and in Me'arat Yosef Josephus attempts to return to the primordial forces of life after the destruction of civilization. Shalom's characters are projections of the poet's "I" rather than genuine portrayals of the "I" of the personae of his plays. His characters are never fully rendered as independent human beings. His "ḥalutzic" plays Yeriyyot el ha-Kibbutz (1940) and Adamah (1942) are less expressionistic.
Ḥayyim Hazaz's play Be-Keẓ ha-Yamim (different versions: 1934, 1950, 1968), probably one of the outstanding achievements of contemporary Hebrew drama, is an expressionist play in which the author has carefully kept to the thematic and structural framework. Set in the time of Shabbetai Ẓevi, the theme of the drama is the tension between the polar concepts of exile and redemption. Yozfa, the "hero of redemption," attacks the smugness of the community, represented on the one hand by Yost and his friends who prefer the safety of the status quo to the disruptive and revolutionary challenge that redemption offers, and on the other hand by the beggars who misinterpret the significance of the deliverance. While the dramatis personae are infused with an exaggerated intensity, they fulfill their dramatic function as characters. Hazaz is original in his rhetoric style which remains within the confines of the language of the theater.
Hebrew historical drama during the national revival can point to a number of important literary works (e.g., the plays of Shoham). The discrepancy between the ideas of the playwright and his ability to realize them in a theatrical context is the reason why there were no major dramatic achievements during this period. Hebrew historical drama was also affected by a variety of Western literatures. Dramatists were eclectic and were influenced by many schools, plays, and a wide range of dramatic genres extending from French neoclassicism, to German classicism (Goethe), to Polish expressionism (S. Wyspiański).
The period of national revival (1880–1947) also saw the development of the play that dramatizes different facets of contemporary Jewish life. This type of play was a vehicle of expression in contemporary Yiddish literature as well, and some playwrights wrote in both languages.
The Zionist melodrama follows the tradition of the didactic Haskalah allegory and the historical "conceptual melodrama." J.L. Landau's Yesh Tikvah ("There is Hope," performed in Brody and published in 1893) is an early example. Shulamit, the heroine, is the daughter of the rich man of the town who must decide between Binyamin Ish Nadiv, the Zionist whom she likes, and Max Bilam, the assimilationist whom her father favors. In the end love and Zionism triumph. The play is a Zionist reading of allegories like M.Ḥ. Luzzatto's La-Yesharim Tehillah. Lefanim Le'ahor (1923), another play by J.L. Landau, is much more complex. Its theme is an ideological struggle between Zionism and assimilationism for the souls of the youth and the whole community. The conflict is embodied in the dramatis personae: the rabbi of the community De Shneour Michal, a spiritual Zionist, and the aristocrat Steinbach, the man who wields power in the small town and whose daughter converts to Christianity at his instigation. In two other melodramas: Ha-Sorer be-Veito (printed in 1900) by I.H. *Tawiow and Ba't ha-Rav o Giyyoret ha-Ẓiyyonut (1904) by Jacob Gordon, Zionism serves as the criterion of the good. The Zionists are the positive characters and good overcomes evil. The structure of the Zionist melodrama thus follows the pattern of the Haskalah allegory where enlightened "nationalists" are juxtaposed with the "enlightened maskilim" and the assimilationists take the place of the religious reactionaries.
Many of the plays of the national renaissance period bear affinity to the trends and forms prevalent in modern European drama, showing the influences of Ibsen's drama, Maeterlinck's symbolistic plays, and Hauptmann's social naturalism. Some of Peretz *Hirschbein's plays are markedly naturalistic while others are symbolistic. He wrote mostly in Yiddish but translated his own works into Hebrew. Miryam (1905), a conventional social melodrama about a poor and simple country girl, is a prime example of the influence of naturalism in Hebrew drama. She is seduced by the "landlord's" son and ends up in a brothel. The protagonist of the naturalistic play Nevelah ("Carrion," printed in 1905), Mendel Nevelah, is also a victim of society, here represented by his forefathers. Driven by suffering, he murders his own father and sinks into madness. Bein Yaldei ha-Sadeh (original Yiddish Grine Felder; Hebrew 1922), a comedy staged in Hebrew by Habimah, describes the comic confrontation between country Jews and Levi Yiẓḥak, a scholar from town.
Jacob *Steinberg, primarily a poet and short story writer, also wrote naturalistic social drama. The heroine of Ḥankah (1907), a play in the pattern of Miryam, is a pathetic girl who, persecuted by her stepmother, finally commits suicide. In R. Leib Goldman u-Vitto (1907), Steinberg dramatizes the eternal conflict of the generations as manifest in his time. Bayit mul Bayit (1908) by Zalman *Shneour, who is also mainly known for his poetry and prose rather than his plays, is a social drama in which prostitution is exposed by means of contrast with bourgeois life. Shneour's Adam (1926) is a lyrical dramatization of the story of Adam and Eve. Joseph Ḥayyim *Brenner's Me-Ever la-Gevulin (1907), a play comprised of a series of dialogue fragments, marks a chapter in the history of Hebrew drama and dialogue. Brenner's dramas, which he termed "plays and fragmentations of plays," use the dramatic fragmentation technique, a literary device also found in many of his prose works. Not well structured, the play is nevertheless interesting from the point of view of style, technique in dramatic dialogue, and theme. Its setting is the London of Jewish-Russian emigrants whose social customs and ideological struggles form the dramatic tension in the play. The protagonists, Yoḥanan and Ḥezkoni, despair of all socialist theories and regard suffering as the ultimate truth. Brenner, attempting to recreate the spoken word, evolved a kind of Hebrew-English dialect which was meant to be analogous to the Yiddish-English dialect in actual use. He thus brought the "language of the theater" closer to the "language of life." The playlets Le-Et Attah (1905) and Erev u-Voker (1908), written in a similar style, evince a better control of the medium and dramatically are realized more fully.
realistic hebrew drama
One of the first exponents of realism in Hebrew drama is Yitzḥak Dov *Berkowitz who wrote a number of important plays, among them Oto ve-et Beno (1928 and performed by Habimah). The play follows a realistic Ibsenian technique and is a landmark in contemporary Hebrew drama. The theme, the relationship between an apostate father who wishes to return to Judaism and his son who has become a Jew hater, is comprehended within an analytical design and set against the bloody landscape of Russian pogroms during the Bolshevik Revolution. Two minor realistic plays by Berkowitz are Ba-araẓot ha-Reḥokot (1928), a comedy on the life of Jewish immigrants in the United States whose lives are thrown into comic confusion through the arrival of Anton, a non-Jewish Russian farmer; and the social drama Mirah (1934), also set in the United States, and strongly influenced by Ibsen's A Doll's House.
Yitzḥak *Shenhar also wrote realistic drama, though of a different type. Al ha-Gevul ("On the Border," 1943) is about a group of pioneers who attempt to immigrate to Ereẓ Israel. Their efforts lead to a momentary reorientation in the life of a degenerating family; no real change, however, is effected. Chekhov's Three Sisters served the author as model. His protagonists are three brothers and the ideal and yearning for Ereẓ Israel replace the nostalgic longing for Moscow. To some extent Shenhar writes in the earlier tradition of translation and adaptation of European themes, topics, and literary structures to a Jewish milieu, ambiance, and cultural ideal. Some of the best authors of Hebrew literature tried their hand at naturalistic-realistic plays, a parallel school of which developed in Yiddish drama. This affinity between Hebrew and Yiddish drama is still more evident in the symbolistic and expressionistic techniques of I.L. *Peretz, H. *Leivick, and D. *Pinski, who wrote mostly in Yiddish.
symbolism and expressionism
Isaac Leib Peretz (1852–1915) was one of the first symbolists and expressionists in Hebrew and Yiddish drama. Ḥurban Beit Zaddik (1903, had a number of versions, one in Hebrew) is a mystical play which dramatizes the decline of a ḥasidic ẓaddik's dynasty. Germinated in doubt, the degenerative process takes its full course, ending finally in heresy. The symbolistic technique is typical of Peretz's Yiddish plays. His social playlets are written in a naturalistic style, e.g., Seḥufei Zerem (1912) and Ba-Shefel (1924). P. Hirschbein also wrote symbolic plays: Olamot Bodedim ("Lonely Worlds," 1905) is set in a cellar where a group of wretched and oppressed people live in close proximity without talking to each other but "next to each other." In technique and atmosphere the play resembles M. Maeterlinck's Les Aveugles (translated into Hebrew in the same year). Teki'at Kaf (Ha-Shiloaḥ 18, 1908) bears similarity to S. *An-ski's Dybbuk. Its theme of innocent pure love, culminating in a blood bond between the young lovers, is enacted against the background of a contract sealed by their parents which, however, they later break. The breach leads to disaster and the young hero's death. The technique is symbolistic, as in the historical drama Be-Ẓel ha-Dorot (1922) and in the playlets Al Yad ha-Derekh (1907) and Pirḥei Sedeh ha-Kevarim (1907). Hirschbein's drama is thus marked by two distinct literary trends in European literature – naturalism and symbolism. A number of less important Hebrew playwrights also experimented with symbolism; none however attained the artistic level of the Yiddish dramatists. Their contribution to the Hebrew drama was the development of natural Hebrew style.
the "Ḥalutz" play
Developed mainly in Ereẓ Israel, the "ḥalutz" play (or "Maḥaze ha-Hityashvut," "the Settlement Drama") is defined by its subject matter: the story of the settlers in Ereẓ Israel, their problems, and their struggles. The underlying theme of the "ḥalutz" drama is to praise the pioneers and their efforts and to denounce all their opponents. Most of these plays were insignificant melodramas which at best were well constructed. The characters were drawn from the social milieu of Ereẓ Israel. Yehoshua Barzilai in Ha-Baḥlan ("The Disdainer" 1919: special edition), one of the early plays in the genre, transposed Molière's Misanthrope to the Ereẓ Israel landscape and its problems. "Ha-Baḥlan," the protagonist, hates his urban environment (Jerusalem) but when he comes face to face with the new settlement he has a change of heart. Allah Karim (1912), by L.A. Orloff-Arieli (1886–1943), has a more complex plot and is enacted within a pattern of intricate human relationships. The central character, Naomi Shatz, immigrates to Ereẓ Israel during the Second Aliyah and becomes engaged to one of the pioneers. She is, however, disappointed by the Jewish "pioneering" intellectuals and prefers the native Arabs (Ali, the pastry vendor) whom she sees as really belonging to the land. Set against the Arab-Jewish conflict, the play ends with Naomi's hope for a new Jewish generation whose character will be shaped by the native soil. Allah Karim heralds the development of "Maḥaze ha-Safek," "the Doubt play," a sub-genre of the "Settlement Drama" that accentuates the impotence of European newcomers in overcoming the hardships with which the physical and human reality in the Land of Israel confronts them. Although diminishing in number in course of the 1930s, in which the "positive," "optimistic" Settlement plays flourished due to the numerous anniversaries of veteran Jewish settlements and the establishment of new ones, the "Doubt play" prevailed until the ideological "earthquake" following the Yom Kippur War in 1973. David *Shimoni is another playwright of the "ḥalutzic" trend who extols the pioneering spirit (Laylah ba-Kerem, 1911) as does Ḥaim *Shurer, whose dramatic canvas unfolds against the social problems of the pioneers. La-Rishonah (1920) dramatizes the conflict between the viticulturists of the village and their workers and the tension generated by the contradictory social and national views of the laborers themselves. Structured as a family melodrama, the viticulturist's daughter Michal falls in love with a laborer, David, her father's social antagonist. Shurer exposes the unreasonable extremism of the young people as they rebel against their parents. Only as the play draws to a close do the young come to acknowledge the right of existence of their opponents. Various "ḥalutz" plays continue to be written over a long period. Roḥaleh (1933) by Moshe *Smilansky is but a new version of an old subject. Ha-Adamah ha-Zot, by A. Ashman, has also for theme the pioneering spirit, acted out in a confrontation between father and son. Yoel Yoshpeh, a pioneer, opposes his son who seeks to escape from the village and to take Ḥannah, his beloved, with him. Ḥannah, however, loves Ya'akov, a worker on the moshav; ḥalutziyyut ("pioneering") wins out in the end and overcomes all obstacles. Though the melodramatic structure of the play is different, the class division of characters and concepts is the same, and the basic theme, the triumph of pioneering, remains the focal issue. Other plays written in this vein are Bein Iyyim (1928), by Mordekhai *Avi-Shaul, a drama of pathos in which the labor movement values of the protagonist, Yehoshua Ne'eman, are paramount; Yeriyot el ha-Kibbutz (1940) and Adamah (1942) by Sh. Shalom; Ḥayyim (1942) by Menaḥem Bader which also glorify the value of labor; and Ha-Zaken (1942) by Yehoshua *Bar Yosef, a realistic playwright, who draws on the prototype of A.D. *Gordon. In Medurot ("Bonfires") Alexander Karmon contrasts the martyr spirit of the hero to the values of his opponents and extols the role he takes in illegal immigration. While many of these pioneering plays are melodramas, some comedies on the subject were also written, e.g., A. Ashman's Min ha-Meẓar ("Out of Distress," 1932). The comic action revolves around the contention between two parties over the hand of Ellah, a pioneer. She has to choose between the temptation offered by the American family Stevens and the journalist Brown and the pioneering idealism of Yehudah. Ellah, of course, chooses the "good." The comedies Banim li-Gevulam ("Sons Return to their Border," 1945, performed by Habimah) by Asher *Beilin and I Like Mike by Aharon *Megged (1956) are constructed along similar lines.
Not all plays about Ereẓ Israel have for theme the problems of pioneering. Some dramatize other aspects and problems arising from life in Ereẓ Israel. A central theme is the conflict between generations and the struggle between tradition and those who rebel against it. M. Avi-Shaul in his dramatization of the conflict in Ha-Maḥarozet ("The Necklace," 1928) pits the old values of the Diaspora represented by Raphael Ḥai, a member of the Jerusalem Moghrabi (Moroccan) Jewish community, against the new life in Ereẓ Israel to which his daughter Mas'udah is dedicated. Bar Yosef's Ya'akov ha-Ẓohek ("Laughing Jacob," 1939) and Be-Simta'ot Yerushalayim ("In Jerusalem Alleys," 1941, performed by the *Ohel Theater) have similar themes. The dramatic tension is between the values of traditional Jewry of Safed and Jerusalem, and their children who rebel against the suppression of eroticism in their society. The conflict is not resolved but has its tragic "dissolution" in madness to which some of the characters are ultimately driven. Ithamar Ben-Hur's Ha-Soreret (1942) and M. Berger's Me'ah She'arim (1943) are similar. A different aspect of Ereẓ Israel was probed by A. Karmon who, in Ba-Sevakh ("Entanglement," 1926) and Neginat ha-Em ("Mother's Melody," 1928), dramatizes various intricate human relationships in kibbutz life (e.g., incest between a brother and a sister, family and education problems in a collective settlement). Only toward the end of the 1940s were some attempts made at introducing into Hebrew drama contemporaneous Western dramatic elements. Thus Ya'akov *Horowitz, who had earlier written an expressionistic play (Gesher ha-Leẓim, 1929), wrote in 1956 Ani Roẓeh Lishlot ("I Want to Rule"), a social-universal play which broke with the conventional "ḥalutz" drama, a trend that had continued into the early period of the state, though in a different garb.
Drama in Israel
Hebrew drama gained considerable impetus after the War of Independence. The establishment of the state accelerated the development of the Hebrew theater. The *Cameri (Chamber) Theater, established in 1944, promoted the realistic school. In the wake of the War of Independence a youth cult developed to which the stage also tended to cater. Most of the plays were a continuation of the "ḥalutz" play in theme and form, with the young fighters of the War of Independence replacing the young ḥalutzim. Two plays belonging to this category are Yigal *Mossinsohn's Be-Arvot ha-Negev ("In the Negev Desert," 1949, performed by Habimah), a melodrama about the defense of a besieged Jewish settlement during the War of Independence; and Moshe *Shamir's Hu Halakh ba-Sadot ("He Walked in the Fields," 1947, an adaptation of a novel by the same name), a love story set in a kibbutz. The two lovers are Uri, born on the kibbutz and now a soldier, and Mika, a survivor of the Holocaust. Both plays end in the death of the heroes. Similar plays are Kilometer 56 (1949) and Beit Hillel (1951) by M. Shamir. The only exception to this wave of mythical self-glorification was Nathan *Shaham's Hem Yagi'u Maḥar ("They Will Arrive Tomorrow," 1949). In this realistic morality play, Jonah, the commander of an Israeli platoon, sends his comrades and two Arabs to their certain death on a landmined hill. Through this morally dubious act, fiercely condemned by his second in command, Avi (named after Abraham, the first legislator of the monotheist ethos), Jonah liberates himself and the remaining soldiers. The play is thus an early paradigm of the constant vacillation in Israeli drama (reflected even as late as 2005 in Yehoshua *Sobol's Zeman Emet ("The Moment of Truth") and in Yael Ronen's Plonter ("The Gordian Knot")) between vindication for any atrocities committed by Israelis against Arabs for survival's sake and fidelity to the humane tradition of Jewish morality.
Most of the plays of the 1950s are social dramas – distinguished by realistic-documentary or satirical-grotesque styles – in which the new developing society in Israel is criticized in the light of the values of the labor movement, e.g., A. Megged's Ḥedvah va-Ani ("Ḥedvah and I," 1964) and N. Shaham's Kera Li Syomka ("Call Me Syomka," 1950). The young dramatists of Israel's formative era (early 1950s) were primarily enraged by the "counter-revolutionary" symptoms of the new society. Corruption, bureaucracy, careerism, social inequality, and racial discrimination are criticized in realistic works which are all too often shallow: the new generation had ceased to uphold the cooperative and rural values of the pre-state Jewish population and had instead become bourgeois, trying to achieve its selfish ends at the expense of the young state, while the state on its part has been ungrateful to that part of the young generation that fought for its establishment. The following list of topical plays shows that many of the best of Israel's writers tried through social drama to grapple with the problems that beset the decade: M. Shamir's Sof ha-Olam and Aggadot Lod (1958), Ḥ. *Bartov's Shesh Kenafayim le-Eḥad (1954), and N. Shaham's Ḥeshbon Ḥadash deal with the absorption of immigrants; Y. Mosinsohn's Kazablan (1958) and Judith *Hendel's Reḥov ha-Madregot (1955) describe the discrimination of the Oriental community by the hegemonic Ashkenazi veterans; and Ephraim *Kishon's Shemo Holekh Lefanav (1953) satirizes the new bureaucracy; Y. Mosinsohn's Eldorado depicts prostitution and crime among the socially deprived and stigmatized Oriental sectors (1963), Yosh's Ani Rav ha-Ḥovel deals with the big seamen's strike, and Yoram Matmor's fine Pirandellian play Maḥazeh Ragil (reminiscent in content and style of Six Characters in Search of an Author) denounces society's betrayal of the freedom fighters. The protagonists are usually conventional, typical, and local, representing only their way of life and the immediate situation in which circumstance has cast them. They therefore lack any kind of universality. They are either clerks, new immigrants, or Oriental Jews. The playwrights tried to draw Oriental types but in actuality they only imitated their manner of speech and customs, and not always successfully. The language of these plays comes close to slang and though it is more flexible than the dramatic language of earlier generations, it lacks "style." The episodes are in the form of "reporting" and the playwrights make no attempt at stamping on the world they had created their personal "literary" seal. The plays of the humorist E. *Kishon, Shaḥor al-gabei Lavan, Af Millah le-Morgenstern, Shemo Holekh Lefanav, and Ha-Ketubbah created a new type of comedy. In a way they were a continuation of the comedy staged by Matateh ("Broom"), a satirical theater founded in the late 1920s.
An outstanding play in its superior aesthetic quality is Tura, a psychological-mythical drama by Y. Bar-Yosef (1933– ). It is set in the traditional Oriental Jewish community, and depicts the horrendous results of the devaluation of the patriarchal family and its codes in Israel's "melting pot" of the 1950s. The situation is aggravated by the fact that the protagonists become pawns within the tenacious grips of the codes of the traditional community, so that their violation by the young heroine sweeps the dramatic action to a climax which culminates in her "ritual" murder.
New developments in contemporary Hebrew drama were nevertheless apparent, even in the 1950s. Biblical and historical drama is manipulated as a religiously connoted prism for critique of political and moral problems. It gained fresh impetus with Akhzar mi-Kol-ha-Melekh (1955) by Nissim *Aloni; Milḥemet Benei Or (1956) and Ha-Laylah le-Ish by M. Shamir; Tamar Eshet Er (1947) by Y. Mosinsohn; Yoḥanan Bar-Ḥama (1952) by N. Shaham; Bereshit by A. Megged; Ha-Dov and Shalosh Nashim be-Ẓahov (both 1966) by Y. Eliraz; Uriyyah ha-Ḥitti and Sedom Siti (1959) by B. *Galai; Massale-Nineveh (1963) by Y. *Amichai; and Keter ba-Rosh (1969) by Y. Shabtai. These plays are not cast in one mold: some, like Shamir's, are politically topical drama in which contemporary social problems (revolution, mixed marriages) are projected into the past. Others try to dramatize the past but the protagonists are motivated psychologically (Tamar Eshet Er). Akhzar mi-Kol-ha-Melekh ("Most Cruel of All – the King") is an interesting social-poetic interpretation of the period of division between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. Replete with allusions to contemporaneous problems, warning against the dangers of separatism and internal Kulturkampf, the play has nevertheless an independent existence as a psychological-poetic drama which is bound neither by time nor place. Some brilliant and pungent parodies on the past were written by modern Israel authors. They follow either the comic-parodic style of contemporary French drama (Eliraz), or are modern poetic reinterpretations of biblical themes which shed a new light on the rather untended facets of the ancient myth (such as the depiction of the old, impotent, and unstable King David, who is nevertheless reluctant to retire and deal with the question of his political legacy in Shabtai's Keter ba-Rosh). Playwrights have also tried to achieve comic effects through the treatment of a lofty subject with bathos (Megged, Galai, Eliraz). All these dramatists show a certain originality of expression, form, and approach to the material. Among the finest and most problematic modern Hebrew dramatists is N. *Alterman. Nathan Alterman, primarily a poet, wrote very diverse plays: Kinneret Kinneret (1962), a kitsch-nostalgic new "settlement play" devised to idealize the courage of the pioneers; Pundak ha-Ruḥot (1963), a drama which, through obvious analogies with Goethe's Faust and Ibsen's Peer Gynt, deals with the dilemma confronting every great artist of having to choose between life, love, and familial happiness, on the one hand, and artistic success, glory, and loneliness on the other; Among Alterman's other dramatic work one should mention Malkat Ester (1968), a Purim farce, and Mishpat Pythagoras (1966), an allegorical-topical play. The predominant strength of Alterman's plays is their rich and multi-layered poetic language that thrives at the expense of a convincing and gripping dramatic plot and conflict.
The so-called "Holocaust Dramaturgy" is one of the main genres of the Hebrew-Israeli play. It rarely focuses on commemorating the historical catastrophe, but rather contemplates the Shoah's shifting repercussions on Israeli society or uses it as a socio-political metaphor. The Holocaust is presented in the plays written during the 1940s and 1950s as an image of impotence, and is juxtaposed with the sublime convention of the Sabra. This is the underlying premise of plays such as the above-mentioned Hu Halakh ba-Sadot ("He Walked in the Fields," 1947) by Moshe Shamir, in which Holocaust survivor Mika has to sacrifice her private dream of leading a normal life with her boyfriend, Uri, for the sake of fighting for the establishment of the state. So too in Nathan Shaham's Ḥeshbon Ḥadash ("A New Account," 1952), or Aharon Megged's Hanna Senesh (1958) which glorifies the bravery of the woman paratrooper who was executed in Nazi occupied Hungary in her attempt to save Jews, those weaklings who went to their death like "cattle to the slaughter." The only exception to this orientation is Ba'alat ha-Armon ("Lady of the Manor," 1956), by the poet Lea *Goldberg, who focuses on the juxtaposition between European culture and modern civilization (including Zionism). It is acted out against the background of the rescue of European Jewish children from forced conversion. The protagonists are an old Polish nobleman, who represents the declining European culture, and an Israeli woman, who embodies the new civilization. The author's obviously romantic sympathies tend toward the old gentleman and the fading world he embodies. The poetic realistic and allegorical plays of the 1960s manifest a shift in the Israeli attitude toward the Holocaust. They belie the recognition that a society cannot forgo its past, and present the world of the victims and Nazi accomplices as the analogous alter ego of the rootless cult of the mythologized Sabra. The foremost accomplishments in this category include Moshe Shamir's Ha-Yoresh ("The Heir," 1963), Yehuda Amichai's Pa'amonim ve-Rakavot ("Bells and Trains"), as well as Ben Zion Tomer's Yaldei ha-Ẓel ("Children of the Shadow," 1963). This interesting play deals with Holocaust children who do not become rooted in the new reality of Israel, though on the surface they seem to have adapted. The drama is enacted in the garb of a symbolic relationship between the young protagonist Yosef-Yoram and his uncle, Dr. Sigmund Rabinovicz, who had been a Judenrat member and a Kapo guilty of the extermination of his own family.
the six-day (1967) and yom kippur (1973) wars as turning points
The turning point in the Hebrew drama's attitude to society was the euphoric mentality that overtook Israel after the sweeping victory in the Six-Day War (1967). This was followed by a period of collective self-reckoning, soul searching, and myth shattering in the wake of the humiliating surprise of the Yom-Kippur War (1973). Whereas Israeli drama before 1967 was basically positive toward the ideal of the "New Jew," post-1967 protest plays adopted an asocial, agnostic, and deconstructive position in order to warn society against the dangers of a militarist power-cult and the moral deterioration inextricably connected with the occupation of the Palestinians and the subordination of human values to the imperative of territorial expansion. In fact, one may argue that from 1967 to Rabin's murder in 1995 the core of Hebrew drama was politically mobilized, rhetorically militant, and ideologically leftist. This thematic and stylistic watershed was also accompanied by a higher degree of ripeness and professionalism in Hebrew dramatic writing thanks primarily to the efforts of Oded Kotler as the artistic director of the Haifa Municipal Theater to promote young dramatists.
Hanoch *Levin's satirical revues At va-Ani ve-Hamil-ḥamah Haba'ah ("You and I and the Next War," 1968), Ketchup (1969, performed in fringe theaters), Malkat ha-Ambatiyah ("Queen of the Bathtub"), staged in 1970 by the establishment Cameri Theater and swiftly closed due to public outcry, and Levin's censored Ha-Patriyot ("The Patriot," Neveh-ẓedek Theater 1982), denouncing the Lebanon War, did not shrink from resorting to profane and provocative devices in order to slaughter the most sacred cows of Israel's collective value system: the ideal of the "justified war"; the cult of the fallen hero; bereavement and the admiration for the military; the avoidance of any chance for peace; the sanctification of land at the expense of life and ethics; and the ingrained racist attitude to Arabs. A.B. *Yehoshua (1936– ), one of the foremost young authors of the 1960s, heralded in Laylah be-Mai ("A Night in May," 1969) the falling apart of Israeli society through the metaphor of the psychological disintegration of a complex Jerusalem family during the period preceding the Six-Day War. One of the most vehement adversaries of Israel's belligerent orientation, provinciality, and disdain for culture was Yosef Mundy, who, as a deliberate rhetorical provocation, proclaimed his Diaspora-cosmopolitan Weltanschauung and anti-Zionist disposition. Mundy's most accomplished play, Zeh Mistovev ("It Turns," 1970) takes place in a madhouse (a common dramatic metaphor for Israel): the allegorical megalomaniac Herzl, representative of political and expansionist Zionism, torments the humanist, individualistic Kafka. In the symbolist-surreal play Moshel Yeriḥo ("The Governor of Jericho," 1975), written after the Yom Kippur War, Mundy depicts the racist and demeaning side of Israeli conduct towards the Palestinians through the vulgar, sexist, and despotic figure of the governor of Jericho, the first biblical town to be conquered by the Hebrew tribes as they invaded the Land of Canaan. One of the major genres in which the Israeli reality has been effectively examined and criticized is the docudrama. The most notable dramatists who continuously work in this genre are Yitzhak Laor, Motti Lerner, Edna Mazya, Ilan Hatzor, Daniela Carmi, Hillel Mittelpunkt, Matti Golan, Amnon Levy and Rami Danon, Shmuel Hasfari, Miriam Kainy, and Yael Ronen. They employ the strategy of undermining the accepted "photographic" conventions from within, thereby upsetting the positive self-image of Israeli society traditionally reasserted by the theater. Docudrama was inaugurated in the early 1970s by the American-born Nola Chilton, who created a succession of "living paper" documentaries promoting a spectrum of social causes in "the other Israel." Her partner in these ventures was Yehoshua Sobol, one of Israel's most prolific, politically engaged, and internationally successful dramatists. Sobol was also one of the major dramatists who developed – in the wake of the 1973 War – the mode of soul-searching plays that dissect the national myths and explore their false nature. Sobol's Leyl ha-Esrim ("The Night of the Twentieth," 1976), based on a historical episode, analyzes the mistakes of the Zionist founding fathers through the narrative of a group of young pioneers in 1920, engaged in a profound and merciless process of soul searching about their motives and purposes before descending from a Galilean hill to a new settlement where they expect to exchange "murderous blows with the Arab occupants of the Land." Sobol employs and develops similar docudramatic strategies in a number of plays, most notably in Nefesh Yehudi ("The Soul of a Jew," 1982), which deals with Jewish self-hatred and reconstructs the biography of Otto Weininger, the misogynist and genial Viennese Jewish philosopher, and in Palestinait ("The Palestinian Woman," 1985). In the latter, Sobol delineates the ordeals of Samira/Magda, a fictional tv-drama character who is the alter-ego of its author. She tries "to crystallize the borders and meeting points between the Israeli Jewish and the Israeli Arab/Palestinian cultural, ethnic, and national identities" (F. Rokem). A relatively late achievement in the docudramatic revisionist vogue is Hillel Mittelpunkt's Gorodish, o ha-Yom ha-Shevi'i ("Gorodish, or The Seventh Day," 1993), a chronicle of the rise and fall of General Shmuel Gonen, a hero of the Six-Day War who became the scapegoat of the "defeat" in the Yom Kippur War, thus symbolizing the ideological bankruptcy of all of Israeli society.
Yet although mainly realistic, the trend of post-Zionist drama that began in the mid-1970s did not preclude stylized and fantastic plays. Yaakov Shabtai's Namer Ḥavarburot ("The Spotted Tiger," 1974) tells the story of Fink, half dreamer half charlatan, who at the end of the 1920s comes to the tiny township of Tel Aviv, a provincial resort of embittered, materialist, and desperate ex-pioneers. Fink brings with him a whiff of the wide world, hoping to establish an international circus in Israel with all its trimmings, including a spotted tiger, the symbol of speed, courage, and unearthly beauty. Being unable to live up to the imaginary dimensions of Fink's utopian dream, the petty, dystopian settlers of Tel Aviv bring about his death in a duel. In Shitz (1975) Hanoch Levin provides a biting satirical grotesque about the cynical Israeli philistines who are transformed by greed into warmongers who thrive on blood. Danny Horowitz's Cherli Ka-Cherli (1977) – a parody on the Israeli Massekhet- genre in the form of an oratorio for speaking voices and chorus – reflects the spirit of soul searching by offering an ironic dissection of the once sacred Sabra myth. The tradition of post-Zionist, non-realistic parables on the shattered ideals of the morally corrupt Israeli society is pursued on the threshold of the third millennium by several dramatists (Yehonatan Geffen, Eldad Ziv, Shlomi Moskovitch). They are, however, surpassed by the theatrical texts of the director and playwright Michael Gurevitch, whose phantasmagorias Mila Aḥat shel Ahavah ("One Word of Love"), Ḥeyl Parashim Anu ("We Are a Unit of Cavaliers") and Osher ("Happiness") constitute poetic stage legends that lend themselves to a plethora of interpretations.
the mobilization of historical and biblical drama
The process of mobilizing the stage for political ends left its mark also on historical and biblical drama. Historical as well as biblical materials have served since 1967 for a critical illumination of local political and existential problems. Aharon Megged's Ha-Onah ha-Bo'eret ("The Burning Season," 1967) takes up the theme of Job in order to warn against the hazards of forgiving the Germans by accepting compensation and establishing diplomatic relations with Germany. Instead of being loyal to the biblical characterization of Job as a righteous and God-fearing patriarch who rightfully lives to see a happy end to his various ordeals, Megged presents him as a blind, "Holocaust-denying" person who deserves the recurrence of his tragic fate. The same biblical myth acquires a radically existential and agnostic interpretation in Hanoch Levin's Yissurei Iyov ("The Sorrows of Job," 1981). In the first part of this "Passion"-play we witness the descent and fall of Job presented as a catastrophic succession of episodic events, corresponding to the biblical narrative (apart from the omission of the prologue in Heaven); yet, in contrast to the Scriptures, the chain of events in Levin's play is the result of both human short-sightedness and selfishness as well as of Job's own moral corruption. In the second part we witness the increasing agony of Job on the verge of dying, having been speared on a pole by the Romans for refusing to renounce God. Becoming part of a circus spectacle, without being granted the sanctification of a martyr's death, Job's anti-heroic suffering is rendered as the epitome of the purposelessness of human existence, of the relativity of human happiness, not even an existential gesture of protest against a metaphysical void. Yaakov Shabtai's Okhlim ("Eating," 1979) is an updated version of the theft of Naboth's vineyard by Jezebel and Ahab. This canonical parable is directed against the apparently "legal" dispossession of the occupied Palestinian land, while Jehu by Gilad Evron (1992) – the story of a ruthless army commander who escapes the death sentence for disobedience, overthrows the reigning monarch, commits hideous crimes, and drives his chief supporter, Ziph, to commit suicide – has been interpreted as a parable on the man who pulls the strings, Ariel Sharon's cynical manipulations of Prime Minister Menachem Begin, which led to the war in Lebanon in the beginning of the 1980s. Rina Yerushalmi's Bible Project – consisting of two parts, Va-Yomer Va-Yelekh ("And he said and he went," 1996) and Va-Yishtaḥu Va-Yar ("And he bowed and he saw," 1998) – harnesses the biblical text itself to its peculiar political ends. Even a harmless biblical musical such as Shelomo ha-Melekh ve-Shalmai ha-Sandlar ("King Solomon and Shalmai the Cobbler") by Sammy Groenemann and Nathan Alterman has been deciphered in its Habimah revival in 2005 as an allegory on social exploitation.
the holocaust as socio-political metaphor
The 1973 Yom Kippur War, which shattered the invincible image of Israel, resulted in a growing awareness that the Holocaust and Israeli experiences are metonymical and interchangeable. The best-known play of the period is Yehoshua Sobol's Ghetto (1984). The play dared for the first time to present – through an alienating "German" epic style and a "profane" image of a theater company in the Vilna Ghetto – the symbiotic relations and reversible roles of the Nazi victimizer and the Jewish victim, thereby reflecting on Israel's belligerency against Lebanon and the occupied territories. Similar political attitudes were advocated by Motti Lerner in his docudramatary Kasztner (1985), acquitting the hero, Rezso Kasztner, of collaborating with the Nazis in liquidating Hungarian Jewry, and in Shmuel Hasfari's family plays Kiddush (1985) and Ḥameẓ (1995). The Acre Theater Center's stunning theatrical event Arbeit macht frei mi-Toitland Europa ("Work Liberates from the Dead Land Europe," 1991) marked the beginning of the fourth stage of Holocaust dramaturgy, with the second and third generations exposing and reacting to the deforming influence of the Holocaust experience on the collective psyche, on the socio-political Weltanschauung and the ethical norms of Israeli society. The fifth phase of Holocaust dramaturgy denotes a "normalization" in the Israeli attitude to the Holocaust, by either employing the Shoah as a relatively indifferent background for soap operas, as in Edna Mazya's Sippur Mishpaḥti ("A Family Story," 1996) and Savyon Liebrecht's Sonya Mushkat (1997) and Sinit Ani Medaberet Elekha ("Chinese I'm Talking to You," 2003), or by the complete role reversal between former victims and victimizers, thus disinheriting the Jews of their moral superiority, as in Aliza Ulmert's Sonata Lifsanter ("A Piano Sonata," 1994) and Hillel Mittelpunkt's Madrikh la-Metayel be-Varsha ("A Warsaw Tourist Guide," 1999) – both preoccupied with the sadistic vendetta of Israelis against partly innocent Polish citizens and their property.
aloni and levin
The unrivaled poets laureate of Hebrew drama are Nissim Aloni (1926–1998) and Hanoch Levin (1943–1999). Even though their plays are saturated with references and allusions to the local milieu, both Aloni and Levin tend to "distance the evidence" of their theatrical, self-referential phantasmagorias to mythical, literary, and legendary regions, thus serving as vanguards of the universal-existential trend in Hebrew drama. Aloni's signature play Ha-Nessikhah ha-Amerika'it ("The American Princess," 1962) delineates, through the detached narrative of a dethroned monarch, murdered by his opportunistic son, the cultural and normative deformation of Israeli society. This small lyrical-ironic masterpiece, strongly affiliated with the French Drama of the Absurd in the 1950s, and some of Aloni's other plays from an opus of 11 plays altogether (for example, Bigdei ha-Melekh, 1961; Ha-Kallah ve-Ẓayyad ha-Parparim, 1966; Ha-Dodah Lizah, 1969; and Eddie King, 1975) mark the playwright's ongoing influence on Israeli drama and theater, as an antidote to the prevailing flat journalistic dramaturgy.
Dramatist and director Hanoch Levin was undoubtedly the most prominent and prolific (60 works) theater practitioner to emerge from the aftermath of the Six-Day War. In the domestic neighborhood comedies that followed his first satirical revues, e. g., Ya'akobi and Leidenthal (1972); Ne'urei Vardaleh ("Vardaleh's Youth," 1974); Krum (1975); Popper (1976); Soḥarei Gummi ("Rubber Merchants," 1978); Halvayah Ḥorpit ("A Winter Funeral," 1978); Orezei Mizevadot ("Suitcase Packers," 1983); Melekhet ha-Ḥayyim ("The Labor of Life," 1989), Levin unravels the Diaspora myths underlying the apotheosized Jewish-Israeli family, and develops his image of humankind as a beastly hierarchy of humiliater and humiliated, motivated exclusively by their basest drives and thanatopsic fears. Levin's final cycle comprises legendary-universal phantasmagorias or "Spectacles of Doom," as, for example Hoẓa'ah La-Horeg ("Execution," 1979); Ha-Zonah ha-Gedolah mi-Bavel ("The Big Babylonian Whore," 1982); Ha-Nashim ha-Avudot mi-Troya ("The Lost Women of Troy," 1984); Kulam Roẓim Liḥyot ("Everybody Wants to Live," 1985); Ha-Yeled Ḥolem ("The Child Dreams," 1993); Pe'urei Peh ("Open-Mouthed," 1985); Kritat Rosh ("Beheading," 1996); Ha-Holkhim ba-Ḥoshekh (1998). In Ashkavah ("Requiem," 1999) he composed his own funeral oration, and Ha-Bakhyanim ("The Weepers," 2000), based on the Agamemnon narrative, was conceived on his deathbed.
the privatized era
The second substantial reversal in Israeli drama took place in the 1990s and characterizes plays written and performed at the beginning of the third millennium. The interconnected historical and theatrical developments (from the Oslo Peace Accord to Rabin's murder and the second Intifada) produce a complete renunciation of communal ideals along with their formal objective correlatives. The personal, cosmopolitan, and humane note is most clearly evident in the upsurge of women's – not necessarily feminist or gender-conscious – dramaturgy and directing. Most of the female dramatists work in the more established, well-made pattern. Shulamit Lapid's Rekhush Natush ("Abandoned Property," 1988) relates the story of an aging, half-blind and bitter mother who was long ago abandoned by her husband, and now tyrannizes her daughters under the pretext of wishing to protect them. Playwright and director Edna Mazia presents provocative, mentally unstable, and attractive heroines, and also directed several of Anat Gov's plays, of which the best and most popular is Ha-Ḥaverot Hakhi Tovot (1999), which takes for its theme the inextricable bonds among girlfriends. The opposite pole consists of stylized, poetic dramatic and theatrical texts, such as Yossefa Even-Shoshan's Ha-Betulah mi-Ludmir ("The Virgin of Ludmir," 1997), and Ravid Davara's Ha-Sirpad shel ha-Shakhen ("The Neighbor's Thistle," 1999).
The idealistic, committed, and selfless Hebrew plays of the early settlement period in Ereẓ Israel have thus reached the extreme opposite pole, as has indeed the entire Zionist ideology which generated them. However, both drama and theater are still engaged in the same quest for social identity.
[Gershon Shaked /
Gad Kaynar (2nd ed.)]
Introduction – Beginnings of Literary Criticism
Hebrew literary criticism as a discipline has existed for the past 200 years only, but the rudiments of literary appreciation can be traced to medieval works on normative poetics and rhetoric. In Shirat Yisrael (written in Arabic (Kitāb al Muḥadara wa-al-Mudḥākara), Heb. ed. (1924) by B. Halper), Moses *Ibn Ezra lays down the rules for writing excellent poetry, which he applies to his criticism on the Spanish poets, and discusses the problems of artistic creation. Critical evaluations of the Spanish poets are also found in Judah *Alḥarizi's Taḥkemoni (Constantinople, 1578; Tel Aviv, 1952) and *Immanuel of Rome, in Maḥberot Immanu'el (critical edition, Tel Aviv, 1950), devotes a section to poetry. He is either profuse in his praise of poetry or he deprecates it. The prevalent tradition of distinguished personalities prefacing books with haskamot ("agreements," i.e., favorable recommendations) can also be considered a forerunner of literary criticism although the haskamot were mainly apologetic and couched in a formal conventional style. Often, the authors themselves wrote introductions to their works describing their aims and motives. It was, however, in the 18th century that Hebrew literary criticism as a school began to evolve, growing out of a cultural atmosphere which was able to appreciate Hebrew literature not only for ethical and didactic values but also for its own sake. The centers of Hebrew literary criticism correspond geographically and chronologically to centers of modern Hebrew literature – they shifted from Italy and Germany in the 18th century to Austria-Hungary and Russia in the 19th century. Hebrew literary criticism developed significantly in Russia (including Poland and Lithuania) from 1860 to 1918, and in Ereẓ Israel from the beginning of the century to this day. Literary criticism also evolved in the United States, where, in the main, it dealt with Hebrew literature written in that country between the world wars. Although critical activity usually reflects the development of other literary forms, modern Hebrew criticism in its beginnings lagged far behind the development of the different genres in modern Hebrew literature. The situation, however, began to change with the rise of the Hebrew press, which became the main vehicle of critical expression, in Russia, in the 1860s.
18th Century – Normative-Aesthetic Approach
The development of aesthetic literary appreciation is primarily linked with the study of the Bible. Moses Ḥayyim *Luzzatto in his works on poetics and rhetoric draws mainly on the Bible for the many examples with which he illustrates his theories. His poetic methods and theories, however, are mostly influenced by medieval and contemporary Italian rhetoricians. In the Bi'ur (1780–83) project, a translation and exposition of the Bible in German, edited by Moses *Mendelssohn and his circle, aesthetic appreciation of the scriptural text formed an integral part of the exegesis. Influenced by 18th century German aesthetic thought, the introductions and commentaries are often an eclectic combination of neoclassical and sentimentalist views. Sometimes a psychological moralistic approach is in evidence and aesthetic distinctions are made, mainly in the poetical sections of the Bible. The discussion on rhyme and structure in Mendelssohn's commentary on "The Song of Deliverance" adheres to Robert *Lowth's aesthetic distinctions (De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum Praelechones…, 1753; trans. from Latin by G. Gregory, London, 1787) in its emphasis on the connection between rhetoric and emotion. In Joel *Brill's preface to the book of Psalms (2 vols., Berlin, 1787–88) the influence of the author's mentor, Moses Mendelssohn, and that of Johann Gottfried von *Herder (Vom Geiste der hebraeischen Poesie, 1782; trans. by J. Marsh, The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, 1833) can be discerned. Despite Brill's declared adherence to the Haskalah, he devotes much attention to the effects of poetry and rhetoric on man's senses and emotions. These are achieved through repetition, deliberate shifts in syntax, and the frequent use of similes and metaphors. Enumerating the qualities of the ideal poet, he distinguishes delicacy of feeling, imagination, wit, and psychological insight. Naphtali Herz (Hartwig) *Wessely in the introductions to sections of his epic composition "Shirei Tiferet" (5 vols., 1789–1802) on the Exodus from Egypt discusses the power of poetry and its characteristics. His view on the universality of poetry, the earliest literary form, is in the spirit of neoclassical thought which attempted to harmonize between reason and emotion. Temperate and cautious in his biblical exegesis, Wessely believes, however, that modern poetic interpretation of biblical themes is obviously superior to the biblical source itself, especially in the portrayal of the inner motivation of events and their causal connection. His many attempts at expounding in detail the relationship of his poetry to biblical and midrashic sources indicate his predilection for criticism.
In his discussion on the theory of literature, Isaac ha-Levi *Satanow in Sefer ha-Ḥizzayon (Berlin, 1785) confuses the elements of poetics, rhetoric forms, and general definitions of the essence of poetry. Stressing the didactic significance of poetry in some of the formulations, Satanow, a leading representative of the Haskalah, also points out the sensual and ecstatic elements of poetry which affect the reader. The emotional characteristics of the Sturm und Drang, already discernible in some of the works of Mendelssohn's disciples, became more prominent at the beginning of the 19th century and are given a distinctly personal expression in Solomon Lewisohn's Meliẓat Yeshurun (Vienna, 1816). Lewisohn integrates these elements with Longinus' concepts, gleaned from reading On the Sublime which enjoyed widespread popularity in the Germany and England of his day. Meliẓat Yeshurun, a book of normative poetics illustrated with examples from the Bible, but also from Wessely and Lewisohn himself, attempts to define poetic forms. The poet's personal emotional confession, written with dramatic pathos, intrudes on some of the explanations and definitions which are of an apparently prescriptive nature. Poetry, according to Lewisohn, is a phenomenon existing in and of itself and affecting the entire universe. He thus freed himself of the neoclassical distinctions which tried to create a balance between reason and sentiment, and to harmonize between aesthetic experience for its own sake and the didactic objective of the work, the latter, according to neoclassicism, having to guide poetry. Using biblical rhetoric, Lewisohn posits a normative order, in which he demonstrates how the sublime scriptural effects were designed to arouse reactions of wonder and amazement in the reader.
Parallel to normative aesthetic studies, reviews of new books began to appear in Ha-Me'assef (1784–1811), the Haskalah journal in Germany. Its anonymous "News of Books" column was, at times, little more than disguised publicity by the author. On rare occasions, the criticism went into a more detailed discussion of the work, quoting excerpts either for the sake of a polemic argument or for purposes of apologetic praise. Although the annual *Bikkurei ha-Ittim (1821–1832) published in Vienna was in the spirit of Ha-Me'assef, it did not cultivate literary criticism. Two articles in Bikkurei ha-Ittim (1832, p. 175–181) and in *Kerem Ḥemed, 1839, 45–57, on the satirical writings of Joseph *Perl, by Solomon Judah *Rapoport, a major figure of the Galician Haskalah, are of significance. Despite the anti-ḥasidic undertone, Rapoport presents a discerning literary evaluation of the work itself, its relationship to reality, and alludes to the general tradition of satirical literature in Europe. Samuel Joseph *Fuenn's review of the poetry of Abraham Dov *Lebensohn in Pirḥei Ẓafon (Vilna, 1844, pp. 90–103) is one of the early important critical works to come from the literary center of Vilna. Fuenn is a precursor of the genetic chronological literary review which considers the background of the author as essential to the understanding of the actual work, thus anticipating later critics, e.g., A.J. *Paperna, M.L. *Lilienblum, and Ḥ.N. *Bialik, who also followed the method. Like his Haskalah contemporaries Fuenn advocated the meliẓah style (ornate biblical syntax) as ideal, but was, at the same time, aware of the tension between content and linguistic patterns in poetry. He considered the different stages of Lebensohn's work from the aspect of the poet's personal development – tracing his growth from his lyrical subjective period to his more universal meditative poetry. This detailed evaluation led to a well-reasoned textual reading of each poem. Nonetheless Fuenn's criticism tends toward undiscriminating generalizations and superlatives which were unsupported by a proper theoretical aesthetic foundation.
encomiastic and epistolary criticism
Besides the satirical parodizing approach to book reviewing by Haskalah writers (mainly Perl and *Erter), literary appreciation also took the form of ornate encomiastic verse which praised the author and his work. This was in fact a continuation of the traditional haskamah. S.D. *Luzzato, A.D. Lebensohn, and J.L. *Gordon included such eulogies in their collected works and notwithstanding their florid style, these helped shape public opinion concerning the merit of certain works and authors.
While the value of this type of poetry was transitory, critical comments found in literary letters, written often for publication, helped shape contemporary taste. Among these are the letters of Samuel David Luzzatto and Judah Leib Gordon containing relevant critical remarks on their own works and that of their contemporaries. The normative approach to contemporary literature was also prevalent and Luzzatto for one, in discussing A.D. Lebensohn and Meir ha-Levi *Letteris, expressed strong views on the meter, rhyme, and ideas in their poetry.
An important step in the development of literary criticism was the proliferation of the Hebrew press in Russia in the early 1860s. More liberal censorship regulations led to weekly publications. The unsigned short editorial review was very common in such periodicals as *Ha-Karmel (1861–1879), *Ha-Ẓefirah (1862–1931), and *Ha-Meliẓ (1860–1904; and also in the *Ha-Maggid 1856–1892), as was the topical article which related Hebrew literature to contemporaneous needs. The Hebrew press was also instrumental in disseminating the ideas of Russian positivist criticism of Vissarion G. Belinski and Dmitri I. Pisarev. Iconoclastic in character (major exponents were S.Y. *Abramovitsh (Mendel Mokher Seforim), A.U. *Kovner, A.J. Paperna), Hebrew criticism of the 1860s had revolted against the accepted aesthetic values of German neoclassicism and sentimentalism and had taken on more radical social orientation. Qualitatively (i.e., in the development of analytic and stylistic tools) it achieved little. Common to it was the polemical-sarcastic style, whose dominant feature was its concentration of inimical quotations, and the journalistic tendency to associate sociological matters with literary phenomena. Conversely, however, some critics of the group developed a distinctive personal approach.
With the appearance of A.U. Kovner (Ḥeker Davar, 1865 (first edition), Ẓeror Peruḥim, 1868) on the Jewish social and literary scene, a utilitarian-sociological trend developed whose aim was not only the evaluation of literature as such, but a social reformation of Russian Jewish life. The new ideas affected the choice of literary genres and critics began to express their reservations regarding poetry on biblical themes, preferring and encouraging literary vehicles such as social satire or the novel. Kovner developed the utilitarian tendency already formulated by some Haskalah authors. Challenging the accepted aesthetic concepts in Hebrew literature and rejecting its neoclassicist hypotheses, he distinguished between "idealist" and "realist" poets, as did his favorite Russian critic Pisarev. He strongly objected to the lofty and ornate style which he claimed had no real content, and called for the use of simple and natural language which would be intelligible to a wide reading public. As for the function of criticism, it should make bold demands, be unbiased, and not submit to conventional authority.
A.J. Paperna, Kovner's contemporary, was an even more fiery advocate of the didactic and theoretical approach to criticism. While fighting the uninspired and ornate conventions of the meliẓah poetry and condemning allegorical drama as obsolete (in his essays "Kankan Ḥadash Male Yashan," 1867; and "Ha-Drama bi-Khelal ve-ha-Ivrit bi-Ferat," 1868), he took great pains to enunciate the principles of literary theory to the Hebrew reader, and to define literary genres: epic, drama, and novel. His views were inspired mainly by the aesthetic theories of the Russian critic Belinski, but they were also rooted in classical aesthetics. Thus his demands for realism in Hebrew literature are aesthetically rather than socially motivated, forming criteria by which to measure the writer's creative talents.
M.L. Lilienblum's critical essays of the 1870s (and even of his Zionist period in the 1880s) were grounded in superficial positivism and utilitarianism in which ideological considerations led him to confuse literature with social pamphleteering. Reality was for him the sole criterion by which to arrive at "the truth of life." He judged Abraham *Mapu's novels accordingly and in his nationalist period criticized Judah Leib Gordon's poetry in the light of the "real" demands of the Hibbat Zion ideology as he understood them.
Simultaneously, the short newspaper article was also extensively cultivated. Its principal exponents were P. *Smolenskin, editor of *Ha-Shaḥar (Vienna, 1869–1884), and J.L. Gordon, writing for the weekly Ha-Meliẓ (mainly in the 1880s). These reviews, not exclusively on belles lettres, reveal not only a great sensitivity to questions of language and style, but also a more balanced cultural-historical perspective regarding contemporary Hebrew literature. Neither Smolenskin nor Gordon spared those authors whom they considered undeserving. Smolenskin is sometimes apologetic as regards the achievement of the Hebrew language which he considers fundamental to the Jewish national culture. His literary tools are rather superficial, and his comparison of Hebrew works with world classics are sometimes unrealistic. His principles of literary criticism are expressed in his definition: "The ability to describe scenes which are real to life and a style both beautiful and vigorous."
Late 19th Century – The Limits of Hebrew Literature
During the sudden growth of Hebrew criticism in the 1890s, attention focused on the basic problems of Hebrew literature rather than on practical and detailed criticism of individual works. On the one hand, there was a call for a Hebrew artistic revival which would be close to European literature and on the other a hesitancy and a conservatism arising out of a concern for authenticity and for the national objectives of Hebrew literature.
aesthetic appreciation for its own sake
Two principal figures of this trend were D. *Frischmann and R. *Brainin. David Frischmann declared his criterion to be personal talent and the refinement of aesthetic taste. He tried to realize his goals through a criticism which was essentially negative, resorting not only to irony but even to controversy. Discussing works which he liked, he took on a lyrical pathetic tone, however, which, at times, became even hackneyed. His preference for the feuilleton form (an aesthetically orientated literary column) affected his critical writing since the feuilleton by definition must be playful and humorous, maintaining contact with the reader and underscoring the presence of the author's personality. Frischmann's egocentric tendency was given further free play in his "Letters about Literature" which he wrote at various times. He was particularly skillful in portraying authors and in depicting characteristic elements in their works. The aesthetic notions which he so profusely advocated were, however, rarely implemented in his own articles.
Reuben Brainin, like Frischmann, based his call for a literary revival on criteria drawn from Western literature. But while his tone was egocentric, he lacked the lyrical sentimental and ironic refinement so characteristic of Frischmann. His essays, particularly those written toward the end of the 19th century under the influence of G. Brandes and J.A. Taine, stressed biographical detail and the impact which environment and background have on the literary work. Brainin, rooted in the spirit of European literature, drew his examples and metaphors from the natural sciences. Comparing Hebrew literature with world literature, he was pessimistic as to its possibilities. Like Frischmann, Brainin had a propensity for sketching portraits, interlacing these with memoirs and anecdotes designed to interest readers of Hebrew dailies which began to appear in 1886. Brainin, however, lacked the analytic ability of the practical critic who discusses and relates to the specific work. He was interested in the writer's personal image rather than the literary work under discussion. His detailed article on Mendele Mokher Seforim's works, written at the turn of the century, is illustrated by ample citations from Mendele's writings. Brainin pointed out that Mendele's recording of Jewish life in Russia was of documentary import. (Frischmann used the same approach when writing about Mendele some years later.)
This orientation toward world literature is more clearly manifest in the criticism of Nahum *Sokolow despite the fact that he wrote in a more traditional "Jewish" style. His article (written in the 1890s) on experiments in naturalism in the Hebrew short story is a case in point. Sokolow's discussion of Zola's literary method bears witness to his knowledge of contemporary world literature and his ability to apply it to his own criticism. He makes few pronunciamentos which call for the cultivation of ties with world literature; instead, he maintains these ties in reality.
the ahad ha-am and berdyczewski controversy
While the debate on the orientation of Hebrew literature toward universal culture appears in Frischmann's and Brainin's essays, it takes a more serious turn in the controversy between *Aḥad Ha-Am and the Ha-Ẓe'irim (The Young Writers) group, headed by Micha Josef *Berdyczewski, which was conducted mainly in the monthly Ha-Shilo'aḥ (1897–1926) at the end of the 19th century. Though the discussions did not contribute directly to the criticism of specific works, they gave it impetus and inspiration. Aḥad Ha-Am's utilitarian approach, which denies literature its autonomous status, was in consonance with a trend already existing in Hebrew criticism. He considered speculative writing of prime importance. In his view of the historical continuity of Jewish literature, literary form was the product of a nation's conceptual framework. Aḥad Ha-Am, striving "to unite poetry and thought," saw it as a medium through which the existential problems of the Jewish people could be expressed. Yet he did not disregard the quality of a work of art: Literary description, he felt, contributed to animation of thought and to fostering national consciousness. The purpose of literary criticism was to examine the relation of man's spirit to truth, goodness, and beauty. Aḥad Ha-Am aimed at a harmony between the logical moral elements in literature and its aesthetic quality. Yet he arrived at the paradoxical conclusion that it was not necessary to fulfill aesthetic needs within the sphere of Hebrew literature. These standards he declared in defining the program of Ha-Shilo'aḥ, the literary journal he founded in 1896. Aḥad Ha-Am's preference for a literature of ideas rather than belles lettres reflects the doubts and the reservation of that epoch. Endowing his view of literature with a historic dimension, he claimed that the Jewish people was naturally inclined to ideas. His views were not superficially utilitarian and in fact he recognized the "beautiful" as a value in itself. He tended, however, to limit somewhat the space allocated to creative literature in *Ha-Shilo'aḥ. Pointing to the pressing human needs of the Jewish people, Aḥad Ha-Am's antagonist, Berdyczewski, warned against the danger of separating Jewish and universal values in literature. He believed that the time had come for creating a literature which would also fulfill a historical need. In calling for the autonomy of all literature, which he groups under the title "poetry," his views also tend toward the idealistic-romantic. For a literary work to affect reality, the writer does not necessarily have to be inspired by contemporaneous social and historical problems; it is rather the work created in isolation and through the individual author's own motivation that influences. He negates the genetic approach in analyzing an author and his work. The appearance of an author on the literary scene he saw not as the result of development, but as a miracle and he attributed to chance the fact that writers exist in the same environment, creating side by side. Berdyczewski left his mark on Hebrew literary criticism also in his short reviews. Using primarily the illustrative method, he quotes extensively in order to stress and exemplify the essential elements in a work. His criticism, basically subjective, reflects his own spiritual and aesthetic world. While giving striking and concise definitions, Berdyczewski also tends toward biased exaggeration.
J. Klausner's approach to the relationship between Hebrew and world literatures is simplistic-synthetic and his comparisons between the works of Hebrew writers and other poets are superficial. He firmly advocated the harmonization of Jewish and universal values and propagated his philosophical principles in his literary criticism. Biographical information is one of the basic elements in his criticism and his critical remarks are substantiated by many textual examples. Though Klausner, unlike Aḥad Ha-Am, stressed the special place of modern Hebrew literature in the life of the people, his evaluations are of a didactic and pedagogic nature. They tend to appraise literary works – of the Haskalah and his own period – in terms of their contribution to the national Zionist movement. Occasional normative ideological demands on contemporary literature can also be found in his criticism.
Early 20th Century – Aesthetic and Ideological Concepts
Among the young critics at the turn of the century M.M. *Feitelson deserves mention. Influenced by Russian 19th-century criticism, his aesthetic criterion was the relationship of fiction to life itself, but he also represents the trend which called for the freeing of Hebrew literature from its conceptual relationship to social ideas. His contemporary I.E. Lubetzki (in his essays as yet not collected) took an even more extreme stand on this issue. He claimed that the critical discipline should not be governed by actual ideological demands and aesthetic criticism should not be concerned with the conceptual and moral aspect of the work. He spoke of the need for "artistic documents" and not for "human documents." In contrast to Frischmann's aesthetic demands characterized by the critic's subjective sentimental attitude, Lubetzki proposed objectivity and pertinent criteria, advocating what he called a "science of literature" as a critical criterion. Lubetzki, however, did not implement his own ideas in his critical writings; instead, like his predecessors, he drew superficial comparisons either between literary works or between authors. He elucidated details but was unable to evolve an analytical system. To clarify literary concepts, he drew on the terminology of painting and music, a method which could not lead him to the realization of his scientific ideal.
criticism by poets and writers
Criticism written by poets and authors at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries bears a special stamp. Subjective in its approach, it reflects the private world of the creative writer and his aesthetic concepts, and is lyrical and descriptive in style. The significance of this criticism lies in the fact that it is the product of the creative writer. To this category belong Berdyczewski's short, critical reviews mentioned above. *Bialik in his discussion on the development of Hebrew style and the essence of language points to the significant role played by Mendele Mokher Seforim and his successors in forging a new Hebrew prose. His treatment of the development of Hebrew poetry is not merely genetic but shows contemporary Hebrew literature to be an antithesis to earlier trends. In his article "Shiratenu ha-Ẓe'irah" ("On Our Young Poetry," in Ha-Shilo'aḥ, 16 (1906), 66–76), Bialik rebelled against the poetic and linguistic traditions of Hebrew poetry and hailed the generation of national renaissance. He acclaimed its outlook which sought to fuse the subjective and individualistic aims of the artist with the literary traditions and ideals of the nation. His many allusions to biblical and rabbinic sources often have a rhetorical reversal of meaning. They testify to his profound knowledge of tradition and to his fertile poetic imagination. Bialik also devotes special attention to the problems of literary creation, often projecting his own predicament as a poet. The relationship between author and language he sees as a dramatic struggle of the creative artist with formless matter. J. *Steinberg's literary essays, written in Ereẓ Israel mainly between the two world wars, sometimes appear similar to those written by Bialik. They, too, are highly sensitive to the problems of language and style, and insist upon verbal purism and idiomatic refinement. According to Steinberg, the essence of a work is to be found in the single syntactical unit which must be carefully scrutinized by the critic. While describing the atmosphere and the essence of the language of literature in general terms, Steinberg fails to deal with any specific work or text. At the same time, in his essays, he focuses mainly on the comprehensive phenomenon of contemporary Jewish culture and its historic roots. An interpenetration of literary criticism and fiction is reflected in Joseph Ḥayyim *Brenner's works. Literary criticism relevant to the actual situation sometimes motivates the plot of a story and in some of the introductions to his works, Brenner is ironically critical of his own literary manner but even more so of that of his contemporaries. Conversely, some of his critical and journalistic articles are written in fictional dialogue, thus expressing the author-critic's split personality, his inner conflicts and his fluctuation between hope and despair. Brenner's criticism is expressed in a variety of literary vehicles: the general review, criticism of one specific work, a general overview of all the aspects of an author's writings, and the lecture form. All of them are motivated by the wish to combine the social vision of the revival of the Jewish people and the normative aims of literature. In his attempt to remain faithful to his artistic ideals, Brenner seeks to establish a certain link between literary genres and historical and social conditions. Thus the truth of a work of art depends on the artistic integration of purpose and stylistic expression. His criticism encompasses both the moral teacher and the art critic, moralistic pathos and keen analytical ability which is expressed in an ironical-polemic style. Literature has socio-historical significance and reflects the changes taking place in Jewish society in modern times, but concurrently Brenner strives to uncover the aesthetic forces which go into creative art. This aim of reviving the Jewish people through literature did not always achieve full integration with the artistic ideal.
beginnings of criticism in ereẒ israel
Brenner's literary activity is typical of the literary shift that occurred with the transfer of the literary center from Russia to Ereẓ Israel as far back as the Second Aliyah (prior to World War i). It served as a main link between the literary centers in the Diaspora and the new center evolving in Ereẓ Israel. This process is also reflected in the critical endeavors of Jacob *Rabinowitz, Jacob Steinberg, Shlomo *Zemach; and following World War i – Jacob *Fichmann, Fishel *Lachower, Joseph Klausner, and others. The immigration of authors and critics to Ereẓ Israel gave Hebrew criticism a special socio-national quality, though many of the critics preserved their individual character in their aesthetic and stylistic perceptions. The publication of critical articles (among them articles by Klausner, Lachower, and Fichmann) which had originally appeared in Russia were now presented to a new public in a new land and in a different historical context.
criticism in the united states
Parallel to the evolvement of the Ereẓ Israel center since the Third Aliyah (from the 1920s), a literary center evolved in the United States. Inspired by the national movement, the American critics followed the explanatory descriptive critical school (e.g., M. *Ribalow's and A. *Epstein's articles) reminiscent of Klausner, but they lacked his special personal and public pathos. At the same time, however, it introduced criticism of a more individualistic poetic nature by poets and writers (e.g., S. *Halkin and A. *Regelson during their American period and E. *Silberschlag and Y. Rabinowits). American Hebrew literary criticism, thematic in content, focused mainly on the specific manifestations and problems of Hebrew literature in the United States. This critical attitude was rooted in a wish to encourage the development of Hebrew literature in a foreign cultural environment. Concurrently, interest in world literature, hitherto hardly touched upon by Hebrew criticism, increased. Hebrew critics in the United States did not generally assimilate the methods of modern American criticism, but described in essay form Anglo-American artists, poets, and writers. World literature was analyzed and criticized for its own sake, and not only discussed by way of pronunciamentos and statements of principles.
ereẒ israel after world war i – old and new criteria
Hebrew criticism in Ereẓ Israel since the end of World War i in its method has been a continuation of the trends evolved at the beginning of the century, mainly because the same critics continued writing in the new center. Nevertheless, the critical essay has developed as a result of a further crystallization of the Hebrew language which allowed it to lend itself to the tools of modern study. Conversely, as a result of the remarkable growth of the Hebrew press, which served as a forum for the best critics, the brief critical article flourished. Research study of modern Hebrew literature, including different intermediate stages, ranging from the critical review to scholarly research, began in the 1930s. The polarity between the two domains reached its peak in the 1960s with the expansion of academic teaching of Hebrew literature and the persistent impetus of literary scholarly research in the world. Impressionist criticism continues to be one of the main trends, as does the tendency to regard the artistic creation as a continuation of the artist's life. The lines between poetic reality and actual reality are thus blurred and documentary elements are constantly looked for in the work of art under discussion. Accurate depiction thus becomes the artistic criterion. In contrast to this superficial realism there is conceptual criticism which seeks a common denominator for all the components in a work of art, while paying little attention to the influence of genre and style. As to method, there is on the one hand a tendency to deal with various literary components: characterization, description of nature, and conceptual goals, without exhaustively studying any one of them, and on the other hand use is made of examples, the choice of which is completely subjective, being in consonance with the critic's personal reading. Contrary to the above eclectic method, there is also a tendency to isolate each problem and discuss it without functional relation to the totality of the work. But even when discussing a single defined problem, the critic tends to arrive at a general evaluation of the work, thus reducing all the components to one essence. These trends are parallel, the critics stressing various aspects according to their inclinations, personal talents, and their ability to give their presentation and phrasing original expression. The critic's own personality counterweights the methodic weakness. The poet Jacob Fichmann, spanning the two periods and the two centers of Hebrew literature, was impressionistic in his criticism. He relates to works of art and authors not only by personal association, but also by examining the work in the light of its general significance. He usually describes the work as a whole, showing both sympathy and approval, and refrains from giving the author normative advice. In his essays, Fichmann developed a distinctive style, rich in description and lyrical metaphor, though lacking Bialik's force. Informative biographical elements and a general review of the work are woven into his personal impression of it. Fichmann's essays also possess a certain historical evolutionary dimension and include treatments of poets and novelists of the Haskalah period. He seeks to familiarize the reader with the authors' writings and their poetical value which extends beyond chronological and conceptual criteria. Fichmann's interpretations are generally impressionistic, derived at times from personal experience. He points out the mutual relationship between the critic-scholar and the critic-artist, thus advocating a synthesis between "scholarship and art." Impressionist criticism of this type is also to be found in the critical essays of Fichmann's contemporaries and disciples, but they lack his personal quality and status.
Mid-20th Century – New Perspectives
Hebrew criticism had a strong impetus in Ereẓ Israel in the 1940s. Critics who had started to write before World War i (e.g., S. Zemach, E. *Steinman, Y. *Keshet) had now attained original insight and had cultivated their own style. A number of new influential critics also appeared. D. *Sadan's analytical approach probed the hidden inner world of the author and of his work. He also underlined the recent tendency of extending the domain of Hebrew literature. At the same time, however, he emphasized its various ideological trends and the phenomenon of bilingualism as manifest in the mutual relation of Hebrew and Yiddish literatures. B. *Kurzweil sought to synthesize the intellectual sensitivity to the crisis of Judaism and to the shattering of the Jew's religious tradition in modern times with the artist's aesthetic formulation of this crisis through poetical and fictional symbols and motifs. S. Halkin continued to stress the significance of the secular-humanistic character of modern Hebrew literature. While discussing the author's individual poetical values, he pointed out their relation to trends and values current in Jewish society and emphasized their national pathos which formed a stimulating vehicle in Hebrew literature. A. *Kariv demanded a reevaluation of the literary heritage of European Hebrew literature, accusing its writers and proponents of having distorted in their writings East European Jewish life.
The increasing activity in criticism from the 1950s (after the War of Independence and the establishment of the State of Israel) underlines the tension between personal criticism in essay form and criticism based on scholarly criteria. Demands are made for the autonomous status of criticism as a special creative branch with its own distinctive characteristics extending beyond its interpretative task of "mediating" between the literary work and the reader (S. Zemach, I. *Cohen, and I. *Zmora). On the other hand, there are also normative trends attempting to direct literature from a spiritual and social point of view both as a creation of the contemporaneous generation and as the individual creation of the writer (A.Y. Kariv, A. *Ukhmani). Critics are also seeking to integrate the individualistic essay form, based on creative intuition, and literary analytical methods for examining the formal and literary qualities of a text. The search for such a methodical synthesis is variously approached in the critical works of S. Halkin, D. Sadan, and B. Kurzweil, who taught modern Hebrew literature at universities in Israel from the 1950s. The polarity between essay criticism and literary critical scholarship has intensified among the new generation of critics, most of whom have studied literature at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. At first they had been influenced by the essay tradition and by the normative-existential trends which they had adopted in their debates on the literature of the post-War of Independence period. At the same time, however, they evinced a certain sensitivity to the social and cultural processes that formed the background to the development of Hebrew literature during the last few generations. But mainly they assimilated methods of textual explication of the New Criticism school current in English-speaking countries and adapted the interpretation systems of the postwar Swiss and German schools. There are also slight traces of the Russian formalism of the 1920s and the 1930s to be found in modern Hebrew literary criticism. These influences led to a special sensitivity to problems of form, rhetoric, and structure, and to the development of genres, while the conceptual and historic aspects have become secondary and marginal. At the same time, there is a tendency to consider exhaustively every problem through maximum use of the textual data.
The tendencies to break completely with traditional literary criticism are growing. At the same time two diverse domains – literary criticism and literary research or study – each based on different principles, are still crystallizing. The process has found expression in Ha-Sifrut, a periodical (edited by B. Hrushovsky) which by its own stated purposes, and in fact, is a "Quarterly for the Study of Literature."
The 1970s and After
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Hebrew literary criticism was transformed by the inauguration of two new academic journals: Ha-Sifrut ("Literature"), which was founded in 1968–69 and published by Tel Aviv University under the editorship of Benjamin Hrushovsky, and Bikoret u-Parshanut ("Criticism and Interpretation"), published from 1970 on by Bar-Ilan University, originally under the editorship of Baruch Kurzweil. If literary criticism until then had appeared alongside poetry and short fiction in literary journals such as Moznayim, Likrat, and Akhshav, it was now upgraded to an academic discipline, empowered and sustained by the use of theoretical literary models and critical tools borrowed from other text-oriented disciplines. Not for naught did Hrushovsky introduce his journal as "the first of its kind in Hebrew," in that its role was to be "entirely of a scholarly nature." As he wrote: "The science of literature, as a systematic discipline that has developed a methodology and theory of its own, accumulated clusters of knowledge in various and distinct areas, and generated methods of academic research and instruction, is a relatively young discipline."
This conceptualization of criticism as a "science" and a "young discipline" stirred up a controversy within the literary and academic communities, of which Kurzweil was the most vocal mouthpiece. In the introduction to his own journal, Kurzweil attacked Hrushovsky for proclaiming innovation where there was none. "Critical reading" and "the art of reading" (as Kurzweil called it) had always employed the methods and the poetic, aesthetic, and interdisciplinary theories that the "innovative" terminology was claiming for the "literary theory" and "scientific writing" of the new discipline. Moreover, if, by speaking of the "scientific" nature of "literary theory," Hrushovsky was referring to objectivity in the interpretation, and hence to the evaluation of literary texts, this too was deceptive, since objectivity was not "within the confines of what is attainable in the humanities." This does not mean that there are no restraints to subjectivity in the scholarly study of literature, but they are set by other disciplines in the humanities.
This debate signaled the beginning of a "new age" in the history of Hebrew literary criticism in the State of Israel. From here on, Hebrew literary criticism took three parallel courses, aimed at different types of audiences or consumers of criticism. The first, as discussed above, was that of academic literary journals published by the literature departments of various universities. Their aim was initially to provide a publication venue for their own scholars, though other scholars of Hebrew literature were invited to contribute as well. Thus, for example, Ezra Fleischer, editor of Meḥkarei Yerushalayim be-Sifrut Ivrit ("Jerusalem Studies of Hebrew Literature"), addressed the readers of the first issue (1981) with the following words:
This first volume … contains articles written by academic staff members of the Department of Hebrew Literature at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem … Its gates will be open to all those engaged in the study of Hebrew literature, in Israel and abroad.
The same year saw the founding of Meḥkarei Yerushalayim be-Folklor Yehudi ("Jerusalem Studies in Jewish Folklore") and Meḥkarei Yerushalayim be-Maḥshevet Yisrael ("Jerusalem Studies in Jewish Thought"). Dappim le-Meḥkar be-Sifrut ("Papers in Literary Research"), published by Haifa University, was launched in 1984; Sadan: Meḥkarim be-Sifrut Ivrit ("Anvil: Studies in Hebrew Literature"), published by the School of Jewish Studies and the Katz Institute at Tel Aviv University, in 1996; and Mikan: Ketav Et le-Ḥeker ha-Sifrut ha-Ivrit ("From Here: A Journal for the Study of Hebrew Literature"), published by Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, in 2000.
Along with these purely academic journals, a number of "mixed" periodicals, publishing both theoretical articles and literary works, began to appear. Some of these were issued with the assistance of educational institutions (universities or research institutes) or were edited by scholars. Among these are Siman Keriah: Rivon Me'orav le- Sifrut ("Bookmark, a Mixed Literary Quarterly," 1972); Alei Si'aḥ: Ha-Ḥugim le-Sifrut Brit Tenu'at ha-Kibbuẓim ("Leaves of Discourse of the Literary Circles of the Kibbutz Movement," New Series, 1974); Zehut: Ketav-Et le-Yeẓirah Yehudit ("Identity: A Journal of Jewish Creativity," 1981), later reconstituted as Mahut ("Essence, 1989); Efes Shetayim: Ketav-Et le-Sifrut ("02 [the Jerusalem Area Code]: A Journal of Literature," 1992); and Reḥov: Ketav-Et le-Sifrut ("Street: A Journal of Literature," 1994).
A further context that began to be associated with literary criticism in the mid-1980s was that of broader cultural critique. This association was indicative of an effort to break out of the ivory tower of solipsistic intra-disciplinary discussion and open up, by means of critical, theoretical tools, to the multicultural representations of contemporary reality. A prime example of this development is the journal Te'oriyah u-Vikoret: Bamah Yisrelit ("Theory and Criticism: An Israeli Forum"), published from 1991 by the Van Leer Institute in Jerusalem. The journal is devoted to reflexive, "interdisciplinary, systematic, and ongoing" discourse among scholars and writers within the academic world and outside of it, focusing on subjects from the realms of the "locale, society, and culture." Other such journals, with varying percentages of academic content, include Alpayim le-Iyyun, Hagut ve-Sifrut ("2000: A Journal of Inquiry, Thought, and Literature," 1989); Dimu'i: le-Sifrut, Omanut, Bikoret ve-Tarbut Yehudit ("Image: A Journal of Literature, Art, Criticism, and Jewish Culture," 1990); Mikarov: le-Sifrut u-le-Tarbut ("Close Up: A Journal of Literature and Culture," 1997); Ha-Kivvun Mizraḥ: le-Tarbut u-le-Sifrut ("Eastward: A Journal of Culture and Literature," 2000); Keshet ha-Ḥadashah: le-Sifrut, Iyyun u-Vikoret ("New Rainbow: A Journal of Literature, Inquiry, and Criticism," 2002); and Mita'am: Ketav-Et le-Sifrut u-le-Maḥshavah Radikalit ("On Behalf: A Journal of Radical Literature and Thought," 2005).
Meanwhile, non-scholarly literary criticism continued to be published in the weekend literary supplements of the daily newspapers and in the periodicals that carried on the tradition of the literary magazine, such as Iton 77: Yarḥon le-Sifrut u-le-Tarbut ("Journal 77: Monthly of Literature and Culture," 1977); Apirion: le-Inyanei Sifrut, Tarbut ve-Ḥevrah ("Canopy: A Journal of Literary, Cultural, and Social Affairs," 1983); Pesifas: Itton le-Shirah u-le-Meida ("Mosaic: A Journal of Poetry and Information," 1987); Ẓafon ("North"), published by the Association of Hebrew Writers, Haifa (1989); and Gag ("Roof"), published by the General Association of Writers in Israel (1998).
The third direction was the publication of reviews in the literary or cultural sections of weekday editions of the daily newspapers. Here critics do not necessarily seek to evaluate or judge a literary work, but rather to share with readers the experience of reading and the impressions a book leaves. This kind of personal critique ultimately became accepted as legitimate, and it contributed, among other things, to the introduction of the bestseller list in the back pages of Sefarim Haaretz, the weekly book review supplement (launched in 1994) of the daily newspaper Haaretz.
Mention should also be made of the Hebrew-language websites devoted to literary criticism which began cropping up in the mid-1990s. A plethora of articles and essays of varying levels of quality may be found on these sites, some of them run by individuals and others by discussion forums. In some, the articles undergo selection and editing, in others not. These sites are open to a wide range of writers who wish to share their impressions and evaluations of literary works, including scholars seeking a wider audience for their writings.
This array of critical writing with its multiple aspects and directions marks the last three decades of the 20th century, during which it has absorbed the deconstructivist trends as well as the postmodernist theories. The encounter of Israeli literary scholarship with postmodernist theories (drawn from the fields of history, political science, sociology, and cultural studies), and even more so with post-colonialist and post-Zionist theories, shook the hegemonic community of literary critics. It led to new, subversive readings of foundational literary texts, and also to the unearthing and examination of "other" texts, which the critical elite had for years pushed to the literary margins for lack of interest or appreciation. Moreover, together with its gradual permeation by postmodernist critical tools, Hebrew literary scholarship continued to surprise its readers with a steady stream of innovative interpretations arrived at by means of modernist scholarly approaches, in which discussion of the classics of modern Hebrew writing remained a central concern.
Thus, new critiques were written of works by those writers who had heralded the rebirth of modern Hebrew: Ḥ.N. Bialik (by Shmuel Werses, Dan Miron, Hillel Barzel, Menahem Perry, Adi Tzemach, Yitshak Bakon, Zvi Luz, Reuven Tzur, Ziva Shamir, Uzi Shavit); Shaul Tchernikhowsky (Yosef Haefrati, Boaz Arpaly, Uzi Shavit, Reuven Tzur, Ḥaim Shoham); Micha Joseph Berdyczewsky (Shmuel Werses, Tzipora Kagan, Joseph Even, Avner Holtzman, Yitzhak Ben-Mordehai); Y.H. Brenner (Yitzhak Bakon, Menahem Brinker, Boaz Arpaly, Nurit Govrin, Ariel Hirschfeld, Adir Cohen); U.N. Gnessin (Dan Miron, Zvi Luz, Dan Laor, Hamutal Bar-Yosef); Gershon Shofman (Nurit Govrin); S.Y. Agnon (Shmuel Werses, Gershon Shaked, Hillel Barzel, Hillel Weiss, Dov Landau, Yitshak Bakon, Dan Miron, Aliza Shenhar, Dan Laor, Nitza Ben-Dov, Yehudith Zweig Halevi); and Devorah Baron (Nurit Govrin).
There were also new treatments of writers active in the period of the Yishuv between the two world wars: Uri Zvi Greenberg (Dan Miron, Yehudah Friedlander, Benjamin Hrushovsky, Hillel Barzel, Shalom Lindenbaum, Reuven Shoham, Dov Landau, Ortsion Bartana, Lilian Guri, Hannan Hever); Avraham Shlonsky (Israel Levin, Hagit Halperin, Aviezer Weiss, Abraham Hagorni-Green, Shlomo Yaniv); Nathan Alterman (Dan Miron, Uzi Shavit, Ziva Shamir, Aharon Komem, Ruth Kartun-Blum, Dan Laor, Haya Shaham, Shoshana Zimmerman); Lea Goldberg (Tuvia Rivner, Abraham B. Yaffe, Ruth Kartun-Blum, Ofra Yaglin); and Yonathan Ratosh (Ziva Shamir, Dan Laor). The works of writers who came of age in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s (known collectively as "Dor ba-Areẓ" and "Dor ha-Medinah") are nowadays also considered as classics and therefore are subjected to scholarly discussion and research: Yehuda Amiḥai (Boaz Arpaly, Nili Gold-Scharf, Yehudit Zweig-Halevi, Yosef Milman, Yair Mazor); Amalia Kahana-Carmon (Abraham Balaban, Lily Ratok, Yael Feldman); Aharon Appelfeld (Lily Ratok, Yigal Schwartz, Yitzhak Ben-Mordehai); Amos Oz (Nurit Gertz, Abraham Balaban, Yair Mazor); Abraham B. Yehoshua (Nili Sadan-Levenstein, Yedidiah Yitzhaki, Nitza Ben-Dov).
Israeli literary research has also been broadened by its extension to several genres (satire, drama, epistle), thematic and prosodic structures of the Hebrew literature of the Haskalah, the 18th and 19th century Jewish Enlightenment (Shmuel Werses, Yehudah Friedlander, Dan Miron, Uzi Shavit, Ben-Ami Feingold, Tovah Cohen, Yehudit Zweig-Halevi, Menuhah Gilboa, Reuven Shoham, Naomi Zohar, Iris Parush).
As mentioned above, suggestions emerged for culturally and politically subversive ways of reading. At the beginning of the 1970s, semiotic reading was in fashion (Itamar Even-Zohar, Nurit Gertz, Zohar Shavit, Ziva Ben-Porat), while from the end of the 1980s political reading was in the ascendant. The latter can be seen in Ḥannan Ḥever's analyses of Hebrew poetry between the two world wars, particularly of the work of Uri Zvi Greenberg. Other examples include Nissim Calderon's studies of writings from the 1950s and 1960s (by Natan Zach, Yaakov Shabtai, David Avidan, Dalia Ravikovich, Hanoch Levin, and others); Yohai Oppenheimer's post-colonial readings of several classic works of prose and poetry (by Moshe Smilansky, Avot Yeshurun, and Yehuda Amichai); and Michael Gluzman's political reading of the male national body in the writings of Moshe Shamir and Benjamin Ze'ev Herzl.
A further innovative form of scholarly inquiry impelled by these anti-hierarchical trends was that of feminist and gender critique. The steady flow of new writing by women was accompanied by a burst of feminist and gender research, which undertook the reevaluation of works written by women since the establishment of the state (Lily Ratok, Pnina Shirav, Yael Feldman) and also rediscovered forgotten troves of writings by women in Hebrew. These new studies made it clear that literary women had played their part in the rise of modern Hebrew literature, from the Enlightenment, through the period of Ha-Teḥiyah (in the late 19th and early 20th centuries), and in the pre-state period (Iris Parush, Tovah Cohen, Yaffah Berlovitz, Dan Miron), and had conceived poetic alternatives of their own. Further scholarly inquiries examined the themes and poetics of women's writings, as expressed in modernist and postmodernist poetry and prose (Lily Ratok, Hannah Naveh, Haya Shaham, Orly Lubin).
Various dates were celebrated during the 1980s and 1990s to mark a centennial of Zionist endeavor. Thus, 1982 represented "a century of settlement" from the beginning of the first wave of Zionist settlement in 1882, while 1997 concluded "a century of Zionism," recalling the First Zionist Congress (1897). Likewise, literary critics commemorated a century of Hebrew literature in transition from the Diaspora to the homeland of the Jewish people. This anniversary fueled the attempt to mark the borders of Israel's cumulative written creative activity, with the aim of summing up its literary manifestations and expressions. These interim assessments were meant to systematize and categorize what was known about the past and to offer some insight into the present. The period of summation opened with Gershon Shaked's comprehensive five-volume historiographical work, Ha-Sipporet ha-Ivrit 1880–1980 ("Hebrew Prose from 1880 to 1980"). Hillel Barzel undertook a history of modern Hebrew poetry, from the period of Hibbat Zion to the present, of which six volumes have thus far appeared. A third representative of this effort, Hannan Hever's Sifrut she-Nikhtevet Mikan: Kiẓẓur ha-Sifrut ha-Yisraelit ("Literature Written from Here: A Compendium of Israeli Literature") offers a historical-cultural survey of 50 years of literary life in the State of Israel.
Alongside these monumental works, there have been several partial historiographies which have endeavored to chart literary developments, processes, and trends, particularly since the establishment of the State, in the realms of drama (Ḥaim Shoham, Gideon Shunami, Ben-Ami Feingold, Gideon Ofrat, Shimon Levi, Abraham Oz, Dan Oryan), poetry (Benjamin Hrushovsky, Dan Miron, Dov Landau, Aharon Komem, Yair Mazor, Reuven Shoham, Yehudith Bar-El, Rachel Weissbord), and prose (Shmuel Werses, Dan Miron, Hillel Barzel, Hannah Herzig, Hillel Weiss). The same has been done for the country's literary and cultural life, in the 50 years preceding the establishment of the state (Itamar Even-Zohar, Yaffah Berlovitz), in the first few decades of the 20th century (Zohar Shavit, Nurit Gertz, Avidov Lipsker), and in literary circles (in the 1940s, 1950s) like the Dor Ba-Areẓ group (Nurit Graetz, Hillel Weiss, Reuven Kritz) and the "Canaanites" (Nurit Gertz, Dan Laor).
This process of collection and discovery also posed the challenge of examining the writings of hitherto neglected literary schools, such as Ha-Mahalakh ha-Ḥadash ("New Course"; Joseph Even, Menuhah Gilboa) and the literature of the First Aliyah (Nurit Govrin, Yaffah Berlovitz).
The effort to summarize and categorize a century of modern Hebrew literature also brought forth the publication of numerous monographs on writers of both the early and later periods. Zvi Luz issued a series of monographs on poets, including half-forgotten ones from the pre-state period (Yosef Zvi Rimon, Jacob Fichman, Jacob Steinberg) and others from the periods of Dor Ba-Areẓ (Pinchas Sadeh, Ayin Hillel, Natan Yonatan, Ozer Rabin) and Dor ha-Medinah (Uri Bernstein). Additional monographs worth mentioning in this context are those of Aharon Komem (on David Fogel and Jacob Steinberg), Hannan Hever (on Avraham Ben-Yitzhak Sonne), Ruth Kartun-Blum (on Yocheved Bat-Miriam), Hamutal Bar-Yoseph (on Zelda), Reuven Shoham (on Esther Raab and Abba Kovner), Rachel Frankel Madan (on Jacob Horowitz), and Reuven Kritz (on Rachel Blaustein).
Special mention must be made here of the colossal opus of Dan Miron. Though he has not organized his studies as an ordered historiography, there is no period of modern Hebrew literature, from the Enlightenment through post-modernity, in poetry and in prose, to which he has not turned his scholarly attention (see his studies of such writers as Abraham Mapu, Mendele Mokher Seforim (Shalom Jacob Abramowitsch), Ḥayyim Naḥman Bialik, Uri Nissan Gnessin, Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Ḥayyim Hazaz, Nathan Alterman). Miron has also collected and edited the writings of a number of authors from different periods, adding his own comprehensive introductions and afterwords (as he has done for the writings of Yehudah Karni, Uri Zvi Greenberg, Abraham Halfi, Menashe Levine, K. Aharon Bertini, Ya'akov Orland, and Abba Kovner).
Most of these efforts to collect and summarize, on the one hand, and to open new avenues of research, on the other, were the initiatives of lecturers and scholars of literature at various institutions of higher education in Israel, made for the purpose of preparing textbooks and further reading materials for their students. These instructional aims led them to issue studies of foundational issues, such as genres (the ballad, by Shlomo Yaniv; fantasy, by Ortsion Bartana; the allegory, by Uri Shoam; utopia, by Leah Hadomi; the confession, by Hannah Naveh; the historical novel, by Ruth Sheinfeld; the idyll, by Joseph Ha'efrati, Hamutal Bar-Yosef, Rachel Frankel-Madan); literary schools (the neo-romantics, by Ortsion Bartana; decadence, by Hamutal Bar-Yosef); and prosody (Bejamin Hrushovsky, Uzi Shavit, Dov Landau, Reuven Tsur, Zvi Luz, Ziva Ben-Porat).
Further concerns of theme and genre that came in for scholarly attention at the end of the century include the literature of the Holocaust (Hannah Yaoz-Kest, Hillel Barzel, Dov Landau, Nurit Graetz, Ben-Ami Feingold, Ruth Sheinfeld, Avner Holtzman, Yitzhak Ben-Mordechai, Yigal Schwartz) and that of the labor and kibbutz movements (Leah Hadomi, Shula Keshet, Pinhas Genosar, Aviva Ufaz). Research on literature for children and young people also developed during this period, with the opening of departments at several universities and colleges and the work of various scholars (Adir Cohen, Aliza Shenhar, Zohar Shavit, Miri Baruch, Maya Fruchtman, Menahem Regev, Shlomo Harel, Menuhah Gilboa, Leah Hovav, Aviva Krinsky, Meira Karmi-Laniado, Ben-Ami Feingold, Bosmat Even-Zohar, Yael Dar). New journals focusing on the study of literature for young readers include:Sifrut Yeladim va-No'ar ("Literature for Children and Youth"); Be'emet? ("Really?"); Olam Katan: Le-Ḥeker Sifrut Yeladim ve-No'ar ("Small World: A Journal for the Study of Literature for Children and Youth").
The publication of anthologies was also on the increase towards the end of the century. These include anthologies of critical articles and studies of Hebrew literature based on conference papers and edited by faculty members of literature departments; and collections devoted to the critique of single literary works, such as Shaul Tchernikhowsky's corona of sonnets, La-Shemesh ("To the Sun"); the short story Ve-Haya he-Akov le-Mishor ("The Crooked Shall Be Made Straight") by Shmuel Yosef Agnon; and Abraham B. Yehoshua's novel Mar Mani.
[Yaffah Berlovitz (2nd ed.)]
translations of hebrew literature
The translation of Hebrew literature into foreign languages involves a number of unique problems; some are specific to the art of translation while others concern the publishing, marketing, and diffusion of a translated work. Translation from one European language to another is no small task, despite common linguistic and cultural features. Translation from Hebrew – a Semitic language – into a European language is even more difficult: the entire range of literary associations and cultural realia that in fact provide the literary flavor of the original work can rarely be rendered as is. Echoes of biblical or mishnaic Hebrew, or from the wealth of Jewish liturgy, can hardly be captured, and significant details of the Israeli everyday scene often require footnotes or clumsy explanations. Given these obstacles, literary translations from Hebrew sometimes reflect a variety of compromises and conflicting solutions. It is even difficult to evaluate the quality of a translation, and a number of experts checking a translation for its accuracy and literary value in the target language will generate an equal number of different views. Even so, an excellent translation is considered one that is as close to the original Hebrew as possible, while reading smoothly in the target language and conveying as much as possible of the original texture, music, and diverse layers of linguistic and cultural sources. In recent years, an excellent team of literary translators from Hebrew has crystallized and their highly professional work is the main reason for the outstanding reception of Hebrew literature in translation since the 1990s, mainly in European languages.
The international publishing marketplace provides another angle to the difficulty of introducing Hebrew literature to world readership. Given the limited audience in the writers' mother tongue – Israel has a population of 6.8 million – they naturally seek to expand it. And while authors in general want to be translated into foreign languages, for authors writing in Hebrew it is a must. On the other hand, whereas foreign colleagues writing in a widely known language may submit their work to a publisher in the original, Israeli authors are unable to do so because of the lack of competent readers in Hebrew at the disposal of foreign publishing firms. Even when a Hebrew title is highly recommended by Hebrew lectors or attracts international attention, the publisher – especially in English-speaking countries – will generally refrain from a commitment to publish before he receives a complete English translation of the work. Synopses and translated extracts may draw his attention to the book, but it will not necessarily generate a decision to publish. This applies primarily to authors who have already made their reputation in Israel but have yet to make their mark on the international scene. Thus a Hebrew author has to find a qualified translator into English, pay his fee, and prepare a synopsis – without any guarantee that the English translation will arouse genuine interest, and without even knowing whether his efforts will result in an offer to publish the translation.
Publication of translations in other languages is more complicated as the publisher must invest considerable sums in a translation, hence the decision process becomes longer and more complicated. The Institute for the Translation of Hebrew Literature, a non-profit organization founded in 1962, has been entrusted by the Israeli government with the task of promoting Hebrew literature in translation worldwide. It is responsible for a wide range of activities, such as commissioning translations of selected Hebrew literary works, publishing professional catalogues which introduce the titles, providing financial aid to foreign publishers who initiate publication of Hebrew works in translation, publishing a literary journal in English – Modern Hebrew Literature – which keeps the foreign reader abreast of the literary scene in Israel, building and maintaining an attractive website, initiating international translation conferences, participating in selected international book fairs. The Institute also maintains a unique Bibliographic Center. Established in 1972, its database lists all translations of Hebrew literature in 66 languages (over 45,000 bibliographic entries).
In recent years, the Institute for the Translation of Hebrew Literature has become more attentive to the buzz of the marketplace, hence a significant rise in the number of Hebrew authors and works in translation, and in the variety of languages in which Hebrew literature has become available.
Facts and Figures
From 1874 to 1974 (100 years), some 500 Hebrew books were published in translation. From 1975 to 2004 (30 years), we see this number increased to about 3,460. Today, the total number of books published in translation exceeds 4,000. The first Hebrew novel in translation was The Love of Zion by Abraham Mapu, published in Yiddish in 1874. From then until 1960, an average of five books were published per year. As of the 1960s, figures increased to 27 books per year. During the 1970s, Hebrew literature was translated into 25 languages, and this grew to 40 languages during the 1980s. Today, the number stands at 66 languages. If we compare the figures in the decade 1983–93 to those in the following decade, 1994–2004, we see that the number of books in translation increased from 956 to 1,743. Furthermore, in certain languages the number of books has increased very significantly. Taking the same two 10-year periods: English increased from 346 books to 396 (+12%); German increased from 185 to 405 (+116%); Italian increased from 39 to 165 books (+350%); French from 107 to 158 (+40%); Spanish from 49 to 87 (+70%); Dutch from 63 to 98 (+50%). Today, nearly 60 Hebrew authors have been published in book form in more than five foreign languages – 20 authors have been published in more than 10 languages, and among these, three have been published in over 30 languages: Amos Oz, Ephraim Kishon, and Uri Orlev.
Translations of Books for Children and Youth
Hebrew literature for children and youth started appearing in translation only in the 1930s: English and German in 1936, French in 1946, Spanish in 1949, Italian in 1958. Translations into Arabic started to be published only in 1966. The largest number of children's books is now being translated into German, with 129 books to date, followed by English with 76, Italian with 50, Spanish with 38, Dutch with 30, Arabic with 29. One tends to assume that interest in adult fiction in a certain foreign market will arouse interest in children's books as well, that a writer of adult fiction who does well in a certain market will have his children's books published there too and that this will bring about more and more translations of other authors. But this is not entirely the case. If we compare the number of adult versus children's books translated over the past two 10-year periods (1983–93 and 1994–2004) we get the following results: In English, in the first 10-year period, children's books made up 6% of the total number of translated books; in the second, the percentage rises to 15%. In German, the percentage has not changed over the past 20 years, and stands at a steady 21%. Spanish increased from 6% to 29%, and Italian from 12% to 27%. As a point of reference, in Israel today, Hebrew books for children and youth constitute about 5% of the total published per year. Hebrew literature for children is now available in book form in 42 languages, 34 of which have been added since 1975. To the earlier eight languages (English, German, Dutch, French, Spanish, Italian, Polish, and Arabic), the following have been added: Afrikaans, Albanian, Asamiya, Bangla, Catalan, Chinese, Czech, Danish, Estonian, Finnish, Greek, Guajarati, Hindi, Hungarian, Japanese, Kannada, Korean, Malayalam, Marathi, Norwegian, Portuguese, Punjabi, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Swedish, Tamil, Thai, Telugu, Turkish, Ukrainian, Urdu.
Translations into Arabic
Although literary translation activity from Hebrew into Arabic has developed over the years, it has been overshadowed by the political conflict in the Middle East. This conflict has influenced translation policy in the Arab countries as well as in Israel. The first novel translated from Hebrew into Arabic was Abraham Mapu's The Love of Zion (1899). A limited number of translations followed, until 1948. Between 1948 and 1967, translations were mostly published in newspapers and periodicals but a few books were published too, such as Yehuda Burla's novel, In Darkness Striving, an anthology of short stories, and a collection of works by Ḥ.N. Bialik. Publication of literary research and translated literary texts emerged in Arab countries only towards the end of the 1960s. A significant increase in number and frequency can be detected from 1967 up to the present. Records reflect some 80 translated books and 21 anthologies published during this period in Israel and Arab countries (mainly Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria).
Translation into Special Languages
With the general flourishing of Hebrew literature abroad in the 1990s, new markets have opened up for Hebrew literature, and newly added languages have reflected the growing interest. Since 1990, 57 literary works have been published in Chinese, 63 in Japanese, 25 in Korean, and a few in each of the following: Georgian, Azeri, Armenian, Thai, Assamiya, Bongla, Gujarati, Marathi, Malayalam, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Hindi, Kannada, Urdu. This wave of interest is still developing.
Anthologies and Special Journal Issues on Hebrew Literature
Anthologies and special issues of literary journals are considered to be the best way to enter a new market. Anthologies provide a taste of Hebrew literature and are bound, in the longer term, to generate interest in publishing whole books by the authors introduced in the general anthology. Special literary issues have an even better marketing effect as they usually have their own subscription system and the print run – normally a few thousand – can reach a focused readership which is a priori interested in quality foreign literature. Records show that some 428 anthologies of Hebrew literature are available in 40 languages. Among them, 162 volumes in English, 41 in French, 30 in Spanish, 28 in German, 26 in Russian, 25 in Italian. 105 anthologies were published between 1983 and 1993; in the 1994–2004 period, the number increased to 163 volumes.
All the above statistical data is from the Bibliographic Database of the Institute for the Translation of Hebrew Literature. Figures include whole books and anthologies only; individual poems and stories are not included.
[Nilli Cohen (2nd ed.)]
hebrew literature in the united states
Hebrew writing began in the United States shortly after the arrival of the first Jews in New Amsterdam (1654), but the period of modern Hebrew literature only starts after 1870 when Hebrew writers came to America during the mass immigration from Eastern Europe. They settled mainly in New York and between 1918 and 1940 the city served as a subcenter for modern Hebrew literature. Despite their efforts, the immigrant writers were unable to raise a generation of native American Hebrew authors and the older writers are not being replaced. The rapidly growing center in Israel likewise attracted several of the more talented authors. At present a small, diminishing group of aging Hebrew writers are living in the United States.
Hebrew writing in the United States may be divided into three periods:
i. 1654–1870 – the period of sporadic publication and literary curiosities
ii. 1870–1918 – the early modern period
iii. 1918–to the present – the modern period
Sporadic Publication and Literary Curiosities (1654–1870)
During the first two centuries of Jewish settlement in North America no major contribution was made to Hebrew letters. The Jewish population was small and unlearned in Hebrew. Sporadic attempts were, however, made to write and publish Hebrew works; and mention must be made of literary curiosities which have survived, such as the unpublished nomenclature by Judah *Monis, a converted Jew who taught Hebrew at Harvard College, and tombstone inscriptions: the elegy to Walter J. Judah who died in 1798 at the age of 20, or the rhymed epitaph on the grave of Samuel Zanvill Levy of New York City. Hebrew language and literature were also kept alive through publications of the Bible and works on Hebrew grammar. The latter were written both by Jews and by gentiles. A publication of the Bible, initiated by Jonathan P. *Horwitz of Philadelphia and continued by Thomas Dobson, appeared in 1814 and a Hebrew-English edition of the Pentateuch by Isaac *Leeser in 1845. Among the works on grammar there is John Smith's A Hebrew Grammar Without Points (Boston, 1803), Moses Stuart's A Grammar of the Hebrew Language (1835), and Isaac Nordheimer's A Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language (New York, 1838; 1842).
Certain congregations showed a deep concern for the preservation of Hebrew as a language among Jews and for a sound Hebrew education. The New York synagogue Shearith Israel as early as 1731 "maintained some sort of Jewish schooling," and its constitution (1805) provides that "the fixed prayers shall forever be read in the Hebrew language." In 1830, Dr. Daniel L. Maduro Peixotto (1799–1843), a physician who favored the establishment of a Pestalozzi school, recommended that Hebrew should be taught there. These, however, can only be seen as isolated efforts which did not greatly influence the general Jewish cultural atmosphere in colonial America and in the early years of independence. Hebrew was so little known in the community at large that in Newport, toward the end of the 18th century, the Torah was read from a printed, vocalized text and not from a scroll.
Joshua Falk's Avnei Yehoshu'a ("Book of the Stones of Joshua," 1860), the first original work in Hebrew published in the United States, is a homiletic commentary on Pirkei Avot which also includes the classical text.
The Early Modern Period (1870–1918)
With the coming of large numbers of East European Jews to America, the influence of European Hebrew writing began to be felt. A small group of Hebraists who wanted to spread Hebrew culture made efforts to establish a Hebrew press. In a period of less than 30 years, 20 Hebrew journals appeared, most of which, however, were short lived, mainly because there was no receptive readership. The number of Jews conversant in Hebrew was limited despite the large waves of immigrants from Eastern Europe. The first independent Hebrew periodical, Ha-Ẓofeh ba-Areẓ ha-Ḥadashah, edited by Zvi Hirsch *Bernstein, appeared from 1871 to 1872. It slavishly followed the style and tone of contemporaneous East European Hebrew journals and, to a certain extent, the Anglo-Jewish press in America which had much earlier beginnings (1823). Unfortunately, no complete set of its issues has survived. Other major Hebrew periodicals during that period were Ner Ma'aravi (1895–97) and Ha-Pisgah (1889–1899 intermittently), which were of a high literary and journalistic standard, aroused hopes for a Hebrew renascence in America. Ner Ma'aravi in its first issue published a poem expressing the ardent longing for the development of Hebrew learning and Hebrew literature. Ha-Pisgah, edited by Zeev Wolf Schorr, an ardent lover of Zion, firmly tried to stimulate interest in Hebrew culture, and writers of the caliber of Saul *Tchernichowsky contributed to its literary columns.
Most of the periodicals of the early 20th century, like Ha-Yom (1909–13) and Ha-Le'om (1901–08), were close in style and character to their predecessors. Not until the appearance of Ha-Toren (as a monthly June, 1913–December, 1915; as a weekly March 3, 1916–March 18, 1921; as a monthly again May 1921–December 1925) did a real literary organ appear on the North American scene. But even ha-Toren did not rise to its full stature before the end of World War i, for there were not many good Hebrew writers, readers were not numerous, and libraries of Judaica and Hebraica were meager and, with few exceptions, insignificant.
Many of the American Hebrew writers were of East European origin and they were intensely patriotic about their new country. Judah David *Eisenstein translated the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States into Hebrew. Moses Aaron Schreiber, cantor of the Congregation Shaarey Tefila in New York, wrote a long poem, Minḥat Yehudah ("Offering of Judah"), for the centennial of American Independence (1876). The poem is a historical account of the American people and describes the mass of stricken humanity that surged to the shores of America. Abraham Luria dedicated a poem to President McKinley.
The fabric of traditional Jewish life changed under the impact of America; rabbinic responsa are flooded with names of towns in the United States. Questions on ritual from Kalamazoo and Leavenworth found their erudite answers in a halakhic work by Shalom Elḥanan Joffe, Sho'el ka-Inyan ("Asking to the Point"), which was published in Jerusalem in 1895.
Early American Hebrew writers were not uncritical of the American milieu: its vulgarism, optimism, its predilection for shallow panacea. Their denunciation of internal squabbles and communal ills was particularly keen. They were conscious of the effects of the democratization of society, the attendant ills of the leveling process, and they deplored the organized chaos in Jewish organizations. They could not reconcile themselves to the fact that stature and status were no longer coincidental.
The Jewish Kulturkampf was fought out with an intense bitterness in the United States. The war between the Reform and the Orthodox aroused Mayer Rabinowitz to publish Ha-Maḥanayim ("The Two Camps," 1888). Abraham Moses Shershevsky, rabbi in Portland, Maine, at the turn of the century lashed out against American Jewry:
"Just as our forefathers… crossed the sea and made the Golden Calf, so do their sons after them in this country; after they crossed the Atlantic, they bowed and prostrated themselves before the Golden Calf."
The Golden Calf became a standard metaphor. The poet Menahem Mendel *Dolitzki used it in his introduction to Shirei Menaḥem (1900), while another early author complains: "The basis of all things in America is the dollar… it's the method, it's the aim, it's the glory, it's the power…" Most Hebrew writers earned a precarious living. They were rabbis, teachers, or cantors. Some who were not fortunate enough to gain a livelihood as religious functionaries became peddlers. They never acquired wealth or even economic security.
Though American Hebrew literature cannot boast of a single drama or a single novel of importance at the beginning of the 20th century, two writers, Naphtali Herz *Imber and Gerson *Rosenzweig, exhibit a marked individuality. Imber, who became immortalized with the composition of Ha-Tikvah, the anthem of the Zionist movement and of the State of Israel, made an impact with his delicate lyricism. A note of mordant wit was injected into Hebrew literature by Rosenzweig with his merciless castigation of Jewish professions and occupations in the United States.
After World War i
The end of World War i marked an important milestone in the development of Hebrew literature. Eastern Europe, the center of creative efforts in the Hebrew language for over a century, relinquished its hegemony: The Communist Revolution had relegated Hebrew literature in Russia into insignificance and with the rise of the Nazis to power the splinter center of Hebrew literature which flourished in Germany after the end of World War i was destroyed. The Nazi occupation of Poland almost obliterated creative Hebrew writing there. The previously insignificant foci of Hebrew literature in Palestine and in the United States thus emerged to new significance.
Anglo-American literature which had exerted a negligible influence before World War i now became a potent factor in Hebrew literature. Hebrew poets in America – B. *Silkiner, E.E. *Lisitzky, H. *Bavli, S. *Ginzburg, S. *Halkin, A. *Regelson, M. *Feinstein, H.A. *Friedland, R. *Avinoam (Grossman), A.S. *Schwartz, and Noah *Stern – were not only stimulated by the literary environment of the United States but translated English and American poetry, and even prose and drama, into Hebrew. They translated several plays by Shakespeare; Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass (transl. by S. Halkin Alei Esev (1952)); and many poems by Keats, Shelley, Yeats, and Frost.
The Hebrew poets in America led their European colleagues in critical appraisal of English and American literature, thus opening new vistas for modern Hebrew literature. Their subject matter was also drawn from the American milieu. Benjamin Silkiner (1882–1933) turned to Indian lore for his inspiration in Mul Ohel Timmorah ("Opposite the Tent of Timorah," 1910). He was followed by other poets. Israel *Efros devoted an entire book, Vigvammim Shotekim ("Silent Wigwams," 1933), to a love story of a white man and a half-Indian girl. Ephraim E. Lisitzky wrote his Medurot Do'akhot ("Dying Campfires," 1937) on the basis of Indian legends. Like Silkiner, he struggled with the theme of Indian civilization before its destruction, and like the older poet he tended to idealize the noble savage. Unlike Silkiner, he successfully adapted the unrhymed trochaic tetrameter of The Song of Hiawatha to his story of the warring sons of the vulture and sons of the serpent.
The greatest impact on Hebrew writers in America was, however, made by the Afro-American civilization: spirituals, folk songs, sermons, and the Afro-American sense of rhythm and flair for music. Hillel Bavli, in his critical article which included translations from Afro-American poetry, pioneered in the field of critical appreciation of the Afro-American. He was followed by Avinoam (Grossman), Simon Ginzburg, and, especially, by Lisitzky, who published a cycle of poems on Afro-American themes: Be-Oholei Kush ("In African Tents," 1953). Not only the exotic minorities but the American Anglo-Saxon caught the imagination of Hebrew writers in the U.S. Hillel Bavli's idyll Mrs. Woods (1937) is an American version of the idealized country folk. Israel Efros in his narrative poem "Zahav" ("Gold") created an American character, Ezra Lunt, against the background of the gold rush of 1849. Stories about Jewish immigrants and American gentiles were written by such writers as Y.D. *Berkowitz, H. *Sackler, H.A. Friedland, A. Soyer, S.L. *Blank, Y. *Twersky, S. Halkin, and R. *Wallenrod. Yitzḥak Dov Berkowitz in his stories about American Jewish life wrote almost exclusively about immigrants. Ben Ereẓ ve-Shamayim ("Between Earth and Heaven," 1924), a novel by Harry Sackler, traces the history of an immigrant family from the time it planned to come to the United States to its painful years of adjustment. He also wrote historical novels which depict the struggles of early Judaism against a Canaanite milieu, the conflicts of rabbinic and ḥasidic Jewry, and the strife of early American Jewry with its new environment. Like Sackler, Yoḥanan Twersky culled from the past and present material for his stories and novels. Among these are historical personalities such as Rashi, Uriel da Costa, Alfred Dreyfus, and Aḥad Ha-Am. Simon Halkin, on the other hand, tends to be introspective. The two novels, Yeḥiel ha-Hagri (1928) and Ad Mashber ("On the Brink of Crisis," 1945), set in a New York immigrant milieu, are essentially religious novels whose theme is the quest of modern man for faith in a society which has lost its God. Reuben Wallenrod deliberately abandoned the old themes and consciously and realistically explored the life of the first- and second-generation Jew in America. Daniel *Persky, who for many years wrote a weekly humorous column in Hadoar, promoted Hebrew language and literature in the U.S.
Among the more significant literary critics of the older generation are A.A. *Epstein, whose Soferim Ivrim ba-Amerikah ("Hebrew Writers in America," 1953) is still a standard work, Menachem *Ribalow, and S. Halkin. Three periodicals of the 20th century fostered high-level essays and critiques of Hebrew and non-Hebrew writing: Miklat (1920–21), Ha-Toren (1917–25), and Ha-Tekufah (1930–31). They became defunct, but periodicals like Hadoar and Bitzaron, which began to appear in 1922 and 1940 respectively, still publish criticism. Hadoar owes its original impetus to Ribalow, an excellent journalist and a serious critic, who was succeeded by M. *Maisels; and Bitzaron to the learned and dynamic Rav Tzair (Ḥayyim*Tchernowitz). These periodicals, particularly Hadoar, were supported by a small group of enthusiastic Hebraists. Hebrew journalism in the U.S. is greatly indebted to Reuben *Brainin and Y.D. Berkowitz, the editors of Ha-Toren and Miklat respectively. The future historian will, perhaps, recognize the Berkowitz/Brainin/Silkiner triad as the fathers of Hebrew literature in the U.S.: Berkowitz as the Hebrew stylist and realist, Brainin as the champion of catholicity and literary tastes, and Silkiner as the author who introduced American themes and motifs into Hebrew literature.
On the whole, Hebrew literature in America became less potent. Gabriel *Preil, a modernist lyric poet influenced by American imagists, also won acclaim in Israel. Isaiah *Rabinovich continued to write serious criticism which questions the growing tendency of some Israeli critics to apply the methods of New Criticism to Hebrew literature. Arnold (Avraham) Band (1929– ) published a major work on S.Y. Agnon. Aaron *Zeitlin, who arrived in the Unites States in 1939, expressed himself with equal ease in Hebrew and in Yiddish in a number of genres. His poetry is reflective and marked by mystical insights.
A number of American-Hebrew writers settled in Israel. S. Halkin and A. Regelson, although born in Eastern Europe, were educated in the United States and their poetry and criticism reflected their American experience. M. Maisels was an essayist and editor of considerable talent. Reuven Avinoam and T. Carmi were native Americans who spent most of their lives in Israel.
There seems to be little prospect that Hebrew writing in America will recover the force it had in its heyday. A small center, however, mainly nurtured by Israelis living in America and a limited American audience will probably survive.
For English translations of Hebrew works, see Goell, Bibliography.
Klausner: Sifrut; B. Kurzweil, Sifrutenu ha-Ḥadashah: Hemshekh o Mahapekha? (1959), Lachower, Sifrut; A. Shaanan, Ha-Sifrut ha-'Ivrit, 4 vols. (1962–1967); D. Sadan, 'Al Sifrutenu (1950); H.N. Shapiro, Toledot ha-Sifrut ha'Ivrit ha-Ḥadashah (1940); S. Halkin, Modern Hebrew Literature (1950); Idem, Derakhim ve-Ẓide Derakhim be-Sifrut, 3 vols. (1969); S. Spiegel, Hebrew Reborn (1962); Waxman, Literature, 3–5 (1960); R. Wallenrod, Literature of Modern Israel (1956), inc. Bibl; N. Slouschz, Renascence of Hebrew Literature (1909). add. bibliography: D. Miron, Modern Hebrew Literature: Zionist Perspectives and Israeli Realities, in: Prooftexts 4, 1 (1984), 46–69; A.J. Band, "The Beginnings of modern Hebrew Literature," in: ajs Review, 13:1–2 (1988), 1–26; L. Yudkin, "The Specific Character of Modern Hebrew Literature," in: Modern Hebrew Literature in English Translation (1987), 97–118; D. Patterson, "The Emergence of Modern Hebrew Literature," in: A Phoenix in Fetters (1988), 1–20; G. Shaked, "Breaking the Mould: The Maturing of Hebrew Literature," in: Terms of Survival (1995), 385–411; Amos Oz, "Contemporary Hebrew Literature," in: Partisan Review, 49:1 (1982), 16–22; G. Shaked, Ha-Sipporet ha-Ivrit, 5 vols. (1977–1998); idem, "Through many small windows: An Introduction to Postrealistic Hebrew Literature 1950–1980," in: Prooftexts, 16:3 (1996), 271–91; idem, Modern Hebrew Fiction (2000); H. Bar Yosef, "De-romanticized Zionism in Modern Hebrew Literature," in: Modern Judaism, 16:1 (1996), 67–79; D. Miron, "Depictions in Modern Hebrew Literature," in: N. Rosovsky (ed.), City of the Great King (1996), 241–87; 515–16; W. Bargad, From Agnon to Oz: Studies in Modern Hebrew Literature (1996); R. Kartun-Blum, Profane Scriptures (1999); Y. Oren, An Unconventional Attitude towards Israeli Literature (2002); H. Hever, Producing the Modern Hebrew Canon (2002); G. Abramson, "Modern Hebrew Literature," in: The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies (2002), 515–40; J. Bar Ilan, "Modern Hebrew Literature on the Web: A Content Analysis," in: Online Information Review, 27:2 (2003), 77–86; R. Shoham, Poetry and Prophecy (2003); I. Milner, "Holocaust Survivors and their Children: The Dialogue between the Generations in Modern Hebrew Literature," in: Erinnerte Shoah (2003), 437–44; M. Gluzman, The Politics of Canonicity: Lines of Resistance in Modern Hebrew Literature (2003); A. Band, Studies in Modern Jewish Literature (2003); D. Patterson, "Against all Odds: Hebrew Literature in Our Times," in: The Solomon Goldman Lectures, 8 (2003), 85–102. women's writing: C.B. Balin: To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tzarist Russia (2001); T. Cohen, "From the Private Sphere to the Public Sphere: The Writings of Hebrew Maskilot in the Nineteenth Century," in: D. Assaf et al. (ed.), Studies in East European History and Culture in Honour of Professor Shmuel Werses (Heb., 2002), 235–38; S.F. Foner-Meinkin, A Righteous Love, or The Pursued Family (Heb., 1881); idem, A Story from the Days of Shimon the High Priest (Heb., 1891); idem, Children's Way or A Story From Jerusalem (Heb., 1886); idem, The Days of My Youth, or A Memoir of Dvinsk (Heb., 1903); R. Morpurgo, Ugav Raḥel (Heb., 1890). drama: M. Kohansky, The Hebrew Theatre (1969); L. Ben-Zvi (ed.), Theater in Israel (1996); F. Rokem, ibid., 51–84; Kaynar, ibid., 285–301; N. Yaari, ibid., 151–171; S. Levy and K. Shoef, Israeli Drama: Synopses (2000); A. Yaari, Ha-Maḥazeh ha-Ivri ha-Mekori ve-ha-Meturgam me-Reshito ve-ad ha-Yom (1956), incl. bibl.; Shunami, Bibl, 1207–1211; Ḥ.N. Bialik, in: Bamah, no. 2 (1933), 3–12; G. Hanoch, ibid., no. 1 (1945), 32–38; J. Fichmann, ibid., no. 6 (1941), 3–4; L. Goldberg, in: Bamot, 1 (1951), 7–15; H. Gamzu, in: Me'assef, 1 (1960); M. Silberthal, in: Orlogin, 2 (1951), 28ff.; 10 (1954), 122ff.; A. Paperna, Ha-Drama bi-Khelal ve-ha-Ivrit bi-Ferat (1868); J. Schirmann, in: Gilyonot, 22 (1948), 217–67; idem, in: Keneset, 1 (1936), 430–42; idem, in: Moznayim, 4 (1935), 623–45; G. Shaked, Ha-Maḥazeh ha-Ivri ha-Histori bi-Tekufat ha-Teḥiyyah (1970); idem, in: Bamah, no. 6 (1960), 9–17; Waxman, Literature, index, s.v.Dramas; S. Levy (ed.), The Bible as Theatre (2000); H. Barzel, Drama of Extreme Situations: War and Holocaust (1995); H.S. Joseph (ed.), Modern Israeli Drama: An Anthology (1983); D. Urian, Demut ha-Arvi ba-Teatron ha-Yisraeli (1996); idem, Yahaduto shel ha-Teatron ha-Yisraeli (1998); G. Abramson, Drama and Ideology in Modern Israel (1998); B.-A. Feingold, Tashakh ba-Teatron (2001); M. Nathan, Kishuf neged Mavet (1996); H. Nagid, Ẓeḥok u-Ẓemarmoret (1998); G. Kaynar, F. Rokem, E. Rozik (eds.), The Cameri: A Theatre of Time and Place. criticism: general critical works: S. Halkin, Modern Hebrew Literature (19702); idem, Mekorot le-Toledot ha-Bikkoret ha-Ivrit bi-Tekufat ha-Haskalah (1960); Y. Beker and S. Span (eds.), Mivḥar ha-Massah ha-Ivrit (1962); S. Werses, Ha-Bikkoret ha-Ivrit ba-Me'ah ha-Esrim, Tekhanim ve-Ẓurot (1966); Kressel, Leksikon, 2 vols. (1965–68), incl. bibl.; Shunami, Bibl, index, s.v.Brainin, Brenner, Fichmann, Frischmann, Lachower and Klausner; G. Shaked, Mivḥar Bibliografi shel ha-Maḥashavah ha-Sifrutit ha-Ḥadashah (1958). specific critical works: D. Pagis, Shirat ha-Ḥol ve-Torat ha-Shir le-Moshe Ibn Ezra (1970); Klausner, Sifrut, 4 (1953), on Korner and Paperna; Averbuch, Horetah ve-Ledatah shel ha-Bikkoret ha-Re'alistit ha-Ivrit, in: Orlogin, 9 (1953), 166–87; idem, "A.U. Kovner, ha-Ish, ha-Mevakker u-Morashto," in: ibid., 11 (1955), 94–122; Breiman, "A.U. Kovner u-Mekomo be-Toledot ha-Bikkoret ha-Ivrit," in: Meẓudah, 7 (1954), 416–57; Kuenstler, "Reshit Bikkoret ha-Dramah ha-Ivrit," in: Molad, 2 (1969), 379–90; Elkoshi, "J.L. Gordon ha-Mevakker," in: Meẓudah, 7 (1954), 458–89; N. Gruenblatt, Mevakkerim be-Sifrutenu (1944); Lachower, Sifrut, 3 (1963), on Frischmann, Aḥad Ha-Am, Klausner and Berdyczewski; Y. Keshet, M.J. Berdyczewski, Ḥayyav u-Fo'alo (1958); F. Lachower, Shirah u-Maḥashavah (1953), 200–26 (on Brainin); Kramer, "Re'uven Brainin ki-Mevakker Sifruti," in: Me'assef Soferei Ereẓ Yisrael (1940), 368–76; A.A. Rivlin, Aḥad Ha-Am u-Mitnaggedav ve-Hashkafotehem al ha-Sifrut ha-Ivrit be-Doram (1955); Werses, "J. Klausner be-Vikkoret u-ve-Ḥeker ha-Sifrut," in: Molad, 16 (1958), 616–21; idem, "Al Demutah shel 'Shiratenu ha-Ẓe'irah'" (Bialik's Essay), in: Me'assef le-Divrei Sifrut, Bikkoret ve-Hagut, 4 (1964), 381–92; N. Rotenstreich, Al "Gillui ve-Khissui ba-Lashon" le-Ḥ.N. Bialik (1951); Averbuch, "Frishmann, ha-Ish, ha-Mevakker ve-Doro," in: Orlogin, 8 (1953), 77–89; Kariv, "Frishmann ha-Mevakker ve-Ḥozeh ha-De'ot," in: Atarah le-Yoshnah (1956), 199–236; Lachower, "Brenner ha-Mevakker," in: Rishonim va-Aḥaronim (19662), 321–7; Kartun-Blum, "Al Mishnato ha-Sifrutit shel Brenner," in: Molad, 1 (1968), 687–93; Halkin, "F. Lachower," in: Bitzaron, 16 (1947), 80–93; Kramer, "Netivot ba-Bikkoret ha-Ivrit," in: Me'assef le-Divrei Sifrut, Bikkoret ve-Hagut, 5–6 (1965–66), 348–76; A. Shanan, Ha-Sifrut ha-Ivrit ha-Ḥadashah li-Zeramehah (1962– ); Waxman, Literature, 3, 313ff.; ibid., 4, 339ff.; ibid., 5, 52ff. translations: Y. Goell, Bibliography of Modern Hebrew Literature in English Translation (1968); Y. Goell, Bibliography of Modern Hebrew Literature in Translation (1975); I. Goldberg, Y. Goell, A. Zipin, Bibliography of Modern Hebrew Literature in Translation. The Institute for the Translation of Hebrew Literature, vols. 1–7, 1979–1985; new series. ed. I. Goldberg, N. Raz, A. Zipin, E. Kandelshein and N. Duchovni, v. 1–10, 1988–1998; I. Goldberg and N. Duchovni, S. Agnon: A Bibliography of His Work in Translation Including Selected Publications about Agnon and his Writing (1996); E. Lapon-Kandelshein and N. Duchovni, Yehuda Amichai: A Bibliography of his Work in Translation (1994); M. Kayyal, Bibliography of Arabic Translations and Studies about Modern Hebrew Literature in Israel and the Arab World (2003); A. Feinberg, "Bibliography of Modern Hebrew Literature in German Translation," in: A. Feinberg, Moderne hebraeische Literatur (2005).
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There is no shortage of examples or anecdotal accounts that suggest Scouting produces better citizens, but is there scientific evidence to confirm the prosocial benefits of Scouting or earning the rank of Eagle Scout? One hundred years after Arthur Eldred of New York earned the first Eagle Scout Award from the Boy Scouts of America, researchers with Baylor University’s Institute for Studies of Religion (ISR) and Program on Prosocial Behavior have released findings from a nationwide, scientific survey that examines Eagle Scouts in comparison to other Scouts as well as non-Scouts.
The central question of this study was to determine if achieving the rank of Eagle Scout is associated with prosocial behavior and development of character that carries over into young adulthood and beyond. With funding from a major two-year research grant from the John Templeton Foundation, allowed Baylor researchers to partner with the Gallup Organization to conduct a nationwide random survey of 2,512 adult males.
Analyses were conducted to see whether three groups of survey respondents – Eagle Scouts, Scouts who did not achieve the Eagle Scout rank, and non-Scouts – differed in responses to a series of survey questions related to the following topics: Well-being, Civic engagement, and Character development
The Baylor study found that Eagle Scouts – compared to Scouts who never attained the rank of Eagle Scout and men who were never Scouts – were significantly more likely to:
Exhibit higher levels of participation in a variety of health and recreational activities;
- Show a greater connection to siblings, neighbors, religious community, friends, coworkers, formal and informal groups and a spiritual presence in nature;
- Share a greater belief in duty to God, service to others, service to the community and leadership;
- Engage in behaviors that are designed to enhance and protect the environment;
- Be committed to setting and achieving personal, professional, spiritual and financial goals;
- Show higher levels of planning and preparedness; and
- Indicate that they have built character traits related to work ethics, morality, tolerance and respect for diversity.
The full study – “Merit Beyond the Badge” – can be downloaded at HERE.
Byron Johnson is Distinguished Professor of the Social Sciences at Baylor University, where he directs the Baylor Institute for Studies of Religion as well as the Program on Prosocial Behavior. Sung Joon Jang is associate professor of sociology and a resident scholar at ISR. Young-Il Kim is a post-doctoral scholar at ISR. The Baylor Institute for Studies of Religion is an academic think-tank that specializes in social research and public policy analysis on religion.
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Presentation at UNESCO of the fifth volume of the 'General History of Latin America'Paris, April 9 - The fifth volume of the General History of Latin America, entitled La crisis estructural de las sociedades implantadas (The Structural Crisis in the Settlement Societies), just released by UNESCO Publishing and Trotta, a Spanish publisher, will be presented at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris on Friday, April 11.
Venezuelan historian Germán Carrera Damas, the president of the International Scientific Committee supervising the nine-volume series, will introduce the new work which he co-edited with John V. Lombardi, the chancellor of Boston University in the United States.
The latest volume comprises 20 chapters written by 14 experts from Latin America, four from Europe and two from the United States. Chile’s Fundacion Latinoamericana ANDES helped fund the work.
The new book, about 600 pages long and illustrated with photos and maps, deals with what is called the “independence” period, which began in 1808 in the Spanish American colonies with a political quarrel between the Creole and metropolitan parts of the colonial authority.
How were the seeds of a republicanism and independence sown in a colonial society ruled by an absolute monarchy? This is one of the many questions tackled by the book, which also discusses whether independence was the result of civil war, international war, revolution or a simple dispute. Also, were these wars necessary or could emancipation have come through a more gradual process?
Carrera Damas, an academic and author of several books has also served as his country’s ambassador to Colombia, Mexico and the Czech Republic. He says the period was “enormously important because the period of independence resulted in, generated or strengthened developments that have influenced and continue to influence Latin American society even today.”
The General History of Latin America is a comprehensive scientific work, recording the evolution of Latin American societies from the pre-Columbian era to the 20th century. It is the fruit of work by more than 240 historians and experts from all schools of thought.
The presentation will be take place on Friday April 11 at 1 p.m. in Room X.
Historia General de América Latina, Vol. V - La crisis estructural de las sociedades implantadas
UNESCO Publishing/Trotta Price: 35.06 euros
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The 150 year old Big Ben Clock Tower is one of London’s top attractions. It is the 3th largest free-standing clock tower in the world. The clock has become a symbol of the England and London and has appeared in many films. by example the movie V for Vendetta where the Big Ben was completely destroyed by a bom!
The Big Ben is among London’s most iconic landmarks and must-see London attractions. Technically, Big Ben is the name given to the massive bell inside the clock tower, which weighs more than 13 tons (13,760 kg). The clock tower looks spectacular at night when the four clock faces are illuminated.
Big Ben Facts
- The numbers are approximately 60cm long
- There are 312 pieces of glass in each clock dial
- A special light above the clock faces is illuminated when parliament is in session
- Big Ben’s timekeeping is strictly regulated by a stack of coins placed on the huge pendulum.
- Big Ben has rarely stopped. Even after a bomb destroyed the Commons chamber during the Second World War, the clock tower survived and Big Ben continued to strike the hours.
- The chimes of Big Ben were first broadcast by the BBC on 31 December 1923, a tradition that continues to this day.
- In June 2012 the House of Commons announced that the clock tower was to be renamed the Elizabeth Tower in honour of Queen Elizabeth II’s Diamond Jubilee.
Big Ben – behind the scenes
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Table of Contents
Flowers; these are found in different shapes, colours, fragrance and types. Flowers are the most beautiful parts of the plant.
They are so beautiful and attractive which is liked by all; humans, animals, birds, insects everyone. We will discuss the Ayurvedic benefits of Hibiscus flower in this post.
Flowers are a medium to convey emotions like; sorrow, grief, happiness, love, care and affections! Flowers are the gorgeous creations of nature; which is really fabulous. These play a vital role in the decoration of marriage, parties and some other auspicious occasions.
Many of us can’t even think; these beautiful creations have hidden a wide range of medicinal values in it. What are flowers? Simply, these are the parts of our nature; and as we know every natural creation has some unique values in it.
Here we will be learning about the Ayurvedic and medicinal values of Hibiscus plant. Ayurveda explains a wide array of natural substances. It will be good enough if certain diseases get cured using these natural substances! Although, none of us likes to be bounded with medicines. Isn’t it!
As roses, Hibiscus flowers are also found in different colours. They lack fragrance but are very beautiful. Due to its natural beauty, elegance, bell-shaped structure and charming look; these plants are grown in pots in houses, temples, parks, gardens and many other places.
It is an evergreen plant which is approximately 5-9 ft in height. It has strong branches and trunk. The leaves are dark green, shiny, smooth and oval-shaped. This plant does not bear any fruit; the flowers are found in different shades; out of which white and red ones are much beneficial.
Scientific names and Nomeclature
Hibiscus belongs to kingdom Plantae and Malvaceae family. Its binomial name is “Hibiscus rosa-sinensis“ which is Latin in origin. In English, it is called; Shoe flower or China rose. Its Hindi name is Gurhal.
Ayurvedic properties of the flower
Ayurveda believes to cure the ailment using natural substances; these are much efficient, free from side-effects and affordable. Hibiscus flowers are rich in Iron, phosphorus, calcium, riboflavin, thiamine, niacin etc. It also contains Vitamin C and carotene in small amounts.
Firstly, it is good for pitta kind of diseases. It is very useful to correct hereditary disorders. The wholesome plant is usable; its flowers, leaves, roots, stem, bark all. Now, let us move to the medicinal benefits of Hibiscus.
Medicinal benefits of Hibiscus plant
Medicine is a substance which is able to cure certain types of ailments and disorders. Every natural substance has some medicinal values in it. Hibiscus plant has a wide range of medicinal values in it. Many of us aware of these facts, so let’s have a look on these-
1Good for Alopecia
Alopecia; also known as baldness or hair baldness is one of the concerned problems for today’s youth. Well, hair baldness has many reasons; but many of them are still unknown. In this, hair fall is very high and patches appear on the scalp which looks very bad.
For the treatment, take 6-8 leaves of hibiscus and grind it. Apply it on head and scalp; leave for 3 hours and wash with lukewarm water. Repeat this twice a week. It provides nourishment to the scalp and helps in hair growth.
Mix equal quantities of flower’s juice with olive oil. Cook in the fire till only oil is left. Store it in a bottle and apply on the roots twice or thrice a week. This ensures you with shiny, gorgeous, beautiful and healthier hairs. This is the reason why most of the hair products contain the extract of hibiscus in it!
2Remedy for Anaemia
Anaemia is a disorder in which the haemoglobin level gets decreased due to the lack of iron content in the body. In other treatments, several Iron tablets, syrups, injections etc are provided to raise the haemoglobin content. Here we will discover the natural cure of Anaemia through hibiscus.
Take 20-50 buds of Hibiscus flowers and sundry it. Grind it and store it in an air-tight container. Give 1 teaspoon of dried powder with a cup of milk every morning and evening. Within a few months, the blood level will be raised making you active,physically youthful and increased with stamina.
3Enhance memory power
You must have observed, many of us have slow ad blunt mind whereas some possess a very sharp and active mind. There are many reasons for this. Let’s know how to increase brain potency with a hibiscus plant.
Take 10 leaves and 10 flowers of hibiscus; dry them and then grind into powder and store in a container. Give 1 teaspoon of powder with sweet milk; twice a day.
4Swelling and Inflammation
Hibiscus heals a lot for swollen parts and other types of skin sensations like itching, burning etc. Make a paste of tender and fresh hibiscus leaves grind with water; Apply the paste on swollen areas. It gives relief in a few minutes.
5Miraculous hibiscus tea
We can even prepare a herbal tea using dried, vibrantly coloured calyces of the hibiscus flower. You can serve it hot or as a cold tea. It looks very good; as transparent red in colour. Hibiscus tea is good for those suffering from problems related to; Blood pressure, heart ailments, strokes, obesity and many more.
In this way, we saw numerous benefits of Hibiscus. Nature offers us a wide array of medicinal plants and herbs. We neglect all these and march to a modern one. Are we doing justice to nature?
Guys, it’s not late now; get conscious and find healing in these natural substances only. You step forward and see the miracle of nature!
Go green, stay well!
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Family: Turnicidae (Buttonquails)
Authority: (Gould, 1840)
Red List Category
This species was listed as Near Threatened because it was suspected to have undergone at least a moderately rapid population reduction, and was believed to have a moderately small range (although not severely fragmented or restricted to few locations), however no recent declines have been reported even though the population is sparse and scattered, and population declines in the last three generations (11 years) are considered unlikely. As the range and population are now estimated to be large, and thus the species does not approach the thresholds for classification as Vulnerable under any of the other criteria, it has been downlisted to Least Concern.
BirdLife International (2020) Species factsheet: Turnix castanotus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 13/08/2020. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2020) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 13/08/2020.
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Everything is awesome at LegoLand’s new Lego Movie World section.
On Feb. 3, 2006, astronauts at the International Space Station tossed an empty spacesuit into space all by itself … for science. See how it happened here in our On This Day in Space video series.
Three powerful space observatories reveal the Whirlpool Galaxy as a wonder of star formation and star death in a new video from the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) that operates the Hubble Space Telescope.
The device, built to be portable enough for use in space, produces a beam of laser light that changes less over time than any other laser humanity has created.
Taking the temperature of a star bomb.
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Lonicera sempervirens 'Sulphurea.'
Lonicera sempervirens 'Sulphurea,' commonly called trumpet honeysuckle, is a vigorous, deciduous, twining vine that grows 10-15' (less frequently to 20') and is one of the showiest of the vining honeysuckles. It is primarily native to the southeastern U.S.
Large, non-fragrant, narrow, trumpet-shaped flowers are yellow. Flowers appear in late spring at stem ends in whorled clusters. They are attractive to hummingbirds, butterflies, and bees. Inedible red berries from late summer to early fall can be ornamentally beautiful. The small red berries are attractive to birds. Oval, bluish-green leaves are glaucous beneath. This vine is evergreen in the warm winter climates of the deep South.
It is quickly grown in average, medium moisture, well-drained soils in full sun. It will grow in some shade, but the best flowering is in full sun. Best in humusy, organically rich soils with good drainage. This is a twining vine that needs a support structure to grow unless allowed to sprawl as a ground cover. Prune as needed immediately after flowering.
Light: Full sun
Zone: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Origin: Texas, Southeastern U.S.
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how is the acquisition of it presented?
Answers 1Add Yours
The acquisition of knowledge is presented in a few different ways. First, you have the teacher who believes that you acquire enough knowledge to pass your testa and become successful professionally. In contrast, you have the teacher who wants their students to acquire knowledge and then test the knowledge they've acquired.
This difference is a huge source of debate in today's schools where teaching the test and performance on standardized tests has become the model for judging our student's progress. Facts are taught and tests mean everything, rather than retaining knowledge and building on it, teachers are exposing students to knowledge and hoping for the best. Actual knowledge and learning how to 'think' are put on the back burner, while learning the 'tricks' to get you though are emphasized.
If you haven't noticed, I find this a very controversial subject and have deep opinions............ I think the book presented the problem very well.
The History Boys
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|"The City of Joy"|
|Mayor||Bikash Ranjan Bhattacharya|
• 27,462 /km2 (71,126 /sq mi)
|Official languages||Bengali, English|
|Time zone||IST (UTC+05:30)|
|185 km2 (71 sq mi)
• 9 m (30 ft)
Kolkata (help·info) (Bengali: কলকাতা; IPA: [ˈkolkat̪a]), formerly Calcutta (help·info)) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located in eastern India on the east bank of the River Hooghly. When referred to as Calcutta, it usually includes the suburbs, and thus its population exceeds 15 million, making it India's third-largest metropolitan area and urban agglomeration as well as the world's 8th largest agglomeration.
Kolkata served as the capital of India during the British Raj until 1911. Once the centre of modern education, industry, science, culture and politics in India, since 1954, Kolkata has witnessed intense political violence, clashes and economic stagnation. Since the year 2000, economic rejuvenation has spurred on the city's growth. Like other metropolitan cities in India, Kolkata continues to struggle with the problems of urbanisation: poverty, pollution and traffic congestion.
The name Kolkata and the anglicised name Calcutta have their roots in Kalikata, the name of one of the three villages (Kalikata, Sutanuti, Govindapur) in the area before the arrival of the British. "Kalikata", in turn, is believed to be a version of Kalikshetra (কালীক্ষেত্র, "Land of [the goddess] Kali"). Alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila ("flat area"). Again, the name may have its origin in the indigenous term for a natural canal, Khal, followed by Katta (which may mean dug). Another theory is that the place used to specialize in quicklime (kalicun) and coir rope (kátá) and hence the place was called Kalikátá.
While the city's name was always pronounced "Kolkata" or "Kolikata" in the local Bengali language, its official English name was changed from "Calcutta" to "Kolkata" in 2001, reflecting the Bengali pronunciation. Some view this as a move to erase the legacy of British rule. This change has not always been reflected by overseas media, but news sources like the BBC have opted to call Bombay Mumbai and Calcutta Kolkata.
The discovery of the nearby Chandraketugarh, an archaeological site, provides evidence that the area has been inhabited for over two millennia. The city's documented history, however, begins with the arrival of the English East India Company in 1690, when the Company was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. Job Charnock, an administrator with the Company was traditionally credited as the founder of this city. However some academics have recently challenged the view that Charnock was the founder of the city, and in response to a public interest litigation the High Court ruled in 2003 that the city does not have a specific founder.
At that time Kolkata, under direct rule of the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah, comprised three villages Kalikata, Govindapur and Sutanuti. The British in the late 17th century wanted to build a fort near Govindapur in order to consolidate their power over other foreign powers—namely the Dutch, the Portuguese, and the French. In 1702, the British completed the construction of old Fort William, which was used to station its troops and as a regional base. Calcutta was declared a Presidency City, and later became the headquarters of the Bengal Presidency. Faced with frequent skirmishes with French forces, in 1756 the British began to upgrade their fortifications. When protests against the militarisation by the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah went unheeded he attacked and captured Fort William, leading to the infamous Black Hole of Calcutta incident. A force of Company sepoys and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year. Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772, and starting in 1864 during the summer months, the capital was temporarily shifted to the hill station of Shimla. In the early 19th century the marshes surrounding the city were drained and the government area was laid out along the banks of the Hooghly River. Richard Wellesley, the Governor General between 1797–1805, was largely responsible for the growth of the city and its public architecture which led to the description of Calcutta as "The City of Palaces". The city was a centre of the British East India Company's opium trade during the 18th and 19th century; locally produced opium was sold via auctions in Kolkata by a company called J. Thomas & Company Private Ltd. (which is still in existence at Kolkata and are at present, the largest auctioneers of tea in the world) , to be shipped to China.
By the early 19th century, Kolkata was split into two distinct areas—one British (known as the White Town), the other Indian (known as Black Town). The city underwent rapid industrial growth from the 1850s, especially in the textile and jute sectors; this caused a massive investment in infrastructure projects like railroads and telegraph by British government. The coalescence of British and Indian culture resulted in the emergence of a new Babu class of urbane Indians — whose members were often bureaucrats, professionals, read newspapers, were Anglophiles, and usually belonged to upper-caste Hindu communities. Throughout the nineteenth century, a socio-cultural reform, often referred to as the Bengal Renaissance resulted in the general uplifting of the people. In 1883, Surendranath Banerjee organised a national conference — the first of its kind in nineteenth century India. Gradually Calcutta became a centre of the Indian independence movement, especially revolutionary organisations. The 1905 Partition of Bengal on communal grounds resulted in widespread public agitation and the boycott of British goods (Swadeshi movement). These activities, along with the administratively disadvantageous location of Calcutta in the eastern fringes of India, prompted the British to move the capital to New Delhi in 1911.
The city and its port were bombed several times by the Japanese during World War II, the first occasion being 20 December 1942, and the last being 24 December 1944. During the War, millions starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943, caused by a combination of military, administrative and natural factors. In 1946, demands for the creation of a Muslim state led to large-scale communal violence resulting in the deaths of over 4,000 people. The partition of India also created intense violence and a shift in demographics — large numbers of Muslims left for East Pakistan, while hundreds of thousands of Hindus fled into the city. Over the 1960s and 1970s, severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Maoist movement — the Naxalites — damaged much of the city's infrastructure, leading to an economic stagnation. In 1971, war between India and Pakistan led to the mass influx of thousands of refugees into Kolkata resulting in a massive strain on its infrastructure. In the mid-1980s, Bombay, now Mumbai, overtook Kolkata as India's most populous city. Kolkata has been a strong base of Indian communism as West Bengal has been ruled by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))-dominated Left Front for 32 years now — the world's longest-running democratically elected communist government. The city's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic reforms in India introduced by the central government in the mid-1990s. Since 2000, Information Technology (IT) services have revitalized the city’s stagnant economy. The city is also experiencing a growth in the manufacturing sector.
Kolkata is located in eastern India at Ganges Delta at an elevation ranging between 1.5 m (5 ft) to 9 m (30 ft). It is spread linearly along the banks of the River Hooghly in a north-south direction. Much of the city was originally a vast wetland, reclaimed over the decades to accommodate the city's burgeoning population. The remaining wetland, known as East Calcutta Wetlands has been designated a "wetland of international importance" under the Ramsar Convention.in the
Like the most of the Indo-Gangetic plains, the predominant soil type is alluvial. Quaternary sediments consisting of clay, silt, various grades of sand and gravel underlie the city. These sediments are sandwiched between two clay beds, the lower one at depths between 250 m (820 ft) and 650 m (2,133 ft) and the upper one ranging between 10 m (33 ft) and 40 m (131 ft) in thickness. According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, the town falls under seismic zone-III, in a scale of I to V (in order of increasing proneness to earthquakes) while the wind and cyclone zoning is "very high damage risk", according to UNDP report.
Kolkata city is ranked as Gamma World City.It is the cultural capital of India as well. Kolkata city, under the jurisdiction of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC), has an area of 185 km2 (71 sq mi). The Kolkata urban agglomeration (Kolkata Metropolitan Area), however, is spread over 1,750 km2 (676 sq mi), and comprises 157 postal areas, as of 2006. The urban agglomeration is formally administered by several local governments including 38 local municipalities. The urban agglomeration comprises 72 cities and 527 towns and villages. The suburban areas of Kolkata metropolitan district incorporates parts of the districts North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly and Nadia.
The east-to-west dimension of the city is narrow, stretching from the Hooghly River in the west to roughly the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass in the east, a span of barely 5 km (3.1 mi)–6 km (3.7 mi). The north-south expansion is roughly divided into North, Central and South Kolkata. North Kolkata locality is the oldest part of the city, with 19th century architecture and narrow alleyways. South Kolkata grew mostly after independence of India and consists of posh localities such as Ballygunge, Alipore, New Alipore. The Salt Lake City (Bidhannagar) area to the northeast of the city is a planned section of Kolkata. Rajarhat, also called New Town, is a planned township being developed on the north-eastern fringes of the city.
Central Kolkata houses the central business district around the B. B. D. Bagh area. The government secretariat, General Post Office, High Court, Lalbazar Police HQs and several other government and private offices are located here. The Maidan is a large open field in the heart of the city where several sporting events and public meetings are held. Several companies have set up their offices around the area south of Park Street which has become a secondary central business district.
Kolkata has a tropical wet-and-dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). The annual mean temperature is 26.8 °C (80.2 °F); monthly mean temperatures range from 19 °C (66.2 °F) to 30 °C (86.0 °F). Summers are hot and humid with temperatures in the low 30's and during dry spells the maximum temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during May and June. Winter tends to last for only about two and a half months, with seasonal lows dipping to 9 °C – 11 °C (54 °F – 57 °F) between December and January. The highest recorded temperature is 43.9 °C (111.0 °F) and the lowest is 5 °C (41.0 °F). On an average, May is the hottest month with daily temperatures ranging from a low of 27 °C (80.6 °F) to a maximum of 37 °C (98.6 °F), while January the coldest month has temperatures varying from a low of 12 °C (53.6 °F) to a maximum of 23 °C (73.4 °F). Often during early summer, dusty squalls followed by spells of thunderstorm or hailstorms and heavy rains with ice sleets lash the city, bringing relief from the humid heat. These thunderstorms are convective in nature, and is locally known as Kal baisakhi (কালবৈশাখী, Nor'westers).
Rains brought by the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West monsoon lash the city between June and September and supplies the city with most of its annual rainfall of 1,582 mm (62 in). The highest rainfall occurs during the monsoon in August—306 mm (12 in). The city receives 2,528 hours of sunshine per annum, with the maximum sunlight occurring in March. Pollution is a major concern in Kolkata, and the Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) level is high when compared to other major cities of India, leading to regular smog and haze. Severe air pollution in the city has caused rise in pollution-related respiratory ailments such as lung cancer.
Kolkata is the main business, commercial and financial hub of eastern India and the northeastern states. It is home to the Calcutta Stock Exchange — India's second-largest bourse. It is also a major commercial and military port, and the only city in the region to have an international airport. Once India's leading city and Capital, Kolkata experienced a steady economic decline in the years following India's independence due to the prevalent unstabilised political condition and rise in trade-unionism. Between the 1960s to the mid 1990s, flight of capital was enormous as many large factories were closed or downsized and businesses relocated. The lack of capital and resources coupled with a worldwide glut in demand in the city's traditional industries (e.g. jute) added to the depressed state of the city's economy. The liberalisation of the Indian economy in the 1990s has resulted in the improvement of the city's fortunes. Until recently, flexible production had always been the norm in Kolkata, and the informal sector has comprised more than 40% of the labour force. For example, roadside hawkers generated business worth Rs. 8,772 crore (around 2 billion U.S. dollars) in 2005. State and federal government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce. The city has a large unskilled and semi-skilled labour population, along with other blue-collar and knowledge workers. Kolkata's economic revival was led largely by IT services, with the IT sector growing at 70% yearly — twice that of the national average. In recent years there has been a surge of investments in the housing infrastructure sector with several new projects coming up in the city. Kolkata is home to many industrial units operated by large Indian corporations with products ranging from electronics to jute. Some notable companies headquartered in Kolkata include ITC Limited, India Government Mint, Kolkata, Exide Industries, Hindustan Motors, Britannia Industries, Bata India, Birla Corporation, CESC Limited, Coal India Limited, Damodar Valley Corporation,Amconics International Ltd. United Bank of India, UCO Bank and Allahabad Bank. Recently, various events like adoption of "Look East" policy by the government of India, opening of the Nathu La Pass in Sikkim as a border trade-route with China and immense interest in the South East Asian countries to enter the Indian market and invest have put Kolkata in an advantageous position.
The civic administration of Kolkata is executed by several government agencies, and consists of overlapping structural divisions. At least five administrative definitions of the city are available; listed in ascending order of area, those are:
Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC)- The governance of the city proper—the area within which KMC has a directly-elected council of 141 ward councillors who elect a council Chairman and an executiive Mayor. The Mayor, in turn chooses a Deputy Mayor and not more than 10 elected councillors to form the Mayor-in-Council which works like a cabinet. In addition, there is a Municipal Accounts Committee (MAC)of five to seven elected councillors, other than the MiC, chosen through proportional representation, to act like a public accounts committee (PAC), usually headed by the Leader of Opposition. The MiC was introduced in 1980 and the system has been replicated in other Municipalities and Panchayats as Mayor/ Chairperson-in-council during 1981-1991. No other state in India has introduced a system of political executive in local government.
The main functions of the KMC are water supply, drainage and sewerage, sanitation, solid wastes management, streets and public places, street lighting, and building regulation. Fire services are handled by a state agency- Kolkata Fire Brigade. Similarly, for the river port services, there is a Kolkata Port Trust, an agency of the central government.
Other authorities: the Collector of the Kolkata District, the Kolkata Police, the Collector/District Magistrate (DM) of South 24 Parganas District, and the Superintendent of Police (SP) of South 24 Parganas District. As of 2008, the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))-led Left Front holds the power in KMC. The city also has an apolitical titular post, that of the Sheriff of Kolkata.
As the capital of the state and the seat of the Government of West Bengal, Kolkata houses not only the offices of the local governing agencies, but also the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, the state Secretariat (Writers' Building) and the Calcutta High Court. Kolkata also has lower courts; the Small Causes Court for civil matters, and the Sessions Court for criminal cases. The Kolkata Police, headed by the Police Commissioner, comes under the West Bengal Home Ministry. The city elects three representatives to the Lok Sabha (India's lower house) and 21 representatives to the state Legislative Assembly.
The KMC supplies potable water to the city, sourced from the River Hooghly. The water is purified and treated at Palta water pumping station located in North 24 Parganas. Almost all of Kolkata's daily refuse of 2500 tonnes is transported to the dumping grounds in Dhapa to the east of the town. Agriculture on this dumping ground is encouraged for natural recycling of garbage and sewer water. Parts of the city still lack sewage facilities leading to unsanitary methods of waste disposal. Electricity is supplied by the privately operated Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation (CESC) to the city region, and by the West Bengal State Electricity Board in the suburbs. Frequent interruption of power supply was a problem until the mid 1990s; however the situation has since improved immensely with seldom power cuts occurring presently. The city has 20 fire stations (under West Bengal Fire Service) that attend to 7,500 fire and rescue calls on average per year.
State-owned BSNL and private enterprises like Vodafone, Airtel, Reliance Communications, Idea Cellular, Aircel, Tata DoCoMo, Tata Indicom, Virgin Mobile and MTS India are the leading telephone and cell phone service providers in the city. Cellular coverage is extensive with both GSM and CDMA services being available. Broadband internet penetration has steadily increased with BSNL, Tata Indicom, Sify, Airtel, Reliance and Alliance being the leading service providers.
Bengali language newspapers like Anandabazar Patrika, Bartaman, Sangbad Pratidin, Aajkaal, Dainik Statesman and Ganashakti are widely circulated. Popular English language newspapers published and sold in Kolkata include the Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Hindu, The Indian Express, The Statesman, The Telegraph and Asian Age. Some major periodicals are Desh, Sananda, Unish Kuri, Kindle, Anandalok and Anandamela. Being the biggest trading market in Eastern India, Kolkata has a substantial readership of many financial dailies including The Economic Times, The Financial Express, Business Line and Business Standard. Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Gujarati, Oriya, Urdu, Punjabi and Chinese are also read by a minority. All India Radio (AIR), the state-owned radio broadcaster, airs several AM radio stations in the city. Kolkata has 12 local FM radio stations, including two from AIR. The state-owned television broadcaster Doordarshan provides two free terrestrial channels, while four MSO provide a mix of Bengali, Hindi, English and other regional channels via cable. Bengali 24-hour television news channels include STAR Ananda, Tara Newz, Kolkata TV, 24 Ghanta and Channel 10.
Public transport is provided by the Kolkata suburban railway, the Kolkata Metro, trams and buses. The suburban network is extensive and extends into the distant suburbs. The Kolkata Metro, run by the Indian Railways, is the oldest underground system in India. It runs parallel to the River Hooghly and spans the north-south length of the city covering a distance of 22.3 km. Buses are the preferred mode of transport and are run by both government agencies and private operators. Kolkata is India's only city to have a tram network, operated by Calcutta Tramways Company. The slow-moving tram services are restricted to certain areas of the city. Water-logging due to heavy rains during the monsoon sometimes interrupts the public transport.
Hired forms of mechanised transport include the yellow metered taxis, while auto rickshaws ply in specific routes. Almost all the taxis in Kolkata are Ambassadors. This is unlike most other cities where Tata Indicas or Fiats are more common. In some areas of the city, cycle rickshaws and hand-pulled rickshaws are also patronised by the public for short distances. Private owned vehicles are less in number and usage compared to other major cities due to the abundance in both variety and number of public vehicles. However, the city witnessed a steady increase in the number of registered vehicles; 2002 data showed an increase of 44% over a period of seven years. The road space (matched with population density) in the city is only 6%, compared to 23% in Delhi and 17% in Mumbai, creating major traffic problems. Kolkata Metro Railway and a number of new roads and flyovers have decongested the traffic to some extent.
Kolkata has two major long distance railway stations at Howrah Station and Sealdah. A third station named Kolkata has been launched in early 2006. The city is the headquarters of two divisions of the Indian Railways — Eastern Railway and South Eastern Railway.
The city's sole airport, the Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport at Dum Dum to the north of the city, operates both domestic and international flights. Kolkata is also a major riverport in eastern India. The Kolkata Port Trust manages both the Kolkata docks and the Haldia docks. There are passenger service to Port Blair in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and cargo ship service to various ports in India and abroad, operated by the Shipping Corporation of India. Also there are ferry services connecting Kolkata with its twin city of Howrah.
|Source: Census of India|
Residents of Kolkata are called Calcuttans. As of 2001, Kolkata city had a population of 4,580,544, while the urban agglomeration had a population of 13,216,546. Current estimates for 2009 project the city's population to be 5,080,519. The sex ratio is 928 females per 1000 males – which is lower than the national average, because many working males come from rural areas, where they leave behind their families. Kolkata's literacy rate of 81% exceeds the all-India average of 80%. Kolkata Municipal Corporation area has registered a growth rate of 4.1%, which is the lowest among the million-plus cities in India.
Bengalis comprise the majority of Kolkata's population (55%), with Marwaris and Bihari communities forming a large portion of the minorities (20%). Some of Kolkata's minor communities include Chinese, Tamils, Nepalis, Oriyas, Telugus, Assamese, Gujaratis, Anglo-Indians, Armenians, Tibetans, Maharashtrians, Punjabis and Parsis. Major languages spoken in Kolkata are Bengali, Hindi, Urdu, English.
According to the census, 70% of the population in Kolkata is Hindu, 28% Muslim, 1% Christian and 1% Jains. Other minorities such as Sikhs, Buddhist, Jews and Zoroastrian constitute the rest of the city's population. 1.5 million people, who constitute about a third of the city's population, live in 2,011 registered and 3,500 unregistered (occupied by squatters) slums.
Kolkata reported 67.6% of total Special and Local Laws (SLL) crimes registered in 35 Indian mega cities in 2004. Kolkata police district registered 10,757 IPC cases in 2004, which was 10th highest in the country. The crime rate in the city was 71 per 100,000 against the national rate of 167.7 in 2006, which is the lowest among all the mega cities in India. Kolkata's Sonagachi area, with more than 10,000 sex workers, is one of Asia's largest red-light districts.
Kolkata has long been known for its literary, artistic and revolutionary heritage. As the former capital of India, Kolkata was the birthplace of modern Indian literary and artistic thought. Kolkatans tend to have a special appreciation for art and literature; its tradition of welcoming new talent has made it a "city of furious creative energy". For these reasons, Kolkata has often been dubbed as the "cultural capital of India".
A characteristic feature of Kolkata is the para or neighbourhoods having a strong sense of community. Typically, every para has its own community club with a clubroom and often, a playing field. People here habitually indulge in adda or leisurely chat, and these adda sessions are often a form of freestyle intellectual conversation. The city has a tradition of political graffiti depicting everything from outrageous slander to witty banter and limericks, caricatures to propaganda.
Kolkata has many buildings adorned with Gothic, Baroque, Roman, Oriental and Indo-Islamic (including Mughal) motifs. Several major buildings of the Colonial period are well maintained and have been declared "heritage structures", while others are in various stages of decay. Established in 1814, the Indian Museum is the oldest museum in Asia and houses vast collection of Indian natural history and Indian art. The Victoria Memorial, one of the major tourist attractions in Kolkata, has a museum documenting the city's history. The National Library of India is India's leading public library. Academy of Fine Arts and other art galleries hold regular art exhibitions.
The city has a tradition of dramas in the form of jatra (a kind of folk-theatre), theatres and Group Theatres. Mainstream Hindi films are popular, as are films from the Bengali cinema industry, dubbed "Tollywood". Tollygunj in Kolkata is the location of Bengali movie studios. Its long tradition of filmmaking includes acclaimed directors such as Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Tapan Sinha and Ritwik Ghatak to contemporary directors such as Aparna Sen and Rituparno Ghosh.
Key elements of Kolkata's cuisine include rice and macher jhol (fish curry), with rasagolla,sandesh and mishti doi (sweet yoghurt) as dessert. Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes various hilsa preparations (a favorite among Bengalis). Street foods such as beguni (fried battered eggplant slices), kati roll (flatbread roll with vegetable or chicken, mutton, or egg stuffing), phuchka (deep fried crêpe with tamarind and lentil sauce) and Indian Chinese cuisine from China Town in the eastern parts of the city are quite popular.
Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi as per tradition and global/western outfits. Among men, western dressing has greater acceptance.
Durga Puja is the most important and the most glamourous event in Kolkata. It usually takes place in the month of October, although it can also fall in September or November, depending on the traditional calendar. Other notable festivals include Jagaddhatri Puja, Diwali, Eid, Holi, Christmas, poila boishak (new year), Saraswati puja, Rath Yatra and Poush parbon (harvest festival). Some of the cultural festivals are Kolkata Book Fair, Dover Lane music festival, Kolkata Film Festival and National Theatre Festival.
In the nineteenth and twentieth century, Bengali literature was modernized in the works of authors such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. The rich literary tradition set by these authors has been carried forward in the works of Jibanananda Das, Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay, Tarashankar Bandopadhyay, Manik Bandopadhyay, Ashapurna Devi, Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay, Buddhadeb Guha, Mahashweta Devi, Samaresh Majumdar, Sanjeev Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay among others.
The city is also noted for its appreciation of Rabindrasangeet and Indian classical music as well as Bengali folk music such as baul. From the early 1990s, there has been an emergence of new genres of music, including fusions of Baul and Jazz by several Bangla bands, as well as the emergence of what has been called Jeebonmukhi Gaan (a modern genre based on realism) by artists like Kabir Suman, Nachiketa and bands like Chandrabindoo, Cactus.
Kolkata's schools are either run by the state government or by private (many of which are religious) organisations. Schools mainly use Bengali or English as the medium of instruction, though Hindi and Urdu are also used. The schools are affiliated with the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education, the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), the National Institute of Open School (NIOS) and the A-Level (British Curriculum). Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing their secondary education, students typically enroll in a 2 year junior college (also known as a pre-university) or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education, ICSE or CBSE. Students usually choose from one of three streams — liberal arts, commerce, or science, though vocational streams are also available. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enrol in general or professional degree programmes.
Kolkata houses nine universities and numerous colleges affiliated to them or to other universities located outside. The University of Calcutta (founded in 1857) has more than 200 affiliated colleges. Bengal Engineering & Science University and Jadavpur University are notable engineering universities. Calcutta Medical College is the first institution teaching modern medicine in Asia. Other notable institutions are Presidency College, St. Xavier's College, Bethune College (the first women's college in India) and Scottish Church College. Some institutions of national importance are the Asiatic Society, Bose Institute, S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, the Indian Statistical Institute, the Indian Institute of Management, the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, the Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta, the West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, the Marine Engineering and Research Institute, the Rabindra Bharati University, the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, the S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, the Calcutta Mathematical Society, the Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management, and the National Institute of Fashion Technology.
Association football (sometimes referred to as 'soccer'), cricket and field hockey are popular sports in the city. Kolkata, a major centre of football activity in India and home of top national football clubs such as Mohun Bagan AC, Mohammedan Sporting Club and East Bengal, is known as Mecca of Indian Football. Calcutta Football League, which started in 1898, is the oldest football league in Asia. Mohun Bagan AC, one of the oldest football clubs in Asia, is the only club to be entitled 'National Club of India'. Kolkata is also home to Kolkata Knight Riders IPL cricket team franchise.
As in the rest of India, cricket is extremely popular and is played throughout the city in its grounds and streets. Tournaments, especially those involving outdoor games like cricket, football, and badminton or indoor games like carrom are regularly organized on an inter-locality or inter-club basis. The maidan area hosts several minor football and cricket clubs and coaching institutes. Notable sports stars from Kolkata include former Indian national cricket captain Sourav Ganguly and Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes. Former football stars include Olympic medalist Sailen Manna, Chuni Goswami, P.K. Banerjee, and Subrata Bhattacharya.
The city is known for its large stadia. The Eden Gardens is one of only two 100,000-seat cricket stadiums in the world. Salt Lake Stadium (also known as Yuva Bharati Krirangan)—a multi-use stadium—is the world's third largest capacity football stadium. Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second-oldest cricket club in the world. Kolkata has three 18-hole golf courses at the Royal Calcutta Golf Club (the first golf club in the world outside Britain), Tollygunge Club and Fort William. The Royal Calcutta Turf Club (RCTC) holds regular equestrian races and polo matches. The Calcutta Polo Club is now considered as the oldest polo club of the world. The Calcutta South Club is the venue for some national and international tennis tournaments. From 2005, Sunfeast Open, a Tier-III tournament of Women's Tennis Association Tour, takes place in Netaji Indoor Stadium. The Calcutta Rowing Club hosts regular rowing races and training. Although it is a minor sport, Kolkata is considered the "capital" of rugby union in India. The city also gives its name to the name of the oldest international tournament in rugby union, the Calcutta Cup, which is of Indian workmanship.
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Kolkata (Bengali:কলকাতা) (formerly Calcutta) is the capital of West Bengal and the second largest city in India (after Mumbai). If Bangalore is the Seattle of India, than Kolkata is the sub-contintent's New York. It is an 'in your face' city that shocks and charms the unsuspecting visitor. Abject poverty mix inexplicably with crumbling British Raj-era gems, sprawling gardens and historical colleges. Long known as the cultural capital of India, Kolkata continues to spawn generations of poets, writers, film producers and Nobel Prize winners. If your trip only allows for a visit of one or two of India's metropolitan cities, than definitely consider placing Kolkata on your itinerary. Love it or hate it, you definitely won't forget the city on the Hooghly.
Kolkata's history is intimately related to the British East India Company, which first arrived in 1690, and to British India, of which Calcutta became the capital of in 1772. Job Charnock was widely known as the founder of Calcutta (Sutanuti, Govindapur & Calcutta) but in recent years a number of Indian historians have disputed this claim, arguing that Calcutta occupies the site of an older Indian city, centered around the ancient Kali temple at Kalighat. This claim has been accepted by the Kolkata High Court. The Court has dismissed the name of Job Charnock as the founder of the city and 24 th August as its date of birth. The historic Judgement was based upon an high level Expert Commitee findings. It has been proved that Kolkata had an highly civilized society for centuries before the Europeans first came here.
Whatever its origins, Calcutta flowered as the capital of British India during the nineteenth century, the heyday of the Raj. Calcutta University, the first modern Indian university was founded here in 1857. Calcutta became the center of Indian arts and literature, and the national movement for independence got its start here. However, with the transfer of the capital to Delhi in 1911, the pains of the partition of Bengal in 1947, and a violent and bloody Maoist movement (the Naxalite movement) in the 1970s, Calcutta has become synonymous with urban decay and poverty ("New York is deteriorating into New Calcutta," opined an editorial in The New York Times on Dec. 25th, 1988).
Kolkata is the main business, commercial and financial hub of eastern India. Kolkata witnessed an economic decline from the late sixties till the late nineties. The city's economic fortunes turned the tide as the economic liberalization in India during the early nineties reached Kolkata during late nineties. Kolkata is a multicultural, cosmopolitan city. Apart from the diversity of India, the cultures represented are that of the Europeans (Including Germans, Armenians, and others), and other Asians (Including Chinese, Sinhalese, and Tibetans).
Since 1977, a "Left Front" coalition of communist and Marxist parties has continuously ruled the state. This is reflected in street names and memorials in the city. For example there are streets like Lenin Sarani, Ho Chi Minh Sarani, etc.. The Left Front regained control of the Municipal Corporation of Kolkata from the Trinamul Congress in the 2005 civic elections.
Although the Govt claims that Kolkata is fast developing into a modern infotech city with various private sector companies setting up shop here, it seems the city is stuck somewhere in the 70's. The landscape of the city is also fast changing with flyovers, gardens and several new commercial establishments. Kolkata city itself has expanded into its suburbs, with the Greater Kolkata stretching from Kalyani (in Nadia District) in North to Diamond Harbour in South (in the South 24 Parganas District).
The city's fortunes have looked up since the early nineties, coinciding with the liberalization of the Indian economy. Its economy has been amongst the fastest growing in the country. The New Metro city is characterised by popular spots like Inox Multiplexes, Nandan, Tantra, Barista Coffee Shops, Sourav's Pavilion and Science City.
Kolkata is home to many industrial units, of large Indian corporations, whose product range is varied and includes - engineering products, electronics, electrical equipment, cables, steel, leather, textiles, jewellery, frigates, automobiles, railway coaches and wagons.
Several industrial estates like Taratolla, Kalyani, Uluberia, Dankuni, Kasba, Howrah are spread throughout the urban agglomeration. A huge leather complex has come up at Bantolla. An export processing zone has been set up in Falta. Specialized setups like the country's first Toy Park, and a Gem and Jewellery Park have also been established.
Kolkata is also starting to become a major hub for the IT (Information Technology) industry. With the formation of New Town at Rajarhat and extension of Salt Lake's Sector-V, Kolkata is rapidly turning into a pro-IT town. More and more businesses are coming to Kolkata to set up their offices.
Kolkata is in the eastern part of India at 22°82′ N 88°20′ E. It has spread linearly along the banks of the river Hooghly.
The Kolkata Municipal Corporation has an area of 185 square kilometres. The city proper today can be roughly divided into two sections along Mother Teresa Sarani (Park Street). North of Park Street is the more congested part of the city. South of Park Street is the slightly better planned section of the city.
The old Central Business District (CBD) is where the seat of the West Bengal Government is located, along with many other government offices. Several banks have their corporate (Allahabad Bank, United Bank of India, UCO Bank) or regional headquarters (Reserve Bank of India, State Bank of India, Bank of India, Central Bank of India amongst many others) around the B. B. D. Bagh area. Many of Kolkata's older business groups have their main offices here. The area is a mix of multi-storeyed office blocks and colonial buildings.
The newer CBD is around the south of Park Street, Camac Street and AJC Bose Road. Several high-rise office blocks including some of Kolkata's tallest commercial buildings - like the Chatterjee International Centre, Tata Centre, Everest House, Industry House, CGO Building - are located here. An even-newer CBD is now being set up in the Rajarhat (Newtown) area, lying between Salt Lake and the Airport.
Maidan (open field) is situated between the river Ganges and J.L.Nehru Road (or Chowringhee). It is said to be the lungs of Kolkata. The lush green meadow also houses Victoria Memorial, Eden Gardens, and several sporting clubs. Kolkatans simply love to stroll in the Maidan.
In an effort to relieve congestion in the main city, many government offices have shifted to high-rise office buildings lining Bidhan Nagar's (Salt Lake) Central Park.
The residential buildings are mainly lowrise and comprise of older colonial buildings and numerous new four storied apartment blocks. Ten to twelve storied apartment blocks have come up in large numbers in south Kolkata. The city has relaxed its rules on high-rise construction recently and twenty storied buildings are becoming more common. The tallest residential towers of eastern India - the four thirty-five-storey towers of South City are under construction on Prince Anwar Shah Road.
Heavy construction activity along the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass is changing the face of the city. Luxury hotels, a convention centre, speciality hospitals, condominium complexes, malls and multiplexes are coming up at a rapid pace.
The city's expansion in the eastern side is spearheaded by the construction of a large new city called New Town adjacent to the well planned Bidhan Nagar. Located in Rajarhat, it is one of the largest planned urban developments in India.
The neglected western side of the urban agglomeration has got a boost recently with the signing of an agreement with Chiputra, an Indonesian company to build the Kolkata West International City (KWIC). Another huge new township is in the proposal state in Dankuni.
Slums and dilapidated structures exist in many pockets of the city proper and house over 25% of the city's population (Census 2001). Slum redevelopment schemes have helped improve living conditions by a small extent but there is huge scope for improvement in this area. Efforts to shift slum dwellers to newer developments have often met with resistance and failure because many of the slums are in prime areas of the city and the slum dwellers who are integrated in the social structure of the neighbourhood do not want to shift.
Opposition to the setting up of the Nano factory at Shingur, 50 Kms. away from Kolkata, where the Tata's plan to build the cheapest car in the world, threatens to take away a lot of the investments due to come to the state.
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport (IATA: CCU) connects Kolkata with South East Asia and receives some flights from Europe but is surprisingly small for a city of this size and hasn't been refurbished since the 1950s, although it is expected to be updated by 2011. The domestic terminal, on the other hand, is among the best in India. It is undergoing a major face-lift and expansion to cope with the expanding bulk of air traffic and new airline companies popping up almost every month.
Take a prepaid taxi from the airport to the city. It is about 20 km from the city. Expect to pay about Rs. 150-250 depending on your destination. There is a new rail link connecting the airport to the Circular Rail station in Dum Dum, however very few trains actually operate on the line at present.
There are two major railway stations in Kolkata - Howrah (not in Kolkata actually, it's in the adjoining city Howrah) and Sealdah. A new terminus station called 'Kolkata' has also started functioning since 2005, but presently it accommodates very few trains. Directly facing Howrah are ferries (Rs. 4) that can get you to the other side of the river either Babu Ghat or Fairlie Place from where you can arrange onward transportation with anything from taxis to public buses to human rickshaws. With the traffic situation this might actually save you time as well as money.
The Foreign Ticket Office is on Fairlie Place (with the main GPO on your left, take the next left - the office is a few minutes walk on the left) - very helpful and efficient service.
Kolkata is well connected by rail to almost all the big stations in India and also serves as the gateway to the North Eastern India. If you are coming to Kolkata by trains using Sealdah station, you may prefer taking a pre-paid taxi to enter the city. The pre-paid taxi stand is just outside the station's main entrance. The counter is under a tin shade. Pre-paid taxis are reliable and will save you money and also the bargaining hassle. However beware of touts who would claim themselves to be running pre-paid taxis. Always collect the receipt from the counter first. The receipt has two parts - one part is for your reference and the other part you will need to handover to the taxi driver only after you reach your desired destination. The Taxi driver will get his payment by submitting or producing this other part to the Pre-paid Taxi counter.
You can find many cabs on the roads or you can always hire one from the numerous taxi stands strewn across the major cities. There are pre paid taxis also available at major railway stations and airports. You can also hire luxury vehicles from certain travel agencies.
To/from Bangladesh There are numerous bus options between Kolkata and Bangladesh. The most common way is the regular comfortable a/c buses from Dhaka to Kolkata via the Haridaspur / Benapole border post. Private bus companies Shohagh , Green Line ,Shyamoli and others operate daily bus services on this route. Govt. buses run under the label of the state owned West Bengal Surface Transport Service Corporation (WBSTSC) and the Bangladesh Road Transport Corporation (BRTC). WBSTSC and BRTC both operate buses from Kolkata every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday at 5:30AM and 8:30AM, and 12:30PM while from Dhaka they leave on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday at 7:00AM and 7:30AM. The normal journey time is around 12 hours with a one-way fare of Rs550 or BDT600-800, roughly $8-12. If you're only headed to Haridaspur the fare is Rs86 (2.5 hours). The Shyamoli Paribahan ticket office is at 6/1 Marquis St (parallel to and one block south of Sudder Street, and just west of Mirza Ghalib St, next door to DHL), 2252 0693. Beware that several travel agencies around this area also sell tickets for these buses, but at very inflated prices. At the border it's best to change money on the Indian side, but count it carefully and double-check the math on their calculator. On the Bangladesh side you can catch a flat-bed cycle-rickshaw for Tk5 for the 2km trip to the bus stand for onward travel - or you can walk, but expect the hopeful rickshaw-wallahs to follow you at least half way.
To/from Eastern India via Bangladesh Bus travel to some points in Eastern India are faster via Bangladesh (please note that visas may be required for entry into Bangladesh as well as for re-entry into India). If you're heading to points in Eastern India (Tripura for example) beyond Bangladesh -- then there is a regular bus service between Dhaka and Agartala, capital of India's Tripura state. Two BRTC buses leave daily from Dhaka and connect with the Tripura Road Transport Corporation vehicles, running six days a week with a roundtrip fare of BDT600 ($10). There is only one halt at Ashuganj in Bangladesh during the journey. Call +880 2 8360241 for schedule. Other entry points to North-Eastern India through Bangladesh are Hili, Chilahati / Haldibari and Banglaband border posts through Northern Bangladesh and Tamabil / Dawki border post for a route between Shillong (Meghalaya) and Sylhet in North-Eastern Bangladesh, and some others with lesser known routes from north-eastern Indian regions. Although scheduled bus-services to Shillong/Meghalaya from Kolkata through Dhaka may not be offered at present -- it is still possible to get to those points via land routes going through Sylhet and then on to Tamabil/Dawki border outposts. Enquire at the Bus Service Counters for details.
Esplanade Bus Station is the Kolkata's main station for inter-state and inter-city buses.
The river Hooghly that runs through the west of the city offered one of the first reasons to the foundation of the British commercial settlement. The river continues to offer one of the less crowded but slow traffic medium. There are several points (popularly called Ghats and jetties) on the bank of the river from where you can board several regular routes of ferry services. Ferries can be fairly large launches to small improvised motorized boats. They are extremely safe though. Even if you don't get any exotic manual boats like you get in Varanasi, the river transport of the city lets you go to several old spots near the bank in a hassle-free manner with an additional dash of the view of decadent river front of the city.
Kolkata just wouldn't look the same without the plethora of yellow ambassador taxis that ply on its roads. They're easily available and relatively cheap, and will usually use their meters. The meters are, however, outdated.
The fare is 2 times plus Rs 2 the reading if the meter is inside, and 4 times the reading if the meter is outside. However, it is almost impossible now to find any meters outside. All Taxi meters are digital ones which are placed inside the cab. The Meter starts from Rs. 10, which means Rs. 22 actually. There is a "green taxi" which is red coloured (!) and charges the same. In case you are confused always ask to see the chart that the driver is supposed to carry with him. Expect to pay a bit more if you are going to the outskirts of the city or traveling at night. How much more that depends on your bargaining skills, but it should be at most Rs. 10-20 on top of the taxi meter. Unlike other metro cities in India, there is no 50%-100% surcharge for late night hires (10PM-11PM onwards).
If you are lucky enough you can catch an air-conditioned cab, but those are very few in number. Presently one may find 'Orix' or 'Megacabs' taxis on call. These are air-conditioned taxis and the fare about INR 15-20 per km travelled. The telephone numbers to call (once you are in Kolkata, of course) for these taxis are Orix - 44222222 and Megacabs - 41414141.
Metro Railway, Kolkata was the first underground rail in India, yet it still has only a single route connecting the north and south of the city, from Dumdum to Garia Bazar. It is the cleanest, most reliable, least crowded and most efficient of all the transportation Kolkata has to offer. Trains run every 10-15 minutes and at Rs 4-8 it's very economical. At present work is on for extension of the Metro line from its southern tip - Garia Bazar, which will go further south till Garia. There is also a East-West line, the work of which is going on full swing. It will connect Salt lake to Howrah station. The two lines will meet at Central station.
Stops include Esplanade (for Chowringhee), Park Street, Maidan (for Victoria Memorial and Planetarium), Rabindra Sadan Nandan movie theater, Academy of fine arts, and other famous galleries, Kalighat for world famous Kali temple, and "Girish Park" for Jorashako Thakur bari, the residence of Rabindranath Tegore and other Tegore giants.
Calcutta Tramways is the only tram service in all of India, and the oldest surviving electric tram network of Asia. Though decommissioned in some part of the city, electric trams are still one of the means of traveling between places within the city. They move slow on the laid tracks in traffic jammed streets, but they are environment friendly (no emission). Check their site for routes and schedules.
The electrified suburban rail network of the SER and the ER is extensive and includes the Circular Rail.
The city has an extensive bus network (possibly the most exhaustive in the whole of India), and this is the cheapest, though not always the most comfortable means of transport. Among the buses that ply the city streets, the deluxe buses run by CSTC (Calcutta State Transport Corporation), CTC (Calcutta Tramways Company) and WBSTC (West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation) are probably the better option. A/C buses are also available to select destinations from near the airport.
Shared auto-rickshaws are available from different points. They travel in fixed routes and the fare is fixed. They are supposed to take four persons, three in the back seat and one sharing the driver's seat!
Long the world's only major metropolis where human-pulled rickshaws were still a major form of transport, a complete ban was supposed to be imposed in November 2006 - but with 35,000 union members who are unlikely to disappear overnight it was not implemented.
Privately owned rental car places are available throughout the city. Rates depend on the make, model, size and comfort level of the car. Agreements are flexible, for example, cars can be rented even for couple of hours at an hourly rate. Most rental cars are accompanied with a driver from the rental agency. Here are contacts of a few rental car agents:
Being in Bengal, the native language of the people of Kolkata is Bengali. However, most educated people speak Hindi and English as well, and many others such as shopkeepers and taxi drivers would be able to communicate in broken English at the very least.
The city sprawls along the eastern bank of the Hooghly River, a tributary of the Ganges, which divides it from Howrah on the western bank. For travelers, the most relevant parts of Kolkata are south of the Howrah Bridge in the areas around BBD Bagh and Chowringhee.
South of BBD Bagh is the huge, lush, green, open parkland known as Maidan. Continuing south from here you will find
The Northern part of Kolkata houses the old buildings belonging to the Zamindars (Landlords), other rich Bengalis who used to trade with the British. It preserves the cultural heritage of Kolkata. The building structures give an impression of the royal people who stayed there. River Ganga is the hot spot for the development of the North along with Kolkata. It is generally crowded and has some interesting markets including the famous Posta, Burrabazar whole sale markets, College Street Book market where you can trace many out of print books with a little patience. While in College Street a visit to the College St Coffee House is a must. Also around the area are the Calcutta Medical College, the Presidency college and Calcutta University.
North of BBD Bagh you will find the
Further along you will find
Southern Kolkata is less congested and more modern. You will find more apartment blocks, more green spaces and more affluent homes.
See a variety of preserved specimens that you wouldn't see in the US museums. It is the largest and oldest museum of India. Located near Esplanade it is one of the most important landmark.
Volunteering is a real option here with several options.
Kolkata is an important trading center for handicrafts produced in Eastern India. Bankura horses, saris from Shantiniketan, and leather goods top the list of Kolkata specialities. It is also famous for its rasgollas and a tin or two as a gift for the folks back home. New Market is probably the most famous place to go shopping but there are bargains everywhere.
Maidan Market for all sport items at cheap price Chandni Market is famous for all small electronical items/gadgets & old reusable electronical products New Market for all kinds of Clothing,Toys,Collectible Shopping needs. Treasure Island is like a muti-storeyed market mainly fulfilling needs of Clothing demands & various other make-up & cosmetic items
(See district pages for restaurant listings.)
Kolkata was famous for having the best restaurants long before Indians in other cities learned to eat out. Many of the restaurants that line the streets in the Esplanade area have been around for more than a hundred years (unfortunately, many also show their age!). Flury's , on Park Street, was once considered the best English bakery in all of Asia and you can almost imagine Joe Stilwell and Lord Mountbatten arguing over who had command over the allied forces in Burma while enjoying tea, scones, and clotted cream!
But the joy of food in Kolkata is in its Indian foods. Nizam's, in New Market, is credited with the invention of the famous Kati Kebab roll and still serves up the best of the best. Street vendors selling egg rolls/chicken rolls abound and their freshly prepared kati rolls are safe to eat and enjoy. Mughali Paratha (a paratha stuffed with minced meat) is a Calcutta speciality and can be found in various 'cabins' off Chowringhee Road. 'Chops', a sort of deep fried ball stuffed with beet and veggies is another peculiarity that you won't find anywhere else in the world. Puchkas, the Calcutta version of paani-puri, is available on the streets but be wary of the water!
Bengali sweets are famous all over India. Rasagolla (cheese balls dipped in a sugary syrup), Pantua - a fried variant of the same, Rosomalai- the same cheeseballs dipped in creamy sweetened milk, Mishti Doi (sweet yogurt), Sandesh (several variations available). Try some shops like K.C. Das, Jugal's, Bhim Nag, Nakur Nandy, Sen Mahasoy, Ganguram and not to forget Mithai. These are cheap and should be eaten fresh.
Kolkata is also the home of Indian Chinese food (now making inroads in far-off New York!). Chinese restaurants are everywhere so try the Indian variant of hot and sour soup and the famous Indian chinese dish of chilli chicken.
Bengali food is centered around fish. Macher jhol, literally fish in curry gravy, is a watery fish curry available everywhere and goes well with rice, but Bengalis everywhere swear by the hilsa fish (a variant of shad). Hilsa, lightly marinaded in mustard and steamed is up there with the best fish dishes in the world.
"Oh! Calcutta!" on the fourth Floor of Forum Mall, Elgin Road, serves authentic Bengali food. The specialities are the boneless Hilsa Fish fillet, steamed in a bannana leaf and served with a Mustard Gravy. Many expats, yuppies and affluent Kolkattans frequent this restaurant. The food is great, though bordering on the expensive, and portions usually small. Makes for an interesting evening out, accompanied by the incessant Bengali chatter, so characteristic of Kolkatta.
While it can be difficult to find a restaurant serving authentic Bengali food, today Kolkata has of as many 10 Bengali restaurants. One of the most authentic is Kewpies, situated behind Netaji Bhavan at 2 Elgin Lane. Here, food is served on terra cotta plates with banana leaves. There's also "Aaheli" at Peerless Inn, or the more reasonably priced "Suruchi" at 89 Elliot Road. There is a wide choice of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes with an emphasis on local fish. Thalis (platters) are also available. Still, being invited back to a local's place for a home-cooked meal is the best way to sample Bengali cooking!
6 Ballygunge Place is stituated in South Kolkata and also offers an assortment of Bengali dishes. Bhjohori Maana has 6 outlets across the city. In South Kolkata, the Hindisthan Road outlet (Gariahat) is the best. Taroparbon is situated in Hindusthan Park, and has a large menu.
Kastur and Rahhuni are eateries, both offering Bangladeshi food and are situated off Free School Street, near Park Street.
Suruchi is an old eatery, which serves only lunch in simple surroundings, and is run by the destitute women of 'The All Bengal Women's Union' at Elliot Road, off Free School Street.
For individual hotel listings, please see the the various district pages.
Kolkata has long had a concentration of budget backpacker hotels in the Sudder Street area and many of these are colonial era gems, albeit decaying ones. Budget hotels can also be found around the station in Howrah. Sudder Street is more centrally located but both are well connected by public transport.
There are numerous luxurious and big budget 5 star & 4 star hotels around town. Such as ITC Sonar (near Science city), The Oberoi Grand (Chowringhee), Taj Bengal (Belvedere Road, Alipur), Hyatt Regency (off EM Bypass), The Kenilworth (Russel St), Hotel Hindustan Internation (AJC Bose Rd), The Park (Park St).
British-era clubs such as Tollygunge Club, Calcutta Club (AJC Bose Rd), Saturday Club (Theatre Rd), Bengal Club (Russel St) have lavish rooms for rent. However, they only accept bookings through members. Tollygunge Club is the ideal place to chill out. Drink chilled draft beer, lie in the outdoor jacuzzi and dine in style at the Belvedere.
there are scores of interenet cafes that have sprung up in every nook and corner of the city. just look for them and you will find them.charges vary at around ~Rs.15 to 25 per hour.
Cell phone coverage in the city is excellent. There are many service providers offering a wide variety of plans. Among them are Vodafone , Reliance , and Tata Indicom . It might be a good idea to buy a cell phone and use one of those prepaid plans to get yourself connected while you are in the city.
Kolkata is reasonably safe, and in general the people are more friendly and helpful than in many of India's other large cities. One noted problem is the drug dealers around Sudder Street. However, as the dealers obviously do not want to draw undue attention to their activity, they are generally not persistent and rarely a threat.
EC72,Sector 1, Salt Lake City, Kolkata-700064, West Bengal, India
|This is a usable article. It has information for getting in as well as some complete entries for restaurants and hotels. An adventurous person could use this article, but please plunge forward and help it grow!|
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"We shot them like dogs," Crockett said after he had slaughtered 186 men, woman, and children in the Creek War.
The Romans confiscated the lives of the Druid people much as the European Settlers confiscated the lives of Native Americans. In both cases a spiritually dead group of people took over a spiritually alive people. The Romans were materialistic, the Druids spiritual. The American Settlers were greedy-land grabbers, the Native people, spiritual. For the Romans and Americans Settlers the State was a monolithic structure spread over territories deliberately organized into a hierarchy. With the Druids and Native Americans the State was a freely consented moral order with an entirely mythical central idea. The Romans and American Settlers based their law on the private ownership of land, with property rights entirely vested in the head of the family; the Druids and Native Americans considered ownership COLLECTIVE. The Romans and American Settlers looked upon women as bearers of children and objects of pleasure, while the Druids and Native Americans included women in their political and religious life. Is it any wonder that the spiritual peoples would have to be "Christianized" in the name of God, or slaughtered.
That's right, Capitalized: the gift that keeps giving.
And, least we forget, here is the Druid roots of Christmas:
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Published: December 22, 2010
The Chesapeake Bay Environmental Model Package is a combination of interactive models. The Community Multi-Scale Air Quality Model and a set of regression models compute daily atmospheric nitrogen and phosphorus loads to the Chesapeake Bay watershed and to the water surface. The Watershed Model (WSM) provides daily computations of flow, solids loads, and nutrient loads at the heads of major tributaries and along the shoreline below the tributary inputs. Flows from the WSM are one set of inputs to the CH3D (Computational Hydrodynamics in Three Dimensions) hydrodynamic model. CH3D computes surface level, three-dimensional velocities, and vertical diffusion on a time scale measured in minutes. Loads from the WSM and transport processes from CH3D drive the CE-QUAL-ICM (Corps of Engineers Integrated Compartment Water Quality Model) eutrophication model. ICM computes, in three dimensions, physical properties, algal production, and elements of the aquatic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, silica, and oxygen cycles.
Download: Electronic Version
Originator: Chesapeake Bay Program
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CIA and Guatemala Assassination Proposals: CIA History Staff Analysis
CIA and Guatemala Assassination Proposals: 1952–1954
CIA History Staff Analysis
Gerald K. Haines
In the early 1950s, the Central Intelligence Agency directed covert operations aimed at removing the government of Jacobo Arbenz Guzman from power in Guatemala. Included in these efforts were various suggestions for the disposal of key Arbenz government officials and Guatemalan Communists. The Agency drew up lists of individuals for assassination, discussed training Guatemalan exiles for assassination teams, and conducted intimidation programs against prominent Guatemalan officials.
This brief study traces, in a chronological manner, the injection of assassination planning and proposals into the PBFORTUNE covert operation against the Arbenz government in 1952 and into the PBSUCCESS operation in 1954. It attempts to illustrate the depth of such planning and the level of involvement of Agency officials. It also attempts to detail where the proposals originated, who approved them, and how advanced the preparations for such actions were. Finally, the study examines the implementation of such planning and the results — i.e., in the end, the plans were abandoned and no Arbenz officials or Guatemalan Communists were killed. The study is based almost exclusively on Directorate of Operations records relating to PBFORTUNE and PBSUCCESS.
As early as 1952 US policymakers viewed the government of President Arbenz with some alarm. Although he had been popularly elected in 1950, growing Communist influence within his government gave rise to concern in the United States that Arbenz had established an effective working alliance with the Communists. Moreover, Arbenz' policies had damaged US business interests in Guatemala; a sweeping agrarian reform called for the expropriation and redistribution of much of the United Fruit Company's land1. Although most high-level US officials recognized that a hostile government in Guatemala by itself did not constitute a direct security threat to the United States, they viewed events there in the context of the growing global Cold War struggle with the Soviet Union and feared that Guatemala could become a client state from which the Soviets could project power and influence throughout the Western Hemisphere.2
CIA and Intelligence Community reports tended to support the view that Guatemala and the Arbenz regime were rapidly falling under the sway of the Communists.3 Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) Walter Bedell Smith and other Agency officials believed the situation called for action. Their assessment was, that without help, the Guatemalan opposition would remain inept, disorganized and ineffective. The anti-Communist elements — the Catholic hierarchy, landowners, business interests, the railway workers union, university students, and the Army — were prepared to prevent a Communist accession to power, but they had little outside support.4
Other US officials, especially in the Department of State, urged a more cautious approach. The Bureau of Inter-American Affairs, for example, did not want to present "the spectacle of the elephant shaking with alarm before the mouse." It wanted a policy of firm persuasion with the withholding of virtually all cooperative assistance, and the concluding of military defense assistance pacts with El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras.5 Although the Department of State position became the official public US policy, the CIA assessment of the situation had support within the Truman administration as well. This led to the development of a covert action program designed to topple the Arbenz government — PBFORTUNE.
Following a visit to Washington by Nicaraguan President Anastasio Somoza in April 1952, in which Somoza boasted that if provided arms he and Guatemalan exile Carlos Castillo Armas could overthrow Arbenz, President Harry Truman asked DCI Smith, to investigate the possibility. Smith sent an agent, codenamed SEEKFORD, to contact Guatemalan dissidents about armed action against the Arbenz regime.6 After seeing his report,7 [ ] Chief of the [ ] Division of the Directorate of Plans (DP), proposed to Deputy Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles that the Agency supply Castillo Armas with arms and $225,000 and that Nicaragua and Honduras furnish the Guatemalans with air support.8 Gaining Department of State support, Smith, on 9 September 1952, officially approved [ ]'s request to initiate operation PBFORTUNE to aid Guatemalan exiles in overthrowing Arbenz. Planning for PBFORTUNE lasted barely a month, however, when Smith terminated it after he learned in October that it had been blow.9
Throughout planning for PBFORTUNE there were proposals for assassination. Even months before the official approval of PBFORTUNE, Directorate of Plans (DP) officers compiled a "hit list." Working from an old 1949 Guatemalan Army list of Communists and information supplied by the Directorate of Intelligence, in January 1952 DP officers compiled a list of "top flight Communists whom the new government would desire to eliminate immediately in event of successful anti-Communist coup." Headquarters asked [ ] to verify the list and recommend any additions or deletions.10 Headquarters also requested [ ] to verify a list of an additional 16 Communists and/or sympathizers whom the new government would desire to incarcerate immediately if the coup succeeded.11 [ ] in Guatemala City added three names to the list in his reply.12 Nine months later, SEEKFORD, the CIA agent in touch with Castillo Armas, forwarded to Headquarters a disposal list compiled by Castillo Armas. That list called for the execution through executive action of 58 Guatemalans (Category I) and the imprisonment or exile of 74 additional Guatemalans (Category II).13 SEEKFORD also reported at the same time, 18 SEptember 1952, that General Rafael Trujillo, the dictator of the Dominican Republic, had agreed to aid Castillo Armas in return for the "killing of four Santo Dominicans at present residing in Guatemala a few days prior to D-Day." According to SEEKFORD, Castillo Armas readily agreed, but cautioned that it could not be done prior to D-day because of security reasons. Castillo Armas further added that his own plans included similar action and that special squads were already being trained.14 There is no record that Headquarters took any action regarding Castillo Armas' list.
After the PBFORTUNE operation was officially terminated, the Agency continued to pick up reports of assassination planning on the part of the Guatemalan opposition. In late November 1952, for example, an opposition Guatemalan leader, in a conversation with SEEKFORD, confirmed that Castillo Armas had special "K" groups whose mission was to kill all leading political and military leaders, and that the hit list with the location of the homes and offices of all targets had already been drawn up.15 On 12 December SEEKFORD reported further that Castillo Armas planned to make maximum use of the "K" groups.16 Another source subsequently reported that Nicaraguan, Honduran, and Salvadoran soldiers in civilian clothes would infiltrate Guatemala and assassinate unnamed Communist leaders.17
In addition to monitoring events in Guatemala, the Agency continued to try to influence developments and to float ideas for disposing of key figures in the [ ] government. [ ] in 1953 proposed not only to focus on sabotage, defection, penetration, and propaganda efforts with regard to Guatemala, but to eliminate [ ]. According to [ ]'s draft memorandum, after creating a story that [ ] was preparing to oust the Communists, he could be eliminated. His assassination would be "laid to the Commies" and used to bring about a mass defection of the Guatemalan army.18 A Western Hemisphere Division memo of 28 August 1953 also suggested possibly assassinating key Guatemalan military officers if they refused to be converted to the rebel cause.19 In September 1953 [ ] also sent [ ] an updated plan of action which included a reference to "neutralizing" key Guatemalan military leaders.20
In the psychological warfare area, Guatemala City Station sent [ ] all leading Communists in Guatemala, "death notice" cards for 30 straight days beginning 15 April 1953. The Station repeated the operation beginning 15 June 1953 but reported no reaction from the targeted leaders. 21
By the fall of 1953, US policymakers, including CIA officials, were searching for a new overall program for dealing with Arbenz. The Guatemalan leader had moved even closer to the Communists. He had expropriated additional United Fruit Company holdings, legalized the Guatemalan Communist Party, the PGT, and suppressed anti-Communist opposition following an abortive uprising at Salmá. In response, the National Security Council authorized a covert action operation against Arbenz and gave the CIA primary responsibility. 22
The CIA plan, as drawn up by [ ]s Western Hemisphere Division, combined psychological warfare, economic, diplomatic, and paramilitary actions against Guatemala. Named PBSUCCESS, and coordinated with the Department of State, the plan's stated objective was "to remove covertly, and without bloodshed if possible, the menace of the present Communist-controlled government of Guatemala." In the outline of the operation the sixth stage called for the "roll-up" of Communists and collaborators after a successful coup. 23
Dulles placed [ ] in charge of PBSUCCESS and sent a senior DDP officer, [ ] to establish a temporary station (LINCOLN), to coordinate the planning and execution of PBSUCCESS. Other key Agency figures involved were [ ] and [ ] Chief of the [ ] Staff. Department of State [ ] Assistant Secretary of State for [ ] from the office of [ ] Affairs, and [ ] State liasion to the agency, also played major roles.
Although assassination was not mentioned specifically in the overall plan, the Chief of [ ] at [ ] requested a special paper on the liquidation of personnel on 5 January 1954. This paper, according to the [ ] chief, was to be utilized to brief the training chief for PBSUCCESS before he left to begin training Castillo Armas' forces in Honduras on 10 January 1954. A cable from [ ] the following day requested 20 silencers (converters) for .22 caliber rifles. Headquarters sent the rifles. 24 The [ ] chief also discussed the training plan with the agent SEEKFORD on 13 January 1954, indicating that he wanted Castillo Armas and the PBSUCCESS [ ] offices to train two assassins. In addition, he discussed these "assassination specialists" with Castillo Armas on 3 February 1954 25
The idea of forming assassination teams ("K" groups) apparently originated with Castillo Armas in 1952. Adapting Castillo Armas' concept, the [ ] chief routinely included two assassination specialists in his training plans. 26
CIA planning for sabotage teams in early 1954 also included creating a "K" group trained to perform assassinations. The main mission of the sabotage teams or harassment teams, however, was to attack local Communists and Communist property and to avoid attacks on the army. 27. A chart depicting the [ ] chief's plan for the CALLIGERIS (Castillo Armas) organization showed the "K" Group. It was distributed in various paramilitary planning packets as late as the spring of 1954. 28 In a briefing for [ ] in June 1954, [ ] also mentioned that sabotage teams would assassinate known Communists once the invasion operation began. 29
As in PBFORTUNE, an intensive psychological warfare program paralleled the planning for paramilitary action. Utilizing the anti-Communist network established by a Guatemalan dissident, the Chief of Political and Psychological Operations at LINCOLN developed a major propaganda campaign against the Arbenz government. Part of this program included the sending of new mourning cards to top Communist leaders. These cards mourned the imminent purge or execution of various Communists throughout the world and hinted of the forthcoming doom of the addressee. Death letters were also sent to top Guatemalan Communists such as [ ] Guatemala City Station, [ ] prepared these letters for the dissident leader. The "Nerve War Against Individuals," as it was called, also included sending wooden coffins, hangman's nooses, and phony bombs to selected individuals. Such slogans as "Here Lives a Spy" and "You have Only 5 Days" were painted on their houses. 30
Wanting to go beyond mere threats, the dissident leader suggested that the "violent disposal" of one of the top Guatemalan Communists would have a positive effect on the resistance movement and undermine Communist morale. The dissident leader's recommendations called for the formulation of a covert action group to perform violent, illegal acts against the government. LINCOLN cautioned the dissident leader, however, that such techniques were designed only to destroy a person's usefulness. By destroy "we do not mean to kill the man," LINCOLN cabled the dissident leader. Responding to the proposal that a top Communist leader be killed, [ ] Guatemala City told [ ] he could not recommend assassinating any "death letter" recipients at this time because it might touch off "wholesale reprisals." Reiterating that the plan was "to scare not kill" he nevertheless suggested that [ ] might wish to "study the suggestion for utility now or in the future." 31
While Agency paramilitary and psychological warfare planning both included suggestions which implied assassination proposals, these proposals appear never to have been implemented. The [ ] chief had sought to use Castillo Armas' "K" group scheme but there was no State Department or White House support. Such was also the case when the subject of assassination emerged in high-level Agency and inter-agency planning discussions.
A weekly PBSUCCESS meeting at Headquarters on 9 March 1954 considered the elimination of 15-20 of Guatemala's top leaders with "Trujillo's trained pistoleros." Those attending the meeting were [ ], DP Operations, along with State Department representatives [ ]. Addressing the group, [ ] while stating clearly that "such elimination was part of the plan and could be done," objected to the proposal at that time. [ ] however, expressed the view that "knocking off" the leaders might make it possible for the Army to take over." 32
Following this meeting, [ ] appears to be the Agency official who revived discussion of assassination as an option. On 25 March he broached the subject with [ ] who had just returned from the Organization of American States meeting in Caracas, Venezuela, that voted 17 to 1 to condemn communism in Guatemala. With [ ] and [ ] again present, [ ] asked [ ] if hehad changed his thinking since the conference on the possible methods to get rid of the Arbenz government. [ ] replied that in his opinion "the elimination of those in high positions of the government would bring about its collapse." He then qualified his statement, according to [ ]'s bebo, by saying that perhaps "even a smaller number, say 20, would be sufficient." 33
Less than a week later, [ ] visited [ ] on 31 March. The records do not indicate why [ ] flew to [ ], 34 but on that date the [ ] officers were asked to draw up an up-dated target list. Criteria for inclusion on thedisposal list required that individuals be (1) high government and organizational leaders "irrevocably implicated in Communist doctrine and policy," (2) "out and out proven Communist leaders," or (3) those few individuals in key government and military positions of tactical importance "whose removal for psychological, organizational or other reasons is mandatory for the success of military action." 35
The [ ] chief took the new list with him when he consulted Castillo Armas on 7 April 1954. [ ] also borrowed a copy of the list on the same day. The [ ] chief and Castillo Armas apparently discussed the list and at least tentatively agreed that any assassination would take place during the actual invasion of Guatemala by Castillo Armas' forces. There was still no time date for the actual beginning of hostilities, however. 36
Agency contacts with conservative Guatemalan exile leader [ ] at the same time also produced an assassination list. [ ] provided a CIA cutout with a list of Communist leaders he would like to see executed. [ ] saw [ ] as a loose cannon, however. They did not wanthim to become involved in PBSUCCESS.37
CIA received further Department of State encouragement for assassination plotting in April 1954. Fueling the fire for action, [ ], in a meeting with [ ] and another CIA officer, concluded that "more drastic and definitive stops to overthrow the government [in Guatemala] must be taken." In response to a question of whether Guatemalan [ ] was "salvageable," [ ] replied in the negative and suggested "he be eliminated." 38
On 16 May 1954 the [ ] Officer at [ ] proposed in a memorandum to [ ] the new Chief of [ ] and [ ] now serving as [ ] that assassination be incorporated into the psychological part of PBSUCCESS. The [ ] Officer laid out a specific assassination schedule leading up to D-Day, the actual invasion by Castillo Armas. He proposed a raid on [ ] on D12. This was to be a show of force, no one was to be harmed and the attack was to take place when [ ] was absent [ ]. The [ ] Officer, however, proposed the disposal of [ ], on D-10 as a means of paralyzing the [ ]. The [ ] Officer suggested that [ ] be killed on D-8. This would, according to the [ ] Officer, eliminate the [ ] character of the Arbenz regime. The [ ] Officer called for the disposal on D-6 of [ ] in the Guatemalan Communist Party (PGT) [ ]. This would leave Guatemala's [ ] believed. On D-4 [ ] would be eliminated. [ ] was to be eliminated so that the rebel forces would not hav eto worry about him or deal with him after the Victory. The [ ] Officer considered the possibility of reprisals as a weakness in his scheme, but decided that "such actions were expected anyway." The [ ] Officer argued that his proposal, if adopted, would not only be physically impressive but psychologically significant by providing a show of strength for the opposition. It would also "soften up" the enemy. He added his first three suggestions had the previous approval of [ ].39
On 21 May [ ] asked Headquarters for permission to implement the Officer's proposal and asked for suggestions about the specific individuals to be targeted.40 No reply from Headquarters to [ ] has been found. On 29 May 1954, however, the [ ] chief requested the names of the "four men" he and the [ ] Officer discussed assassinating. More than likely, the [ ] chief wanted to take up the issue again with Castillo Armas. Again, no cable reply from Headquarters or [ ] has been found. 41 At the same time, [ ] continued compiling information on [ ] and lists of home addresses for individuals named on the "disposal list" drafted in April. 42 [ ] believed [ ] was a "worthy target."43
Meanwhile, [ ] traveled to Washington and submitted a proposal on 1 June 1954 that suggested that as an alternative approach to the paramilitary action program "specific sabotage and possibly political assassination should be carefully worked out and effected." 44 [ ] took up [ ]'s suggestion in discussions with [ ] on 1 and 2 June. According to [ ] considered the proposal and thne ruled it out, "at least for the immediate future," on the ground that it would prove counter-productive. [ ] wanted more specific plans concerning the individual targets, timing, and statement of purpose. Both [ ] and [ ] agreed that the advantages gained by this type of activity needed to be clearly spelled out.45 This appears to be the end of serious planning in Washington for the inclusion of selective assassination proposals in PBSUCCESS. Returning from Washington to [ ], on 2 June 1954, [ ] however, reported to his staff that the consensus in Washington was that "Arbenz must go; how does not matter." 46
The Paramilitary Operation
On 16 June 1954 Castillo Armas' CIA-supported force of armed exiles entered Guatemala. While these forces advanced tentatively in the hinterland, [ ] Guatemala City on 16 and 17 June met with a leading Guatemalan military commander, in the hopes of convincing him to lead a coup against Arbenz. In these discussions, the military commander hinted he would like to see [ ] killed. The [ ], frustrated by the continued inaction of the Guatemalan military commander, told him that if he wanted them killed he should do it himself. Despite the Guatemalan military commander's vacillation, a [ ] cable indicated that he remained convinced that [ ] had to be eliminated. 47
With the Guatemala Army's position uncertain and the outcome still in doubt, a few days later, the [ ] chief, in [ ], requested permission to bomb the [ ] and [ ]. LINCOLN responded on 22 June thatit did not want to waste air strikes on [ ] or [ ] while a battle was raging at Zacapa. 48 The [ ] and [ ] also supported the [ ] chief's request to bomb [ ] with a dramatic cable which ended "Bomb Repeat Bomb."49 LINCOLN and Headquarters held fast and [ ] was never bombed. "We do not take action with grave foreign policy implications except as agent for the policymakers," Dulles cabled LINCOLN. 50
President Arbenz, on 27 June 1954, in a bitterly anti-American speech, resigned his office and sought asylum in th eMexican embassy in Guatemala City. [ ].51 After Castillo Armas assumed the presidency, however, Arbenz was allowed to leave the country for Mexico, which granted him political asylum. In addition, 120 other Arbenz government officials or Communists departed Guatemala under a safe passage agreement with the Castillo Armas government.52 There is no evidence that any Guatemalans were executed.
CIA officers responsible for planning and implementing covert action against the Arbenz government engaged in extensive discussions over a two-and-a-half year period about the possibility of assassinating Guatemalan officials [ ]. Consideration of using assassination to [ ] purge Guatemala of Communist influence was born of the extreme international tensions in the early Cold War years. The Agency did not act unilaterally, but consulted with State Department officials with responsibility for policy toward Latin America. In the end, no assassinations of Guatemalan officials were carried out, according to all available evidence.
Proposals for assassination pervaded both PBFORTUNE and PBSUCCESS, rather than being confined to an early stage of these programs. Even before official approval of PBFORTUNE, CIA officers compiled elimination lists and discussed the concept of assassination with Guatemalan opposition leaders. Until the day that Arbenz resigned in June 1954 the option of assassination was still being considered.
Discussions of assassination reached a high level within the Agency. Among those involved were [ ]. [ ] is known to have been present at one meeting where the subject of assassination came up. It is likely that [ ] was also aware in general terms that assassination was under discussion. Beyond planning, some actual preparations were made. Some assassins were selected, training began, and tentative "hit lists" were drawn up.
Yet no covert action plan involving assassinations of Guatemalans was ever approved or implemented. The official objective of PBSUCCESS was to remove the Guatemalan government covertly "without bloodshed if possible." Elimination lists were never finalized, assassination proposals remained controversial within the Agency, and it appears that no Guatemalans associated with Arbenz were assassinated. Both CIA and State Department officers were divided (and undecided) about using assassination.
Discussion of whether to assassinate Guatemalan Communists and leaders sympathetic to Communist programs took place in a historical era quite different from the present. Soviet Communism had earned a reputation of using whatever means were expedient to advance Moscow's interests internationally. Considering Moscow's machinations in Eastern Europe, role in the Korean War, sponsorship of subversion through Communist surrogates in the Third World, and espousal of an ideology that seemed to have global hegemony as th ultimate objective, American officials and the American public alike regarded foreign Communist Parties as Soviet pawns and as threatening to vital US security interests.
Cold War realities and perceptions conditioned American attitudes toward what political weapons were legitimate to use in the struggle against Communism. It would be over two decades after the events in Guatemala before DCI William Colby prohibited any CIA involvement in assassination and a subsequent Executive Order banned any US government involvement in assassination.
- Note 1: See Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944–1954 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 187-88. United Fruit dominated Guatemalan banana production, controlled the International Railroad of Central America, and its merchant fleet had a virtual monopoly of Guatemalan overseas shipping. It was second only to the Guatemalan government as an employer.
- Note 2: See Gleijeses, Shattered Hope and Richard H I[numcrman], The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982) for general overviews of the Guatemalan situation in the early 1950s and US reaction. See also John P[emrifoy] US Ambassador to Guatemala statement of 23 October 1953 in Department of State, Foriegn Relations of the United States, The American Republic 1950 – 1954, 4:1093. (Hereinafter cited as FRUS)
- Note 3:See PBSUCCESS Planning Documents, Directorate of Operations, Latin American Division Records, Job Number 79-101025A, CIA Archives (S). See also NSC 144/3, 18 March 1953 FRUS 4:1 – 73 and J. C. King, memo for DDP, "Estimate of Situation in Guatemala," 11 January 1952 printed in Michael Warner, ed. The CIA under Harry Truman (Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Intelligence, CIA, 1994) pp.452 – 53
- Note 4:J. C. King, Chief, Western Hemisphere Division, dispatch, 22 March 1952, Box 7 (S).
- Note 5:See Bureau of Inter-American Affairs, "Alternative Policy Lines, 1953." and NSC, "Guatemala," 19 August 1953, FRUS 4:1074–1086.
- Note 6:See cable to Dulles, "Conference with ...," 4 August 1952, Box 69 (S).
- Note 7:See memorandum to Dulles, "Guatemalan Situation," 9 July 1952, Box 67 (S) and memorandum to Dulles, "Conference with...," 4 August 1952, Box 69 (S).
- Note 8:See [ ] "Chrnolology of Meeting's Leading to Approval of Project A," 8 October 1952, Box 69 (S); to [ ] "Guatemala," 8 October 1952, Box 69 (S); and to Dulles, "Guatemala Situation," 9 July 1952, Box 69.
- Note 9:See [ ] "Chrnology of Meetings Leading to Approval of Project A." (S) Se also Irmnerman(?) CIA in Guatemala, pp. 120-122. Because of security leaks and the boasting of General Somoza about his and the Agency's role in supporting the rebellion PBFORTUNE was soon called off. Secretary of State Dean Asheson asked DCI Smith to stop the operation on October 1952.
- Note 10:See Cable 24629 OPC/OSO/WHD to [ ], 26 January 1952, Box 7 (S). For a list of the names and biographical data see Chief, Economic Warfare Operations, LINCOLN to All Staff Officers, "Selection of Individuals for Disposal by Junta Group," 31 March 1954, Box 145.
- Note 11:Washington Cable [ ] to [ ] 29 January 1952, Box 7 (S).
- Note 12:[ ] to Headquarters, 29 January 1952, Box 10 (S).
- Note 13:See to [ ] "Guatemala Communist Personnel to be Disposed of During Military Operations of CALLIGERIS," (Castillo Armas), 18 September 1952, Box 134 (S).
- Note 14:See report #3 to [ ] "Lieason between CALLEGERIS and General Trojillo of Santo Domingo," 18 September 1952, bot 134 (S). Assasination was a nasty but frequent tool of Guatemalan politics. Arbenz himself benefited from the killing of his arch rival for the presidency Francisco Arans in 1949.
- Note 15:See in memo "Conferences," 1 December 1952, Box 134 (S).
- Note 16:To memo "Current Planning of Calligeris Organization," 12 December 1952, Box 134 (S). See also, Acting Chief, [ ] Branch, Western Hemisphere Division that resported in November 1952 that Castillo Armas was studying PW use of liquidation lists. Memorandum for the record, "PW Conferences" 5 November 1952, Box 151 (S). The case officer also reported that the Arbenz government had targeted Castillo Armas for assasination.
- Note 17:See [ ] 10 March 1953, Box 15D (S).
- Note 18:See [ ] memorandum, "Proposed Course of Action If Plan is Not Continued in Present Form," undated but probably 1951, Box 154 (S).
- Note 19:Western Hemisphere Division, memo "PBFORTUNE," 28 August 1953, Box 72 (S).
- Note 20:See [ ] memo in [ ] "Guatemala - General Plan of Action," 11 September 1953, Box 5 (TS). See also the attached memorandum from [ ] to [ ] 9 September 1953 (TS).
- Note 21:See Dispatch, COS Guatemala City to LINCOLN, "Death Notices," 19 April 1954, Box 99 (S).
- Note 22:NSC Policy Paper, 19 August 1953, FRUS 4:1083.
- Note 23:See [ ] to [ ] "Guatemala - General Plan of Action," Box 5 (TS) and [ ] Special Deputy for PBSUCCESS, memo for the record, "Program for PBSUCCESS," 12 November 1953, Box 135 (C). See also memo to [ ], "Summary of Directives and Instructions on PBSUCCESS," 5 November 1953, Box 142 (S). [ ] goes not specially mention assasination either.
- Note 24:[ ] opened on 9 December. See [ ] to Headquarters, 5 January 1954, Box 1 (S) and [ ] to Headquarters 6 January 1954, Box 1 (S). See also J8 to Headquarters, 9 March 1954, box 13 (S); [ ] to Headquarters, 4 January 1954, Box 1(S).
- Note 25:See the [ ] cheif in Chief, [ ]. "CALLIGERIS Briefing Notes," J [ ] "Cost of Support for PBSUCCESS," 17 September 1954, Box 43 (S). He listed the 20 silenced risent. See also [ ] to Headquarters, 6 Januar 1954, Box 75 (S) and [ ] 2 to Headquarters, 21 January 1954, Box 1 (S).
- Note 26: To [ ] Report #5. [ ] ." 18 September 1952, Box 73 (S) and [ ] cheif, memo for the record, "Pbt conference Held at [ ] " 13 February 1954, Box 74 (S). See also [ ] to Headquarters, 4 January 1954, Box 1 (S). The Headquarters Registry cpy of the pouch manifest for 8 January 1954, Box 97 (S) list the manual "A Study of Assasinations." A handwritten note of the origianl manifest says the pouch was carried to [ ] by [ ]. The serial assasination study is in Box 145 (S).
- Note 27:See [ ] to Headquarters. 8 June 1954. Box 5 (S) or [ ] to Headquarters 8 June 1954, Box 5 (S).
- Note 28:See ic [ ] Report $22, "Current Planning of CALLIGERIS Organization," 12 December 1952, Box 134 (S) nd "Contact Report," 11 January 1954, (S).
- Note 29:See Dispatch to [ ] , "Training," 6 June 1954, Box 75 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat). [ ]
- Note 30:To LINCOLN, 16 May 1954, "Tactical Instrucitons (part II)" (S) and To LINCOLN "Instructions" Nerve War Against Individuals," 9 June 1954, Box 50 (S).
- Note 31:See COS Guatemala City, to Western Hemisphere Division, undated, Box #6, (C) and Guatemala City 553 to LINCOLN, 14 May 1954. See also the COS dispatch Guatemala City to LINCOLN, 14 May 1954, Box 145 (S). [ ]
- Note 32:See [ ] memo for the record, "Weekly PBSUCCESS Meeting with [ ]" 9 March 1954, Box 154 (TS). Even before this meeting [ ] suggested that the top Guatemalan leadership needed to be assasinated during the first hours of the revolution. They had to be "pulled out by the roots." If we waited [ ] argued, "If too many of these birds get out they will be back in about three years." See [ ] Tape 17, Box 209 (S). [ ] Sec [ ] "Administrative Details." 15 April 1954, Box 70 (S); [ ] memo for the record, "Meeting" 2 March 1954, Box 70 (S).
- Note 33:[ ] memo for the record. "Report of Mr. [ ] on OAS Conference," 29 March 1954, Box 145 (TS).
- Note 34:See, Chief, Economic Warfare, [ ] memo to All Staff Officers, "Selection of individuals for Disposal by Junta Group." 31 March 1954, Box 145 (S). We know [ ] visited [ ] on this date from the [ ] visitors log book. He signed into [ ] on 31 March. See [ ] Log Book for 31 March 1954, Box 138 (S).
- Note 35:Memo, Box 145 (S).
- Note 36:See memo and attachment notes on the memo which indicates that [ ] returned the list to the file on 1 June 1954, Box 145 (S)
- Note 37: [ ] 1950. See memo to [ ] "Summary of Operation," 18 April 1954, Box 134 (S). Se also Dispatch [ ] to [ ] "Assets in Guatemala," 14 April 1954, Box 134 (S). An attachment notes that some assets are also on another list for "eradication." (see attachment in Box 102). See also [ ] to [ ] 5 April 1954, Box 125 (S).
- Note 38:See memo for the record, "Synthesis of [ ]'s remarks Relevant to PBSUCCESS Made at a Meeting 21 April 1954, Box 151 (S).
- Note 39:See [ ] Officer, [ ], memo to [ ] and [ ], "Acts of Force Before D-Day," 16 May 1954, Box 142 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat). See also [ ] memo to [ ] Officer, undated, in which [ ] states, "Your views were discussed with Chief [ ]" Box 145 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat).
- Note 40:See [ ] to Director, 21 May 1954, Box 4 (S) and [ ] to Director, 21 May 1954, Box 4 (S).
- Note 41:See to Headquarters, 29 May 1954, Box 13 (S). Perhaps [ ] Officer, [ ] and chief [ ] talked at a conference held at [ ] on 2 june 1954. See [ ] "Contact Report," 2 June 1954, Box 146 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat).
- Note 42:See dispatch, [ ] to [ ] "K-Program, [ ]," 25 May 1954, Box 145 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat).
- Note 43:See "Disposal List Home Addresses," copied from an attachment to dispatch, [ ] to [ ] 1 June 1954. Box 145, (S). It contained 15 names. See also [ ] routing slip for the attachment, (Dispatch dated 25 May 1954), Box 145 (Secret, Rybat).
- Note 44:See [ ] draft memo, "Present Status and Possible Future Course of PBSUCCESS," 1 June 1954, Box 145 (S).
- Note 45:[ ] memo for the record, "Points Covered in H/W Discussions of June 1 and 2," 3 June 1954, Box 145 (S). This memo is originally from Job 00075R, Box 1, Folder 3.
- Note 46:See "Contact Report," 2 June 1954, Box 146 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat). See also [ ] memo for the record, "Points Covered in H/W Discussion of June 1 and 2," 3 June 1954 and [ ] note for the file, "Disposal List Prepared by C/EW," 1 June 1954, Box 145 (S).
- Note 47:See [ ] to Headquarters, 17 June 1954, Box 75 (S); [ ] to Headquarters, 18 June 1954, Box 11 (S). See earlier Agency meetings with Guatemalan military leader, "First Meeting, 4 May 1954, Dispatch [ ] to [ ], 4 May 1954, Box 154 (S). For [ ]'s cable, see [ ] to [ ], 24 June 1954, Box 153 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat).
- Note 48:See [ ] to LINCOLN, 14 June 1954, Box 93 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat); [ ] to LINCOLN, 19 June 1954, Box 93 (S); and LINCOLN, 4175 to Headquarters, 22 June 1954, Box 93 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat).
- Note 49:[ ] to LINCOLN, 25 June 1954, Box 146 (S) and [ ] to Dulles, 19 June 1954, Box 91 (S).
- Note 50:See Headquarters to LINCOLN, 5857, 22 June 1954, Box 143, (TS)
- Note 51:See Guatemala City 977 to LINCOLN, 27 June 1954, Box 145 (Secret, PBSUCCESS, Rybat).
- Note 52:John H. Waller, CIA Inspector General, letter to Thomas Farmer, Chairman of the Intelligence Oversight Board, 15 October 1979.
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Reprinted from Byte, issue 13/88, pp. 286-296.
Can a new graphical interface make Unix friendly after all these years?
For years now, the Unix operating system has been like an athlete with
potential – it has great talent but somehow has never lived up to
expectations on the playing field.
While Unix is one of the most capable and powerful operating systems
available, it still has a very small installed base (about 350,000 licenses
and some 1 million users) compared to the MS-DOS operating system (more than
10 million users) or even the Macintosh Finder (close to 2 million). Many industry
observers would agree that the main problem with Unix has been its lack of an
accessible, easy-to-use interface.
In April 1988, AT&T announced a new graphical user interface called Open Look,
destined to be the user interface for Unix System V version 4.0, the converged
version of the three most popular variants of Unix: System V, Berkeley (BSD)
4.2, and Xenix. Designed for AT&T by Sun Microsystems, and based on technology licensed
from Xerox, Open Look was designed to be independent of the hardware and
software on which it runs; as such, it can be used with operating systems other than Unix.
The graphical interface story
The development of graphical user interfaces can be traced to commercial products such
as the Xerox Star, Smalltalk, and the Macintosh; to academic projects such as the
Andrew system from Carnegie-Mellon; to research systems such as Diamond and
Sapphire; and to many applications in areas like CAD and desktop publishing.
The roots of all these systems go back to work done at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center
(PARC) in the 1970s. Among the more influential of the Xerox systems are Smalltalk,
the Star (and its successor ViewPoint), the Bravo Editor, and the Cedar development
environment. These systems introduced many of the ideas that have come to be
taken for granted as the basic elements of graphical user interfaces: windows,
icons, menus, the desktop metaphor, and direct manipulation of objects on the screen
by the user. The designers of the Star, in particular, placed great emphasis on
the consistency of the user interface.
In the early 1980s, the designers of the Apple Macintosh took those ideas and combined
them in a design tuned for a specific machine, market, and price point. The Macintosh
had a single-process operating system and a small screen. This led to a user interface
based on a single top-of-the-screen menu bar used by whatever program was currently
active. The designers envisioned an interface that was simple and accessible to
nontechnical people. This emphasis on simplicity also led to the choice of
a single-button mouse.
The Open Look user interface for Unix builds on and enhances both of these
traditions – the consistency of the Star and the simplicity of the Macintosh.
Beyond specific features, however, the major significance of Open Look is that
it is not tied to a particular computer or operating system.
The “Open” in Open Look
The Xerox Star was a tightly integrated, closed system. The hardware, operating
system, windowing system, user interface, and applications were all built by the
same company, so consistency was ensured.
Similarly, the Macintosh was a closed system, though Apple broke the applications
out of the bundle. As independent software developers began to supply applications
for the Macintosh, consistency across applications emerged as a crucial issue.
Apple addressed this issue by publishing user-interface guidelines and creating a
culture that encouraged application developers to follow the conventions.
With the advent of open systems like the Mac II, hardware as well as software is
now available from companies other than Apple. Meanwhile, a variety of graphics-oriented
system software (e.g., Windows and the Presentation Manager) is now available
for 8086/80286/80386 machines.
In graphics-based systems, the trend from tightly integrated, single-vendor systems toward
loosely integrated, multivendor systems has important consequences for user
interfaces. The designers of the Star took the position that the hardware should be
designed specifically to fit the software. The designers of the Macintosh also designed
their look and feel with reference to a particular operating system, display, and mouse.
Open Look takes this evolution to the next step. It was designed from the start to
accommodate different keyboards, mice, and screen resolutions. The interface is not
tied to a particular piece of hardware, operating system, or windowing system, so it
is possible for applications to have a consistent look and feel, regardless of what
hardware or operating system they happen to be running on.
First look at Open Look
In Open Look, the display screen is called the workspace. The workspace contains
windows and icons representing application programs. An application typically consists
of one main window (in which the application’s data is displayed) and several
pop-up windows that you use to manipulate the data.
Figure 1 shows a typical Open Look screen with sample applications called Draw
and Write. Notice the L-shaped corners on the applications’ windows, suggesting
picture mounts from a photo album. By clicking and dragging these mounts, you can
resize a window from any corner.
|Figure 1: A typical Open Look screen with edit and draw applications. Each application consists of one main menu (which you can resize using the L-shaped corners) and several pop-up windows that you use to manipulate the data.|
At the top of each application window is the header, which contains the name of
die application and a window mark that closes the application when you click it.
Below the header is the application’s control area, which provides access to
the application’s main functions, such as opening and closing files. The
control area typically consists of a single row of buttons. You “push” these
buttons by moving the mouse pointer over it and clicking the Select mouse button. (For an
explanation of Open Look’s approach to mice, see the text box Open
Season for Mice.)
As you can see in figure 1, there are two styles of buttons: Those with a single, heavy
shadow are simple buttons, representing a single command. Those with a double shadow
are button stacks, representing several related commands.
To perform the default action on a button stack, you click the Select mouse button.
Pressing the Menu mouse button calls up the menu associated with the stack. The Edit
button’s menu in figure 1 has been opened up in this way. Notice that
the menu itself contains buttons and button stacks. By using the two types of buttons
in combination, an application can support far more commands than it could display on
the control panel.
Below the control area is the pane, in which the application displays its data.
The form that data takes is up to the application; usually it is text, a drawing,
or a spreadsheet.
To the right of the pane is a scroll bar that lets you move the contents of a
document within the pane. As you can see in figure 1, the Open Look scroll bar resembles
an elevator riding on a cable that is anchored at either end. Clicking on the
top arrow moves you one line toward the top of the document; clicking on
the bottom arrow moves you one line toward the bottom. Because the arrow buttons are
located next to each other on the elevator instead of at either end of the scroll
bar, you need only move the mouse a short distance to reverse directions.
To jump directly to the beginning or end of the file, click on the top or
bottom cable anchors, respectively. Finally, you can move to any part of the document
by pressing in the middle of the elevator and dragging.
Open Look’s debt to the Xerox Star is evident in its use of property windows
that let you view and modify the properties of any object you can see on the screen.
To change an object’s properties, you first select the object of interest. Then
choose Properties from the appropriate menu (which will change depending on the
application and the object you select). This will bring up a window with controls that you
can use to modify the properties of the object. All property windows work in exactly the
same way, regardless of which object you are changing. For example, you could select a
word in a word processing program and change its font, select the main window of
an application and change the application’s background color, or select the
screen background and change a global property such as the volume of the system bell.
Figure 2 shows a typical property window for a word processing application.
|Figure 2: A typical Open Look property window for a word processing application. Settings whose boxes are closed together are exclusive – you can only choose one at a time. With settings whose boxes are separated, you can choose as many as you want.|
The first two lines in the property window of figure 2 are examples of settings that
let you choose among predefined choices. When you select a setting, its border
becomes outlined in bold. Settings whose borders touch are exclusive – only one
choice may be on at a given time. Settings whose borders do not touch are
nonexclusive – you can toggle each choice on and off independently of the
others. Below the settings is a text-entry field, and below that is a sliding control that
lets you choose quickly from a range of values.
All property windows have a special control, known as the pushpin, at the right of
the window header. When the pin is on its side, as in figure 2, the window will
disappear when you click the OK button. If you click on a pushpin, it pops into the
hole next to it. The window will remain until you dismiss it by clicking on the window
mark in the header. Using the pushpin lets you perform multiple operations (such as
changing font characteristics of various words throughout a document) without having
the window disappear after each action.
An application may also have pushpins on menus, thus allowing the menu to be pinned
up for repeated use. Figure 1 shows examples of both pinned and unpinned menus.
A special type of pop-up window is the notice, which asks you to confirm
operations that would result in the loss of data. Notices appear to project from
the button that prompted their appearance, as shown in figure 3. This
“projection” acts as a visual prompt.
|Figure 3: Open Look’s three-dimensional notice windows alert you to actions that could result in loss of data.|
Open Look provides help through a standard help window (see figure 4) that
appears when you point at an object on the screen and press the Help key on
your keyboard (which will vary from system to system).
|Figure 4: The Open Look help window, called by pointing to an object on the screen and pressing a Help key, contains a help message and a help lens, with a snapshot of the object for which you have requested help.|
Next to the help message is the help lens, a magnifying glass that contains a
snapshot of the object for which you have requested help. As you move the mouse pointer
from object to object and press the Help key, both the image in the lens and
the help text are updated.
The main goals of the Open Look design were to provide the following: good visual
design; balance among simplicity, consistency, and efficiency; device independence;
and interoperability with other widely used interfaces.
One of the most challenging aspects of visual design is the use of color. The problem
is to use color so it emphasizes useful distinctions and adds interest to the
visual scene without producing a neon “Las Vegas” effect.
Some user interfaces show each visual element – buttons, scroll bars, window
headers, and so on – in a different color, resulting in a random clutter of
bright colors. In contrast, Open Look allows you to choose the colors for
three areas of the user interface: the background of the screen, the background of each
window, and the currently selected object. This use of color serves several
purposes. The backgrounds of the windows are colored with neutral tones so that
they will not overwhelm whatever information the application is displaying. Also,
since a single background color is used for all the windows of a given application,
you can tell at a glance which pop-up window goes with which application.
Against this neutral background, the eye is naturally drawn to the brightly colored
selection (e.g., the block of yellow text in figure 1), which is the focus of
the user’s attention.
Open Look provides several palettes from which you can choose the colors of the
screen background, window backgrounds, and the current selection. The colors in
each palette have been chosen by the graphic designer so that they go well
together. This approach accommodates individual tastes while ensuring that the overall
effect will be pleasing and the text will still be readable.
Simplicity, consistency, and efficiency are the basic principles that guided the
Open Look design. When you’re doing a new task, you want the interface to
be simple. If the interface is similar to that of a task with which you are already
familiar, learning will be easier. And when you are doing a task over and over,
you want the interface to be as efficient as possible.
It is hard to overemphasize the importance of consistency. Consistency lets you learn
many applications and switch easily among them.
Several aspects of the Open Look design reflect this emphasis on consistency. Throughout
the system and across applications, a given mouse button is used for only one
function. We aimed for visual consistency in the design of controls: Buttons and
settings look the same, regardless of whether they appear in a pop-up menu or
in a window. The help window is another example of consistency: You can point to
any object on the screen and get help, regardless of whether it is a standard
element of the system (such as the pushpin) or an application-specific object such
as a particular button.
Open Look has taken many other well-established conventions of graphical user
interfaces and applied them in a more consistent way. For example, in Open Look,
we extended the familiar selection paradigm to include the screen background, so
you can select multiple windows and move or close them in a single operation.
Another example: While earlier interfaces let you manipulate graphics objects
directly, Open Look lets you select and drag arbitrary pieces of text
as well (see figure 5).
|Figure 5: While earlier graphical interfaces pioneered the direct manipulation of graphics objects, Open Look extends this, allowing you to select and drag arbitrary pieces of text as well.|
Efficiency is easier to measure than simplicity or consistency. The fewer moves needed
to perform a task, the more efficient the interface. This means minimizing keystrokes,
mouse travel, and the need to switch back and forth between the keyboard and the mouse.
Minimizing mouse travel becomes more important as more systems use large screens.
One way to reduce mouse motion is by using pop-up menus. In Open Look, each region of
the screen – the workspace, the window background, scroll bars, and each
application pane – has its own pop-up menu with relevant buttons. Instead of
having to move all the way to the control area, you simply press the Menu mouse
button, which effectively brings a control area to wherever the pointer happens to be.
Another way that Open Look minimizes mouse travel is by jumping the mouse pointer to
a default button when a pop-up window (such as a notice) appears. If you click on
the default button in the window, the pointer jumps back to its original position – saving
two mouse motions.
A more subtle aspect of efficiency is allowing users to take advantage of the multitasking
capability of an operating system like Unix. Take the problem of how to indicate that
a window is busy and will not respond to input. Most systems change the mouse pointer
into an hourglass or timer. In a single-tasking system such as the Macintosh, this
is appropriate, since you can’t do anything else until the active window is
finished. In multitasking systems, however, the hourglass is only visible when the
pointer is over the window that is busy. This approach requires you to keep the
pointer in the busy window so you can see when it becomes responsive again. In
contrast, when an Open Look window is busy, the window header (or icon, if the
window is closed) turns gray. Thus, you can move the pointer out of the window and
work on something else, and still tell at a glance when the window is again responsive.
Open Look was designed specifically to be used across a wide range of hardware. This
requirement means that the visuals must work well on displays of various resolutions and
sizes and on both monochrome and color. It also means that all the details of the
look – each graphical element and the amount of white space between elements – must
be specified in device-independent terms rather than as bit maps.
Hardware differences on the input side are also significant. The number of modifier
keys (e.g., Alt, Option, and Control) varies on different keyboards, as does the number
of buttons on different mice. As far as possible, Open Look insulates you from such
variations by allowing a great deal of flexibility in mapping mouse buttons and modifier
keys to functions.
Design is never done in a vacuum. The user of a new interface will always approach it
with a background of experience with existing interfaces. This means that every change
comes at the price of increased learning effort on the part of the user.
The Open Look design team envisioned a typical user who wants to switch easily between
Open Look, the Mac Finder, and the Presentation Manager. We therefore ruled out design
possibilities that would make this switch too difficult.
Take the example of scroll bars. There are endless variations on the scroll bar
concept, and many other possible ways to scroll that don’t even involve scroll
bars. After considering many of these possibilities, we became convinced that Open
Look’s scrolling mechanism had to be similar enough to what people were used
to so they could use it successfully right away. The design task, then, was to refine
the familiar scroll bars, making them more visually attractive and more efficient.
An Open Look at the future
The Open Look Functional Specification – a thick book addressed to the developers of
user-interface toolkits and describing the look and feel in great detail – was
distributed to over 1000 firms for review in July 1988 and will be published this
month. (A toolkit is a set of system-specific libraries containing the standard building
blocks – such as windows, menus, and scroll bars – that an application developer
uses in creating an application. Figure 6 shows where a toolkit fits into the
overall software architecture.)
|Figure 6: Toolkits for the Open Look user interface will allow software developers to develop applications for a variety of windowing systems running on widely disparate hardware and operating systems. The first toolkits available will be for Unix systems.|
The Open Look Application Style Guide, a somewhat thinner book addressed to application
developers, gives guidelines for how to use the various building blocks that Open
Look provides. The Style Guide will be published in early 1989.
Since the Functional Specification does not specify a particular hardware or software
platform, it leaves room for different toolkits to implement the Open Look
user interface on different systems. The first two Open Look toolkits – available
in the first quarter of 1989 – will be XT+ from AT&T and View2 from Sun, both
based on MIT’s X-Windows, a windowing system for Unix.
Sun is also developing an Open Look toolkit called NDE (for NeWS Development
Environment) based on the NeWS window system. NeWS is a portable, PostScript-based
window system that is commercially available for many platforms, including Unix, OS/2,
and the Macintosh. Thus, when NDE becomes available in the second quarter of 1989,
Open Look will be able to provide a common look and feel across a wide variety of
computers and operating systems.
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In case you missed it (ICYMI), here are some of the stories that made headlines in the world of cleanrooms and nanotechnology in the past week.
The “world’s largest solar-powered computer” aims to improve development across rural Africa. The Watly system captures solar energy through photovoltaic panels on the surface of the module, which is converted into electricity through an internal 140 kwh battery. This powers a water treatment system which utilizes a graphene-based filtering process — the water is boiled and then distilled. The machine can produce 5,000 liters of safe drinking water per day. The battery also powers a connectivity hub that provides wireless Internet service within an 800-meter radius, and a charging station for electronic and mobile devices. In 15 years, one Watly system can reduce 2,500 tons of greenhouse gases. This July, the inventor will present a final design — a scaled up 40-meter, 15-ton machine — to potential customers and investors.
A microbiology professor from the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine is head of a team that is developing a nanotech poultry vaccine. Nanovaccines will be developed as a platform technology for more efficient poultry vaccination. Polyanhydride nanoparticles, proven safe for use in many food animals and humans, will provide a better immunization strategy than commercial live attenuated vaccines. The team will first test the new technology in a model system with infectious bronchitis virus, which causes infectious bronchitis disease — a sickness that can wipe out anywhere from 30 to 60 percent of a flock.
Finally, NASA has released a time-lapse video of the James Webb Space Telescope team lifting and turning the giant telescope for the first time. Shot inside the world’s largest cleanroom — a Class 10,000 facility at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. — the video shows the glimmering gold surfaces of large primary and rounded secondary mirror of this telescope. The gold surfaces are specially designed to reflect infrared light from some of the first stars ever born. The team will now begin to prepare to install the telescope’s science instruments to the back of the mirrors.
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The origin of Denmark is lost in prehistory. Prior to being populated by Scandinavians, Denmark was home to Celts - as evidenced by the discovery of ritualistic bog murders and burials. The oldest Danevirke is from the 7th century, at the same time as the new Runic alphabet.
Up into the 11th century the Danes were known as Vikings, together with Norwegians and Swedes, colonising, raiding and trading in all parts of Europe. Many archaeologists and historians believe that the Viking even made it as far as America. They traveled from Scandinavia to Iceland, then further to Greenland and then finally America.
At various times Denmark has ruled parts of England and Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland and parts of the Virgin Islands, Tranquebar in India, parts of the Baltic coast and what is now northern Germany. Scania, Blekinge and Halland were part of Denmark for most of its early history, but were lost to Sweden in 1658. The union with Norway was dissolved in 1814, when Norway entered a new union with Sweden (until 1905).
The Danish liberal and national movement gained momentum in the 1830s, and after the European revolutions of 1848 Denmark became a constitutional monarchy June 5, 1849.
After the Second War of Schleswig (Danish: Slesvig) in 1864 Denmark was forced to cede Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia, in a defeat that left deep marks in the Danish national identity. After this point Denmark adopted a policy of neutrality, following which Denmark stayed neutral in World War I. Following the defeat of Germany Denmark was offered by the Versailles powers the return of Schleswig-Holstein. Fearing German irridentism Denmark refused to consider the return of Holstein and insisted on a plebiscite concerning the return of Schleswig. In 1920, following the plebiscite, Northern Schleswig was recovered by Denmark.
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Rare Chromosomal Aberrations that Contribute to Intellectual Disability Identified by TCD Researchers
Posted on: 29 September 2008
An international research collaboration between researchers in the US, Europe and Trinity College Dublin has identified rare chromosomal aberrations which are associated with a variety of developmental disorders in children including some cases of autism. The study’s findings which involved Dr Louise Gallagher, Clinical Senior Lecturer in Psychiatry and Professor of Psychiatry, Professor Michael Gill at TCD have just been published in the internationally renowned New England Journal of Medicine.
The study involved 5,218 patients, including patients recruited in Ireland. Patients were screened for submicroscopic mutations and identified similar mutations in a small region on chromosomal 1 called 1q.21 in approximately 34 cases. Chromosome 1 is one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes carrying genetic information in humans. Disruption of the chromosome in this region may be disrupting the expression of genes involved in brain development. Two thirds of the affected cases were missing one of the normal two copies of DNA at this region and 1/3 had an extra copy. The affected individuals had highly variable clinical features including mild or moderate intellectual disability, growth retardation, learning disabilities, seizures, autism, heart defects, other congenital abnormalities, cataracts, small head size, unusual facial features, hand deformities, or skeletal problems. The results were compared with 4,737 controls from the general population where no such chromosomal aberrations were found. Other work, also involving Trinity College Dublin, has found a connection between the same deletions on chromosome 1 and schizophrenia, and in abnormalities in the development of the reproductive tract.
The 1q21.1 deletions and duplications identified by the TCD researchers and international collaborators involve a sequence of about 1.3 million base pairs of DNA containing eight or nine genes. The genomic structure of the region 1q21.1 is extremely complex. There is still missing sequence in the current maps of the human genome in the 1q21.1 region, which might contain as yet unknown genes that may contribute to the differences in the types of developmental abnormalities that occur in cases with the abnormality.
Aberrations in the human genome, e.g. deletions and duplications are known to cause disease or increase disease susceptibility. Recent technological advances are enabling scientists to test large numbers of people to determine the presence or absence of submicroscopic imbalances in small sections of their chromosomes. Such aberrations would have remained undetected with older technologies. There is a strong interest in investigating these abnormalities, also known as ‘copy number variations’ in neuropsychiatric disorders, particularly autism and schizophrenia.
“We are actively pursuing this avenue of investigation in our sample of individuals with autism and have already seen several occurrences of these ‘copy number variations’ in affected individuals”, says Dr. Gallagher. “There is great hope in the autism community that these aberrations may help us to understand more about the biology of the condition and perhaps in the future to assist in the development of diagnostic tests and treatments.”
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder of childhood associated with impairments in communication, social interaction and the presence of rigid and repetitive behaviours. Autism is a broad spectrum of disorders ranging from the very severe to the mild and autism spectrum disorders collectively affect almost 0.5% of the population. They are associated with persistent and often severely disabling features. The knowledge about the underlying biology of autism is limited but genetic factors are strongly implicated and identifying risk genes is essential to understanding the underlying causes and to the development of improved treatments and interventions.
Dr. Louise Gallagher, Clinical Senior Lecturer in Psychiatry leads the Autism Genetics Group in TCD and is a Consultant Child and Adolescent Psychiatrist in the Adelaide and Meath Hospital incorporating the National Children’s Hospital, Tallaght and the Linn Dara Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service. The group is part of the Neuropsychiatric Genetics Group headed by Professor Michael Gill, Professor of Psychiatry at TCD and St James’s Hospital. The group is involved in a number of international collaborations in autism genetics research including the Autism Genome Project (AGP) and The Autism Simplex Collection (TASC). The Autism Genetics Group is supported by funding from the Health Research Board and Autism Speaks.
Notes to the Editor:
New England Journal of Medicine. Sept. 11 New England Journal of Medicine in an article entitled, “Recurrent Rearrangements of Chromosome 1q21.1 and Variable Pediatric Phenotypes.” and discussed in an accompanying editorial by David H. Ledbetter of Emory University in Atlanta.
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Aging is marked by multiple biological and lifestyle changes; the latter being a result of the changes that occur in the body. As we grow older, molecular and cellular damage accumulates, leading to deterioration in physical and mental capacity, as well as a higher risk of developing diseases.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), these health issues, commonly called “geriatric syndromes,” only manifest later in life and are often experienced by people in old age at the same time. The most common health issues that afflict individuals in old age include the following:
- Chronic health conditions like heart disease and stroke;
- Dementia and other cognitive health issues;
- Osteoporosis and osteoarthritis;
- Visual and hearing impairments; and
- Lack of bladder control or incontinence
As a form of prevention against these health issues, it is imperative that older adults consult their doctors regularly. They should also make the necessary diet and lifestyle changes, as prescribed by the physician.
However, if you have loved ones who are already experiencing these health issues, the doctor should make the recommendation for any in-home care or assistance that your loved ones may need. Higher Standards Home Health is an agency providing home health care services in Dallas, Texas that is passionate about giving aid to individuals in old age.
This service provider of home health in Texas, utilizes state-of-the-art medical equipment and delivers quality service through excellent caregivers and practitioners. These professionals are highly skilled to assist in activities of daily living or ADLs and other in-home care necessities.
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Children appear to learn their first language effortlessly. This apparently effortless learning often leads adults to believe that they should learn a second language the same way that they learned their first language as children.
Rosetta Stone and other companies have tried this, but is it really a good idea? Before you answer that question imagine that you are a little boy who is just learning to talk.
What Do You Call Animals With Four Legs and a Tail?
One day your mom and dad take you to visit a house where you learn that an animal with four legs and a tail is a cat.
Later you visit a different house but you find that the people who live there also have an animal that has four legs and a tail. But this animal barks at the mailman, chases cars, and is named Rover.
At this point you have the animals pretty well figured out so you walk into the room, point at Rover, and proudly call Rover a cat!
Fortunately for you, everyone thinks this is cute, and your 24 hours per day language tutors (also called your parents) will cheerfully explain that animals that bark are called dogs.
Children Have Live In Language Tutors
These mistakes are all a wonderful part of growing up, but it really takes children a lot of time to learn their first language. It takes them a lot of time even though they have loving, 24 hour per day live in language tutors called parents.
Imagine that you are using a computer program to learn French. You see a picture of a young woman running on an athletic track. It’s a fall day and the trees in the background are brilliant red. Below the picture is a French word and a button that you can click on to hear the French word.
Here’s a question about the word you just heard. Did you just hear the word for running, for jogging, sprinting, track and field, for woman, for young woman, or was it the word for a fall day?
If you think that was difficult, how would you learn to say, “I would have wanted to come to the party if I had known about it.”
If you can read this article, you obviously understand English. You don’t need to see a picture of a dog after you know the word for dog.
Copy the Enthusiasm of Children, Not Their Methods
Children spend a lot of time learning their first language. So copy their enthusiasm, their joy of learning and their willingness to make mistakes and not care about them, but don’t try to copy their learning methods or you will waste a lot of time.
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Impacts of Flooding/Waterlogging on Crop Development (5/26/11)
Waterlogging (flooded/ponded/saturated soils) affects a number of biological and chemical processes in plants and soils that can impact crop growth in both the short and long term. The primary cause of waterlogging in crop plants is oxygen deprivation or anoxia as excess water itself does not react chemically with the plant. Plants need oxygen for cell division, growth and the uptake and transport of nutrients. Since oxygen diffuses through undisturbed water much more slowly than a well drained soil, oxygen requirements rapidly exceed that which is available when soils are saturated. The rate of oxygen depletion in a saturated soil is impacted by temperature and the rate of biological activity in the soil. Faster oxygen depletion occurs when temperatures are higher and when soils are actively metabolizing organic matter.
The cooler weather we are having this week will delay the adverse effects of waterlogging on any emerged crops. Generally, the oxygen level in a saturated soil reaches the point that is harmful to plant growth after about 48-96 hours. In an effort to survive, tissues growing under reduced oxygen levels use alternate metabolic pathways that produce by-products, some of which are toxic at elevated levels. Germinating seeds/emerging seedlings are very sensitive to waterlogging as their level of metabolism is high. Crops like small grains and corn tend to be more sensitive to waterlogging when their growing point is still below the surface of the soil (before the 5-6 leaf stage). With the exception of winter wheat, all of the small grain and corn crops in the state are still in these sensitive stages (if planted at all) and can be killed if soils are saturated beyond 48 hours when soil temperatures exceed 65 degrees.
Crops can differ in their tolerance to waterlogging. Although I was not able to find definitive information on the relative tolerance of crops to waterlogging, data from differing sources suggest a possible ranking of waterlogging tolerance as follows (most tolerant to most susceptible): rice, soybean, oats, wheat, corn, barley, canola, peas, dry beans and lentils. Growth stage and variety can impact this ranking.
Waterlogged conditions also reduce root growth and can predispose the plant to root rots, so the ultimate effect of excess moisture may not be known until late in the season. It is common to observe plants that have experienced waterlogging to be especially sensitive to hot temperatures and to display nitrogen and phosphorus deficiencies later in the season due to restricted root development. Yield losses can occur even if these obvious visible symptoms are not observed.
Waterlogging can also indirectly impact cereal growth by affecting the availability of nitrogen in the soil. Excessive water can leach nitrate nitrogen beyond the rooting zone of the developing plant, particularly in well-drained lighter textured soils. In heavier soils, nitrate nitrogen can be lost through denitrification. The amount of loss depends on the amount of nitrate in the soil, soil temperature, and the length of time that the soil is saturated. Research conducted in other states found losses from denitrification between 1 and 5% for each day that the soil remains saturated.
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Traveller was used by General Robert E. Lee thoughout most of the Civil War. The iron gray horse was born in 1857 in Greenbrier County, which is now in West Virginia. He was first called Jeff Davis by Andrew Johnston, who raised him. He was renamed Greenbrier by his next owner, Captain Joseph M. Broun. Lee bought the horse from Capt. Broun for $200 during his late 1861 stay in South Carolina. Lee renamed his new mount Traveller. Traveller, who weighed about eleven hundred pounds and stood nearly sixteen hands high, served his master well. He outlived General Lee, and upon his death he was buried next to the Lee Chapel. In 1907 his remains were disinterred and displayed at the Chapel for a period of time before reburied on the front campus outside the Lee Chapel.
The best description of Traveller was Lee’s own, which he wrote in response to Mrs. Lee’s cousin Markie Williams, who wished to paint a portrait of Traveller:
If I was an artist like you, I would draw a true picture of Traveller; representing his fine proportions, muscular figure, deep chest, short back, strong haunches, flat legs, small head, broad forehead, delicate ears, quick eye, small feet, and black mane and tail. Such a picture would inspire a poet, whose genius could then depict his worth, and describe his endurance of toil, hunger, thirst, heat and cold; and the dangers and suffering through which he has passed. He could dilate upon his sagacity and affection, and his invarible response to every wish of his rider. He might even imagine his thoughts through the long night-marches and days of the battle through which he has passed. But I am no artist Markie, and can therefore only say he is a Confederate grey.
Although Traveller was General Lee’s favorite horse, Lee did use other horses during the course of the Civil War. When Lee purchased Traveller, his stable already contained two horses, Richmond and Brown-Roan:
Richmond, a bay stallion, was acquired by General Lee in early 1861. The General rode Richmond when he inspected the Richmond defenses. Richmond died in 1862 after the battle of Malvern Hill.
Brown-Roan was purchased by Lee in West Virginia during the first summer of the war. Also referred to as “The Roan,” the horse went blind in 1862 and had to be retired. He was left with a farmer.
Two other horses, Lucy Long and Ajax, joined Lee’s stable after he purchased Traveller:
Lucy Long, a mare, served as the primary backup horse to Traveller. Lucy Long remained with the Lee family after the war. Outliving General Lee, she died when she was thirty-three years old.
Ajax, a sorrel horse, was used infrequently because he was too large for Lee to ride comfortably. Ajax also remained with the Lees after the war. He killed himself in the mid-1860s by accidently running into an iron gate-latch prong.
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History of the United Kingdom Quiz.
Europe has been the site of one of the most complex political histories mankind has ever acted out. The slew of similarities and differences between the various powers and peoples throughout this relatively small continent have led to a tangle of cultural connections. With the conflicts that were bred from religious differences or imperialistic ambitions, the people of Europe were no strangers to the cycles of war and peace.
From the complex and fascinating history of Europe arose one particular power that has stood at the head of global politics for centuries. The United Kingdom was forged as an evolution of the British Empire. After a surge to their economy from their booming domestic and foreign businesses, the people of Britain used their massive wealth to try and expand their business opportunities. Unfortunately, this often put them in the role of the conqueror and the oppressor as they scourged foreign lands of their resources.
The United Kingdom’s influence around the world was unmatched for a time. However, revolutions by the people they mistreated would begin to drastically minimize that influence. The United Kingdom still prospered without its colonial powers. The nation’s import to world history does not simply rest in their imperialist history. Its culture produced some of the most resonant and impactful artistic and social trends of western history.
In general, this quiz will cover the history of the U.K. before 1990 in order to not veer into the territory of history that is still being written.
How much do you know about this legendary nation? Take our quiz over The History of the United Kingdom to find out.
Good Luck taking the History of the United Kingdom Quiz!
Writer / Quiz Creator
Andrew Nicholas is a passionate reader and writer on the subjects of history and mankind. He is a published author, critic, and poet who grew up in the friendly scenery of rural Ohio. He is a graduate of Wright State University and a regular student of historical curiosities.
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sound cardAn expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.
Nearly all sound cards support MIDI, a standard for representing music electronically. In addition, most sound cards are Sound Blaster-compatible, which means that they can process commands written for a Sound Blaster card, the de facto standard for PC sound.
Sound cards use two basic methods to translate digital data into analog sounds:
Creating desktop shortcuts to a websites is useful. When you double-click the icon from your desktop it automatically launches the browser and... Read More »Flash Data Storage Vendor Trends
Stay up to date on the latest developments in Internet terminology with a free weekly newsletter from Webopedia. Join to subscribe now.
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Even as societies become more advanced, economically and technologically, when it comes to political development, democracy is not always permanent. While democracy prevailed over authoritarianism and autocracy in the twentieth century, its trajectory remains uncertain.
In Southeast Asia, economies are generally expanding, and societies are becoming more sophisticated, industrialized, globalized and connected. Its forms of government are mixed and diverse, ranging from absolute monarchy to democracies to communist-party rule. But the balance has been tipping in favor of more authoritarianism and less democracy: Thailand’s recent military intervention is a case in point, but Cambodia, Malaysia and Myanmar have exhibited signs of regression.
Much was thus riding on Indonesia, the largest Muslim country and the third largest democracy in the world. Indonesia is a very young democracy that emerged from a period of colonialism and then military authoritarianism.
The contrast between the candidates was stark. Joko Widodo, also known as Jokowi rose from humble beginnings to become a successful furniture-exporting businessman and an effective governor of Jakarta. Prabowo is a former army general and the son-in-law of late president Suharto. Jokowi ran on a platform of reform and progress. His persona signified hope and a better democratic future, whereas Prabowo offered decisiveness and the charisma and instincts of a strongman, appealing to and capitalising on what was good about the past. The result was close, with around 53 per cent of the vote for Jokowi to 47 per cent for Prabowo.
What is crucial to note at this point is the strength of the country’s democratic institutions. Like most developing countries, Indonesia has its fair share of scandals and intrigues, such as the conviction of the former head of the Constitutional Court, Akil Mochtar, for corruption. But this election was free and fair, unmarred by violence. The voter turnout was also high: more than 70 per cent, in an archipelago with many far-flung islands.
Most important in any decent democratic contest is that the winner has to be allowed to rule and the loser has to accept defeat without endless remonstration.
Although Prabowo has protested, some of his coalition allies have thrown in the towel, including outgoing president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. The controversy over the quick post-poll vote counts and the final tally by the General Election Commission may reach the Constitutional Court, but it is hard now to deny a Jokowi presidency.
Indonesia’s democracy appears to be consolidating incrementally. Its electorate participates in democratic contests and stands by the results. Its institutions of accountability stand by the electorate’s decision. This is not the case in countries like Thailand, where free and fair election results can be overturned time and again, or Cambodia where manipulated polls can keep incumbents in power.
As for Jokowi, he will have to learn that Indonesia is not Jakarta. Expectations are running high after Yudhoyono’s perceived ineffectual leadership. The new president will have to form a capable cabinet. And he will need a team of credible policy professionals in the foreign ministry to maintain Indonesia’s role in the G20 and to provide thrust for ASEAN. Yudhoyono set a fine example for Indonesia’s global standing, having assembled a technocratic team around foreign minister Marty Natalegawa. The president-elect, who will be Indonesia’s first leader without any personal connection to its authoritarian past, will also need to be assertive with his party’s matriarch, former president Megawati Sukarnoputri.
If Jokowi lasts a full term and Indonesia can usher in another steady presidential changeover, the prospects of a democratic consolidation will brighten and inspire weaker Southeast Asian democracies, indirectly imposing constraints on democratic reversals by force of example.
Cambodia’s problematic election results from July 2013 have been resolved by a compromise that will allow its national assembly to convene in full. This is the right direction for Cambodia’s fledgling democracy to take. It has to become less authoritarian in practice prior to the next election, and its opposition party has to offer viable leadership and attractive policy programs in the interim.
Myanmar and Thailand are the next test cases. Both are set for elections next year. Myanmar’s leadership contest is fierce, weighed down by communal and religious violence and beset with growing restrictions on freedom of expression, and violations of human rights.
Currently under a military government, Thailand remains stuck in its cycle of coups, constitutions and elections. It is supposed to end up with a better democracy after its latest military coup. It is doubtful, though, that Thai democracy can be properly restored after being interrupted by its military. Ironically, Thailand is more similar to Myanmar these days than to Indonesia, even though Indonesia used to emulate Thailand just 16 years ago.
Indonesia is the most successful democracy in the region at this time — though all democracies in Southeast Asia have their defects. Jokowi’s victory will provide ASEAN with regional leadership as the 47-year-old organization moves into an ambitious phase under the ASEAN Community plans. It is also a boon for democratization in the Southeast Asian neighborhood. Had Indonesian democracy suffered a setback with a Jokowi defeat, it would have dealt a major blow to regional democratisation. In a long view, Jokowi’s triumph may have saved the future of democratization in Southeast Asia.
Thitinan Pongsudhirak is associate professor and director of the Institute of Security and International Studies, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University.
This article first appeared in the East Asia Forum. Click here to go to the original.
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Fire for Fire? HIV Virus Used to Cure Cancer
In a most amazing development, US doctors in Philadelphia said they have saved a seven-year-old girl who was close to dying from leukemia with a pioneering use of a least expected agent – a modified form of the HIV virus! Leukemia is a cancer of the blood cells and it normally starts in the bone marrow.
After fighting her disease with chemotherapy for almost two years and suffering two relapses, Emily Whitehead “faced grim prospects,” doctors at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia had said. So in February this year they agreed to take her on in an experimental program that fought fire with fire. Helped by a genetically altered HIV virus — stripped of its devastating properties that cause AIDS — doctors turned the girl’s own immune cells into a superior force able to rout the “aggressive” leukemia.
Emily’s treatment was one of the very first of its kind and cannot yet be considered “a magic bullet,” the hospital said. But in her case, it apparently worked completely. Initially, millions of the girl’s natural immune system cells were removed. Then the modified HIV virus was used to carry in a new gene that would boost the immune cells and help them spot, then attack cancer cells that had previously been able to sneak in “under the radar,” the hospital said on its website. Finally the rebooted immune cells were sent back in to do their work.
According to the hospital, “The researchers have created a guided missile that locks in on and kills B cells, thereby attacking B-cell leukemia.” Meanwhile, Pediatric oncologist Stephan Grupp, who cared for the girl, explained that there was never any danger of AIDS during the process: “The way we get the new gene into the T cells (immune cells) is by using a virus. This virus was developed from the HIV virus, however all of the parts of the HIV virus that can cause disease are removed… It is impossible to catch HIV or any other infection. What’s left is the property of the HIV virus that allows it to put new genes into cells,” he had said in an email.
However, during the treatment, Emily became very ill and went into the intensive care unit, underlining how risky the procedure can be. But, drugs that partly block the immune reaction were administered, without interfering with the anti-leukemia action, and she recovered, the hospital said. The result was “complete” and best of all, the doctors say, the boosted immune shield continues “to remain in the patient’s body to protect against a recurrence of the cancer.”
“She has no leukemia in her body for any test that we can do — even the most sensitive tests,” Grupp told ABC television. “We need to see that the remission goes on for a couple of years before we think about whether she is cured or not. It is too soon to say.”
Emily was one of a dozen people to have had the treatment. Three adults also had complete remissions, with two of them now clear of cancer for more than two years. Four other adults showed improvements but did not go into complete remission. One child improved but then relapsed, and the treatment did not work for two adults. Researchers said the treatment, which costs about $20,000 for each patient, was in the early stages but they hope it could ultimately replace risky bone marrow transplants.
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| 0.979524 | 728 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Essential Commands: Protect Your Dog Using Positive Reinforcement
Long gone are the days that the majority people believed that using physical contact or force with an animal is a necessary means associated with training. Teaching a pet appropriate behaviours, even accomplishing some entertaining tricks, is more easily and effectively achieved by using positive reinforcement techniques instead.
We can all safely agree that dogs should all know basic commands like, sit and stay, but there are some important lessons they should learn to keep them in control. Speaking of safety, here are some other commands that could actually help to save them from possible injury or loss of life.
Leave It and/or Drop It
Many dogs are well known for putting almost anything they come across into their mouths, similar to a toddler, but there's many things an infant wouldn't even think about putting near their face, like a rodent for example. Since we're not always able to corral these critters ourselves, a dog's natural instinct may lead to them killing or carting off one of these often diseased ridden creatures.
Training a dog to "leave it" alone or "drop it" immediately is an important lesson every canine should learn. This can save them from a number of different problems, everything from potential injury to possible illness, depending upon the item in question.
Stopping and Sitting on Command (especially at street corners)
Especially if you live in an suburban setting, animals should be under their master's control at all times since they could unexpectedly break free from a leash or escape some other type of confinement. Running out into the street during their excitement can be avoided by teaching them to stop and sit on command.
Not only can this save them from being struck by a vehicle, even you live in the country, there's still things like tractors or wildlife that could pose a potential threat to them. There's numerous circumstances that could present themselves to your pet at risk when they should stop dead in their tracks (pardon the morbid association).
This is a double edged sword in a way since you want your animal to be well socialised with other people and children, but at the same time, you don’t want them eating "candy from a stranger" either. Similar to the "leave it" command, you should instruct your pet that food and treats from anyone besides you could be dangerous.
In order to get your pet to perform at their best when training them to perform these behavioural measures, check out this infographic on 30 Positive Reinforcement Training Tips For Your Pet. Whether you're using rewards, praise or affection as an incentive, you should have no trouble helping to keep your dog safer and well trained at the same time.
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The nineteenth century witnessed a flowering of museums in towns and cities across Britain. As well as providing a focus for collections of artifacts and a place of educational recreation, this work argues that municipal museums had a further, social role. In a situation of rapid urban growth, allied to social and cultural changes on a scale hitherto unknown, it was inevitable that traditional class and social hierarchies would come under enormous pressure. As a result, urban elites began to look to new methods of controlling and defining the urban environment. One such manifestation of this was the growth of the public museum. In earlier centuries museums were the preserve of learned and respectable minority, yet by the end of the nineteenth century one of the principal rationales of museums was the education, or 'improvement', of the working classes. In the control of museums too there was a corresponding shift away from private aristocratic leadership, toward a middle-class civic directorship and a growing professional body of curators. This work is in part a study of the creation of professional authority and autonomy by museum curators. More importantly though, it is about the stablization of middle-class identities by the end of the nineteenth century around new hierarchies of cultural capital. Public museums were an important factor in constructing the identity and authority of certain groups with access to, and control over, them. By examining urban identities through the cultural lens of the municipal museum, we are able to reconsider and better understand the subtleties of nineteenth-century urban society.
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| 0.962285 | 304 | 2.703125 | 3 |
“Nomen es omen,” said the Romans (who, interestingly, were all good Latinists) or “Your name is your fate.” So it is with “smallscale fisheries,” which are widely seen as traditional, slightly exotic activities maintaining fishing lore and postcard harbors, but which no longer supply the seafood that people eat worldwide, this being the job of large scale industrial, or “commercial” fisheries.
But this is all wrong.
Small-scale fisheries consist of three components:
Subsistence fishing, i.e., fishing for one’s own consumption (plus family and friends), with no commercial transaction involved
Recreational fishing, which, as for subsistence fisheries, involves no commercial transaction, but whose main purpose is recreation, not obtaining food. Where ‘catch and release’ programs are involved, a fraction of the released fish survive, the other are so stressed that they later die and/or are taken by a predator, even if it looked viable when released; and
Artisanal fishing (often called 'petit métiers' in Western Europe), which use small inshore vessels and/or fixed gear (e.g., coastal traps) and whose purpose is to catch fish and other organisms for sale. (For this reason, “commercial fishery” is an inappropriate term for industrial fishing, as artisanal fishers also engage in “commercial” transactions).
Presently, the only database of global fisheries statistics in the world was created and is maintained by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), based on annual submissions by its member countries. It is from this source that most statements on the world catch trends and their composition originate, e.g., in FAO’s 2012 State of the World’s Aquaculture and Aquaculture (SOFIA), which reports that “the declining global marine catch over the last few years together with the increased percentage of overexploited fish stocks and the decreased proportion of non-fully exploited species around the world convey the strong message that the state of world marine fisheries is worsening and has had a negative impact on fishery production.”
However, the government agencies of FAO member countries which send in catch statistics, for example, NOAA in the United States, do not usually have small-scale fisheries in their mandates. This means that the catch statistics they send to FAO do not include small-scale fisheries catches, which are then omitted from all reports based on FAO data, then justifying, that one doesn’t need to look at small-scale fisheries.
This vicious circle, resulting in the exclusion of small-scale fisheries from the FAO database, is the main reason why they are not mentioned in international debates about food security. This is similar to ignoring the huge catch that is discarded annually by industrial fisheries, e.g., for shrimp, where for one pound of shrimp, 8-9 pounds of mostly perfectly edible fish are caught and immediately discarded.
The result is an underestimation by the FAO database of fisheries statistics of the world catch and with the contribution of small-scale fisheries (and particularly artisanal fisheries) underestimated to a tremendous extent.
Sea Around Us project is presently completing ‘reconstructions’ of the historic catches since 1950 taken from the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone of all maritime countries and territories of the world. Thus, for the U.S. flag-associated islands in the Pacific, i.e., Guam, the Northern Marianas, and American Samoa, the reconstructed (or ‘actual’) catches were about 2.5 times larger than the official catches, and it was mainly the small-scale reef fisheries that were underestimated1.
Overall, this will allow us to assess the true contribution of small-scale fisheries to the world catch, and hence to our food security. Watch this space for the key results of our study, of which I can already announce one: small-scale fisheries are not small!
1Zeller, D., S. Booth, G. Davis and D. Pauly. 2007. Re-estimation of small-scale for U.S. flag-associated islands in the western Pacific: the last 50 years. U.S. Fisheries Bulletin 105: 266-277.
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| 0.950751 | 898 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Step-by-Step Guide to Safely Cleaning Up Mould at Home and in the Workplace
Mould is not just a minor nuisance but also poses potential risks to our health – if it is not properly addressed and cleaned up mould will reappear and our respiratory health could be affected.
Any type of fungi that grows on food or damp materials is commonly known as mould. Regardless of the type, Health Canada recommends that all moulds need immediate attention.
People spending time in homes and businesses with mould and damp conditions increase their risk of respiratory symptoms such as eye, nose and throat irritation, coughing and phlegm build-up, wheezing and shortness of breath and worsening of asthma symptoms.
To effectively assess, clean and prevent mould follow these steps:
1. Assess the mould area wearing proper protection including mask, goggles and gloves. If the area is larger than 1 square meter, Health Canada recommends an expert assessment and cleanup is required.
2. Fix moisture causes, dry wet surfaces within 48 hours.
How to fix common causes of moisture and mould:
• Activities such as showering or bathing, washing clothes and cooking may contribute to condensation if exhaust fans are not used or working properly. Ensure fans are working correctly by placing your hand fan near the fan intake to ensure proper airflow.
• Repair water leakage causes, for example, a broken pipe.
• Repair Infiltration of water from the outside, for example, a leaking roof or cracked basement.
• Call an expert to dry out your home after a flood.
3. Wearing mask, goggles and gloves – clean all small patches of mould with soap and water. No need to use bleach.
4. Throw away what you cannot clean including building materials such as drywall if they cannot be cleaned.
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CC-MAIN-2020-29
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https://www.pollutionprobe.org/the-healthy-communities-blog-mould/
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en
| 0.931799 | 369 | 3.125 | 3 |
According to two recent reports by the United Nations’ children's agency UNICEF, it would take a mere 0.9 percent of revenues from two new natural gas projects to immunise all children in Myanmar in 2014 – some 1.5 million under two years of age.
It would cost an estimated $11.4 million for 6.76 million doses of vaccines covering a wide range of preventable diseases and this could be funded entirely by government revenue from the Shwe project in western Myanmar and Zawtika in the south, said UNICEF.
Released in November, the reports take an interesting look at how income from natural resource projects could benefit children in the resource-rich but impoverished Southeast Asian country, which has emerged from half a century of brutal military rule.
Analysts and observers have long criticised Myanmar's management of its immense reserves of gas, oil, gemstones and timber as “opaque” – the kind of environment in which kleptocracies thrive as leaders and cronies cream off wealth to line their own bank accounts, leaving the rest of the country in poverty.
Despite its natural riches, Myanmar is Southeast Asia's poorest country. About one-third of its 60 million people live on less than $1.25 a day.
In addition to immunisation, one report entitled From Natural Resources to Human Capital said that:
- Less than nine days of natural gas revenues could provide one teacher per primary school grade per year across the country. According to UNICEF sources, about 60 percent of more than 36,000 primary schools in Myanmar are understaffed, with an average of three teachers covering five different grades.
- An extra dollar in tax collected for each kilogramme of jade produced could have built almost 14,600 classrooms over the past nine years. My Reuters colleagues have also written a piece about billions of dollars in revenues lost due to “unofficial” sales of jade.
- Over a quarter of Myanmar’s 2010 sales from the auction of precious and semi-precious stones could have provided for a universal child benefit of 15,000 Kyat per month (about $15) for all Myanmar children under five (close to 6 million). There’s currently no cash transfer for families in Myanmar and this scheme – used mainly in Latin America and Africa with conditions for school attendance and regular health checks attached – would help “reduce poverty and ensure increased access to basic services for children and their parents,” UNICEF said.
- A 0.6 percent increase in the tax collected on hardwood extraction would pay the annual salary of 6,000 social workers working for $60 a month. The current tax rate, based on an estimated value of $946 million of hardwood extraction, is less than 0.6 percent, the report said.
PUTTING NATURAL RESOURCES TO GOOD USE
“Myanmar is blessed with an abundance of natural resources which can be turned into meaningful, sustainable, impactful social investments right now, starting with children,” one of the reports said.
As income from natural resources grows, there’s “an opportunity” for the Myanmar government to channel it into social development and this could be done “for a relatively small amount” of government money, it added.
Ongoing reforms may have made Myanmar a darling of the West – a far cry from a couple of years ago when it was a pariah state – but the country’s spending on education, health and social welfare is still measly.
For the fiscal year 2012-2013, as a percentage of GDP, the government spent 0.76 percent on health, 1.46 percent on education and 0.01 percent on social welfare, according to UNICEF. Almost all vaccines are currently purchased with donor funds.
Social spending has seen increases in recent budgets but it’s important to remember the base was extremely low. Aid workers said in 2007 that the government spent only $0.70 per person on health.
“Despite improvements, the country’s under-5 and infant mortality rates are the highest among ASEAN (the Association of SouthEast Asian Nations) member countries, and many of these deaths are preventable,” it added.
Around 56,000 children under five die in Myanmar each year, a huge majority of them younger than one month, said the aid agency.
The current immunisation rate in Myanmar is fairly high – around 80 percent, although UNICEF says data isn’t always reliable – but there’s no reason why every single child couldn’t be vaccinated, considering the amount of money Myanmar is earning and could earn from natural resource projects.
“Children are the most precious resources of the country. They must be the first beneficiary of the ongoing reforms,” said Bertrand Bainvel, UNICEF’s representative in Myanmar, in a report.
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CC-MAIN-2014-10
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http://www.trust.org/item/20131202111329-me9nj/?source=hptop
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en
| 0.953075 | 1,022 | 2.8125 | 3 |
The Marijuana Education Project: Trans-adaption of successful cigarette smoking intervention to randomised school-based cannabis intervention trial
The prevalence of marijuana use increased among Australian school students during the 1990s while the age of onset decreased. Earlier onset of marijuana use was linked to an increase in the risk of developing other drug-related and social problems. Students who used marijuana were typically had poorer learning outcomes at school, were more likely to drop-out and risked mental health problems if they remained regular marijuana users after their teenage years. Increases in social acceptability of the drug were seen to have led to decreased perceptions of risk and disapproval among young people in the 1990s and strategies targeting access were showing to have limited impact. In the early 2000s in WA, school-based marijuana education largely addressed the needs of students who had not experimented with the drug. However, at this time, by age 15 over half of students had experimented, one quarter had used it in the previous week and 12% had used it three or more times in the last week. New approaches to improve the effectiveness of marijuana education were seen to be needed as it appeared that the strategies in use at the time were having limited success. Year 8 provided an ideal time to start education while use was still low.
Building on our successful Smoking Cessation for Youth Project (SCYP) conducted with over 4000 students in 30 Perth government high schools in 1999 and 2000, the Marijuana Education Project aimed to reduce the social and associated effects of marijuana use among 12 to 14 year-old students through an intervention of skill-based activities designed to assist young people who are experimenters or regular users to quit or reduce while encouraging those who have never used to remain that way. Activities comprised: promoting non-use and supporting non-users’ decisions not to use; reducing recruitment and delaying initiation to marijuana use; increasing cessation; and limiting use and risk associated with use. Implementation of the intervention was conducted during the 2002 and 2003 school years with a follow-up evaluation in 2004.
While the Marijuana Education Project demonstrated that the harm minimisation intervention had a more positive impact than the abstinence-based approaches in use at that time, the effect sizes were relatively small. However, the combined evidence from this project and the successful Smoking Cessation for Youth Project (SCYP) conducted with over 4000 students in 30 Perth government high schools in 1999 and 2000 provided a clearer understanding of the effectiveness of a harm minimisation education approach to a range of drug-related contexts. Furthermore, the Marijuana Education Project provided important insights into marijuana use at a time just before the period of most rapid onset of using this drug for young people.
For further information about this project please contact Ms Tommy Cordin at [email protected]
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.ecu.edu.au/schools/exercise-and-health-sciences/research-activity/projects/past-projects/chprc/the-marijuana-education-project-trans-adaption-of-successful-cigarette-smoking-intervention-to-randomised-school-based-cannabis-intervention-trial
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en
| 0.972528 | 561 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Here’s a link to a great article and report with information about the ongoing risk of breast cancer and environmental factors.
Cancer can take decades to develop, and over time we’re all exposed to thousands of compounds.
Connecting the dots isn’t easy. But here’s what we do know:
- About 34,000 cancer deaths a year are due to environmental pollutants.
- The report found the strongest evidence for secondhand smoke; chemicals in gas fumes,
car exhaust and some work environments; and solvents in dry cleaning, paint, and paint thinners.
- Hormone-like chemicals in plastics, pesticides, and elsewhere could also be a problem.
Don’t shrug off these warnings. Instead, see the link below and take these five steps to lower your exposure to many toxins
that put you at the highest risk for breast cancer:
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
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https://mynaturaldeodorant.com/breast-cancer-toxic-links/
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en
| 0.927128 | 187 | 2.96875 | 3 |
A spray-on coating that could ice-proof everything from aeroplanes to power lines.
Ice on your windshield is a nuisance, and on an aeroplane, it can be deadly. So researchers have come up with a new kind of ice-repellent coating that’s both durable and cheap, and could do a better job at keeping our vehicles and machines free from ice for longer.
The new ‘icephobic’ coating can be sprayed on to surfaces, and once applied, it causes the ice to simply slide off. It’s thin, clear, and slightly rubbery to the touch, and it’s been put together using a blend of common synthetic rubbers. It improves on existing ice-protection formulae that rely on making surfaces either very water-repellent or very slippery, says the team from the University of Michigan.
“Researchers had been trying for years to dial down ice adhesion strength with chemistry, making more and more water-repellent surfaces,” explained one of the team, Kevin Golovin. “We’ve discovered a new knob to turn, using physics to change the mechanics of how ice breaks free from a surface.”
Golovin and his colleagues discovered that repelling water wasn’t as important as previously thought in concocting an ice-repellent. Instead, a phenomenon called interfacial cavitation could be used to stop the ice from sticking.
Whereas two rigid surfaces can become very tightly stuck together (like ice and your car windshield), a rigid surface and a rubbery surface (like the new coating) can come apart very easily, because even a small amount of pressure deforms the rubbery side.
“Nobody had explored the idea that rubberiness can reduce ice adhesion,” said lead researcher, Anish Tuteja. “Ice is frozen water, so people assumed that ice-repelling surfaces had to also repel water. That was very limiting.”
What makes the innovation particularly exciting is that it can be fine-tuned as required – the scientists are able to balance the level of ice-repellence and durability. On an aeroplane, for example, the durability takes priority, and winds and vibrations will help to push the ice of in any case. Inside a freezer, on the other hand, the level of ice-repellence could be dialled up, because the coating wouldn’t need to be as durable.
The special coating can be made smooth or rough to the touch, and with varying degrees of water-repellence. This flexibility means it can potentially be used in all kinds of scenarios. In the picture above, you can see a licence plate that’s been pulled from a freezer, with the icephobic coating used on the right-hand side.
The researchers say their discovery could have major benefits in industries such as energy, shipping, and transportation, where cold climates can be a problem, and it could also help make freezers frost-free without requiring any extra power.
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https://grendz.com/pin/1293/?pnum=2
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| 0.954542 | 639 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Written By: Sarah Ansari
Trying to think up of a topic to write about these days is turning out to be a challenge. Probably because human life is quite unpredictable so you never know when a curve ball might be coming your way. But then again my never-ending thought led me to come up with yet another topic to write about.
Over the years the term ‘friend’ has changed quite frequently. According to Wikipedia (and now I’m going to copy/paste) friendship means “…a relationship knowledge, esteem, affection, and respect along with a degree of rendering service to friends in times of need or crisis. Friends will welcome each other company and exhibit loyalty towards each other, often to the point of altruism. Their tastes will usually be similar and may converge, and they will share enjoyable activities. They will also engage in mutually helping behavior, such as the exchange of advice and the sharing of hardship. A friend is someone who may often demonstrate reciprocating and reflective behaviors. Yet for some, the practical execution of friendship is little more than the trust that someone will not harm them.” which involves mutual (For those who want to read up more about this, – Click Here) In simple terminology, friendship is a simple yet complex relationship between two people or a group of people. This relationship usually means that everyone shares some interests, enjoys similar activities and will be there for each other through thick and thin. And of course, since it’s a relationship, there has to be that element of trust and loyalty.
Now we break it down a bit. In these advanced and modern times, there boundaries between friends have totally meshed. Back in our parents’ or even grandparents’ time, there were strict rules and the elders would make sure that these rules were enforced and those who broke them would be seriously reprimanded. The rules included that girls can only be friends with girls and boys can be friends with only boys. However, there were some who didn’t give a hoot about the rules and would go around them and have friends of both the genders. Fast forward to the present era, and we don’t have any rules regarding who we become friends with. For all we care, they can be from either of the sexes, belong to any ethnicity, be from any political party, etc. (You get my point, right?).
Let’s break down a little more. Guys and gals both have a different way of making friends and what they get out of that friendship. According to John Gray, the author of one of the most popular book on the differences between men and women called Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus (I would recommend you all read this book. It is quite easy to comprehend), writes “He feels better by solving problems while she feels better by talking about problems.” For gals (since I’m one of them, I can talk from my perspective), we usually make friends with almost everyone and anyone quite easily. All we have to do is find some similar topic or feeling to connect on and BAM! We’re their best friends. However, if there’s no connect then we don’t abandon them; we just try again with another strategy. Then for us friendship means that we’ll provide the other person or group with all that we have; emotional, moral, psychological, at times financial support. We’d be there for them through the good times and the bad. We’ll cry with them; laugh with them; share our deep dark secrets with them; rely on them; vent with them; gossip (our favorite pass-time activity, even though some deny it outright); and the list is quite long. We gals are more of the emotional creatures and have the tendency to show our nurturing, empathic side more than guys. To get a guy’s perspective on this topic, I had to delve into a conversation with a close friend of mine. According to him, women are more emotionally dependent when it comes to friendship whereas men are “more realistic.” Meaning guys group together with friends to solve matters, problems and issues whereas women tend to talk out their issues not looking for solutions but just want to be heard. According to John Gray, “… [Men] are solution oriented… He would never burden another [guy] with his problem unless his friend’s assistance was necessary to solve the problem.”
To conclude this article, I would say that regardless of you being friends with a male or a female, we should try and treasure our friendships because they are imperative for our personal growth and also needed for support. But do keep in mind the differences because male friends might be just offering you a solution when you only want to be heard. Do remind them and of course ladies, don’t nag your guy friends into sharing what’s on their mind; they’ll talk about it eventually when they’re ready.
Interesting article 😀
the information is very much true for all girls n boys everywhere. But is this concept of friendship between cross gender, realistic and practical in pakistani society, which is religion based, moral and family values based, Honor based, tradition based,radical and extremist???
it might be pretty OK with 10-15% of hippy burger class with jeans n skirts, who know more english then Quran. BUT with majority of pakistani population, there are Limits and these are fair Limits in an islamic traditional country.
Men and Women are different,and in our society (i am talking about the majority of 80-90% not so “Burger” population) cross Gender Friendship is not a very realistic Idea because at some point, it definitely collides with our family system, which is of prime importance.
Despite the fact that a girl can’t have the sort of friendship with a boy which she can have with another girl. But yes, friendship with fellows at school, college, university, at work, is OK But only with limitation to need of social interaction and duration of interaction. its fine as far as it doesn’t collides with certain limits and boundaries.
I don’t know my so conservative and rigid opinions will be published or not on such a MODERN magazine like pink 😀
sorry to say our girls and boys are too frustrated and they can’t remain normal friends for long. I have come to 17 girls in my student and professional life.
Every relation ended in a romance. we started as friends, but at the ends every girl was jealous of my other friends. This is not normal. friends should remain friends for whole life. we are more possessive in our relations.
you guys should interview vj fatima she does a show that is all about love and boys and girls!
I like the helpful information you provide in your articles. I’ll bookmark your blog and check again here regularly. I’m quite sure I will learn lots of new stuff right here! Best of luck for the next!
fantastic post, very informative. I wonder why the other experts of this sector don’t notice this. You must continue your writing. I’m sure, you have a huge readers’ base already!
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It may just be a framework, but the bipartisan immigration-reform plan isn’t all broad-strokes proposals.
The most detailed part of the four-pronged plan, offered up by a group of eight senators, carves out a path to citizenship for undocumented immigrants. Here’s what that could entail:
1. Creating stronger borders. Under the plan, creating a path to citizenship is contingent on strengthening border protections using “the latest technology, infrastructure, and personnel.” That would be achieved by:
- Increasing the number of unmanned drones along the border.
- Increasing the number of border-patrol agents.
- Improving tracking of whether visitors on temporary visas have left the country as required.
- Creating a commission of governors, attorneys general, and community leaders from the Southwest to weigh in on implementation of these security measures.
2. Registering with the government. As those border protections are put in place, undocumented immigrants could register with the government to begin becoming citizens. To get “probationary” status, which would let them live and work legally in the U.S., undocumented immigrants would have to commit to:
- Passing a background check.
- Paying a fine and back taxes.
- Getting no access to federal public benefits until granted full citizenship.
3. Moving to the back of the line. Undocumented immigrants would start at the end of the line, meaning they wouldn’t receive a green card until everyone already legally in line gets theirs. The remaining hurdles to citizenship could include:
- Another background check.
- Paying taxes.
- Learning English and civics.
- Proving that they are and have been employed in the United States, although the bipartisan plan also proposes making it harder for undocumented immigrants to get jobs in the U.S. in the first place.
Children and agricultural workers would be subject to different rules to gain citizenship.
The plan’s three other pillars were described broadly. First, it would make getting citizenship easier for immigrants who receive a Ph.D. or master’s degree in the United States in science, technology, engineering, or math. Second, the plan would create a “tough” system to verify the immigration status of potential employees, making it easier for employers to know whether they are hiring a legal immigrant. Finally, the plan would make it easier for employers to hire immigrants for low-skilled jobs that they can’t fill with Americans.
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Often referred to as "the king of the shrubs," the rhododendron plant is known for its large, colourful flowers. Although these flowers naturally occur in pink, red, purple or white colours, changing the pH of the soil or introducing different colours of water can give them a variety of shades and highlights.
The rhodendron plant
First brought to Pennsylvania in the mid 1700s, the plant can now be found throughout the US and UK. While its preference for cool, humid climates and acidic soil makes it difficult to grow in some areas, its long-lasting blooms and brilliant colours make any extra care more than worthwhile. Members of the rhododendron family include azaleas, which are deciduous plants that often spread out more than 8 feet (2.4 m) while true rhododendrons are evergreens that can grow to 80 feet (240 m).
A study recorded by G.M. Idorn in the "Journal of the American Rhododendron Society" noted changes in rhododendron colours after hard winters in Scotland and when the pH of the soil changed. This study reported paler yellows and bluer blues, attributed to different potting materials or the harsh winter or both. Further studies showed that increased soil acidity due to heightened industrialisation coupled with the use of some mulches was likely responsible for the colour changes.
Many florists have long offered green carnations or other colours not found in nature for St. Patrick's Day or other special occasions. Anyone can apply their techniques to flowers of any colour, although the colour changes in white flowers are most dramatic. All that is needed for these changes are freshly cut flowers and containers filled with coloured water The coloured water is the result of adding food colouring. Since it will take a while for the water to move all the way up the stem to the flower, let the flower stay in the coloured water for at least one day.
Other colour changes
It's also possible to have multicoloured blooms by splitting the stems vertically and placing each half in a vase with coloured water. Each part of the stem will draw up the water from its vase; if each vase has different coloured water, the flower should have two different colours. Allow at least a day to ensure all colouring is complete.
- Journal of the American Rhododendron Society: Color Variations of Rhododendron Flowers From Year to Year; G. M. Idorn
- Rhody Man: History of rhododendron discovery and culture
- PBS Kids: Coloring flowers
- Stve Spangler Science: Color changng carnations
- University of Missouri Extension: Growing azaleas and rhododendrons
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The Bridge on the River Kwai Thailand, or 'Death Railway' as it is also known is one of the most visited historical sites in Asia and is located approximately 3 kilometres north of Kanchanaburi in western Thailand. Construction on the railway commenced back in June of 1942 when Thailand including was under the control of the Empire of Japan. Both Allied World War 2 (WW2) Prisoners of War (POW's) along with forced Asian laborer's were utilized to build the infamous Burmese Railway which also included a number of bridges.
One of these was "Bridge 277" which was built over the Mae Klong
River in Kanchanaburi and made famous by the 1957 British WW2
film named "Bridge on the River Kwai" which was directed by David Lean and starred William Holden and Alec Guinness (see image below). While the film is fictional it was loosely based around the construction of Bridge 277.
Today though, this bridge symbolizes and is a reminder of the harsh and inhumane treatment inflicted upon both the POW's and forced Asian laborer's who worked on the Death Railway during WW2.
I visited this site back in 2009 and the whole story felt close to my heart as my mother's uncle was an Australian POW in Asia who never returned home.
Burma Railway stretches from Bangkok in Thailand to
Rangoon in Burma (i.e. Myanmar), a distance of some 415 kilometres.
The track which was laid through dense jungle while spanning rivers and
streams was completed in 1943 with its chief purpose being to aid
Japan's WW2 campaign in Burma where they were fighting the British.
Due to poor working conditions (i.e. working 18 hour days), disease (i.e. including malaria and cholera), and the brutal mistreatment by the Japanese soldiers, it is estimated that over half of the 180,000 Asian prisoners (i.e. primarily Malayan) and at least 16,000 of the estimated 60,000 Allied prisoners died whilst working on this railway.
Today visitors can walk across the Bridge on the River Kwai (i.e. Bridge 277) or take a train ride along a part of the original railway line and try to gain an appreciation of what the prisoners of war had to endure when building this railway. The Japanese originally built two bridges over the River Kwai, a temporary wooden bridge and a concrete and steel bridge. While both were destroyed by allied bombing during WW2 the steel and concrete bridge was rebuilt and is the one which is still standing today.
KANCHANABURI WAR CEMETERY
The Kanchanaburi War Cemetery which is
located close to the Kanchanaburi Railway Station is the final resting
place to some 7,000 POWs from Australia, the Netherlands and the United
Kingdom. I visited most of these historical sites back in 2009 and
would highly recommend a visit to this location for all people who would like to honor/pay respect to their county's fallen heroes.
The Death Railway is located in Kanchanaburi province in western Thailand. The best way to travel there is by either bus or train. There are plenty of accommodation options available close by for those wishing to stay in this region for more than a day.
Buses depart daily from Bangkok's Southern Bus Terminal located in Thonburi district regularly between the hours of 5 AM and 10 PM with the journey taking approximately 2 hours.
Trains depart Bangkok's Thonburi Train Station daily at 7.45 AM and 1.45 PM. The journey takes around 3 hours. Additionally, a number of tour companies in Bangkok also operate daily services by mini-van that take visitors to Kanchanaburi and directly to the Bridge on the River Kwai.
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The purity of fuels is required for almost all types of modern vehicles. These range from internal combustion engines on cars to diesel fuels in trucks and ships, and especially aviation fuels. Testing for the components of these fuels is not an easy task. Some fuels can run with a lower quality, while others like airplanes require a higher purity and quality. The presence of aromatics in jet fuels is a natural occurrence. How much and exactly what is in there needs to be determined by experts.
Benzenes in Jet Fuel
Aromatics revolve around benzene compounds, with a chemical composition of C6H6. These are quite common compounds found in complex organic chemicals like crude oil and its derivatives. Depending on the fuel, benzenes and other aromatics comprise 8% to 18% of aviation fuels. The quality of fuel depends on its composition. Jet fuel is a prime example of a fuel with high quality and reliability.
The composition can have an effect on the spray, atomization, droplet evaporation, pollutants, flame structure and particle emissions. Jet fuel is constantly being evaluated for its components and subsequent behavior. Besides the fuel efficiency and level of pollution, the weight and cost factors are also considered during testing.
Jet fuel composition is tested with different variables. Spray analysis for liquid velocity is among the criteria for efficiency. Another vital test is for droplet diameter. This fuel characteristic is directly related to dissipation when the fuel leaves the nozzle and is burned in the jet turbine. Due to the composition of jet fuels, other composition variables are also studied for possible relationships.
Even after a fuel has been tested and is released for commercial use, there are still various testing procedures to ensure quality. This is necessary due to the nature of the industry and the fuel. The airline industry is heavily dependent on the cost of fuel. It also relies on quality and fuel efficiency. To be competitive, airlines balance between selling high-value seats, number of total seats, and the price of fuel. If the quality of the fuel is off, it may result in more fuel being used up in flights, resulting in higher operating costs.
To ensure fuel quality, one of the methods used in testing is supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). In simple terms, a compound is passed as a solution, suspension, or as a vapor through a medium where the movement of its components varies. The “speed” of travel is read to determine the composition.
There are different types of chromatographic tests and some are more advanced than others. For jet fuels, SFC has proven to be the best at determining composition. Among other things, it uses carbon dioxide, which dissipates into the atmosphere leaving no residue or pollutant. Additionally, it provides finer results and a higher reliability in testing. Benzenes and other compounds are part of the expected results in testing, and SFC provides more details about the fuel composition.
The use of SFC tools and methods are not limited to jet fuels. It can also be used in testing other fuels especially high performance fuels for race cars, as well as in the formulation and quality assurance of high octane and unleaded fuel. It can also be used on any polymer or plastic.
Read more at Centerfield Technology.
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Scottish Water’s sewer response team was shocked to discover a sewer blocked with a number of tree protector tubes in East Renfrewshire.
The suspected vandalism caused an environmental incident in Newton Mearns, with sewage spilling into the Capelrig Burn which runs through Rouken Glen Park.
Scottish Water workers were called to investigate and were horrified to find the discarded tree tubes, thought to have been pulled from nearby trees and stuffed down the sewer network.
Prior to investigations being carried out, measures were put in place to ensure any impact on the local environment was kept to a minimum and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) was informed.
Speaking about the incident, Ian Burnett, one of Scottish Water’s waste network managers, said:
“This senseless act of vandalism ultimately led to the local environment being harmed – ironic really, given that the main purpose of them was actually to help the environment flourish.
“The blockage caused serious implications for our sewer network which was overwhelmed at this point and unable to cope with the build-up of waste water.
“Naturally, the sewer pipe burst causing a discharge of waste water into the burn.
“It’s frustrating to think that this would never have happened had the tubes not been put down the sewer in the first place.
“Time and resources were wasted and the environment was negatively impacted.
“Please respect our sewer network, don’t abuse it.
“Here at Scottish Water, we work hard all year round and invest heavily in our waste infrastructure to ensure we can provide waste water services in a manner that’s respectful of our environment.
“We urge everyone to do the right thing and help protect nature.”
Scottish Water’s Nature Calls campaign urges everyone to play an important role in helping to protect the environment.
In particular, it asks everyone to think twice before flushing anything other than pee, poo and toilet paper down the waste water network.
All other items, including wipes, should go in the bin.
Each year water companies spend millions of pounds responding to and resolving problems caused by the disposal of inappropriate materials into the sewer network.
While this is an extreme example of inappropriate items being put into the waste water system, Scottish Water deals with over 36,000 blockages a year at a cost to customers of £7 million.
It’s an unnecessary drain on resources and completely preventable if people follow the advice to only flush the 3Ps – pee, poo and toilet paper.
Visit JoinTheWave.Scot to find out more about the Nature Calls campaign, including downloadable campaign assets and videos.
Here, people can also ‘back the ban’ – Scottish Water is calling for a ban on wipes that contain plastic.
Several large retailers such as Tesco and Boots have since announced they are removing wipes made with plastic from their shelves.
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Explosive new footage and images supplied to Kindness Project by Farm Transparency Project reveal the appalling conditions in which iconic Australian saltwater crocodiles are being forced to live, on farms owned by luxury French fashion house Hermès.
Animal rights and veganism have been gaining more mainstream attention in recent years as part of critical conversations around liberation and climate justice. Movements for liberation are inherently threatening to the dominant culture, which means there will inevitably be pushback from political and social conservatives when these movements gain more traction.
However, not all criticism of veganism comes from conservatives. The increased popularity of veganism and the subsequent co-option by capitalist markets has lead to controversy and confusion around what it means to be vegan. Veganism has been framed and misunderstood as exclusive, expensive and purist, leading some leftists to reject the ideology all together. But consumer-focused and pro-capitalist ‘veganism’ should not be conflated with liberatory veganism, as would stem from a misconception of vegan principles. In order for us to have meaningful and constructive conversations about veganism, we need all parties need to have a clear understanding of veganism and the liberatory politics behind it.
Put simply, veganism is a political stance against the exploitation of animals by humans, and this is NOT the same as a plant-based diet. We should understand that being on a plant-based diet does not automatically make someone vegan, AND not everyone who is vegan is able to be on a fully plant-based diet.
The word ‘vegan’ has existed since 1944, but humans choosing to abstain from animal exploitation on ethical grounds is a concept that has existed in many parts of the world since ancient times (1).
The original definition of veganism was proposed as “the principle of the emancipation of animals from exploitation by man” (2). This was later expanded to describe the actions entailed within the principle.
The Vegan Society currently defines veganism as:
‘Veganism is a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude—as far as is possible and practicable—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of animals, humans and the environment.’
One important part of the definition that often gets glossed over is the caveat ‘as far as possible and practicable’. This part of the definition is very important to the disabled vegan community. What is possible and practicable is not the same for every person. Some people may be on animal-derived medications, for example. Similarly, a person could identify as vegan but find themselves in a situation where they lack access to plant-based foods – maybe their financial circumstances mean that they’re eating whatever they find in the bin for subsistence, which may not always be plant-based. People shouldn’t be excluded from veganism and the animal rights movement for things that are out of their control. If a person sincerely believes in the goal of animal liberation, and is abstaining from exploiting animals as far as possible and practicable given their circumstances, then they are still vegan. We run into problems when we define veganism solely as a dietary or consumer choice, because not everyone gets to choose what they consume. Veganism shouldn’t be defined so much by what you eat, but by your position on the ethics of human dominance over other animals.
‘Practicable’ is not the same as ‘practical’
Practicable: Possible, feasible
Practical (depending on the context): Useful, convenient
On the other hand, if someone is “against animal cruelty” and has the CHOICE to eat plant-based or to eat animal flesh/secretions and they CHOOSE to go with the option which exploits animals, then by all definitions, that person isn’t vegan. Of course, there are grey areas of veganism and it’s healthy to have discussions about these grey areas, but sometimes it’s pretty clear cut. Choosing animal exploitation when there are other options available is not vegan.
So in isolation, this might seem like a controversial statement, but I hope I’ve made a good case for it at this point:
ANYONE CAN GO VEGAN – because veganism is simply a political stance (and of course, having any political stance usually comes with a set of actions).
However, not everyone can be on a fully plant-based diet (an action that is taken by most vegans) – because there may be factors outside a person’s control that limit their ability to do this.
Veganism, when understood through the lens of anti-oppression politics, isn’t about our personal consumer purity. It’s about understanding that we live within political systems that disproportionally subjugate, exploit and marginalise certain groups, including animals, and doing what we can to push back against those systems. We reject the commodity status of other animals, and we express this on a personal level to the degree that we can. However, the animal rights movement should move beyond individual actions by working to make plant-based diets accessible to more people, and by campaigning and lobbying against industries and systems that engage in large-scale, institutionalised animal exploitation.
By defining veganism as a grocery list, we not only make the movement inaccessible and exclusive to many people, but we obscure that the real fight against speciesism is systemic. Change begins with ourselves, but it certainly doesn’t end there. Only when anti-speciesism is for everyone, can our veganism truly be ‘for the benefit of animals, humans and the environment.’
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More folks than ever before depends on mobile apps for the majority of their digital tasks, instead of traditional desktop apps. These apps have access to massive amounts of user data, most of which is sensitive and must be protected from unauthorized access.
Because of the rise in mobile Internet usage, mobile app security testing has become an important part of protecting consumers and businesses from cyber attacks that target weaknesses in mobile apps.
Security Risks in Mobile Apps
Let’s go over some of the mobile application vulnerabilities that could jeopardise your company’s security.
Dearth of Binary Protection
If your mobile app isn’t binary protected, a hacker can simply study, reverse-engineer, or modify the code to install malware and perform strange activities. A lack of binary protection can result in the theft of confidential data and intellectual property, as well as revenue loss, privacy, unwanted access, fraud, and brand reputation damage.
Data Leakage That Wasn’t Intentional
Operating system vulnerabilities, user carelessness, or a developer’s negligence could result in your app’s sensitive data being stored in insecure areas on the smartphone. If hackers gain access to this data through other apps or devices, it poses an immediate threat to user privacy.
Insufficient Authorization and Authentication
If users have implemented weak authentication or authorization inputs in their mobile applications, cyber criminals can quickly take control. This commonly happens when the mobile application’s password policy is unsecure, resulting in unsafe authentication. If the mobile application permits users to log in while offline, it poses a significant risk.
Data Storage Errors
This is also one of the most significant security issues for mobile apps.If the mobile app saves sensitive data like passwords, pins, or other personal/financial information without encryption, this vulnerability can be easily exploited.If the hackers get access to this information, they can utilise it in any way they want.
Server-Side Controls That Aren’t Up To Snuff
The majority of mobile app developers do not pay attention to mobile app server security. As a result, when users and mobile apps interact, they are exposed to security risks. This problem arises when developers are working with a limited budget, are in a rush to create the mobile app, or are unfamiliar with the security limits of the new language. Due to an increased reliance on mobile OS systems for security updates, server-side safeguards may be weak.
Injection at the customer’s request
Client-side injection is one of the mobile app security threats in which malicious code is injected on the client-side, typically through input data or binary attacks. As a result, the mobile app is unable to distinguish between this malicious code and other data on the user’s device, and it is processed as such. As a result, client-side injection puts users at greater danger than the server.
Developing a Strong Security Strategy for Mobile Apps
1:- Perform a security audit on your mobile application
Regular security assessments of mobile applications are essential both during and after development. Test the app in a variety of situations and for hidden backdoors on several devices and operating systems. As a result, the majority of malware and vulnerabilities will be recognised and removed before they reach users.
2:- Implement New Cryptography Techniques
The source code and data security security methods are updated on a regular basis. As a result, current encryption algorithms such as 256-bit encryption and SHA-256 are recommended.
3:- Make Use of Reputable Third-Party Libraries
It’s best to avoid open-source libraries unless you’re employing time-tested and established solutions. Closed-source libraries, on the other hand, may be secure, but you must choose whether they are appropriate for your mobile app. Before deciding on the best option, weigh the benefits and drawbacks.
4:- Make Multi-Layer Authentication Levels a Reality
Adding more layers to a mobile application’s security isn’t a bad idea. It is made up of a combination of time-based OTPs, SMS, e-mail, push notifications, and finger scans.
These points merely scratch the surface of reducing mobile app risk. You’ll need a far more comprehensive solution to handle all areas of security. You may engage with respected mobile app security companies like Indusface, which uses a SaaS model to deliver dynamic Mobile Application Scanning (MAS) testing. Some of the characteristics of MAS are as follows:
- On-Demand application Scanner
- Top 10 OWASP detections
- Coverage on multiple platforms
- Testing for penetration
- Permission detection that isn’t secure
- Instructions for remediation
- Reporting that is both flexible and comprehensive
With the increasing growth of smartphone ownership and demand for mobile apps, the security threats to your mobile apps are as serious as they can be. Make sure your mobile app is secure from all angles.
Read More Articles About Cyber Security
- Cyber Security : 7 Tips For Small Businesses in 2022
- Basic Guide to Web Application Penetration Testing
- How to Perform Blockchain Penetration Testing
- How to Perform Security Testing of Mobile Apps in 2022
- Cyber Risks associated with NFT in 2022
- Security Risks Associated with Metaverse in 2022
- What is Android App Pentesting Testing Methodology in 2022
- 5 Best Security Testing Tools of 2022
In this blog post, we’ve briefly explained Why Mobile App Security Testing is Important in 2022. We hope you enjoyed it! Stay safe from cyber-attacks!
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When you are playing SkyFactory you are left on a piece of dirt in the sky. Where do you begin?
- First thing's first, this is Minecraft! How do you always start? Punch a tree!
- Make sure you do not lose your precious resources. Gather saplings and replant the tree. If you find a silkworm, great. Keep it.
- Now you have some wood. Make a pickaxe and a cobblestone generator while you wait for your tree to grow.
- Make a barrel, to get more water and dirt. Your spare saplings or other organic material can be placed in a barrel to create dirt, and when it rains, water will be stored in the barrel. You can make an infinite source of water once you have 2 water blocks.
- Dirt is very important, so don't go digging it all up and losing it over the sides. Use the cobblestones to make your platform bigger until you have more dirt. Remember, if you want to use redstone later, a 1 block platform will make it hard for you to dig up and rebuild underneath. Think before you build; it could save you a lot of trouble. Cobblestone can also be broken with a hammer to make gravel. Gravel, when crushed with a hammer, makes sand and sand, when crushed, creates dust. Dust makes clay when put in a barrel of water.
So now you have some building materials. What next?
6. Silkworms. You can cook and eat them, or just compost them, but first you want to make string with them. When you have a good supply of saplings, wait for a tree to grow and put a silkworm on the leaves. The leaves will gradually turn white, and the whole tree will eventually have white leaves, as will any other trees with leaves touching. At this stage you're ready to gather the string. Do so by hitting the leaves with a crook or your fist. White leaves do not drop saplings, hence the need to have spares before you infest the tree.
7. Now you have string! String is used for fishing rods, wool, compost, and silk mesh. At last, you have the items to make a sieve.
8. The sieve is the first tool you have to sift through gravel, sand, and dust to collect your ores, and dirt to get your seeds and different trees.
9. Now that you have a sieve, you can do many more things. Whether it be automating your tree farm or building a fancy house, it's all up to you!
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Light sciences can help to achieve the SDGs, found the International Year of Light some years ago. Let’s have a look at SDG7 and SDG13.
Previous post on the same topic.
SDG7: Affordable and clean energy
SDG13: Climate action
When one thinks of harnessing light-based technologies for sustainable development, renewable energy through solar power would likely be the first thing that came to mind for most people. After all, many developing countries have abundant solar energy resources (insolation), and the use of solar energy is ideally-suited to providing an off-grid energy supply as a sustainable alternative to the diesel generators which would otherwise be used.
There remain many challenges to address, but research is advancing rapidly in the underlying physics and materials science, the development of storage technologies, and in optimising and comparing the technologies of photovoltaics and solar thermal collection.
The crucial role of lighting
Closely coupled to the availability of energy is the availability of lighting. With no reliable source of light, many people in developing communities depend on kerosene lamps for light, which have been estimated to lead to the death of over a million people every year.
Providing clean, efficient forms of lighting to developing communities is not only important for health reasons – it is also vital for productivity. Families in rural communities rely on work to provide for the most basic needs of their family, but working hours can be limited due to scarce lighting after sunset.
Lighting to work and to study
The majority of children in developing countries are also expected to work during the day to help provide for their family. With no, or inadequate, light at night, children are deprived of an education.
Although longer term solutions will require clear policies on renewable energy at the regional level, many industries and NGOs and other associations are working on the ground to promote the use of portable solar-powered high-brightness LED lanterns in regions where there is little or no other reliable source of light.
Light to monitor and predict the consequences of climate change
Developing countries are at the frontline of human induced climate change over the next century. According to the to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, throughout the 21st century climate change is expected to lead to increases in ill-health in many regions, and especially in developing countries with low income. Rural areas are expected to experience major impacts on water availability and supply, food security, infrastructure, and agricultural incomes, including shifts in the production areas of food and non-food crops around the world.
Light-based technologies are critical for monitoring and predicting the consequences of climate change. They are extensively used to map radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface using radiometers, scanners, and sensors placed in satellites orbiting our planet. These measurements are transmitted to ground stations where the data is converted to images that provide information on ocean currents or global carbon-dioxide distribution.
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5a. Aconitum columbianum subsp. columbianum
Aconitum columbianum var. ochroleucum A. Nelson; A. columbianum subsp. pallidum Piper; A. geranioides Greene; A.i nfectum Greene; A. leibergii Greene; A. mogollonicum Greene; A. noveboracense A.Gray; A. uncinatum subsp. noveboracense (A. Gray) Hardin
Bulbils absent in leaf axils and inflorescences. 2 n =16, 18.
Flowering summer (Jul-Sep). Spring-fed bogs, seep areas, meadows, along streams, and in other wet areas; 300-3500 m; B.C.; Ariz., Calif., Colo., Idaho, Iowa, Mont., Nev., N.Mex., N.Y., Ohio, Oreg., S.Dak., Utah, Wash., Wis., Wyo.; Mexico.
Disjunct, outlying populations of Aconitum columbianum subsp. columbianum in Iowa, Wisconsin, Ohio, and New York occur at relatively low elevations (as low as 300 m), sometimes in frigid air drainages from caves, or in other microhabitats that simulate conditions of higher elevations. They are probably relict populations that have persisted locally since the last glacial period. These northern wild monkshoods have been treated as a species ( Aconitum noveboracense , which has had U.S. federal conservation status), or as a subspecies of A . uncinatum . We find, however, that they are part of the A . columbianum complex. They have a single daughter tuber that is separated from the parent tuber by a connecting rhizome no more than 5mm long. This is like Acolumbianum , and unlike A . uncinatum , which has several daughter tubers separated from the parent by elongate connectives. Leaf morphology is also typical of A . columbianum , and unlike A . uncinatum . Floral morphology is similar to that found in diminutive races of A . columbianum in California, Wyoming, and South Dakota. Several populations in Iowa and Wisconsin are at the diminutive extreme of the range of variation in A . columbianum floral characters such as nectary depth and hood height. Data for Iowa and Wisconsin populations can be found in D. E. Brink (1982, also 1980). Plants in an Ohio population were too stressed and depauperate for data collection. Data collected in New York populations by Brink in 1982 are not published.
Aconitum columbianum subsp. columbianum is exceedingly variable. Plants often occur in dense, highly localized populations; they are very similar morphologically within populations and within regional groups of populations. Extreme differences occur between the geographic races. Specimens of the most diminutive races rarely exceed 1 m in height, whereas plants of the largest races may exceed 3m, with correlated differences in size and number of plant parts. A complete range of variation exists between the extremes if many regional groups of populations are considered. Geographic patterns of morphologic variation have been considered too complex to accord formal taxonomic rank to the variants, so the group has been treated as one large, intergrading species complex, with bulbil-bearing and nonbulbil-bearing subspecies. White-flowered variants occur within populations, but white-flowered populations and groups of populations also occur. In each case, these seem to be sporadic variants within larger, regional patterns of morphologic variation. Consequently, white-flowered morphs are not accorded formal taxonomic rank.
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||It has been suggested that this article be merged into Methylene group. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2013.|
In organic chemistry, a methylene bridge or methanediyl group is any part of a molecule with formula -CH
2-; namely, a carbon atom bound to two hydrogen atoms and connected by single bonds to two other distinct atoms in the rest of the molecule. It is the repeating unit in the backbone of the unbranched alkanes.
A methylene bridge is often called methylene group or just methylene; as in "methylene chloride" (dichloromethane CH
2). However, the term methylene group (or "methylidene") properly applies to the CH
2 group when it is connected to the rest of the molecule by a double bond, that gives it chemical properties very distinct from those of a bridging CH
- W. A. Herrmann (1982), "The methylene bridge". In Advances in Organometallic Chemistry, volume 20, pages 195-197.
|This chemistry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|
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Burns, a historian currently working on the Martin Luther King papers at Stanford, deftly analyzes the major protest movements of the 1960s involving women, blacks, the Vietnam War, and the New Left. The discrepancy between textbook democracy and pervasive social and political injustice in the United States ``impelled many blacks, women, and youth to close the gap between ideal and reality.'' Less certain, suggests Burns, are the long-term effects of these interconnected movements, each of which has lost its original fervor. Part of the publisher's impressive ``Social Movements Past and Present'' series, this is a solid contribution to the growing 1960s literature.-- Kenneth F. Kister, Poynter Inst. for Media Studies, St. Petersburg, Fla.
School Library Journal
A history of the black freedom movement in the deep South, the student-oriented New Left with emphasis on Vietnamese War protests, and the women's movement, all told from the perspective of the grassroots democratic organizations that supported them. Arrangement of text is thematic, with concise case studies and vignettes that individualize the movements and give rise to readers' emotional response. Occasional use of slang and colloquialisms detract from the serious tone of the work. Burns concludes his study with an analysis of the movements and consideration of ways in which they might have been more effective. The limited focus on the goals, accomplishments, and history of these social movements will assist students of American history and government in research assignments, but does not attempt to give a comprehensive picture of the times. An important addition to a broad-based collection of work on this subject. --Barbara Hawkins, Lake Braddock Secondary School, Fairfax, VA
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Andrea DoriaArticle Free Pass
Andrea Doria, (born Nov. 30, 1466, Oneglia, Duchy of Milan [Italy]—died Nov. 25, 1560, Genoa), Genoese statesman, condottiere (mercenary commander), and admiral who was the foremost naval leader of his time.
A member of an ancient aristocratic Genoese family, Doria was orphaned at an early age and became a soldier of fortune. He first served Pope Innocent VIII (reigned 1484–92) when Genoa had fallen prey to the quarrels of rival families. An extremely able soldier, he was successively hired by King Ferdinand I and his son Alfonso II of Naples and by various Italian princes. From 1503 to 1506 he helped his uncle Domenico quell the Corsican revolt against Genoan rule.
Deciding to try his fortunes on the seas, Doria outfitted eight galleys and patrolled the Mediterranean, fighting the Ottoman Turks and the Barbary pirates, augmenting both his reputation and his fortune. He scored a brilliant victory over the Turks at Pianosa in 1519. After the Holy Roman emperor Charles V’s forces had taken Genoa (1522) and deposed the pro-French faction there, Doria entered the service of Francis I of France, who was fighting Charles V in Italy. As admiral of the French Mediterranean fleet, Doria compelled the emperor’s army to raise the siege of Marseille in 1524. After the French defeat at Pavia (1525), at which Francis was taken prisoner by imperial forces, Doria served Pope Clement VII.
When Francis was freed (1527), Doria rejoined the French forces, which helped him capture Genoa from the imperial forces. But Doria soon became disillusioned both with French policies towards Genoa and with Francis’ intentions towards himself, and so he transferred his services to Charles V. In September 1528 Doria and his forces drove the French out of Genoa and were triumphantly received by the city. Charles V bestowed riches and honours upon him, naming him grand admiral of the imperial fleet and prince of Melfi.
As the new ruler of Genoa, Doria eliminated the factions that had plagued the city and constituted a new oligarchic form of government composed of the city’s principal aristocratic families. (His reformed constitution for Genoa would last until 1797.) From 1528 until his death, Doria exercised a predominant influence in the councils of the Genoese republic. As imperial admiral he commanded several naval expeditions against the Turks, taking Coron (Koróni) and Patras (Pátrai) and aiding in the capture of Tunis (1535). Charles V found Doria an invaluable ally in his wars with Francis and used the former’s services to extend his domination over the whole Italian peninsula.
Although he was 78 when peace was established between Francis and Charles in 1544, Doria still did not retire. He had made many enemies among the pro-French families in Genoa, and in 1547 the Fieschi family undertook a plot against the Doria family that achieved the murder of Doria’s nephew Giannettino. (See Fieschi, Gian Luigi.) The conspirators were defeated, however, and Doria punished them with great vindictiveness. Other plots against him and his family followed, but all failed.
Age did not lessen Doria’s energy, and at age 84 he sailed against the Barbary pirates. When a new war broke out between France and Spain, he fought the French, who had seized Corsica, then administered by the Genoese bank of San Giorgio. He retired to Genoa in 1555, passing command of his fleet to his grandnephew Giovanni Andrea Doria.
One of the last great condottieri, Doria had many of the faults of his profession: he was greedy, conceited, vindictive, unscrupulous, cruel, and authoritarian. Yet he was also a fearless and untiring military commander who was endowed with outstanding tactical and strategic talents. He was genuinely devoted to his native city of Genoa, whose liberty he secured from foreign powers and whose government he reorganized into an effective and stable oligarchy.
What made you want to look up "Andrea Doria"? Please share what surprised you most...
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Primary Scientific Equipment We Service, Repair and Maintain by Type:
(Click To Expand)
(Click To Expand)
Ultra, High, Low Speed and Micro, & Refrigerated Centrifuges’
A centrifuge is a machine with a rapidly rotating container that applies centrifugal force to its contents, typically to separate fluids of different densities or liquids from solids.
A spectrophotometer is an apparatus for measuring the intensity of light in a part of the spectrum, especially as transmitted or emitted by particular substances.
Many older spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as “zeroing.” The absorbency of a reference substance is set as a baseline value, so the absorbencies of all other substances are recorded relative to the initial “zeroed” substance. The spectrophotometer then displays % absorbency (the amount of light absorbed relative to the initial substance).
Although the liquid scintillation counter is a sophisticated laboratory counting system used to quantify the activity of particulate emitting (ß and a) radioactive samples, it can also detect the auger electrons emitted from 51Cr and 125I samples.
Newer machines may use 96-well plates with individual filters in each well. Many counters have two photomultiplier tubes connected in a coincidence circuit. The coincidence circuit assures that genuine light pulses, which reach both photomultiplier tubes, are counted, while spurious pulses (due to line noise, for example), which would only affect one of the tubes, are ignored.
Rocky Mountain SIMS services, maintains, & repairs Shakers, Magnetic Stirrers, & Baths:
A shaker is a device used in chemistry and biology laboratories to stir liquids.
A typical shaker has a table board that oscillates horizontally, powered by an electric motor. The liquids to be stirred are held in beakers, jars, or Erlenmeyer flasks that are placed over the table; or, sometimes, in test tubes or vials that are nested into holes in the plate. Orbital shakers also exist, that shake the vessel in a circular fashion.
A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar (also called “flea”) immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it.
They are preferred over gear-driven motorized stirrers because they are quieter, more efficient, and have no moving external parts to break or wear out (other than the simple bar magnet itself). Because of its small size, a stirring bar is more easily cleaned and sterilized than other stirring devices.
There are four types of Laboratory Baths:
Cooling bath: a laboratory device that lowers the temperature of the bath or improves heat conduction
Heated bath: a laboratory device that raises the temperature of the bath to enhance a chemical reaction
Laboratory water bath: a laboratory device that maintains the temperature of the bath
Oil bath: a laboratory device that uses an oil to regulate the temperature of a sample
Rocky Mountain SIMS services, maintains repairs Ovens:
Laboratory Ovens are used for high-forced volume thermal convection applications. These ovens generally provide uniform temperatures throughout. Applications for laboratory ovens can be for annealing, die-bond curing, drying, Polyimide baking, sterilizing, and other industrial laboratory functions.
Rocky Mountain SIMS services, maintains, & repairs Incubators:
An incubator is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or cell cultures. The incubator maintains optimal temperature, humidity and other conditions such as the carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen content of the atmosphere inside.
The simplest incubators are insulated boxes with an adjustable heater, typically going up to 60 to 65 °C (140 to 150 °F), though some can go slightly higher (generally to no more than 100 °C). More elaborate incubators can also include the ability to lower the temperature (via refrigeration), or the ability to control humidity or CO2 levels.
Rocky Mountain SIMS services, maintains, & repairs Lyophilizers:
Lyophilization is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a perishable material or make the material more convenient for transport. Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen water in the material to sublimate directly from the solid phase to the gas phase.
There are essentially three categories of Lyophilizer:
the manifold lyophilizer
the rotary lyophilizer
and the tray style lyophilizer
Phone: (970) 587 – 9635
Address: 326 Sandstone Drive – Johnstown, CO 80534
Work Area: Colorado & Wyoming
Woman Owned Business
Woman Owned Small Business (WOSB)
811219: Other Electronic & Precision Equipment Repair & Maintenance
541990: All Other Professional, Scientific, And Technical Services
334516: Analytical Laboratory Instrument Manufacturing
J066: Maintenance/Repair/Rebuild of: Instruments and Lab Equip.
J065: Maintenance/Repair/Rebuild of: Medical Supplies
J099: Maintenance/Repair/Rebuild of: Miscellaneous Equip.
6640: Laboratory Equipment And Supplies
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New Orleans Slave Sale Sample, 1804-1862 (ICPSR 7423)
This study includes data on slave sales that occurred on the New Orleans slave market between 1804-1862. For each sale, information was recorded on the date of the sale, the number of slaves on the invoice, the geographical origin of the buyer and seller, the sale price, and characteristics of the slaves sold (age, sex, family relationship, and occupation). The information presented for each transaction was obtained from the notarized bills of sale in the New Orleans Notarial Archival Office. These bills often contained information on several persons who were sold in a group or as a "lot." Whenever feasible, sale and personal characteristics of individuals appearing in such groups were entered on separate records. This was usually done when separate sale prices were recorded for each member of the group. When separate prices were not recorded for children sold in a group, information describing those children was attached to the record of a principal slave with whom they were associated on the original bill of sale.
Data in this collection are available only to users at ICPSR member institutions. Please log in so we can determine if you are with a member institution and have access to these data files.
This study is provided by Resource Center for Minority Data (RCMD).
Fogel, Robert W., and Stanley L. Engerman. NEW ORLEANS SLAVE SALE SAMPLE, 1804-1862. Compiled by Robert W. Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, University of Rochester. ICPSR07423-v2. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [producer and distributor], 2008-08-04. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR07423.v2
Persistent URL: https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR07423.v2
This study was funded by:
- National Science Foundation
Scope of Study
This collection was archived by ICPSR to promote the use of social science data in undergraduate and graduate education through the sharing of faculty-submitted ICPSR data-based instructional materials developed for use in the classroom.
Instructional materials for use with these data may be found at NEW ORLEANS SLAVE SAMPLE, 1804-1862 [INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS] (ICPSR 3464).
Additional information on the sources used in this study can be found in the following publications: Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell. AMERICAN NEGRO SLAVERY: A SURVEY OF THE SUPPLY, EMPLOYMENT AND CONTROL OF NEGRO LABOR AS DETERMINED BY THE PLANTATION REGIME. New York, NY: Appleton, 1918, Stephenson, Wendell Holmes. ISAAC FRANKLIN, SLAVE TRADER AND PLANTER OF THE OLD SOUTH: WITH PLANTATION RECORDS. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1938, and Wade, Richard C. SLAVERY IN THE CITIES: THE SOUTH, 1820-1860. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1964.
The data map is provided as an ASCII text file.
ICPSR constructed several new variables (V25-V34) to describe the fourth through the eighth child in a group, extracting this information from separate data records and entering it on the record of the principal slave. ICPSR also constructed Variable 46, "Index of Individual Price Quotation," allowing identification of those records in which the sale price applies only to the principal slave and not to a group of slaves sold as a lot.
notarized bills of sale stored in the New Orleans Notarial Archival Office
Extent of Processing: ICPSR data undergo a confidentiality review and are altered when necessary to limit the risk of disclosure. ICPSR also routinely creates ready-to-go data files along with setups in the major statistical software formats as well as standard codebooks to accompany the data. In addition to these procedures, ICPSR performed the following processing steps for this data collection:
- Standardized missing values.
- Created online analysis version with question text.
- Checked for undocumented or out-of-range codes.
Original ICPSR Release: 1984-05-11
- 2008-08-04 SAS, SPSS, and Stata setup files, SAS and Stata supplemental syntax files, SAS transport (CPORT) files, SPSS system files, and Stata system files were added to this data collection. SDA has been added to the study. Question text has been added to the codebooks. Value labels have been added to the variables. Missing value definitions were created for the following variables: V5, V8, V9, V11, V16, V20, V22, V24, V26, V28, V30, V32, V34, V39.
- Citations exports are provided above.
Export Study-level metadata (does not include variable-level metadata)
If you're looking for collection-level metadata rather than an individual metadata record, please visit our Metadata Records page.
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In Science Policy Forum, Brian Walker and others have a policy forum in Looming Global-Scale Failures and Missing Institutions, in which they argue that the the global order of nation-state’s has improved the well-being of many people at the cost of global resilience, and that building global resilience requires more interaction among existing global institutions, as well as new institutions, to help construct and maintain a global-scale social contract. They write:
Energy, food, and water crises; climate disruption; declining fisheries; increasing ocean acidification; emerging diseases; and increasing antibiotic resistance are examples of serious, intertwined global-scale challenges spawned by the accelerating scale of human activity. They are outpacing the development of institutions to deal with them and their many interactive effects. The core of the problem is inducing cooperation in situations where individuals and nations will collectively gain if all cooperate, but each faces the temptation to take a free ride on the cooperation of others. The nation-state achieves cooperation by the exercise of sovereign power within its boundaries. The difficulty to date is that transnational institutions provide, at best, only partial solutions, and implementation of even these solutions can be undermined by international competition and recalcitrance.
…Of special importance are rules that apply universally, such as the peremptory, or jus cogens, norms proscribing activities like genocide or torture. Failure to stop genocide in Rwanda spurred efforts to establish a new “responsibility to protect” humanitarian norm (12). As threats to sustainability increase, norms for behavior toward the global environment are also likely to become part of the jus cogens set.
The responsibility to protect rests in the first instance with the state having sovereignty over its population. Only in the event that the state is unable or unwilling to protect its people are other states obligated to intervene. The challenge is not just to declare the principle but to ensure its acceptance and enforcement. Acceptance is needed for legitimacy, and enforcement will depend on whether states are willing to make the necessary sacrifices. If the responsibility to protect is to apply to the environment as well, these same challenges will need to be overcome. We use three examples to illustrate how institutional development might proceed.
Climate change. International climate agreements must be designed to align national and global interests and curb free-riding. Borrowing from the WTO architecture, the linkage between trade and the environment could be incorporated within a new climate treaty to enforce emission limits for trade-sensitive sectors. New global standards could establish a climate-friendly framework with supporting payments, e.g., for technology transfer, to encourage developing country participation. In this context, trade restrictions applied to non-participants would be legitimate and credible, because participating parties would not want nonparties to have trade advantages.
Coevolution of institutions offers a pathway to further progress. Recently, the Montreal Protocol strengthened its controls on hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), manufacture of which produces hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) as a by-product. HFCs do not affect ozone and are not controlled under the Montreal Protocol. However, they are greenhouse gases (GHGs), controlled under the Kyoto Protocol. The Montreal Protocol should now either be amended to control HFCs directly or else a new agreement, styled after the Montreal Protocol, should be developed under the Framework Convention to control HFCs.
High-seas fisheries. The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, which was adopted by the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization in 1995 was a positive step, but because adherence is voluntary, it has had little effect. Another approach would be to develop a norm, akin to the responsibility to protect (12), requiring all states responsible for managing a fishery to intercede when a state fails to fulfill its obligations. Credible enforcement is a challenge, but efforts by major powers to enforce a U.N. General Assembly ban on large-scale drift-net fishing offers hope that an emerging norm can be enforced (13).
Drug resistance. Addressing drug resistance demands global standards. The International Health Regulations (IHRs) are an international legal instrument that is binding on 194 countries, including all the member states of the World Health Organization. It currently establishes minimum standards for infectious disease surveillance, but could be amended to promote standards for drug use. For example, monotherapy treatments for malaria are cheaper but more prone to encourage resistance in mosquitoes than combination therapy drugs. Their use should be limited in favor of the more expensive combination therapy drugs. One approach to global action would be an amendment to the IHRs that obligated all member countries to collective action to promote combination therapies, supported by global subsidies, and to discourage, or even prohibit, monotherapies (14).
- The “Ctrl+Alt+Del” of Global Change Sciences
- A global assessment of social science understanding of global environmental change
- Resilience Alliance & the Integration of Social and Natural Science in Global Change Research
- Resilience networks in global environmental change science
- Institutions and the dynamics of inequality
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| 0.930349 | 1,037 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Media Center: Kindness Recorder
How to Use the Kindness Recorder in the Media Center
The Kindness Recorder is a job in the Conscious Discipline classroom that includes age-appropriate props like a flowerpot, kindness tree and/or kindness notebook. Including a way to record Kindnesses in the Media Center helps the class focus on kind and helpful acts, operating on the Conscious Discipline powers of Attention (what you focus on, you get more of), Unity (we are all in this together), and Love (seeing the best in others).
Since children of all ages utilize the Media Center, it is important to include even the youngest children by devising symbolic ways for them to record each other’s kindnesses (versus recording hem in a notebook as older classrooms might). A Kindness Tree like the one on the School Family Make-N-Take, available as digital downloads as part of our Premium Resource Toolkit, is ideally suited for this purpose. Children then put a heart on the tree to record each kind act they do or witness.
Additional ideas for your Kindness Recorder can be found in the “Classroom Jobs” chapter of the Creating the School Family book, on the School Family Make-N-Take, available as digital downloads as part of our Premium Resource Toolkit, and in the instruction booklet included with the School Family Job Set. “Looking for Kindness” on Kindness Counts supports the Kindness Recorder.
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Book Review of The Wondrous Workings of Planet Earth
The Children’s Book Review
What to expect: Planet Earth, non-fiction, illustrations, ecosystems
Science has never been more interesting or more beautiful! This exciting guide to the world’s ecosystems is a perfect book for a budding environmental enthusiast. With artistically rendered drawings of complicated scientific concepts, children will dig right into the fascinating stories of the Earth’s many different ecosystems.
First young readers can explore big concepts: What is an ecosystem? How are livings things classified, and how do they interact? Then, readers will move on to the major ecosystems of our planet. From the arid Mojave Desert in North America to the lush Congo in Africa, the world’s largest ecosystems are described and lovingly illustrated. Short enough not to overwhelm children while still being descriptive enough to get a feel for the ecosystems, each page is brimming with helpful information that would be perfect for a young reader’s book report (or dinner table discussion topics!).
Aquatic ecosystems and the cycles of nature help to tie the book together. Then, Farms, cities, human impact, and global warming are covered. The book ends on a positive note, with ways to help protect our beautiful planet.
These incredibly detailed illustrations, maps, and infographics by author and illustrator Rachel Ignotofsky are simply breathtaking. Children and adults alike will enjoy pouring over each page, looking for small details and exciting depictions. Some of our favorite touches were ecosystems and animals in colorfully rendered jars – they added the perfect touch of whimsy!
This is a fabulous addition to a children’s collection of books or a school or class library. Bring the world to life with this amazing guide to THE WONDROUS WORKINGS OF PLANET EARTH.
Buy the Books
About the Author and Illustrator
Rachel Ignotofsky is a New York Times-bestselling author, illustrator, designer. She graduated from Tyler School of Art’s graphic design program and worked as a senior designer and illustrator at Hallmark Greetings. Rachel and her work have been featured in many print and online media outlets such as the New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, Scientific American, Science Friday, Brain Pickings, and more. She is the author of Women in Science, Women in Sports, and I Love Science.
The Wondrous Workings of Planet Earth, written and illustrated by Rachel Ignotofsky, was reviewed by Denise Mealy. Discover more books like The Wondrous Workings of Planet Earth by following our reviews and articles tagged with Earth, biology, non-fiction, and artful illustrations.
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IDEA: What Parents of Children With Blindness or Low Vision Need to Know About the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a “law ensuring special education services to children birth through 21” as stated by the US Department of Education. It was established in the mid-1970s and entitled school-age children with disabilities to “a free and appropriate public education (FAPE)” in the “least restrictive environment (LRE)”; this portion of IDEA is now categorized as IDEA Part B. IDEA expanded in the mid-1980s to include Part C, offering federal grants to states for the provision of special education services to children birth to the third birthday.
The current version of the special education law, including Parts B and C, is referred to as IDEA 2004, shorthand for the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act which was reauthorized and revised in 2004.
IDEA Part C: Early Intervention
If your child is under three years of age, services are described in Part C of the law and are referred to as early intervention services. Early intervention services are voluntary for parents of eligible children; eligibility for early intervention services is determined by individual states. Services are provided in the “natural environment,” meaning the environment in which your child would be (home, daycare) if they did not have a disability.
The document that serves as a blueprint for your child’s early intervention services is called the Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP). The IFSP will be developed based on evaluation results and discussion among team members. A cornerstone of the law is that the team come together and develop the IFSP as a team of which you are an equal member.
IDEA 2004 protects your role as a parent to be a full participant in the decision-making that goes into educational planning for your child. You know your child better than anyone else and can be a powerful resource, as well as an advocate, for her development and education.
IDEA Part B: School-Age Services
When a child reaches age three, they are eligible to receive services under Part B of IDEA 2004. Services are typically delivered in a school setting, though if a child is medically fragile, services may be in the home, hospital, or long-term care facility. The document that serves as a blueprint for a child’s school-age services is called the Individualized Education Program (IEP).
IDEA 2004 Part B has six basic principles of which parents should be aware. Each is briefly described below.
- Free and Appropriate Public Education: Your child is entitled to a free education that is appropriate to her special education needs as a student who is blind or low vision. This education is to be provided in a public school setting.
- Least Restrictive Environment: IDEA 2004 requires that children with disabilities be educated with children who are not disabled to the greatest extent possible. Today, most children who are blind or low vision go to their neighborhood school. However, there is a range of possible educational placements for students who are blind or have low vision, including a regular classroom, a special classroom in a regular school, or a special school. The decision about which educational placement is most appropriate for your child will come when the team develops the IEP and determines which placement will provide the greatest opportunity to achieve the goals on the IEP.
- Comprehensive Evaluation: Evaluation is the process used to determine whether a child has a disability and needs special education and related services. Although your child’s eye condition may seem obvious to you, an evaluation to formally document your child’s disability is required in order to start the special education process.
Your child is entitled to have a comprehensive evaluation of strengths and needs at least once every three years at no cost to you. This is referred to as a “full and individual evaluation” (sometimes abbreviated as FIE) and should include the following types of assessments:
- an eye report from your child’s eye care professional
- functional vision assessment
- learning media assessment
- orientation and mobility assessment
- functional, developmental, and academic assessments as appropriate
- Individualized Education Program: If your child is between the ages of three and 22, an Individualized Education Program (IEP) will be developed. The IEP will be developed based on evaluation results and discussion among team members. A cornerstone of the law is that the team come together and develop the IEP as a team of which you are an equal member.
- Parents’ and Students’ Input into Educational Decisions: IDEA 2004 protects your role as a parent to be a full participant in the decision making that goes into educational planning for your child. This planning is formalized through the IEP process. You know your child better than anyone else and can be a powerful resource, as well as an advocate, for development and education. Students also need to learn to advocate for themselves, and IDEA 2004 promotes this idea by stating that they are members of the educational team, when appropriate. By the time a child with blindness or low vision is in late elementary school, they should be participating in the IEP meeting as appropriate.
- Procedural Safeguards: The term “procedural safeguards” refers to the processes both your local school district and your state’s educational agency set up to make sure that you can enforce your child’s right to a free and appropriate public education. Many of these measures are designed to keep you informed about any decisions that affect your child’s education and to make sure that you and your child (as well as the school and professionals) are treated equally and fairly. Your school district is required to provide you written information in your native language about these procedural safeguards.
In addition to the six basic principles, IDEA also mandates planning and other services that enable teenagers to make the transition to life after high school—whether that includes a job, college, or other plans—and to get access to whatever services they will continue to need.
We’ve only provided a basic overview of IDEA 2004 here on FamilyConnect. For in-depth information about the provisions of IDEA 2004 and the full wording of the law and its regulations, see IDEA: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act; Wrightslaw is another helpful website. Although legal terminology can sometimes be intimidating, becoming familiar with the key provisions of the law lets you know what to ask for to make sure that your child receives all services your child is entitled to.
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SIP Call Flow
Basic SIP session setup involves a SIP UA client sending a request to the SIP URL of the called endpoint (UAS), inviting it to a session. If the UAC knows the IP address of the UAS, it can send the request. Otherwise, the UAC sends the request to a proxy or redirect server to locate the user. That server might forward the request to other servers until the user is located. After the SIP address is resolved to an IP address, the request is sent to the UAS. If the user takes the call, capabilities are negotiated and the call commences. If the user does not take the call, it can be forwarded to voice mail or another number. The following sections outline various scenarios in more detail.
Call Flow Between Two SIP Gateways
Cisco routers, including CME routers, can act as SIP gateways for calls that originate from non-SIP phones. The gateways function as SIP UAs and set up a SIP session between them for each call. Figure 4-1 shows two routers handling analog phones, using SIP between them. In this example, SIP GW-A originates the calls and acts as a UAC, and SIP GW-B acts as a UAS. The signaling from the PBX to the gateway is just normal analog call signaling. Only the two gateways exchange SIP messages.
Figure 4-1 Call Flow Between Two SIP Gateways
In Figure 4-1, the analog phone on the left initiates a call to the analog phone on the right.
After the first phone initiates the call, the call flow proceeds as follows:
- The PBX sends a call setup signal to GW-A, which then sends a SIP INVITE message to GW-B. This INVITE contains SDP information for capabilities negotiation. GW-A also sends a Call Proceeding message to the PBX.
- GW-B exchanges call setup message with its PBX and sends SIP responses 100 (Trying) and 180 (Ringing) to GW-A.
- GW-A translates these messages into analog signaling messages for its PBX.
- When the user on the right picks up the call, his PBX sends a Connect message to GW-B, which then forwards a SIP 200 (OK) response to GW-A. This OK response contains SDP information with the capabilities that both devices support.
- GW-A delivers a Connect message to its PBX. When the PBX acknowledges that with a Connect ACK, it sends a SIP ACK message to GW-B.
- GW-B sends a Connect acknowledgement to its PBX, and the call is active. At this point, normal voice steams exist between the two phones and the gateways, and RTP voice streams exist between the two gateways.
- The user on the left hangs up the phone. His PBX sends a Call Disconnect message to GW-A. GW-A then sends a SIP BYE message to GW-B and a Release message to the PBX. The PBX responds with a Release Complete message.
- GW-B sends a Call Disconnect message to its PBX, which responds with a Release message.
- GW-B forwards a SIP 200 (OK) response to GW-A and a Release Complete message to its PBX. The call is now completely terminated.
Call Flow Using a Proxy Server
SIP UAs register with a proxy server or a registrar. Proxy servers then act as an intermediary for SIP calls. Cisco routers that are acting as SIP gateways can use the services of a SIP proxy server, either contacting the server or receiving requests from it. They can additionally register E.164 numbers with a proxy server or a registrar.
Proxy servers can either leave the signaling path when the call is connected or can enable "Record-route" to stay in the signaling path. If Record-route is disabled, the proxy server does not know of any changes to the call or when the call is disconnected. Figure 4-2 shows call flow when Record-route is disabled.
Figure 4-2 SIP Call Flow Using a Proxy Server
In Figure 4-2, a SIP endpoint places a call using a proxy server. The figure shows several types of endpoints:
- A PC and a PDA running a SIP application
- A SIP phone
- A cell phone that uses SIP
In Figure 4-2, one of these endpoints places a call to an analog phone behind SIP gateway GW-B. The call flow proceeds as follows:
- The UAC sends an INVITE to its proxy server. In this INVITE, the Request-URI field contains the address of the called phone number as part of the SIP address. SDP information is included with this INVITE.
- The proxy server creates a new INVITE, copying the information from the old INVITE, but replacing the Request-URI with the address of GW-B—the UAS.
- When GW-B receives the INVITE, it initiates a call setup with the PBX. It sends a SIP response 100 (Trying) to the proxy server which, in this example, sends a 100 response to the SIP UAC. The proxy server is not required to send this response.
- The PBX sets up an analog call with the end user and sends call progress messages to GW-B. When GW-B receives the Alerting message, it sends a SIP 180 (Ringing) message to the proxy server. The proxy server sends the same message to the UAC.
- When the end user picks up the phone, the PBX sends a Connect message to GW-B. GW-B then sends a SIP 200 (OK) response to the proxy server, which sends it to the UAC. SDP information for the remote end is included in this OK response. The proxy server is not configured to be stateful—that is, Record Route is disabled. Therefore, the proxy server leaves the signaling path, and all further SIP signaling is directly between the UAC and GW-B.
- The SIP UAC acknowledges the OK response, and a two-way RTP stream is established between the UAC and GW-B, the UAS. A two-way voice stream is established between GW-B and the PBX.
- When the UAC hangs up, it exchanges SIP BYE and OK signals with GW-B. GW-B terminates the call with the PBX.
Call Flow Using Multiple Servers
SIP UAs and SIP proxy servers can contact a redirect server to determine where to send an INVITE. They typically do this when the called number is outside the local domain. The redirect server returns the most detailed information it has—either endpoint location(s) or the location of the next-hop server. Then it relies on the proxy server or UAC to route its INVITE appropriately.
Figure 4-3 shows the call flow in a more complex network with registrar, redirect, and proxy servers. (Recall that these are functional units and can all reside in the same device.) The figure shows the messages that are necessary to route the initial INVITE method to the UAS. After GW-B, the UAS, receives the INVITE, call flow is similar to the previous examples.
Figure 4-3 SIP Call Flow with Multiple Servers
In Figure 4-3, one of the SIP endpoints in Network A calls an analog phone behind gateway GW-B in Network B. The following steps take place:
- The gateway, GW-B, registers the E.164 phone numbers of its analog phones with the registrar server.
- The registrar server replies with a 200 (OK) response.
- The UAC sends an INVITE method to its proxy server, Proxy-A.
- The proxy server recognizes that the destination number is outside its domain. It sends the INVITE to the redirect server.
- The redirect server replies with a 300-series message listing the SIP address of the next-hop proxy server, Proxy-B.
- Proxy-A sends an INVITE message to Proxy-B.
- Proxy-B requests the location of the called number from its registrar server.
- The registrar server responds with the SIP address of GW-B.
- Proxy-B sends an INVITE to GW-B.
Following these steps, GW-B sets up the call with the PBX. It sends responses to Proxy-B, which forwards them through Proxy-A to the calling endpoint. If Record-route is enabled, all further signaling goes through the proxies. If not, call signaling proceeds as shown in Figure 4-2.
Call Flow Using Cisco CallManager 5.x
CallManager 5.x supports SIP phones and is an integral part of a SIP network. It can play different roles, such as registrar server and B2BUA.
Figure 4-4 illustrates a call flow scenario with CallManager acting as a B2BUA.
Figure 4-4 Call Flow with CallManager 5.x
In Figure 4-4, a SIP phone is registered to a CallManager. The SIP phone places a call to an analog phone off a PBX behind the router/gateway GW-B. A SIP trunk exists between CallManager and the gateway. CallManager acts as a B2BUA—it terminates each leg of the call during the signaling phases, yet it allows the RTP stream to go directly between the two endpoints. This is accomplished by the way SDP information is sent.
- A SIP phone that is registered to CallManager calls the analog phone. It sends an INVITE containing standard SDP information to CallManager. CallManager responds with a 100 Trying message. In this step, CallManager is acting as a UAS.
- CallManager sends an INVITE over its SIP trunk to the remote SIP gateway, GW-B. This INVITE has a different Call-ID number than the one from the phone. In addition, this INVITE does not contain SDP fields. CallManager acts as a UAC in this step.
- GW-B answers with a 100 Trying message and initiates a call to the PBX. (That signaling is not shown.) GW-B sends its SDP parameters in a 183 Session Progress message to CallManager. Included in this are the session parameters that the gateway supports.
- CallManager sends a 183 Session Progress message to the SIP phone. This message contains an SDP portion with the capabilities that both endpoints support. For instance, suppose that the original SDP message of the phone indicated that it supported G.711 and G.729 codecs, but the gateway SDP message said that it supported only G.729. In that case, the 183 message from CallManager to the phone would list only G.729. It would also list the IP address of GW-B as the originator address in SDP field 'c.'
- When the analog phone picks up, GW-B sends a 200 OK message containing its SDP information. CallManager acknowledges it with an ACK that contains the SDP information that both endpoints support. The IP address of the SIP phone is also included as the originator address in the SDP field 'c.'
- CallManager sends a 200 OK message with SDP information to the phone. The phone acknowledges that message. Now that each endpoint has the IP address of the other, the two can establish an RTP stream between them for the duration of the call.
- In Figure 4-4, the analog phone hangs up, so GW-B sends a SIP BYE method to CallManager.
- CallManager replies with a 200 OK response and then sends a BYE to the SIP phone. The phone responds with a 200 OK message.
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HOW MINDFULNESS CAN ENHANCE YOUR RELATIONSHIPS
Mindfulness is the attitude of being present and connected to your thoughts, emotions or a moment. From reduced stress and anxiety to improved mental wellbeing, the positive impacts of mindfulness are limitless. It makes sense then that mindful practices can strengthen our relationships in meaningful ways.
Relationships play a significant part in our daily lives, and often the most challenging ones are with our partners. In order to overcome these challenges, practising mindfulness can help you be more open, compassionate, and self-aware. Here are some ways to establish deeper connections with your partner, but could also apply to other relationships in your life.
1. Be Present
Mindfulness alters the parts of our brain responsible for attention and focus. It can help us recognise when we’re not being fully aware of what our partners are saying and redirect our attention to them. Not only does this lessen any opportunity for misunderstandings, it helps our partners feel heard and strengthens your connection.
2. Be Reasonable
Regularly practising mindfulness has proven to shrink the amygdala which is the part of our brain responsible for stress and the fight-flight response. We’re less likely to react impulsively and more likely to respond with reason during challenging conversations.
3. Be Empathetic
Mindfulness helps us be more empathetic which makes for positive interactions. Understanding our partner’s perspectives and emotions gives us a true appreciation of them and help us be more patient towards them. It’s then easier to express our love and compassion, which builds intimacy.
4. Be grateful
Mindfulness fosters an appreciation of the beauty around us, including in our loved ones. When we can appreciate our relationships, we are more open and willing to work through challenges, viewing them simply as opportunities to grow.
5. Be patient
Mindfulness takes time to master, and the more you practice the easier it becomes. Whether you practice mindfulness with your partner, or anyone else, it can help promote healthy and happy relationships.
Read more ACAP articles
WHY STUDY AT ACAP?
We know that to help others with their mental roadblocks, our students need to understand the role adversity plays in people’s lives and how they can overcome these challenges. Studying with us could be your calling to help change the lives around you.
Find out more
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The State Board of Education (SBOE) is an elected board of fifteen members that oversees the public education system of Texas in accordance with the Texas Education Code (statute). The rules of the SBOE as well as the rules of the Commissioner of Education (who is appointed by the Governor) are contained in the Texas Administrative Code (TAC). In simplistic terms, the SBOE and the Commissioner write for rules for school districts to follow that carry out and enforce the law.
Extracurricular Athletic Activity Safety Training Requirements
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS)
Curriculum Requirements and Substitutions
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A meteor streaks through the southern sky above spruce trees in Kenai at about 3 a.m. Saturday during a 15-minute time exposure.
The earth's rotation causes stars to leave an elliptical path on film. The annual Perseid meteor shower peaks Monday and Tuesday but night owls will see increased activity for several day before and after if the weather clears again.
The meteors occur when the earth moves through a cloud of dust left behind by comet Swift-Tuttle. Most of the dust is about the size of a grain of sand but it burns brightly when it hits the atmosphere at about 132,000 miles per hour, according to NASA.
Peninsula Clarion ©2014. All Rights Reserved.
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On Friday February 22, 2019, 66 people from ages three months to 72 years old were treated at local hospitals after exposure to high levels of carbon monoxide poisoning at the First United Methodist Church Children First Preschool in Hendersonville, Tennessee.
Carbon monoxide is a deadly colorless, odorless, tasteless gas produced by burning gasoline, wood, propane, charcoal or other fuel. According to the CDC, approximately 400 people in the United States die every year from carbon monoxide poisoning. Children, the elderly, pregnant mothers and unborn children are among the most vulnerable.
The leak was discovered after preschool employees began to complain of symptoms typically associated with carbon monoxide poisoning. Firefighters told news sources that the origin of the extraordinarily high carbon monoxide levels they found had been a result of a faulty damper on the heating system which wasn’t allowing carbon monoxide to escape into the structure.
Like in the case of the Preschool, it’s often improperly ventilated appliances and engines, particularly in tightly sealed or enclosed spaces that are to blame for accumulating carbon monoxide and subsequent poisonings.
Acute high-concentration carbon monoxide exposure often presents with the telltale signs of headache and malaise, which if treated promptly, often subside after removal from the source of the poisoning. However, studies have shown that a slow, prolonged, low-concentration leaks can cause a myriad of long-term damage to neurological systems and subsequent mental decline. In children, who cannot fully articulate how they feel, carbon monoxide symptoms may be difficult to recognize.
It is unclear whether a complete determination has been made as to just how long and with what intensity the leak had been infiltrating the Preschool and affecting its children, employees and visitors.
QUESTION: Why didn’t the school’s carbon monoxide detectors go off?
ANSWER: Because they didn’t have any.
According to the parents of children attending the preschool, Children First didn’t have any working carbon monoxide detectors, as written by the Hendersonville Standard.
As shocking as this is to most parents, in Tennessee, there is no state law requiring schools, preschools and day cares to install and use, and routinely test carbon monoxide detectors.
However, under the city’s newly adopted 2018 International Building Codes which went into effect in November, schools like Children First are required to install carbon monoxide detectors in day care facilities.
In addition these ordinances adopted by the City of Hendersonville, the Tennessee Department of Health (TDOC) has set forth basic guidelines to protect vulnerable students, faculty and staff from carbon monoxide poisoning. These measures include the facility’s duty to:
- Install CO detectors in classrooms, hallways, maintenance areas, and boiler rooms. Detector installation will depend on your school building design and its HVAC system- you may need to contact a professional.
- Develop a CO emergency evacuation and response plan.
- In case of a CO emergency, follow your fire drill evacuation procedures to move everyone outside.
- Perform preventive maintenance checks on your HVAC system and CO detectors.
What the CFOC says
Caring for Our Children (CFOC), a national resource for health and safety in child care and early education, provides a collection of the best evidence, expertise and experience in the country on quality health and safety practices and policies to be followed in today’s early care and education settings. Section 126.96.36.199 under Facilities, Supplies, Equipment and Environmental Health pertaining to Prevention and Management of Toxic Substances in child care facilities states that:
Carbon monoxide detector(s) should be installed in child care settings if one of the following guidelines is met:
a. The child care program uses any sources of coal, wood, charcoal, oil, kerosene, propane, natural gas, or any other product that can produce carbon monoxide indoors or in an attached garage;
b. If detectors are required by state/local law or state licensing agency:
The section goes on to state that:
Detectors should be tested monthly. Batteries should be changed at least yearly. Detectors should be replaced at least every five years.
QUESTION: So what can you do to protect your family from carbon monoxide poisoning at school?
ANSWER: Empower yourself with knowledge, ask questions and be vigilant!
As parents, we often assume that our schools have taken due care to protect our little ones, and their employees. We assume they are following and upholding all federal, state, city and industry-specific safety standards. But this is not always true.
Knowing the signs and symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning and teaching your family how to recognize the telltale signs is the first step to protecting them.
Developing a plan of action
For a complete list of signs, symptoms, risk factors and potential complications of carbon monoxide poisoning, click here.
After you review the signs and symptoms, you may consider the following:
- Know the federal, state, city, and industry-specific laws and standards that govern to your child’s school concerning the installation and upkeep of carbon monoxide detectors.
- As part of the interview process of a school, ask for a review of the safety and best practices measures the school has in place to protect your children from fire and carbon monoxide poisoning.
- Do not hesitate to reach out to the school regularly to find out when the last time carbon monoxide/smoke detectors have been tested.
- If you meet resistance at the school, contact your local authorities, fire department or city council to develop a plan of action for gaining access to detector/compliance information.
Help for Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Victims
At Rocky McElhaney Law Firm, we are committed to helping and protecting those who cannot protect themselves from corporations and businesses that have neglected their duty to uphold the safety of employees and the general public. We are thankful that everyone admitted after the Children First Preschool scare is now safe and has been released. However, not having adequate detection at its facility is egregious and unacceptable. In addition to potentially causing death, the school ran the risk of causing organ damage, brain injury, and other serious and long-lasting health complications to its students, parents, faculty and staff.
Installing and testing smoke detectors and carbon monoxide detectors is one of the cheapest and easiest ways businesses can help to prevent catastrophes like what happened at First Children.
If you or a loved one has been hospitalized or has suffered from carbon monoxide poisoning as a result of a leak at a school, a hotel, a home or apartment rental, or any other business, please contact our dedicated lawyers today at 615-425-2500 or contact the firm online. You don’t have to go through this alone. We fight for you.
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Railroad Conductors & Yardmasters
Also called: Conductor, Freight Conductor, Railroad Conductor, Yardmaster
In the Army: Cavalry Scout; Railway Specialist (USAR only); Wheeled Vehicle Repairer
Produced by CareerOneStop
Video transcript: skip transcript
Commuter trains gliding between stations… freight trains chugging across the heartland…. Every kind of train needs a steady, experienced locomotive engineer at the controls, and railroad conductors and yardmasters to keep track of passengers and cargo. Locomotive engineers drive freight or passenger trains between stations. They alter their methods and speed based on the type of freight they carry, weather conditions, and the quality of the rails themselves. These engineers monitor speed, air pressure, battery use, and other instruments to ensure that the locomotive runs smoothly. Keeping in contact with dispatchers over the radio helps them stay informed of delays and schedule changes. Railroad conductors help travelers onto the train, take tickets, make announcements, and stand by while the train is in the station. It’s their job to make sure people are safely aboard before signaling to the engineer to proceed. Conductors also coordinate the activities of the train’s crew, and on freight trains, if a yardmaster is not available, they oversee loading and unloading of cargo. Yardmasters stay at the station to oversee the activities of workers in the rail yard; moving cars for the right configuration of a train, loading freight, and making sure all equipment is safe. Especially before they gain seniority, these railroad workers work nights, weekends, and holidays. Most jobs require a high school diploma, along with several months of simulations and on-the-job training to get “on track” for a career on the rails.
What they do:Coordinate activities of switch-engine crew within railroad yard, industrial plant, or similar location. Conductors coordinate activities of train crew on passenger or freight trains. Yardmasters review train schedules and switching orders and coordinate activities of workers engaged in railroad traffic operations, such as the makeup or breakup of trains and yard switching.
On the job, you would:
- Signal engineers to begin train runs, stop trains, or change speed, using telecommunications equipment or hand signals.
- Confer with engineers regarding train routes, timetables, and cargoes, and to discuss alternative routes when there are rail defects or obstructions.
- Receive information regarding train or rail problems from dispatchers or from electronic monitoring devices.
Safety and Government
Arts and Humanities
Education and Training
People and Technology Systems
Ideas and Logic
Hearing and Speech
People interested in this work like activities that include leading, making decisions, and business.
They do well at jobs that need:
You might use software like this on the job:
Industrial control software
Materials requirements planning logistics and supply chain software
Inventory management software
See more details at O*NET OnLine about railroad conductors and yardmasters.
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Sight Words Kindergarten
A strong educational foundation helps ensure a child is able to benefit from the learning opportunities available at kindergarten. In Kindergarten Skills Workbook: Sight Words, children in kindergarten can practice their sight words in a more in-depth way. The bright colorful pages with a delightful blend of photographs and illustrations make these workbooks some of the most eye-catching and engaging available for this age group. And two pages of stickers will help reinforce the learning and keep little ones excited and ready for the next step in school!Scholastic Early Learners: Interactive books for hands-on learning. Perfect for babies, toddlers, preschoolers, kindergartners, and first graders, too!
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In Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, the Prologue first introduces the long-standing feud, where fighting has recently been renewed. The Chorus tells the audience that the families are very similar, yet they are causing unrest throughout Verona with their warfare.
Two households, both alike in dignity,
In fair Verona, where we lay our scene,
From ancient grudge break to new mutiny,
Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. (Prologue, lines 1-4)
In Act One, scene one, there is mayhem and bloodshed taking place in the streets of Verona. First the audience meets Sampson and Gregory, servants in the Capulet household. As they walk, they discuss how they might get around the law that forbids fighting. A law has been established not just to stop the fighting between the Montagues and the Capulets, but to keep the peace for other members of the town, while also protecting them.
Enter Abram and Balthasar, servingmen of the Montagues. The Capulet servants want to incite violence, and make sure the blame falls on the Montagues. Benvolio arrives and tries to stop them. Tybalt, always ready for a fight, starts to blame Benvolio for starting the battle because his sword is already out.
What, art thou drawn among these heartless hinds?
Turn thee, Benvolio! look upon thy death.
I do but keep the peace. Put up thy sword,
Or manage it to part these men with me.
What, drawn, and talk of peace? I hate the word
As I hate hell, all Montagues, and thee.
Have at thee, coward! (I.i.61-67)
An officer of Verona enters and armed citizens. The citizens are so disgusted with the constant violence that they join the fray, shouting for the destruction of both Montagues and Capulets. Old Capulet enters, calling for a sword—while his wife says he really needs a crutch. Capulet wants to go after the Montagues. Then the Montagues enter and Montague also wants to fight, but his wife holds her husband back.
At this point, Prince Escalus enters, and he stops the fighting. First he calls the brawling men "beasts," and tells them to stop fighting. When they don't listen, he tells them to throw down their weapons or they will be tortured—that they had better listen to him as he is very angry.
On pain of torture, from those bloody hands
Throw your mistempered weapons to the ground
And hear the sentence of your moved Prince. (lines 82-84)
The Prince says that three recent fights have broken out and disturbed the piece because of the Capulets and the Montagues:
Three civil brawls, bred of an airy* word
By thee, old Capulet, and Montague,
Have thrice disturb'd the quiet of our streets... (85-87)
("...Bred of an airy word" means "started by meaningless comment.")
Escalus says that if fighting breaks out again, those involved will pay with their lives. (This is foreshadowing.)
If ever you disturb our streets again,
Your lives shall pay the forfeit of the peace. (92-93)
The Prince is clear that the fighting has been going on for some time—too long; he clearly blames the Capulets and Montagues who have stirred up the town: even the elderly are fighting with rusted swords. In no uncertain terms, the Prince expects to be obeyed, by threat of death for disobeying him.
This is only the beginning of scene one, but it is clear between the Prologue and the first part of this scene that the fighting between the families has been going on for sometime: this unrest will greatly impact Romeo and Juliet.
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The Urban Forest
The Urban Forest
What is the urban forest?
Our urban forest is more than just our ravines and remaining natural areas. It includes the trees and under storey plants growing along streets and even in your backyard. A healthy urban forest is diverse, both in species and age, and supports a wildlife population. Some parts of the urban forest are 'geriatric', with many older trees reaching the end of their life span but few young trees to replace them.
In new developments, there are very few trees at all. In other areas, one tree species may dominate the landscape. In addition to these imbalances, our urban forest faces many stresses imposed by dense human settlement. These include excessive paving, compacted soil, air pollution, salt, above- and below-ground utilities and lack of space.
Benefits of the Urban Forest
- improves air quality by trapping pollution particles that cause breathing problems
- absorbs carbon dioxide and other gases and in return provides us with oxygen
- reduces household energy consumption for cooling from 10 - 50%
- reduces air temperature when water evaporates from the leaves
- intercepts rainfall resulting in reduced storm water runoff and improved water quality
- provides much-needed wildlife habitat
- reduces noise pollution by acting as a sound barrier
- can increase property values by up to 30%
Why choose native species?
It is important to preserve the natural biodiversity of our forest by planting a variety of native trees, shrubs and perennials. The term "native species" refers to vegetation that grew naturally in southern Ontario prior to European settlement.
In the past, cities and municipalities planted many non-native species that would grow quickly and were tolerant to harsh urban conditions. However, some exotics, such as Norway maple (Acer platanoides), reproduced aggressively and began to out-compete all else in ravines and other natural areas.
To preserve the diversity of our forest we must select species suitable to our geographic area. Native plants have adapted to local climatic conditions over thousands of years and once established, are able to stay healthy with little watering and without the use of chemical pesticides or fertilizers.
Native plants are also important to the survival of urban wildlife (like songbirds and butterflies) as they provide essential food and shelter.
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Both sentences use that as a relative pronoun. The relative clauses in both sentences are defining or restrictive, hence modifying rather than parenthetical. The Cambridge Dictionary website comments:
We use that instead of who, whom or which in relative clauses to refer
to people, animals and things. We use it to introduce defining clauses
only. That is more informal than who, whom or which...
The same entry proceeds to explain that that can serve as either the subject of object of a relative clause:
That can act as the subject or the object of the relative clause:
He finally remembers one lesson that his mum had taught him early –
Don’t take money that doesn’t belong to you. (that refers to money and
is the subject of belong in the relative clause)
It’s the same cooker that my mother has. (that refers to the same
cooker and is the object of has in the relative clause)
The relative clauses in both of your example sentences are complete and well formed. The primary difference is in the role played by the relative pronoun, that. In the first sentence, the relative pronoun is, itself, the subject of the relative clause; in the second one, the relative pronoun is the direct object of the relative clause.
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OCR – The Office for Civil Rights
The Office for Civil Rights, under the Department of Education, is the regulatory agency for all civil rights regulations. Any educational institution that receives federal funds is required to comply with the federal regulations, one of which is Title IX. Related publications can be found in the OCR Reading Room.
From the OCR Reading Room:
- April 2011 – Sexual Misconduct
- April 2013 – Retaliation
- June 2013 – Pregnant and Parenting Students, Pamphlet
- April 2014 – Q&A about Title IX & Sexual Violence
- April 2015 – Role of Title IX Coordinator
Jeanne Clery Act & Campus Sexual Violence Elimination (SaVE) Act
The Jeanne Clery Act, originally called the Campus Safety Act was signed in 1990 and requires colleges to post their crime statistics. Since that time, there have been several amendments, one of which is the Campus SaVE Act, that expands the college’s reporting and response requirements with specific attention on sexual violence.
VAWA – Violence Against Women Act
VAWA was signed into law in 1994 and provides funding to investigate and prosecute violent crimes against women. The 2012 re-authorization expanded the rights to same-sex couples, the right to apply for a temporary visa to undocumented individuals, and added non-discrimination language to extend protection to all genders.
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Definition and background:
The raised seventh note ( leading tone) in the C major scale. This pitch has no solfeggio representation because the actual pitch is the same as the tonic or eighth note ( C) in the fixed do system. However, the note name B-sharp is necessary in certain instances such as the key of C-sharp major where B-sharp is the seventh note ( leading tone) or A-sharp minor where B-sharp is the second note ( supertonic). The frequencies of the audible pitches of B-sharp are notated below. See also [Eng.] B-Sharp; [Fr.] Si diese; [Ger.] His; [It.] Si diesis; [Sp.] Si sostenido.
For more information on the music term "B-sharp" check out these other resources:
Wikipedia - Glossary of Musical Terminology
Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary
ORB -- Medieval Music Glossary
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The Southern Ontario Water Consortium’s (SOWC) cutting-edge equipment is enabling a group of top water experts at the University of Waterloo to conduct innovative research aimed at improving how we clean our drinking water.
Professor Peter Huck, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Industrial Research Chair holder in water treatment, and his team of researchers are investigating ways to optimize the use of membranes in drinking water filtration.
“Membranes are increasingly used in upgrading conventional plants or constructing new ones throughout the world and they are becoming more popular here,” says Huck. “Recent refinements in materials and improvements in energy efficient modes of operating these systems have made them cost competitive compared to conventional water treatment technologies.”
In some cases, membranes can also be less complex to operate and use less space and chemicals compared to conventional treatment processes, adds Huck.
“In order to advance this technology, we are interested in solving problems associated with membrane operations in a sustainable way,” says Huck. “The SOWC equipment has greatly enhanced what we could do with membranes.”
With the help of SOWC’s unique mobile membrane pilot plants and high-tech lab equipment, the group of about 20 researchers is working towards using biofiltration as a pretreatment to membranes in municipal drinking water treatment plants.
Membranes are sheets with tiny holes or pores that can range in size which, when appropriately selected, target the removal of various types of contaminants. They are classified based on pore size and the smaller the pore, the more energy is required to push or pull water through it. In the treatment of drinking water, reverse osmosis, which uses the smallest pore size, leaves behind virtually all but the smallest molecules, however requires the greatest amount of energy. One of the main problems with using membrane filtration for this process is that the holes in the membrane can get plugged.
As the water is filtered, the membrane plugs up, or fouls, with larger particles and organics as well as inorganics, in the case of reverse osmosis, that are naturally present in the source water. The membrane is regularly flushed by reversing the flow to remove many of these foulants that can cause plugging, but some still stick to the membrane.
When a membrane gets plugged up, water passing through it slows down and the water pressure must be increased to maintain the same flow. There are different chemical cleaning strategies that can be done to completely clear the membrane of foulants, but they require taking the membranes out of service so the cleaning agents don’t get into the drinking water. This process must then be followed by flushing the membrane to remove the cleaning agents before placing the membrane back into service for drinking water production. It can be a costly and time-consuming process.
Cleaning can also damage the membrane over time requiring them to be replaced more regularly, says Sigrid Peldszus, research associate professor with the NSERC Chair research team.
“Ultimately, it is beneficial to remove the foulants that stick to the membrane before they reach the membrane so that the membrane plants can run more efficiently in terms of energy consumption and cost.”
The research team is testing the effectiveness of removing the foulants using biofiltration. Biofiltration is a technique that uses living bacteria to biologically degrade organics. A biofilter is a basin or concrete tank typically containing sand, anthracite, granular activated carbon, or some combination of these. As bacteria normally present in the water pass through the biofilter, they attach to the sand or other filter media and once a population of bacteria has accumulated, the biofilter begins to function as a pretreatment process.
“The water flows through and the bacteria growing in the biofilter consume the organics coming in with the water,” says Peldszus. “The filters also remove larger particles that can plug up the membrane. This is a novel process that is not normally used with membranes so we are testing the effectiveness of this type of pretreatment.”
Biofiltration is an ideal way of removing the foulants from the water before it reaches the membrane because it does not require any chemicals, adds Peldszus.
“Membranes currently employed in drinking water treatment plants use the addition of chemicals to form flocs to pretreat the water. Since biofiltration does not involve the addition of these chemicals, it is a more sustainable process.”
SOWC’s mobile membrane pilot plants are key components to this research project. The NSERC team has 18 municipal partners and because the equipment is skid-mounted and can be transported to field sites, the researchers are able to test membranes at actual municipal treatment plants.
“It is extremely beneficial to be able to bring the testing equipment to the plants,” says Peldszus. “We need to work with the same water the utility gets so we can determine how this method will work in the real world.”
The mobility of the membrane pilot plants also allows the researchers to work with existing plants looking to improve their current membrane filtration systems, she adds.
“Just like industry, municipalities have to be efficient and produce drinking water cost-effectively,” she says. “The key to working with plants is that we can go to them and be in their environment. We can do trial tests and simulate different cleaning regimes to see how effective they are without disrupting the operations of the plant.”
The mobile membrane pilot plants have parallel treatment trains that can employ up to three different types of membranes including microfiltration, ultrafiltration and nanofiltration, to either mimic current treatment practice or evaluate new technologies or designs.
“Having two sets of membranes allows us to have a control stream,” says Peldszus. “We keep the conditions the same on the one side and change the conditions on the other side. It’s important to have a control stream because the quality of the water coming into the utility plant can change quickly.”
“We vary the treatment by testing different types of membranes with different biofilter parameters such as changing the filter depth or the amount of time the water has contact with the biofilter. Essentially we are testing for ways to advance the treatment process.”
Another key component to the group’s research is the ability to analyze the results of the various performance tests conducted with the mobilemembrane pilot plant, and this is where the SOWC’s lab equipment comes in. Set up at the University of Waterloo, the lab equipment entails a total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer, UV VIS spectrophotometer, fluorescence spectrophotometer, biological monitoring equipment, and liquid chromatography – organic carbon detection (LC-OCD) technology.
The lab’s LC-OCD technology in particular has provided the researchers with the ability to examine the TOC constituents in water in greater detail. This piece of equipment, which is one of only two in North America, can separate the organic molecules in the water by size and then measure them using an ultraviolet detector, organic carbon detector and a nitrogen organic detector.
In examining the effectiveness of using a biofilter as a pretreatment to membrane filtration, the LC-OCD can be used to measure the amount and type of foulants that are being removed by the biofilter. Having the ability to measure the amount of each class of foulant enables the researchers to determine which treatment process parameters lead to the most efficient filtration process.
The NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Water Treatment group has been working on this project for several years. So far they have demonstrated at bench- and at pilot-scale that biofiltration protects the membrane by removing these foulants before they reach the membrane. The next step is to prove the effectiveness of biofiltration as a pretreatment process on a large scale.
“The equipment provided by SOWC has not only made this research possible, but it is helping us to advance our projects beyond what we had planned. We are pleased SOWC fits in so well with what we are doing.”
In addition to Drs. Huck and Peldszus, other senior members of the NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Water Treatment team are Drs. Michele Van Dyke and Bill Anderson, and Dana Herriman.
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2204 Fort Belvoir Dr
Virginia Beach, VA, 23464
by Emerson Sandow
Writing has always been a vital skill and even today, with the encroachment of electronic media, with foreshortened communications such as texting, etc., being able to convey one’s thoughts on paper reigns as the most important of skills – doing so clearly and intelligently is also helpful! In recent years, the SAT essay portion has increased this importance and homeschoolers are very fortunate to have online programs such as Write At Home to provide the deep instruction necessary to achieve mastery without having to attend brick-and-mortar classes at possibly inconvenient times.
Write At Home does not require the student user to log in at a certain time or watch a presentation at a given time. Rather, the student can log in “anytime” s/he wishes and can work on an individual schedule throughout the program. Since the students using Write At Home are middle school or high school age, 12 to 18 years, the issue of self-discipline and self-guidance is non-existent. This age is the time of mastering one’s writing skills and the serious homeschooler knows that the future in college and employment hinges on being serious about writing.
Write At Home’s basic self-guided courses come in three different lengths of time: 32-week annual courses, 16-week semester courses, and 8-week workshops. The student is given an assignment and a due date and is expected to submit the completed assignment by the due date. The assignments can take from 1-3 hours per week, sometimes more.
Here is a partial list of what the first annual 32-week course for the average 5th or 6th grader is intended to achieve:
Students who complete the course will be able to…
- compose complete sentences.
- create logically organized paragraphs.
- write for a variety of purposes, including narration, description, exposition, and persuasion.
- respond to coach feedback on their writing through revising and proofreading.
- demonstrate a grasp of basic writing concepts such as unity, conciseness, and clarity.
- engage the writing process by employing the following five steps in composing every paper: prewriting, drafting, revising, proofreading, publishing.
- demonstrate comprehension of basic usage and mechanics rules in their writing.
- demonstrate proficiency at writing under time constraints.
- improve their writing across a wide range of broad evaluative areas, including content, style and form.
Actually, many older students benefit from taking this course as well, since previous writing work might have been spotty and the review and revision is invaluable. The other regular writing course offerings are similar in scope and time, becoming more focused on truly understanding and mastering the various types of writing and receiving feedback and criticism for improvement.
Besides the many regular writing courses offered, Brian Wasko, creator of Write At Home, offers online Classic Literature classes called Wasko Lit. The Lit 1 Syllabus includes Mythology by Edith Hamilton, The Illiad, The Odyssey, plays by Aeschylus, Euripides, some selections from Plato, C.S. Lewis’ Till We Have Faces, other works and Julius Caesar by Shakespeare. This is the heavy-duty study that homeschoolers are known for and many adults wish they could have enjoyed such an extensive course in the comfort of home!
Write At Home should be a part of every homeschooler’s education. Please visit the website to see complete information and enroll your student right away! E.S.
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Old Dominion University researchers have developed a system that uses an audio signal to reduce the power consumption of Wi-Fi components.
Continuous Wi-Fi use is a main culprit in draining a smart device's power, notes Old Dominion computer scientist Mostafa Uddin. Most smartphones and tablets use a power-saving scheme that wakes the Wi-Fi interface intermittently to check whether it can communicate with a Wi-Fi access point, but even this reduced state significantly drains battery power.
To create a lower-energy alternative, the researchers developed an audio signal, called A2PSM, which can determine whether any data should be downloaded from an access point. Although people cannot hear the A2PSM signal, a smartphone's microphone picks it up. The signal can be detected despite background noise, and transmitted and received at a distance of three meters.
Uddin says if the acoustic signal is sent with sufficient power, the A2PSM scheme should be able to support a distance up to 30 meters. The audio signal reduces power consumption by 25 percent, compared to a standard Wi-Fi wake-up mechanism.
View Full Article
Abstracts Copyright © 2013 Information Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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by Mark Ellingsen
Climate change rose to the top of the news agenda during the UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, only to be displaced by the cold weather spell now being experienced in the British Isles. No doubt climate sceptics will be pointing to this as proof that global warming is a myth, despite the fact that globally the last decade was the warmest since 1850. Furthermore, the upward trend is unmistakeable.
The consequences will have a significant adverse impact on human well-being and the ecology of the planet, which will be exacerbated by social, political and economic inequality. By 2050, increasing areas of the planet will be affected by drought, and water availability will decrease in those areas dependent on melt water from the major mountain ranges which includes one sixth of the world’s population. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimate that between 20-30% of plant and animal species will be in danger of extinction if the global temperature exceeds 1.5°C and 2.0°C. Given that the lowest best estimate is a rise of 1.8°C by 2100 this now seems inevitable. While the IPCC predict that there may be some possibility that crop yields may increase in higher latitudes at this temperature range, it is likely to decrease in lower latitudes which will exacerbate food shortages in these regions.
Furthermore the increasing acidification of the oceans due to absorption of carbon dioxide is likely to exacerbate problems with the use of the oceans as part of the human food supply. It is also expected that coastal and low lying areas will be at increased risk of permanent flooding. However, it is worth noting that the IPCC has been criticised for its conservatism in both its estimates of the likely scenarios for climate change as well as its impacts. For example, Arctic sea ice is melting faster than the IPCC model predicts.
It was in this context that world leaders met in Copenhagen for the summit. It is widely recognised that the lack of an agreement at the Copenhagen Summit on legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (measured in equivalent carbon dioxide CO2e) was at very least a disappointment and for many a disaster which threatens the sustainability of life on the planet. Much has been written about the reasons for the failure to come to a binding agreement and in particular on the role of the West in attempting to maintain its economic dominance and the role of China and India in trying to ensure that they would continue along the path of economic growth.
However, while it is understandable that geopolitical rivalry may make it difficult to come to an agreement, what is truly remarkable is the lack of will to guarantee the medium to long term reproduction of the global economy, let alone the well-being of humanity and the sustainability of the planetary ecosystem. Surely this can only be attributed to the pressure which world leaders are under to maintain economic growth in the short term in the hope of maintaining economic and political stability. Secondly, there is a lot of confusion within ruling class circles and orthodox economists about the best way to deal with climate change while at the same time not disrupting the global economy, a task which may prove impossible. That world ‘leaders’ may still come up with some legally binding and verifiable measures is still possible but alarmingly there is every possibility that they will fail to do so.
A political response by the global working class to the impending upheaval and possible catastrophe in the longer term is practically non-existent. To some extent this reflects the current low-level of independent working class engagement in politics but it is also a reflection of the fact that the left is finding it difficult to translate the effects of climate change into meaningful politics which resonates with working people. Of course, the most immediate response will come from those who will be imminently affected by the changes, for example, those living in South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Vietnam) and most notably in parts of China, particularly around the industrial region of Guangdong. But the changes will also have a notable effect in California and Australia with both being susceptible to prolonged droughts. Workers and other classes in these regions, such as the peasantry, are likely to be at the forefront of any struggle against the threat to both their lives and their livelihood from these changes. One way to build awareness amongst workers less immediately affected by these changes is to build solidarity campaigns with those in struggle for more just solutions to effects of climate change. Environmental justice will become one of the key issues over the next few decades.
In the British Isles we are more likely to see water shortages, rising food prices and energy bills, and possibly higher taxes as governments enforce the economic costs of climate change onto the working class. Some coastal areas will be liable to flooding which may lead to struggles over land use and housing. We are likely to be dragged into more wars as ruling classes try to counter political instability and clash over access to resources. However, the most profound effect is likely to be felt through a faltering global economy based around consumerism. In the short-term it is likely that capitalism will recover from the global recession but it is not at all obvious that in the long-term it can sustain an economic model based around consumerism in the minority of capitalist countries and export led growth in the rest of the world.
It seems increasingly likely that the legacy of capitalism to future generations will not be the development of the productive forces but the ecological collapse of the planet. The vision that the left have to provide is not one based on economic growth but on the quality of life built on a sustainable relationship with the environment. Consumer led capitalism is increasing looking like a dead-end and this has major implications for the working class in Europe and North America, implications which will become more visible over the next few decades.
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Leeds Corn Exchange
||This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (July 2011)|
|Leeds Corn Exchange|
Leeds Corn Exchange
|Location||Leeds, West Yorkshire, England|
|Design and construction|
Designed by Cuthbert Brodrick, a Hull architect best known for Leeds Town Hall, this Grade I listed structure was completed in 1862 and opened on 28 July 1863. Leeds Corn Exchange is now just one of three Corn Exchanges in the country which operates in its traditional capacity as a centre for trade, albeit no longer for trading in corn.
In 1985, Speciality Shops plc won the contract to re-develop the Corn Exchange as a shopping centre. The refurbishment designed by Alsop & Lyall restored it and added staircases to allow access to the balcony and basement levels. It opened for trade in 1990. Many other buildings have been restored in the area, now known as the Exchange Quarter.
As well as housing shops such as Ark Clothing, and Eva (jewellery), the Leeds Corn Exchange hosted exhibitions, events such as strut (fashion show) and music events. Most shops sold alternate merchandise and it became a well-known congregation point for alternative people.
In November 2007 it was revealed that the centre (which was being refubished after being taken over by Zurich Financial Services) was to be converted into a food emporium. The plans brought protests from the independent traders, who were removed from the Corn Exchange, and their customers.
After the restoration the Corn Exchange re-opened in November 2008 as a boutique shopping centre for independent retailers. The 13,200-square-foot (1,230 m2) ground level was occupied by Piazza by Anthony until its sudden closure in June 2013. The upper levels are home to a number of retailers.
- Bowyer, Laura (22 June 2013), "Dining dismay after acclaimed Leeds restaurants shut", The Yorkshire Evening Post (Leeds), retrieved 25 June 2013
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leeds Corn Exchange.|
- Leeds Corn Exchange website
- Pictures of the Corn Exchange by Steve Cadman
- English Heritage. "Corn Exchange - Grade I (465668)". Images of England.
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The Relationship Between Government Policy and Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship has become an integral element of society due to its ability for countries to enhance economic growth and innovation. Governments have implemented various policies over time to foster an environment more conducive for entrepreneurship by providing incentives and removing obstacles. As such, understanding the relationship between government policy and its effect on encouraging entrepreneurship is essential information for those seeking to understand the topic more in-depth.
This article will provide an overview of the link between government policy and entrepreneurship and discuss which particular government policies are least likely to foster new business creation.
The Role of Government Policy in Encouraging Entrepreneurship
It is no secret that government policies can either encourage or discourage entrepreneurship. An effective government policy can facilitate the growth of a business and make it easier for entrepreneurs to take risks and innovate. On the other hand, a poorly designed policy can have a detrimental effect on the ecosystem, discouraging risk-taking and stifling innovation.
In this article, we’ll look at which government policies are the least likely to encourage entrepreneurship:
Government Tax Policies
Tax policy is an important tool for governments in attempting to encourage entrepreneurship and has been a factor in the creation of fostering an environment conducive to the formation of new economic activities. Governments around the world have implemented tax policies aimed at promoting innovation and risk-taking, such as providing tax credits to entrepreneurs or favorable deductions for business investments.
The most important component of any tax policy designed to encourage entrepreneurship is its ability to reduce the after-tax cost of establishing and operating a business. By lowering effective marginal tax rates, governments make it easier for entrepreneurs to generate a financial return on their investment. This increased potential return encourages more individuals to engage in entrepreneurial activity, thereby boosting economic growth and job creation.
In addition, government can use targeted intellectual property policies such as reducing patent fees for areas deemed strategically important or offering grants for start-ups engaging in specific industries. Such measures provide resources that can help alleviate some of the risks associated with venturing into new markets or creating new products that are costly and difficult to develop without assistance.
Finally, governments can provide financial incentives through programs such as
- subsidized loans
- grants that fund either direct project costs or general operations related expenses,
depending on the country’s objectives at any given time. Lower lending rates allow firms with limited sources of financing available to them gain access to needed capital with manageable terms.
Which of the following government policies would be least likely to encourage entrepreneurship?
Government regulatory policies have the potential to create either a barrier or an enabler to entrepreneurship, depending on the aims and scope of the particular policy. Regulations that impose bureaucratic hurdles and excessive red-tape can discourage entrepreneurs from starting up a business, while policies that foster freedom of competition, productivity and market flexibility can encourage entrepreneurial activities.
Regulatory policies relating to labour markets are particularly important, as labour is a key component of most small firms’ business processes. Labour regulations that create rigid job or wage structures in which little flexibility is allowed can make it difficult for entrepreneurs to respond quickly and profitably in an ever-changing economic environment. Similarly, restrictions on hiring foreign workers or qualified personnel from abroad may impede business growth by denying entrepreneurs access to talent critical for their operations.
In contrast, government policies for incentives such as subsidies for finance and innovation, reduced tax burdens or tax credits for investment in innovation will likely support new venture creation by offering financial support for startups. Tax laws that grant special treatment to smaller firms may also help level the playing field between small firms and larger competitors who have different resources available.
Other supportive measures include providing entrepreneurship education and knowledge exchange platforms as well as strengthening public services like:
- transportation infrastructure
- broadband networks
which are essential elements today in most entrepreneurial activities.
Government Financial Support
Government financial support is one way that governments can encourage entrepreneurship. By providing startups with access to capital and easier credit terms, governments can create an environment in which it is easier to launch new businesses. In addition, providing tax breaks, grants, and other incentives to those who start a business can make entrepreneurship more attractive.
Furthermore, governments can help reduce the risk of failure through creating a system of credits in favor of those who take risks in business. This could involve offering rebates on losses as well as protecting certain sectors from competition.
Lastly, providing subsidies for certain types of businesses or industries (such as green energy) can also promote entrepreneurial growth.
Government Policies Least Likely to Encourage Entrepreneurship
Government policies can have a profound impact on entrepreneurs and the overall business environment. Many policies are intended to encourage entrepreneurship and help businesses start and grow. But not all government policies are created equal, and some can be more detrimental than helpful.
In this article, we will explore which government policies are least likely to encourage entrepreneurship:
High Tax Rates
High tax rates are one of the government policies that are least likely to encourage entrepreneurship. When business taxes increase, businesses must pay more in taxes and may have to reduce the number of jobs they can offer or the salaries they offer, as well as resources they can use for growing their business. This can discourage individuals from starting their own businesses since they may feel that it is not worth the risk of making their own investments if it is only going to cost them more money in the end.
In addition, research has found that high taxation often not only discourages entrepreneurs from starting a venture, but also does not lead to an overall increase in tax revenues for the government. Studies suggest that governments should focus on an overall taxation policy that encourages investment and fosters long-term growth. This often includes lower taxes on businesses, as well as incentives for individuals to start and manage their own entrepreneurial ventures.
Unfavorable regulations risks discouraging people from engaging in entrepreneurship, dampening levels of innovation in the economy. Regulations which are too onerous or difficult for the entrepreneur to comply with may add extra costs or bureaucracy that precludes these individuals from setting up businesses. Laws such as complex licensing requirements, stiff employment policies, heavy taxation and restrictive zoning can all make operating a business more difficult and might create an unfriendly environment for potential entrepreneurs.
Furthermore, regulations which stipulate long approval processes can delay the initiation of an entrepreneurial venture for a significant amount of time. This is not only a drain on resources such as time and money but also make it difficult to plan ahead as certainty is diminished. Unclear laws are also hard to interpret and might deter individuals from attempting to set up a business because of fear of non-compliance or associated longterm effects that this could have on their firm’s stability or their personal financial situation.
Overall, if governments want to foster an environment conducive to entrepreneurship they should look at reducing obstacles caused by over-regulation or enforcing legislation that cannot be easily complied with. In addition, government officials should strive towards implementing policies that make it easier for firms to navigate the regulatory landscape, providing assistance with obtaining licenses and other legal steps needed in order to establish a business smoothly by introducing courses and programs aimed at promoting tech-savvy skills within the entrepreneurial sector so they can cope better with digital regulation challenges that are constantly appearing.
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Farmers in dryland countries are already hard-hit by climate change – with many forced to contend with increasingly erratic rainfall, more frequent drought, extreme temperatures, shifting climatic zones, and the arrival of new crop pests and diseases. As a result, there is an urgent need to strengthen agricultural resilience to support rural livelihoods and maintain domestic food production. Failure to do so risks an unhealthy reliance on imported food, which would expose ordinary people to the vagaries of global commodity markets.
Experience suggests that resilience can be achieved through a combination of new climate-smart technologies and institutional and policy reforms, including improved extension strategies and safety nets for farmers, particularly those in marginal areas who are most threatened by crop and livestock failures.
Fortunately, countries that find themselves on the front-line of climate change can learn from the experiences of other countries. Across the dry areas of the developing world, decision makers are already taking steps to adapt to and mitigate to new and emerging climate scenarios. Innovations and new approaches include:
Improved varieties: harnessing scientific advances in advanced crop breeding to develop new varieties of strategic crops that are capable of tolerating drought, intense heat, and new crop diseases and pests. Recent ICARDA efforts include new wheat varieties able to resist rust diseases in Ethiopia; high-yielding what varieties that have raised yields by an average 28 percent across ten Arab Countries; and heat-tolerant wheat varieties that are flourishing across Sub-Saharan Africa.
Weather-based insurance schemes: offering valuable protection to farmers faced with erratic climate conditions. These initiatives encourage producers to continue investing in farming, safe in the knowledge they will be protected if natural events prevent them reaping the profits they deserve. Examples include a livestock insurance system in Kenya which has started paying out pidends to herders who have lost animals to drought. Elsewhere, in India, a weather-based crop insurance scheme covered over 9 million farmers in 2010/11.
Climate information services: adapted to local farmer needs and disseminating forecasts and advice via new technologies such as mobile phone SMS. In Tunisia, farmers receive updates via crop and weather monitoring systems, and are alerted when irrigation of crops is required.
Rehabilitation efforts: tree rehabilitation projects bring enormous benefits for farmers in marginal lands affected by climate change – helping to fix nitrogen in soil, improve yields, enhance carbon capture, and increase fodder availability for livestock. In Niger, for example, the planting of 200 million trees has transformed 5 million hectares of once infertile land, benefiting some 2.5 million farmers.
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Many people just throw away the broccoli stalks, but there are so many great uses for them. I’ve come up with at least 7 ways to make good use of those spears of broccoli.
First, let me clarify what I mean by “broccoli stalks”…
There is the whole bottom part or “trunk” of the broccoli “tree” so to speak. Then, there’s the tough outer layer of that “trunk” that you can slice off with a peeler or paring knife to reveal the tender inner section.
When I cook broccoli, I always include that tender inner section so as to not waste it (it’s perfectly good broccoli!). But then there’s still that rough outer layer left over.
This list will include uses for both the whole stalk (the trunk of the broccoli tree) and the tough outer layer of the stalk.
7 Ways to Use Broccoli Stalks:
1. Cut off tough outer layer and cook the inner section
I always do this when cooking broccoli so as to not waste any of it. Use a paring knife or a peeler to take off the tough outer layer of the stalk. Chop up the inner part and cook it as you would cook the florets. I usually steam them.
If you have a garden or a farm composting is a great way to turn your food scraps into fertilizer. Use your food to make more food! Now that’s what I call sustainable! Composting can be really easy with products like this compost tumbler.
Some cities like San Francisco have a compost program that goes along with the garbage collection program, so even if you don’t have a garden or farm, you can still put your food scraps into the compost bin and it will be collected and used for a farm.
3. Make broth
Use the tough outer layer of the stalk for broth. I have a container of veggie scraps that I save in my freezer. Every time I make broccoli, I add the tough parts of the stalk to this container along with other veggie bits like the ends of carrots, kale stalks, cauliflower stalks, etc.
When the container is full I use it to make a big batch of broth and use the vegetable scraps. Of course, I only use organic vegetables for broth. I wouldn’t want to create a broth full of pesticide residue!
You can make vegetable broth or you can add veggie scraps to your bone broth for added nutrients.
4. Slice them very thinly and sauté or add to casseroles or frittatas
Since the stalk is tough it can be hard to steam large chunks of it, but if you take care to slice or chop it very finely and cook it a little longer, you can sauté it with a stir-fry or add it to casseroles or frittatas.
5. Feed them to your dog (in limited amounts)
I often give my dog broccoli stalk bits (that’s my dog Lentil in the photo below…isn’t she sweet!). Since it’s tough, it’s a fun thing for her to chew on…almost like a rawhide bone! I give my dog a little bit of broccoli just about every time I make it and now when I get out the cutting board and start chopping a vegetable, she runs into the kitchen thinking that she’ll get a broccoli stalk.
If you’ve never given your dog raw broccoli before, start out with just a little bit and see how they react. Broccoli should be fine for dogs in small amounts, but it’s always best to see how they do with a little bit first. As with other animals, make sure to not give your dog too much as it could potentially cause digestive upset.
Use several full broccoli stalks to make a pureed soup. Chop up the stalks and cook it with broth, any other vegetables you want (like onions or garlic) and seasonings, then puree with a hand blender. Add cream if you want cream of broccoli soup. Check out my broccoli soup recipe here!
7. Chicken or Goat Feed (in limited amounts)
Many people have backyard chickens or goats for the eggs and goat milk. Broccoli stalks are a great supplement to their diet. Of course, it shouldn’t be the only thing they’re eating, but it’s a good way to make use of it! Make sure to not give them too much as large amounts could potentially cause digestive upset.
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Weeds are every gardener’s nightmare. These intrusive plants compete with desired vegetation for vital resources and can hinder the overall health and aesthetics of one’s garden. While chemical herbicides are commonly used to combat weeds, they often come with environmental and health risks. In this article, we will explore natural and eco-friendly methods to control weeds so one can maintain a healthy and vibrant garden without compromising on other aspects of life.
Use mulching technique
Mulching with a few inches of organic material prevents weed from contacting the soil, inhibiting germination. The mulch also blocks sunlight, preventing existing seeds from sprouting. Organic mulches offer weed control, moisture retention, soil enrichment, and aesthetic benefits, enhancing the overall appeal of your garden or landscape.
Corn gluten meal
This acts as a seed contraceptive, restricting the germination of weed seeds. Applying it to open areas of one’s garden can prevent weeds from growing. However, one should keep in mind that corn gluten meal may also hinder the germination of desired seeds. So it’s best to avoid using this method in a vegetable garden.
Manually pulling out the unplanted plants by hand is another traditional method of eliminating weeds. Taking them out along with roots ensures that the weeds do not grow out again. The task requires one to dedicate some time, effort, and some level of skill. To prevent weed seeds from spreading to one’s garden beds, it is important to wear specialized gardening gloves. One can also utilize tools like claws or sharp trowels to loosen the soil where the weeds have taken roots. This method ensures a weed-free garden and avoids the need for chemical herbicides.
One can spray household vinegar to the weeds and use as a natural weed killer. This technique however requires careful application since the vinegar can affect both unwanted plants and desirable ones. To avoid harming nearby plants, it is best to apply the vinegar in the early morning when there is minimal wind. Additionally, one can choose a cloudless day to ensure that rain does not wash away the vinegar before it has a chance to be effective. One can also consider using highly concentrated vinegar for quicker results.
To create a weed-free garden bed, one can use recycled materials like newspapers or cardboard. The first step to employ this technique is to wet the newspaper and cover it with mulch. Then lay the papers on the soil to smother existing weeds and prevent new ones. The thick layer blocks sunlight and stops weed seeds from sprouting. Prior to laying the material, make sure to remove visible weeds and moisten the soil. This method also attracts earthworms that can be beneficial to the soil.
One can eliminate unwanted weeds by pouring boiling water carefully over each weed. The intense heat of the boiling water damages the foliage, plant cells, and roots of the weeds, thus thwarting their growth. Some persistent weeds may require multiple applications, but they will eventually die out. However, one needs to be careful with this process. It’s best to use pot holders and wear long pants and shoes to avoid injury in case of accidental spills.
This is a targeted approach to single out the weeds. In this method, one uses a flaming torch that heats up the water inside the plant cells until they burst and the plants wilts. The technique, however, requires extreme caution. One needs to choose a day without wind to avoid accidentally harming nearby grass or plants. Also, it is best used in places where there is no nearby vegetation, such as the driveways or gaps in a concrete sidewalk. It is important to note that flaming should never be used in regions prone to fires, to prevent any potential hazards. This method works well for young and tender weeds. Matured and rooted weeds may require multiple treatments.
Using a landscape fabric
Landscape fabric is another popular tool that can combat weed growth. The modern fabric acts as a barrier and minimizes weed competition for space while allowing air and water to pass through to the desired plants. For optimal weed suppression, one needs to lay the fabric from border to border with minimal cuts or openings. Be very careful with the placement and maintenance of the fabric, and also inspect it from time to time to ensure its effectiveness.
Sprinkling salt at the base
This is another technique where a small amount of salt is sprinkled at the base of each weed. Salt dehydrates the unwanted plants by absorbing water from their cells and alters the pH and mineral balance in the soil. This causes the weeds to dry out, get starved of nutrients, and eventually die. While the technique is useful, one can opt for this as a last resort since it can leave the soil unsuitable for months. Even if one decides to use the technique, one needs to be careful to not use excessive salt or spill it on to the plants one wants to keep.
All these techniques promote sustainability. If none of them yield the desired results, however, one can consider contacting a local extension office or city government for guidance on natural weed killers and their safe usage in weed control.
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What Is Advocacy?
Advocacy is a problem-solving procedure to protect personal and legal rights. There are four different types of advocacy:
Self-advocacy helps you to get necessary accommodations in public or private settings including education, employment, housing, transportation, and taxation issues.
Individual advocacy is to help another person get services.
System advocacy is to change policies and rules of how services are being provided for the benefit of a whole group of people or for yourself.
Legal advocacy helps get laws passed that benefit certain groups of people or all people.
For instance, the National Association for the Deaf (NAD), Self Help for Hard of Hearing (SHHH), state agencies serving deaf and hard of hearing, and the Association of Late Deafened Adults (ALDA) are service-oriented organizations that provide advocacy for individuals. They also advocate and propose changes in federal and state laws for all deaf and hard of hearing people.
Stand Up for Your Rights
You have the right to assert yourself whenever you feel conflicted, opposed, taken advantage of, when you are not being served appropriately, not being respected, or are denied equal rights. You have the basic right and responsibility to stand up and speak out to STOP the ill treatment or to correct the problem. Assertiveness is a direct and honest expression of your thoughts and feelings without being angry or attacking another person. Assertiveness is not aggression. When you are assertive, you will show respect for the other person and allow the person to express his or her thoughts and feelings.
David Gershaw (1995) said that we have three basic rights that we should insist be recognized:
You might have to educate others because not everyone knows the laws that apply to various situations. The National Association for the Deaf (NAD) Law Center (http://www.nad.org) has a wealth of educational and informative legal documents that can help you explain to people what federal laws apply or why you need an accommodation or service(s). You can also check your local/state agencies that serve deaf and hard of hearing people.
What Do I Do Next When My Needs Are Not Met?
The next thing to do is to develop a self-advocacy plan. You should take several steps in developing an advocacy plan before you have a meeting with any individual or service provider.
During the meeting, jot down what you both agreed on as solutions to meet accommodation need(s). Include what, where, when and how. After the meeting, send a thank-you note via e-mail or letter along with a summary of your decisions. This can save a lot of misunderstandings later.
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January 24 2013, 7.24pm
Our impact on the earth has brought on a new geographical epoch – The Age of Humans.AAP/Damien Shaw
In response to the heatwave that set a new Australia-wide record on 7 January, when the national average maximum reached 40.33°C, the Bureau of Meteorology issued a statement that, on reflection, sounds the death knell for all of the social sciences taught in our universities.
“Everything that happens in the climate system now”, the manager of climate monitoring at the Bureau said, “is taking place on a planet which is a degree hotter than it used to be.”
Eminent US climate scientist, Kevin Trenberth, made the same point more fully last year:
The answer to the oft-asked question of whether an event is caused by climate change is that it is the wrong question. All weather events are affected by climate change because the environment in which they occur is warmer and moister than it used to be.
Trenberth’s commentary calls on us to reframe how we think about human-induced climate change. We can no longer place some events into the box marked “Nature” and some into the box marked “Human”.
The invention of these two boxes was the defining feature of modernity, an idea founded on Cartesian and Kantianphilosophies of the subject. Its emergence has also been tracked by science studies in the contradiction between purified science and the messy process of knowledge creation, leading to Bruno Latour’s troubling claim that the separation of Human and Nature was an illusion, and that “we have never been modern”.
Climate science is now telling us that such a separation can no longer be sustained, that the natural and the human are mixed up, and their influences cannot be neatly distinguished.
This human-nature hybrid is true not just of the climate system, but of the planet as a whole, although it would be enough for it to be true of the climate system. We know from the new discipline of Earth system science that changes in the atmosphere affect not just the weather but the Earth’s hydrosphere (the watery parts), the biosphere (living creatures) and even the lithosphere (the Earth’s crust). They are all linked by the great natural cycles and processes that make the planet so dynamic. In short, everything is in play.
Apart from climatic change, it is apparent that human activity has transformed the Earth in profound ways. Every cubic metre of air and water, every hectare of land now has a human imprint, from hormones in the seas, to fluorocarbons in the atmosphere and radioactivity from nuclear weapons tests in the soil.
Each year humans shift ten times more rock and soil around the Earth than the great natural processes of erosion and weathering. Half of the land surface has been modified by humans. Dam-building since the 1930s has held back enough water to keep the oceans three centimetres lower than otherwise. Extinctions are now occurring at a rate 100 times faster than the natural one.
So profound has been the influence of humans that Earth scientists such as Will Steffen have recently declared that the Earth has entered a new geological epoch, an epoch defined by the fact that the “human imprint on the global environment has now become so large and active that it rivals some of the great forces of Nature in its impact on the functioning of the Earth system”. Known as the Anthropocene, the Age of Humans, it marks the end of the Holocene, the 10,000-year period of remarkable climatic stability and clemency that allowed civilisation to flourish.
The modern social sciences — sociology, psychology, political science, economics, history and, we may add, philosophy — rest on the assumption that the grand and the humdrum events of human life take place against a backdrop of an inert nature. Only humans have agency. Everything worthy of analysis occurs in the sealed world of “the social”, and where nature does make itself felt – in environmental history, sociology or politics – “the environment” is the Umwelt, the natural world “over there” that surrounds us and sometimes intrudes on our plans, but always remains separate.
What was distinctive of the “social sciences” that emerged in 18th-century Europe was not so much their aspiration to science but their “social-only” domain of concern.
So the advent of the Anthropocene shatters the self-contained world of social analysis that is the terrain of modern social science, and explains why those intellectuals who remain within it find it impossible to “analyze” the politics, sociology or philosophy of climate change in a way that is true to the science. They end up floundering in the old categories, unable to see that something epochal has occurred, a rupture on the scale of the Industrial Revolution or the emergence of civilization itself.
A few are trying to peer through the fog of modernism. In an epoch-marking intervention, Chicago historian Dipesh Chakrabarty has argued that the distinction we have drawn between natural history and human history has now collapsed. With the arrival of the Anthropocene, humans have become a geological force so that the two kinds of history have converged and it is no longer true that “all history properly so called is the history of human affairs”.
E.H. Carr’s famous definition of history must now be discarded:
History begins when men begin to think of the passage of time in terms not of natural processes — the cycle of the seasons, the human life-span — but of a series of specific events in which men are consciously involved and which they can consciously influence.
From hereon our history will increasingly be dominated by “natural processes”, influenced by us but largely beyond our control. Our future has become entangled with that of the Earth’s geological evolution. As I argue in a forthcoming book, contrary to the modernist faith, it can no longer be maintained that humans make their own history, for the stage on which we make it has now entered into the play as a dynamic and capricious force.
And the actors too must be scrutinised afresh. If on the Anthropocene’s hybrid Earth it is no longer tenable to characterise humans as the rational animal, God’s chosen creatures or just another species, what kind of being are we?
The social sciences taught in our universities must now be classed as “pre-Anthropocene”. The process of reinventing them — so that what is taught in our arts faculties is true to what has emerged in our science faculties — will be a sustained and arduous intellectual enterprise. After all, it was not just the landscape that was scorched by 40.33°C, but modernism itself.
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<urn:uuid:21764a72-6b8d-4d1a-831b-5df66cd17d1e>
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CC-MAIN-2020-16
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https://umaincertaantropologia.org/2015/02/02/clive-hamilton-climate-change-signals-the-end-of-the-social-sciences-the-conversation/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585371799447.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200407121105-20200407151605-00334.warc.gz
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en
| 0.950848 | 1,434 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The Equality Act 2010 provides protection against discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief. Whilst it is usually easy to identify religious beliefs which would be protected under the Act, it is often more difficult to identify protected philosophical beliefs.
Over recent years, this has been an area where claimants have tried to push the boundaries to include a wide range of beliefs. For example, a belief in man-made climate change has been held to be a philosophical belief protected under the Act.
To be entitled to the protection, the employee must establish that:
In the ruling on 3 January 2020, the Norwich Employment Tribunal held that ‘ethical veganism’ is a philosophical belief which is protected against discrimination under the Act.
Mr Jordi Casamitjana claimed that he was dismissed by the League Against Cruel Sports because he has raised issues concerning their pension funds investing in companies known to be involved in animal testing.
Before considering the merits of the claim, the Tribunal had to determine whether ethical veganism fell within the scope of the Act. The Tribunal will now go on to have a full hearing to determine whether this was the reason behind the dismissal.
Such a case came before the Norwich Employment Tribunal in November 2019 when it was held that protection did not extend to vegetarianism. The reasoning for this was unclear and if the matter came before a different tribunal, particularly in light of this latest ruling, a different outcome may arise.
One of the obstacles for establishing a protected belief, in this case, was the fact that there can be many different reasons for being vegetarian – health, diet etc. This could also be said for veganism and it is worth highlighting that the Casamitjana case, it was specifically a belief in ‘ethical veganism’ which was protected, namely a belief in avoiding any animal consumption or exploitation.
The latest decision should put employers on notice of the importance of ensuring that those with vegan food requirements are taken into account when providing food at work functions.
It would also be sensible to take this approach when dealing with vegetarian requirements. They should also be mindful of any other aspects of the work environment which could have an impact, for example, expecting vegans to use hand soap tested on animals.
Businesses should also make sure that employees are not subject to any jokes about such beliefs. Often employers turn a blind eye to such behaviour and view it as good-natured ‘banter’ but this can cause significant problems for them in the future, with the potential for claims of bullying to arise.
Get more information
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CC-MAIN-2023-50
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https://www.citation.co.uk/news/hr-and-employment-law/legal-update-employment-tribunal-rules-ethical-veganism-a-philosophical-belief/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100545.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20231205041842-20231205071842-00131.warc.gz
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en
| 0.966561 | 519 | 2.59375 | 3 |
You’re probably familiar with traditional vaccines for diphtheria, mumps, whooping cough, polio, rubella, tetanus, tuberculosis, and other diseases that have been nearly eliminated in the United States because so many people have been vaccinated. For these diseases, a killed or weakened version of the organism that causes the disease is given to a healthy person to rev up the immune system and start a response.
There are some cancers that have been linked to viruses. Some strains of the human papilloma virus (HPV), which causes genital warts, have been linked to cervical, anal, throat, and other cancers. HPV vaccines may help protect against some of these cancers. People with long-term hepatitis B infections have a higher risk of liver cancer. So, the hepatitis B vaccine may reduce the risk of liver cancer.
Still, much of the research on vaccines for cancer are on cancer treatment vaccines. Treatment vaccines try to get the immune system to attack cancer cells. Treatment vaccines are different because they don’t prevent disease, they work to stimulate the immune system to kill a disease that is already there. You don’t receive a cancer treatment vaccine until after you’ve been diagnosed.
Cancer treatment vaccines are made up of cancer cells, parts of cells, or antigens, the proteins on a foreign cell -- like a cancer cell -- that allow the immune system to recognize it as “other.” In some cases, a person’s immune cells are taken from the body and exposed to these substances in the lab to create the vaccine. Once the vaccine is ready, it’s put back into the body to boost the immune system’s response to cancer cells.
Cancer treatment vaccines may take months to produce a noticeable immune system response, so they may be most useful to reduce the risk of the cancer coming back (recurrence) after the main cancer treatments, such as surgery, are done. Doctors call treatments given after surgery “adjuvant” treatments.
Right now, no cancer treatment vaccines have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to treat breast cancer. Still, there are several clinical trials looking at breast cancer treatment vaccines.
Some of the studies are looking at treatment vaccines in combination with other treatments, such as Herceptin (chemical name: trastuzumab) or chemotherapy.
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CC-MAIN-2017-34
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http://www.breastcancer.org/treatment/immunotherapy/cancer-vaccines
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-34/segments/1502886106990.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20170820204359-20170820224359-00013.warc.gz
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| 0.948044 | 491 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Fighting corruption during a pandemic
COVID-19 and corruption
How is a virus connected to increasing cases of corruption and what can be done to respond? In this paper we discuss steps to counter corruption during a pandemic.View Paper
Responding to corruption during a pandemic
News permeating about a spike in fraud during the COVID-19 crisis, as well as lessons drawn from Ebola, show us that COVID-19 requires a cross-government response.
Government institutions that detect fraud and ensure that resources reach their destination are part of the frontline response to the disease. In this paper, Adam Smith International considers the responses to corruption during a pandemic and why anti-corruption institutions are important both now and in the aftermath of the pandemic.
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<urn:uuid:85e7b564-713e-4210-b0a2-95ef3f843beb>
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CC-MAIN-2023-50
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https://adamsmithinternational.com/articles/responding-to-corruption-during-a-crisis/
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| 0.953067 | 154 | 2.625 | 3 |
National Country Symbols Of All Countries
Rruly Describe National Symbols Of All Countries National Flag,National Anthem,National Map,National Emblem,ETC.
National Country Symbols Of Aruba
|National Country Symbols Of Aruba
Discovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquired by the Dutch in 1636. The island’s economy has been dominated by three main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed by prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. The last decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry. Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became a separate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba’s request in 1990.
|National Map Of Aruba|
|National Flag Of Aruba|
|blue, with two narrow, horizontal, yellow stripes across the lower portion and a red, four-pointed star outlined in white in the upper hoist-side corner; the star represents Aruba and its red soil and white beaches, its four points the four major languages (Papiamento, Dutch, Spanish, English) as well as the four points of a compass, to indicate that its inhabitants come from all over the world; the blue symbolizes Caribbean waters and skies; the stripes represent the island’s two main “industries”: the flow of tourists to the sun-drenched beaches and the flow of minerals from the earth
|National Emblem(Coat Of Arms) Of Aruba|
|National Anthem Of Aruba|
|National Anthem Style: Mp3|
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CC-MAIN-2014-10
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http://www.national-symbol.com/national-country-symbols-of-aruba.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1394010514920/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305090834-00017-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.919246 | 350 | 3.265625 | 3 |
The sun’s slanted rays beat down on rows of basil, collard greens, tomatoes and eggplant. Annie Mayrose, a brown-haired young lady with an incandescent smile, gestured proudly toward the sprouting plants.
Thirty yards away, trucks roared across an overpass, and in the distance the skyscrapers of St. Louis jutted from the earth. The afternoon sun glinted from the silver arch at the edge of the city.
The City Seeds Urban Farm lies in the center of a busy city, right next to a 15-story hotel complex, but it produces fruits, vegetables and honey for sale throughout St. Louis and given as donations to local food pantries. City Seeds is a project of Gateway Greening, a 26-year-old organization that provides education, seed and soil grants, horticulture therapy and a sense of community to a city blighted by economic depression.
“The program is growing rapidly,” Mayrose explained. “We support over 200 community gardens, including over 80 school gardens.”
Educating the community on the benefits of local food and healthy eating is a major goal of Gateway Greening. But the group also provides skills training and garden therapy for the mentally ill or people recently released from prison. A 10-week intensive “green” training course can teach citizens how to grow, harvest and prepare their own vegetables, while a 12-step program — what Mayrose called the “12 steps of gardening” — can help the socially disadvantaged get back on their feet.
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<urn:uuid:f8a94568-3b0f-4be0-9a3b-03a853415af0>
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CC-MAIN-2017-30
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https://muddybootsnews.wordpress.com/2010/10/10/the-urban-food-landscape-gateway-greening/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-30/segments/1500549425144.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20170725102459-20170725122459-00465.warc.gz
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en
| 0.937161 | 325 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Science aims to link cause and effect for natural phenomena. Linking cause and effect for historical events is often more difficult since historical events cannot be tested by rerunning history with varied parameters. Despite the difficulty, it is worthwhile to review the causes behind the magnitude of the U.S. nuclear buildup. Two critical questions should guide this analysis: How much of the $5.8 trillion (1996 dollars) that the U.S spent to build 70,000 nuclear warheads, deployed on 75,000 missiles and 8600 bombers, was too much? And, was the effectiveness of the Soviet military exaggerated with false predictions? These two books go a long way towards quantifying the costs, and explaining the large size, of the buildup.
Available at: http://works.bepress.com/dhafemei/14/
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<urn:uuid:8c5fc734-8179-4f86-b842-6c2b9898c41c>
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CC-MAIN-2017-34
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https://works.bepress.com/dhafemei/14/
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en
| 0.94158 | 168 | 2.59375 | 3 |
AI is absolutely dominating headlines and conversations right now. AI can chat, draw astonishingly specific images, and make you sound like you have a depth of knowledge on virtually any subject.
No doubt it’s impressive, but it can’t do everything. AI can’t show empathy, at least not authentically. AI can respond to people in a socially appropriate way based on its data bank, but it can’t conjure up genuine care, empathy, or emotional support. So, while we consider all the things AI can do, being a human, with the power to relate to another human, is one thing AI simply cannot do. And in the world of leadership, nothing is more important.
The term “soft skills” originated in the late 1960s by the US Army, and I am sure that being soft was the farthest thing in their minds. Soft skills were defined as skills that didn’t center around machinery. That’s fitting, given that right now we’re literally talking about these skills as the ones that differentiate us from machines.
As a former US Marine, I attribute much of what I know about leadership to my experience in the military. And when I think of the soft skills I learned in this time—valued characteristics like interpersonal skills, strength of character, and tenacity—I know first-hand that the military absolutely emphasized the importance that great leadership brings to an organization’s success. They also recognized that being great at these skills doesn’t happen by accident. It must be actively developed and honed.
In the decades since its origin, the term “soft skills” has become commonplace. It’s held onto much of its original meaning, and still reflects all the qualities listed above. But somewhere along the way in business, it sometimes felt as if soft skills were considered a “nice to have” rather than critical. And from my perspective in today’s world, where technology is radically transforming so many roles in ways we can’t even imagine yet, they’ve never been more important. The very definition includes everything that a machine might struggle with: emotional intelligence, teamwork, communication/listening, creativity, time management, critical thinking, adaptability, and—of course—empathy.
Interestingly, as we recently honored March as Women’s History Month, it’s also worth noting that the Harvard Business Review reports that women score higher than men on most leadership skills—and many of the skills they looked at would be considered ‘soft’ skills, like building relationships, collaboration/teamwork, communication, problem-solving, and inspiring/motivating others. And since these strengths are often more associated as feminine traits, it’s sadly not a surprise that they haven’t always been given the importance they deserve. Without question, it’s time for us all to fight to make that change.
It’s not hard to see why these skills matter. Warren Buffett said that the most important thing to look for when hiring is integrity. That’s a human skill. And according to a whopping 89% of recruiters who were surveyed for LinkedIn’s Global Talent Trends report, a lack of soft skills is usually the reason a hire doesn’t work out. I doubt any business should need a stronger proof point than that.
So obviously, the ability to empathize and connect with people at work should never have been considered optional. And while this realization gains traction throughout the business world, it’s also brought a call to change how we think of and even refer to these critical skills. As Simon Sinek and others have pointed out, these soft skills are in fact human skills. And every one of us would be better off for developing them further. Not only because we’d be better leaders, employees, partners, friends, parents, and strangers on the street—but also because they are the key thing that differentiates us from AI. They are the irreplaceable value you can bring to your role as a leader, not only today but in the future.
AI can already replace a lot of tasks. It can already replace a lot of jobs. And it’s only going to get better at it. What’s clunky now will be astonishing before you know it.
If we’re looking at the future for your businesses in the new reality of AI, great leaders realize that we need to focus on the things only we can do, based on our problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, vision, and other skills and experience. These human skills are an incomparable source of strength.
To continue adding value as AI grows in sophistication; to be a better leader; to be a better person—human skills are nonnegotiable. Recognize them. Reward them. Develop them. Hone them. It’s important for everyone.
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<urn:uuid:5dc32a3e-bffb-43c8-94ca-f1721d64c2bc>
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CC-MAIN-2023-40
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https://blog.alludo.com/tag/human-skills/
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en
| 0.964635 | 1,024 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Lower secondary education
After completion of their primary education, pupils begin the 6-year lower secondary education programme. The lower secondary education programme is implemented by basic, secondary, vocational education and training schools, pro-gymnasiums and gymnasiums. Education can take place outside the school: in museums, parks, etc. by adjusting the educational process accordingly. General education plans, which schools use to develop their plans, stipulate that the learning environment at school must provide opportunities for active education of pupils, their individual learning, learning in groups of various sizes, and also for practical, experimental, theoretical and other activities. Meanwhile teachers must be provided with opportunities to work innovatively using modern education technology: faster internet, intranet, interactive whiteboards, computers, modern classrooms and classroom equipment, libraries, etc.
The compulsory lower secondary education programme consists of two parts: part I – a 4-year programme implemented in the 5th-8th forms and part II – a 2-year programme implemented in the 9th-10th forms (1st-2nd forms of the gymnasium). Pupils can start learning the second foreign language in the 5th form and in the 6th form the second foreign language is compulsory.
In the 9th form (1st form of the gymnasium), pupils can choose subject modules and study elective subjects according to their interests and abilities.
If the school wishes, students who find it difficult to learn or vice versa, students who are high achievers, can opt to, for some of the time, study according to individual education plans.
In Lithuania, education is compulsory for pupils until they reach 16 years of age. Compulsory education is usually provided up to the 10th form (2nd form of the gymnasium). After completion of the 10th form, pupils must take the basic education achievement test in the Lithuanian Language, Mathematics, and an elective basic education achievement test in Mother Tongue (Belarusian, Polish, Russian or German).
After acquiring basic education and obtaining the basic education certificate, they may continue learning under the programmes for secondary education or vocational education and training or under the combined programme for secondary education and vocational education and training in order to acquire their first qualification.
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<urn:uuid:7de63094-ed77-4487-8567-eb37365e195d>
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CC-MAIN-2017-39
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http://www.smm.lt/web/en/education_1/lower-secondary-education
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818689845.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20170924025415-20170924045415-00647.warc.gz
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en
| 0.956485 | 463 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Explaining ADHD to Your Child
How doctors and parents of children with attention deficit disorder can tell a child he has ADHD, frame the news positively, and answer the question: “What is ADHD?”
“Mommy, what is ADHD?”
Parents often ask me whether children with attention deficit disorder (ADHD or ADD) should be told they have the disorder. And, if so, how to talk to them about it.
I feel strongly that children should be told. Keeping the diagnosis a secret accomplishes nothing. In fact, it does a disservice to all involved by implying that there is something bad or shameful about ADHD.
Any child old enough to go through psychological testing is old enough to be told the test results (though younger children need less detail than older kids). Often, the best approach is for both the child’s parents and his doctor to tell the child he has ADHD and to answer the “What is ADHD?” question. In any case, the news should be framed positively.
Here is how I recently broke the news to one of my patients – an eight-year-old named Jed. Use this conversations to inform how to talk to your child about ADHD. (Jed’s parents and I had agreed in advance that I would talk to Jed in their presence. If you’re having this conversation with your child, of course, you’ll be describing both your role and that of your child’s doctor.)
“You’ve come here a couple of times, Jed, and you’ve answered lots of questions and played some funny games. Now I’m going to tell you what we’ve found out. Would you like to know?” Jed nods. “Well,” I say, “I have great news. You have an awesome mind. You are one cool dude. Your brain is just spectacular.”
Jed has never heard this before. He usually hears just the opposite.
“You have something called ADHD,” I continue. “And guess what? I have it, too. ADHD means you have a race-car brain. Do you know what a turbocharged engine is?” Jed nods. I don’t know if he really knows what it means — I certainly don’t. But like me, he’s heard the term and he can guess.
“Well, Jed, you have a turbocharged brain. It can go really, really fast. The only problem is that sometimes it goes too fast. And it needs special motor oil so it won’t overheat. But with the right brakes and oil, it wins lots of races.”
Intrigued, Jed eyes me. He wants to hear more.
“You know how you sometimes have trouble paying attention in school?” Jed nods. “That’s because your mind is zipping around all over the place, bursting with new ideas. And that’s great! That’s why you’ll do amazing things and have fun all your life. But you need help taking care of your race-car brain, so I’m going to teach you how to put on the brakes.”
If your child has questions, answer them. Just keep the answers simple, brief, and upbeat. Parents of children with ADHD certainly need to learn all they can about the disorder. The same is true for teachers who have students with ADHD.
But children with ADHD do not need to learn more. It’s important for them not to feel defined by ADHD. Having attention-deficit disorder is a bit like being left-handed. It is part of who you are, not who you are.
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<urn:uuid:25a531b6-2d03-4ab8-b4b7-c6133b883cc1>
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CC-MAIN-2023-40
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https://www.additudemag.com/explaining-add-to-your-child/
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en
| 0.971816 | 790 | 2.84375 | 3 |
The principal aim of the [University of Essex] project is to explain the role of electoral systems in the process of democratisation in post-communist Europe. The investigation will focus on twelve core countries (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia and Ukraine), but where available we have provided data for other post-communist states.
The PIREDEU project aims at designing an infrastructure for research into citizenship, political participation, and electoral democracy in the European Union (EU). This infrastructure will provide a comprehensive empirical database regarding voters, candidates for election to the European Parliament (EP), media coverage of EP elections, party manifestos issued in connection with these elections, and contextual data relevant to these elections (such as the numerical outcomes of the elections in all EU member countries). The Candidate Survey Data includes the whole universe of MP candidates to the European Parliament’s 2009 election. For more information, see the GESIS website.
Smartvote is a so-called online voting advice application (VAA). Based on a comprehensive questionnaire on political issues it compares the political positions of voters with those of political parties and candidates. Voters receive a voting advise in form of a position-matching. It does not have all candidates. For example, in the elections to the National Council in 2011, the available candidates were 2,884 (83%).
Welcome to the Election Resources on the Internet website. In this space you will find links to Internet sites around the world which provide complete and detailed national and local election statistics, as well as other election resources… This website also includes sections dedicated to elections and electoral systems in diverse countries around the world…
The largest, most comprehensive and most up-to-date archive of electoral information in the world, with election statistics from 182 countries… This archive was created by and is maintained by Dr Adam Carr of Melbourne Australia.
The PARLINE database contains information on the structure and working methods of 266 parliamentary chambers in all of the 189 countries where a national legislature exists.
National Electoral Commission Offices
Poland: National Electoral Commission
Hungary: National Election Office
Ukraine: Central Election Commission
National Statistical Offices
Poland: Central Statistical Office
Hungary: Central Statistical Office
Ukraine: National Statistical Office
“Democratic Values and Protest Behavior: Data Harmonization, Measurement Comparability, and Multi-Level Modeling in Cross-National Perspective” is a joint endeavour of the Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, Polish Academy of Sciences, and the Mershon Center for International Security Studies, The Ohio State University, and is financed by the Polish National Science Centre in the framework of the Harmonia grant competition… ” to harmonize the data appropriately, that is, to meet the stringent methodological requirements for comparative research, we must solve a lot of problems of comparability of indicators and constructs, based on confirmatory factor analysis and regression imputation.”
POLPAN is a nationally representative panel dataset of Poles spanning from 1988 to 2013 covering topics on occupational careers, social stratification, psychological motivations, political attitudes and behaviors, and health and well-being. A list of publications is here.
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CC-MAIN-2020-16
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https://electoralcontrol.org/links/
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| 0.908585 | 655 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The objective of this image is to examine the exposure of thin layers along the walls of a few-kilometer-wide valley in Sinus Meridiani.
These layers can then be compared to other observations of layers in the region, allowing scientists to map individual layers over much larger regions than covered by a single image. Understanding the regional extent of layers will aid in studies of the past environmental conditions on Mars that led to the formation of these layers.
Sinus Meridiani also has vast outcrops of sedimentary rocks with a great deal of diversity. The region covers an area about the size of the Colorado plateau in the United States.
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<urn:uuid:c0b7ac92-9625-48c7-b7c0-36031393f82f>
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CC-MAIN-2014-15
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http://spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=42784
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en
| 0.9151 | 129 | 3.140625 | 3 |
A recent analysis of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) National Bridge Inventory conducted by the Associated Press (AP) Investigative Team, has revealed that more than 85,000 of the nation’s bridges are in dire need of repair and replacement. The review is extensive, finding that out of the 607,380 bridges listed, 65,605 are classified as “structurally deficient” and 20,808 are listed as “fracture critical.” Of these bridges, 7,795 fall into both categories, indicating a dangerous level of disrepair and a risk of collapse.
Among the bridges that are deemed both structurally deficient and fracture critical are the Frederick Douglass Memorial Bridge into Washington, D.C., the Brooklyn Bridge
in New York, the Route 495 Lincoln Tunnel Helix in New Jersey and the Main Avenue Bridge in Cleveland. The deficient/critical bridges carry more than 29 million vehicles per day. Most of those bridges are over 60 years old and have exceeded their original
projected life expectancy. The northeastern states face many more challenges than the rest of the country because of an older infrastructure and more severe weather conditions.
Many of America’s aging bridges carry more vehicles than they were originally expected to handle and many are heavier than the earlier models, causing more frequent damages. Bridges are very expensive to fix and in some cases, almost prohibitively costly to replace. Some estimates range in the billions of dollars for replacing a single bridge and finding the money to finance repair or replacement is a critical issue. State and national officials inspect bridges often and the engineers say that the structures are safe and even bridges that are deficient/critical should not collapse if monitored and maintained properly. But it’s still an issue that causes a great deal of concern, especially for professional drivers who use these structures on a daily basis. But regulators say that if a bridge is open to traffic, it is safe. Weight restrictions are being placed on some bridges that have been identified with safety issues, and those bridges are often more frequently inspected than others.
If you have specific concerns about the bridges you frequently use, there is an excellent interactive map on the Transportation for America website. You can search for bridges in all 50 states and the site provides a report on every structure, including condition rating, number of cars crossing per day, age and frequency of inspections.
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Being a responsible and environmentally conscious citizen is a lot easier when you’re in control of your own living situation and surroundings. This is a lot more challenging when travelling around the world. Here are Canstar’s tips to help you be a more eco-conscious traveller.
How to be an eco-conscious traveller before your trip
Choose an appropriate destination
Since most forms of transportation contribute to climate change, you can help reduce the number of emissions being produced by vacationing at a destination that’s closer to home, or by choosing an alternative method of transportation to flying.
If you do have to travel by plane, choose airlines that use efficient aircrafts and have a higher occupancy. Though of minimal significance in the short term, it is the long-term effects of having too many planes flying around that will contribute to climate change.
It also helps to travel in areas that have access to public transportation. Sharing the load reduces the carbon emissions from private vehicles, while giving you the opportunity to meet some new people and interact with the locals.
While you’re taking care of the environment, don’t forget to take care of your travel insurance needs!
Before you travel to a new exotic destination and put these tips into action, it’s important that you get travel insurance to ensure you are protected in the case of an accident or emergency.
Choose the right place to stay
With a growing number of environmentally friendly accommodation options available, keep an eye out for places to stay that are energy efficient, use effective waste treatment systems and recycle.
One way to check if your accommodation of choice is environmentally friendly – and participates in sustainable initiatives – is to look out for seals of approval from environmental certification programmes. These programmes judge hotels on a number of factors, such as water savings, energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality and sustainable site development.
The heavier the cargo it carries, the more carbon emissions an aircraft produces. For this reason, you should aim to pack only what you need when flying.
How to be an eco-conscious traveller on your trip
Be a responsible guest
Treating your accommodation like you do your own home and making a conscious effort to be a responsible guest goes a long way. Here are some ways you can be a responsible guest.
Instead of luxuriating in a bath, conserve water by taking showers instead and try to use less hot water.
Only use the lights you need and make sure to turn off the lights, taps and the air conditioner when you leave the room.
Give housekeeping the skip
Some hotels now offer incentives to guests who decline housekeeping services. Even if there are no incentives offered, you should skip housekeeping services when you don’t need it, as it means less water and energy is used and less waste is generated.
While you’re at it, don’t ask for new towels unless absolutely necessary. Reusing you towel will also help conserve water and cleaning products.
Reduce, reuse and recycle
Reduce the number of plastic bags and disposable food packaging you use where possible. Plastic bags, in particular, do not degrade and can therefore result in pollution over time. You should also get into the habit of recycling newspapers, magazines and other recyclable items.
Dispose of waste properly
It should go without saying that you should dispose of waste appropriately. For example, don’t flush cotton buds and sanitary products down the toilet. Instead, make use of the appropriate waste bins.
Choose eco-friendly tour groups and organisations
When considering a tour organisation, find out how it gives back to the local community. As community-based tourism is the most sustainable, understanding whether tour operators lease the land from locals, hire local guides or play a part in preserving the area’s natural resources will help with your decision on whether to engage them or not.
It’s also wise to avoid groups that encourage hands on experiences with wild animals, such as elephant riding, as doing so supports the industry that illegally captures and abuses animals.
How to be an eco-conscious traveller when you’re heading home
When purchasing souvenirs, you should look at buying directly from local souvenir makers, such as artists or craftsmen. Imported souvenirs don’t support local businesses and therefore carry a higher carbon footprint than items made locally.
Not only that, but you should consider souvenirs that make practical gifts as opposed to items that will likely be lost in the back of someone’s wardrobe or thrown out. Items that can be consumed, such as local delicacies, or items that can be used in daily life make for better gifts.
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The picture of burned and charred Korans outraged Afghan Muslims, in fact, Muslims all over the world. It is not difficult to understand their anger. Sadly, the anger turned to violence and the burning conducted by American military personnel last week has resulted in a number of deaths, including more than 40 killed during protests or in suicide bombings, and six U.S. military personnel murdered. Reportedly, the Korans were mistakenly burned, sparking violent protests across Afghanistan. The tragedy of someone burning holy books has led to the greater tragedy of so many lives lost. Questions raised by Muslim friends include: “How could this happen?” “Do Americans have no respect for the sacred books and symbols of others?” “Where are our American values?” There are many others who ask these same questions. Not only Muslims, but all people of faith should be asking these questions.
How could the importance of the Koran be explained to American personnel in Afghanistan? Should we compare the Koran to familiar American sacred symbols, for example the Bible, a crucifix or the American flag? Even these have lost their significance to many. Those young military men and women have grown up in modern America where these very symbols are abused in the name of freedom. These military personnel are part of contemporary America where they see the dishonoring of Bibles as a legitimate exercise of freedom; where religious faith and religious symbols are routinely ridiculed by comedians, talk-show hosts, media announcers and the entertainment industry; where the crucifix can be displayed in a container of urine at a public gallery as art and where the United States flag, which shrouds the bodies of their dead colleagues, is burned as an acceptable act of free expression.
It is easy to see where someone might be tempted to say “What makes the Koran different from the Bible, the crucifix or the American flag?” Actions such as the desecration of religious books, sacred symbols and the one symbol of our nation and its unity, the flag, unfortunately are seen by too many as a protected American freedom – a value. While we need to oppose and reject the burning of the Koran and find it offensive, we need to make the same statement when it comes to the religious symbols of everyone else.
These young military men and women bravely serving in Afghanistan and, before that in Iraq, are told they are there to defend America and American values. At home and abroad, those American values should include respect for the deeply held religious beliefs, and the cherished books and symbols, of all people.
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Some books, pamphlets, articles and other texts, which we have selected because they give accounts of resistance to World War One, the causes of the war, its effects, the initial collapse of the left and radical movements in the face of its outbreak, and related issues. Obviously this is just a beginning of a comprehensive list; any other titles, links, suggestions, welcome – email us at: [email protected].
Thanks to the Real WW1 blog and Remembering the real WW1 list for this excellent resource.
• Adam Hochschild, To End All Wars: A Story of Loyalty and Rebellion, 1914-18
• Avner Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation
• B. Tuchman, The Guns of August
An extract from Zinn’s ‘A people’s history of the United States’, relating the US’s participation in WW1 and resistance to it.
• John Zerzan, Origins and Meaning of WWI, Telos, no. 49, Fall 1981. (http://www.scribd.com/doc/49337748/Zerzan-Origins-and-Meaning-of-WWI)
• John Morrow, The Great War: an Imperial History.
Preludes to World War 1: The Balkan Wars
• The War Correspondence of Leon Trotsky: The Balkan Wars 1912-13
Preludes to World War 1: (part ii): The pre-war Syndicalist Revolt and the upsurge of class struggle.
• David D. Roberts, The Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism (1979)
• SelfEd Collective, Revolutionary Syndicalism in Britain and Ireland, 1910-17.
The Causes of the War
• V I Lenin
, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism. (1916)
• Woodruff D. Smith, European imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries.
• Edward E. McCullough, How The First World War Began.
The Left and the outbreak of War
• Merle Fainsod, International Socialism and the World War (1935)
• Georges Haupt, Socialism and the Great War: The Collapse of the Second International. (1972)
• Vladimir Lenin and John Riddell, Lenin’s Struggle for a Revolutionary International
, Monad Press, 1984 ,
The debate among socialist leaders, including V.I. Lenin and Leon Trotsky, on a socialist response to World War I.
• V.I. Lenin, The Collapse of the Second International.
• V.I. Lenin, Imperialism and the Split in Socialism
• Lenin/Zinoviev, Against the Stream.
• Rosa Luxemburg, On The Spartacus Program (1918)
• Rosa Luxemburg, The War and the Workers – The Junius Pamphlet (1916)
• George Novack, Dave Frankel & Fred Feldman, The First Three Internationals, Their History and Lessons
• John Quail, The Slow Burning Fuse: The Lost History of British Anarchism.
Contains chapters on the wildly varying positions of British anarchists on the outbreak of the War.
• Leon Trotsky, Political Profiles (1972)
Contains profiles of leading socialists in the pre-WW1 period, and their actions around the outbreak of the War.
Mutinies and solder’s strikes
• P. Adam-Smith, The Anzacs: The True Story of the Young Men Who Went to Gallipoli, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne 1978, a nostalgic nationalist perspective, includes brief account of September 1918 mutiny by ANZAC troops.
• William Allison and John Fairley, The Monocled Mutineer, Quartet Books, London 1978, an overblown account of the 1917 Etaples Mutiny and biography of a rapist, thief and murderer.
• William Allison, Inadmissible Memories of a Suppressed Mutiny, Guardian, 22 September 1986.
• Anthony Babington, The Devil to Pay: The Mutiny of the Connaught Rangers, India, July 1921, Leo Cooper, London 1991, a comprehensive account of the mutiny in 1920 of the Connaught Rangers at Jullunder in the Punjab on hearing of the execution of the leaders of the 1916 Easter Uprising, but generally unsympathetic to the mutineers.
• D. Birmingham, et al. (eds.), World War 1 and Africa, Journal of African History, Volume 21, no. 1, 1978, scholarly essays, some referring to mutinous action by African soldiers and military labourers.
• N. Boyack, Behind the Lines: The Lives of New Zealand Soldiers in the First World War, Allen and Unwin, Wellington 1989, a critical account of NZ troops, includes references to mutinies and ill-discipline, fully referenced.
• R. Boyes, In Glass Houses: A History of the Military Provost Staff Corps, Military Provost Staff Corps Association, Colchester 1988, ill-written, poorly edited and over-defensive, but useful for references to revolts by military prisoners.
• S. Brugger, Australians and Egypt 1914–1919, Melbourne University Press, Carlton 1980, includes references to ‘Wazza’ pogroms, good bibliography.
• R. Ducoulombier, Une nouvelle histoire des mutineries de 1917
• David Englander, Mutiny at Etaples Base Camp, The Bulletin for the Society of Labour History, no. 52, 1987.
• John Field, The Kent Coast Mutinies of 1919, Cantium, Volume 4, no. 4, Winter 1972–73.
• J.G. Fuller, Troop Morale and Popular Culture in the British and Dominion Armies 1914–1918, OUP, Oxford, 1991, concerns sport and leisure, refers to officers, ill-merited self-esteem, mutinies viewed as insignificant.
• B. Gammage, The Broken Years: Australian Soldiers in the Great War, ANUP, Canberra 1974, refers to the 1915 anti-Egyptian pogroms and September 1918 mutinies.
• D. Gill and Julian Putkowski, The British Base Camp at Etaples 1914–1918, Musée Quentovic, Etaples sur Mer, 1997, includes a brief account of the 1917 mutiny, dismisses the ‘Monocled Mutineer’ thesis.
• Douglas Gill and Gloden Dallas, Mutiny at Etaples, Past and Present, no. 69, November 1975.
• Douglas Gill and Gloden Dallas, The Unkown Army: mutinies in the British army in World War One. (London, 1985.)
• F. Grundlingh, Fighting Their Own War: South African Blacks and the First World War, Ravan Press, Johannesburg 1987, makes reference to mutinies by the black military labourers of the South African Labour Contingent.
• R.W.E. Harper and H. Miller, Singapore Mutiny, OUP, Singapore 1984, recounts February 1915 mutiny by sepoys of Fifth Battalion Light Infantry, but generally discounts the political significance of the outbreak.
• L.F. Guttridge , Mutiny: A history of Naval Insurrection (Ian Allan 1992)
• L. James, Mutiny: In the British and Commonwealth Forces 1797–1956, Buchan and Enright, London 1987, mostly about post-1914 period, many useful references but a whiggish interpretation of mutiny.
• T.P. Kilfeather, The Connaught Rangers, Anvil, Dublin 1969, a journalist presents a sympathetic account of 1921 protest, no references or bibliography.
• A. Killick, Mutiny!, Spark, Brighton 1968, reprinted 1976 by Militant, an autobiographical account by a participant in the 1919 Calais mutiny.
• Dave Lamb, Mutinies: 1917-1920. (Solidarity pamphlet, 1977).
Online at http://www.libcom.org/library/mutinies-dave-lamb-solidarity
• S.P. Mackenzie, Politics and Military Morale: Current Affairs and Citizenship Education in the British Army 1914–1950, OUP, Oxford 1992, references to Etaples 1917, April 1918 Soldiers’ and Workers’ Council, and Cairo 1944.
• Edt. C.L. Mantle, The Apathetic and the Defiant: Case studies of Canadian Mutiny and Disobedience, 1812-1919 (Dundurn Group and Canadian Defence Academy 2007)
• D. Morton, Kicking and Complaining, Canadian Historical Review, no. 61, September 1980. (Kinmel Mutiny)
• D. Omissi, The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army 1860–1940, Macmillan, London 1994, devotes a chapter to mutinies by the sepoys of the Army of India, good bibliography.
• Guy Pedroncini, Les Mutineries de 1917, Presses universitaires de France, 1967 ; 4e édition corrigée 1999 (ISBN 978-2130473756) and –
• Guy Pedroncini, 1917, les mutineries de l’armée française, Julliard, 1968.
• R.J. Popplewell, Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelligence and the Defence of India 1904–1924, Cass, London, 1995, refers to ‘Ghadr’-inspired mutinies in Army of India during 1914–15, excellent references.
• S. Pollock, Mutiny for the Cause, Leo Cooper, London 1969. A journalistic hagiography of the 1920 Connaught Rangers mutiny.
• C. Pugsley, Gallipoli: The New Zealand Story, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland 1984, describes the ‘Battle of Wazzir’, an anti-Egyptian pogrom due to NZ troops’ ‘pent-up frustration’, see also Boyack.
• C. Pugsley, On the Fringe of Hell: New Zealanders and Military Discipline in the First World War, Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland 1991, nostalgic nationalism, refers to several mutinies, including December 1918 Surafend anti-Arab pogrom (‘cannot be condoned but can be understood’), contrast with Boyack.
• Julian Putkowski (1989), The Kinmel Park Camp Riots, Flintshire Historical Society, 0951277618, ISBN: 0951277618
• Julian Putkowski, Mutiny in India, 1919. http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/revhist/backiss/vol8/no2/putkowski2.html
• Al Richardson (Ed.), Mutiny: Disaffection and Unrest in the Armed Forces. Revolutionary History, Volume 8, no 2 (2002). A collection of articles on (mostly British) army mutinies, including several around World War 1.
• Andrew Rothstein, The Soldiers’ Strikes of 1919. (London, 1980.)
• T.R. Sareen, Secret Documents on the Singapore Mutiny, 1915, two volumes, Mounto, New Delhi, 1995, includes Court of Enquiry papers and other items associated with the outbreak.
• G. Sheffield, The Redcaps: A History of the Military Police and its Antecedents from the Middle Ages to the Gulf War, Brassey’s, London 1994, an official history, only Etaples 1917 outbreak cited, but useful references to battlefield ‘stragglers’.
• G. Sheffield, Leadership in the Trenches: Officer–Man Relations, Morale and Discipline in the British Army in the Era of the First World War, Macmillan, London 2000, refers to several mutinies but eschews ideology and opts to maintain a ‘Soldiers’ deference + Officers’ paternalism = good officer–man relations’ line, excellent bibliography.
• P. Stanley, Bad Characters: Sex, Crime, Mutiny, Murder and the Australian Imperial Force. (Pier 9 2010)
• M. Summerskill, China on the Western Front: Britain’s Chinese Workforce in the First World War, Summerskill, London 1982, includes references to mutinies by Chinese Labour Corps serving with the British Expeditionary Force.
• Peter Tatchell, The Monocle That Blinds Us to the Many Other Mutinies, Guardian, 19 September 1986.
• The Murmansk Mutiny
• Steve Johns, The British West Indies Regiment Mutiny, 1918.
Resistance, desertion and soldiers’ daily experience
• A.E. Ashworth, The Sociology of Trench Warfare 1914-18, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Dec., 1968), pp. 407-423
• A.E. Ashworth, Trench Warfare 1914-1918: The live and let live system (Pan Grand Strategy Series) 1979.
• RB., Tommy Atkins’ hidden tactics to avoid combat on the Western Front in WW1 or Why ‘Blackadder Goes Forth’ could have been a lot funnier (and more subversive)…
• M. Brown and S. Seaton, The Christmas Truce: The Western Front, December 1914, Leo Cooper, London 1984, 1994, empiricist, explicitly rejects Marxist interpretations, but good narratives and well referenced.
• David Englander and James Osborne , Jack, Tommy, and Henry Dubb: The Armed Forces and the Working Class (1978) The Historical Journal, 21, p.593-4
• P. Liddle (ed.), Passchendaele in Perspective: The Third Battle of Ypres, Pen and Sword, Barnsley 1997, a chapter by P. Scott on law and order ascribes low level of dissent to deferential attitude of Tommies.
• Marc Ferro, Malcolm Brown, Remy Cazals, Olaf Mueller. Meetings in No Man’s Land Christmas 1914: Fraternization in the Great War. Constable & Robinson 2007 ISBN 978-1-84529-513-4. 264 pp
• Anonymous, A German Deserter’s War Experience, published in Britain in 1917! It’s an account of the horrors of WW1, and a fair amount of resistance to it, written by an anonymous German deserter who fought in the trenches in France. It ends with a call for the overthrow of capitalism, and even has a chapter entitled “Soldiers shooting their own officers”. What more do you want…?
Kindle and epub versions: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/42721
Conscientious objectors/resistance to conscription
• A. Baxter, We Will Not Cease, Victor Gollancz, London 1939, an autobiography of an NZ ‘conchie’, details army punishments in France and Flanders during the First World War.
• John Taylor Caldwell, Come Dungeons Dark: The Life & Times of Guy Aldred, Glasgow Anarchist. (Luath Press, 1988). Has 11 chapters on the struggle of Aldred and others against the war, including resistance inside prisons by draft-refusers and conscientious objectors.
• Edwin H. Dare, Bread and Roses: Politics and Co-operation.
The story of Bermondsey Co-operative Bakery, a South London workers’ Co-op, with a very brief reference to its employing of conscientious objectors on the run during WW1.
• Will Ellsworth-Jones, We Will Not Fight: the untold story of World War One’s conscientious objectors. London, Aurum, 2008. ISBN 978-1-84513-403-7. 296 pp.
• Thomas C. Kennedy, The Hound of Conscience, (1981), University of Arkansas Press, 0938626019, ISBN 0938626019
• Cyril Pearce, Comrades in Conscience.
Now out of print. Publishers site: http://www.francisboutle.co.uk/pages.php?cID=5&pID=144
• Crabbed Age and Youth, A Divine Comedy of the Watford Tribunal.
Trials and Executions of Deserters, Mutineers etc
• Anthony Babington, For the Sake of Example. Pen & Sword, 1993. 256pp.
• Piet Chielen and Julian Putkowski, Unquiet Graves. Basically this is guide book for a tour of the sites connected to executions in the Ieper (Ypres) area during the first World War.
• Andrew Godefroy, For Freedom and Honour? The Story of 25 Canadians Executed During the Great War (Toronto: CEF Books, 1998) ISBN 1-896979-22-X
• John Hughes-Wilson, Blindfold and Alone: British Military Executions in the Great War. Phoenix, 2005. 544pp.
• William Moore, The Thin Yellow Line, (London: Wordsworth. 1999) ISBN 978-1-84022-215-9
• Nicolas Offenstadt, Les fusillés de la Grande Guerre (Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob, 1999)
• Gerard Oram, Death Sentences passed by military courts of the British Army 1914–1924, (UK: Francis Boutle Publishers, 1999) ISBN 1-903427-26-6
• Gerard Oram, Worthless Men, (November 1998), Francis Boutle Pub, 0953238830, ISBN 97809538835
• Denis Rolland, La grève des tranchées, Paris, Imago, 2005.
• Chris Pugsley, On the Fringes of Hell (1991: Hodder & Stoughton) ISBN 978-0-340-53321-5
• Julian Putkowski & Julian Sykes, Shot at Dawn: Executions in World War One by Authority of the British Army Act, (England: Pen & Sword, 1996) ISBN 978-0-85052-613-4
• Julian Putkowski & Gerard Oram, British Army Officers’ Courts Martial: 1914–1924. Francis Boutle Publishers, 2000.
• Julian Putkowski & Mark Herber, Military Criminals. Francis Boutle Publishers, 2001.
• Leonard Sellers, For God’s Sake Shoot Straight! (Leo Cooper, London, UK, 1995) (an account of the trial and execution of Royal Navy officer Sub-Lt Edwin Dyett)
• Ernest Thurtle, Military discipline and democracy, (London: Daniel Books. 1920)
• Ernest Thurtle, Shootings at dawn: The Army death penalty at work, (Pamphlet)
Resistance on the Home Front
• Fenner Brockway, Bermondsey Story, The Life of Alfred Salter. Has some accounts of anti-war activity/conscientious objection in the South London borough of Bermondsey.
• Gertrude Bussey and Margaret Tims, Pioneers for Peace: Women’s International league for Peace and Freedom, 1915-65. (1965) Self-published.
• Julia Bush, Behind the Lines: East London Labour 1914-1919 (Merlin Press, 1984).
• Francis Ludwig Carsten, War Against War: British and German Radical Movements in the First World War. Univ of California Pr./Batsford (1982)
• Anthony James Coles, The Moral Economy of the Crowd: Some Twentieth-Century Food Riots (food riots in Cumberland 1916-17), Journal of British Studies, Vol. 18, No. 1 (Autumn, 1978), pp. 157-176 Published by: Cambridge University Press
• Barbara Engel, Subsistence riots in Russia during World War I. Article on food riots, mostly by women, during World War I which helped spark the Russian revolution [and therefore end the war]. – 15pp. http://libcom.org/history/subsistence-riots-russia-during-world-war-i-barbara-engel
• Nick Heath, Anarchists against World War One: Two little known events- Abertillery and Stockport.
• Harry McShane, No Mean Fighter. (1978) Pluto Press. Autobiography of Scottish communist, with brief details of anti-war movement in Glasgow, (and interesting accounts of post-WW1 unemployed movement, the Communist Party and more.)
• Keith Robbins, The Abolition Of War: The Peace Movement in Britain 1914-1919. Cardiff: University Of Wales Press (1976)
• Dave Russell, Southwark Trades Council: A Short History 1903-78. Contains an account of local resistance to World War 1 in Camberwell, South London (reproduced in Rare Doings at Camberwell, past tense, 2008.)
• Sylvia Pankhurst, The Home Front.
• Bernard Waites (1987), A Class Society at War, 1914-18. (Leamington Spa, 1987.) Berg, 0907582656, ISBN 0907582656
• Ken Weller, Don’t be a soldier: the radical anti-war movement in North London 1914-18. (London, 1985.)
• John Williams, The Other Battleground: The Home Fronts, Britain, France and Germany, 1914-18 (1972)
• Barbara Winslow, Sylvia Pankhurst (1996)
• The Battle of Cory: Patriots Meet Dissenters in Cardiff. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Battle+of+Cory+Hall,+November+1916%3A+Patriots+Meet+Dissenters+in…-a063583862
Wartime Repressive Measures in Britain
• Brock Millman, Managing Dissent in First World War Britain
The last chapter deals with the stationing of a million and a half troops in Jan 1918 at strategic points across Britain near industrial centres as the authorities became fearful of dissent and revolution – slightly problematic when combined with the threat of mutiny. They also had the problem of trying to fight a war in Europe!
• Margaret Flaws, Spy Fever: The Post Office Affair. Published by The Shetland Times at £14.99. (2009). A remarkable true story of the events surrounding the unexplained incarceration of the entire staff of the Lerwick Post Office at the beginning of the First World War.
• Panikos Panayi, Prisoners of Britain : German civilian and combatant internees during the First World War. http://www.worldcat.org/title/prisoners-of-britain-german-civilian-and-combatant-internees-during-the-first-world-war/oclc/799144766&referer=brief_results
• Panikos Panayi, The enemy in our midst: Germans in Britain during the First World War (1991) http://www.worldcat.org/title/enemy-in-our-midst-germans-in-britain-during-the-first-world-war/oclc/20798306&referer=brief_results
Jingoism, Racism and Chauvinism
• Stephen Bourne, Black Poppies: Britain’s Black Community and the Great War. (To be published 1 August 2014)
• Pat O’Mara, The Lusitania Riots of May 1915: A personal account. http://www.libcom.org/history/lusitania-riots-may-1915-personal-account-pat-omara
Effects of war on soldiers
• Anthony Babington, Shell Shock: A History of the Changing Attitudes to War Neuroses.(Leo Cooper, 1997)
• JMW Binneveld, From Shell Shock to Combat Stress. (Amsterdam University Press, 1997)
• Ted Bogacz, War Neurosis and Cultural Change in England, 1914-22. (Journal of Contemporary History, volume 24, 1989)
• Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male: Men’s Bodies, Britain and the Great War. (Reaktion Books, 1996)
• Eric J Leed, No Man’s Land: Combat and Identity in World War One. (Cambridge University Press, 1979)
• Peter Leese, Problems Returning Home: The British Psychological Casualties of the Great War. (The Historical Journal, volume 40, 1997)
• Derek Summerfield, The invention of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and the social usefulness of a psychiatric category. British Medical Journal, January 13, 2001, available at <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119389/>.
Impact of the War: Studies of Society at War (and peace)
• Wolfgang J Mommsen, Imperial Germany, 1867-1918: Politics, Culture and Society in an Authoritarian State.
• N. P. Howard, The Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19. (http://libcom.org/history/allied-food-blockade-germany-1918-19-n-p-howard)
Women and World War One
• Womens Web (Australia) Womens Stories – Womens Actions. “Remembering ANZAC” http://www.womensweb.com.au/ANZAC.html
• “Prejudice and Reason”. Some Australian Womens responses to war from 1909 to now. Includes ‘2 Women and 2 Journals during WW1’ on support for and opposition to the war. http://www.prejudiceandreason.com.au/index.html
• Karen Hagemann, Home/Front; the Military, War and Gender in Twentieth Century Germany.
• Gail Braybon, Evidence, History and the Great War.
• Ute Daniel, The War from Within: German Women in the First World War.
• Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-39.
• Kate Adie, Fighting on the Home Front: the legacy of women in World War One. Hodder & Stoughton, 2013. 328pp. Wide-ranging, includes a lot about Sunderland.
• Chanie Rosenberg, 1919: Britain on the Brink of Revolution, Bookmarks, London 1987.
• Guy Sabatier, The 1918 treaty of Brest-Litovsk: curbing the revolution
• Dan Weinbren, Revolution at the Arsenal: the Campaign for alternative work at the Woolwich Arsenal after the First World War. (South London Record).
The End of the War, and how it was Celebrated
• Practical History, Churchill, the Cenotaph and May Day 2000. (http://libcom.org/history/churchill-cenotaph-may-day-2000-practical-history)
When did the War Really End?
According to one source the technical date of termination of the war was not until August 1921! Prolonging the war was used to keep people in arms to try to intervene in Russia, as well as to extend repressive powers, eg the vicious Defence of the Realm Act, criminalising dissent, allowing for harsher sentences etc…
WW1 to WW2: Did one lead to the other…?
• Arno Mayer , The Persistence of The Old Regime.
WW1 In Fiction
• Pat Barker, The Regeneration Trilogy:
– The Eye in the Door
– The Ghost Road
• Henri Barbusse, Under Fire (1916)
• A T Fitzroy, Despised and Rejected.
(pseudonym of Rose Allatini) whose central characters are a gay conscientious objector and his lesbian/bisexual anti-war woman friend. This was originally published by CW Daniel in 1918 before being banned under DORA, and was reprinted by Gay Men’s Press in the 1980s, and again quite recently by a small US press. It appears to be out of print, but there’s extracts on google books: http://is.gd/giRtdx
and Amazon: http://www.amazon.co.uk/Despised-Rejected-A-T-Fitzroy/dp/0922558485#reader_0922558485
• Lewis Grassic Gibbon, Sunset Song (1932)
• Jaroslav Hasek, The Good Soldier Svejk in the World War
• Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet on the Western Front (1928)
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<urn:uuid:065fda8d-f8de-40c0-a024-41b42620ff23>
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CC-MAIN-2020-34
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https://network23.org/realww1/category/resources/books/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439738603.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200810012015-20200810042015-00386.warc.gz
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en
| 0.763724 | 6,105 | 2.578125 | 3 |
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