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It is characteristic of great artists generally, and of great writers in particular, to have a discerning view of the basic social and political arrangements of the society in which they live. Therefore, the greater a writer one is, the more astute one will be in perceiving the basic social and political arrangements of one's society. | 200506_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"It assumes, without providing justification, that members of a group that is part of a larger group possess all of the characteristics possessed by members of the larger group.",
"It assumes, without providing justification, that because something is sometimes the case it must always be the case.",
"It assumes, without providing justification, that those artists with political insight do not have insight into matters outside of politics.",
"It assumes, without providing justification, that only great individuals can make discerning criticisms of their societies.",
"It assumes, without providing justification, that because people who have one quality tend to have a second quality, those who have more of the first quality will have more of the second."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning above? |
Political scientist: The economies of a number of European countries are currently in severe difficulty. Germany is the only neighboring country that has the resources to resuscitate these economies. Therefore, Germany should begin aiding these economically troubled countries. | 200506_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"Any nation that alone has an obligation to economically resuscitate neighboring countries ought to be the only nation to provide any economic aid.",
"Any nation that alone has the capacity to economically resuscitate neighboring countries should exercise that capacity.",
"Any nation that can afford to give economic aid to just a few other nations ought to aid just those few.",
"Only nations that alone have the capacity to economically resuscitate neighboring countries should exercise that capacity.",
"Only nations that can afford to give economic aid to just a few other nations ought to aid just those few."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the political scientist's reasoning? |
Critic: Works of literature often present protagonists who scorn allegiance to their society and who advocate detachment rather than civic-mindedness. However, modern literature is distinguished from the literature of earlier eras in part because it more frequently treats such protagonists sympathetically. Sympathetic treatment of such characters suggests to readers that one should be unconcerned about contributing to societal good. Thus, modern literature can damage individuals who appropriate this attitude, as well as damage society at large. | 200506_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"Some individuals in earlier eras were more concerned about contributing to societal good than is any modern individual.",
"It is to the advantage of some individuals that they be concerned with contributing to societal good.",
"Some individuals must believe that their society is better than most before they can become concerned with benefiting it.",
"The aesthetic merit of some literary works cannot be judged in complete independence of their moral effects.",
"Modern literature is generally not as conducive to societal good as was the literature of earlier eras."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the critic's argument relies? |
Psychologist: Some people contend that children should never be reprimanded. Any criticism, let alone punishment, they say, harms children's self-esteem. This view is laudable in its challenge to the belief that children should be punished whenever they misbehave, yet it gives a dangerous answer to the question of how often punishment should be inflicted. When parents never reprimand their children, they are in effect rewarding them for unacceptable behavior, and rewarded behavior tends to recur. | 200506_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"is designed to discredit entirely",
"is designed to establish as true",
"is designed to establish as well intentioned",
"claims has a serious flaw though is not without value",
"claims is less reasonable than any other view mentioned"
]
| 3 | The view that children should never be reprimanded functions in the psychologist's argument as a statement of a position that the psychologist's argument |
Traditionally, students at Kelly University have evaluated professors on the last day of class. But some professors at Kelly either do not distribute the paper evaluation forms or do so selectively, and many students cannot attend the last day of class. Soon, students will be able to use school computers to evaluate their professors at any time during the semester. Therefore, evaluations under the new system will accurately reflect the distribution of student opinion about teaching performance. | 200506_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"Professors who distribute the paper evaluation forms selectively distribute them only to students they personally like.",
"Students can wisely and insightfully assess a professor's performance before the end of the semester.",
"The traditional system for evaluating teaching performance should not be used at any university.",
"Nearly all professors who fail to distribute the paper evaluation forms do so because they believe the students will evaluate them unfavorably.",
"Dissatisfied students are in general not more likely than satisfied students to submit a computerized evaluation."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
A seriously maladaptive trait is unlikely to persist in a given animal population for long, since there is enough genetic variation in populations that some members will lack the trait. Those lacking the trait will compete more successfully for the available resources. Hence these members of the population survive and reproduce at a higher rate, crowding out those with the maladaptive trait. | 200506_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"It expresses a view that the argument as a whole is designed to discredit.",
"It is the argument's main conclusion.",
"It is a premise of the argument.",
"It presents evidence that the argument attempts to undermine.",
"It is an intermediate conclusion of the argument."
]
| 2 | The proposition that those lacking a maladaptive trait will compete more successfully for the available resources figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
Tanya would refrain from littering if everyone else refrained from littering. None of her friends litter, and therefore she does not litter either. | 200506_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"All residents of the same neighborhood have some goals in common. One group of neighborhood residents wants improvements made to a local park, so some other residents of that neighborhood must share this goal.",
"If a talented artist is willing to starve for her career, then her friends should take her choice of profession seriously. Donna's friends take her choice of profession seriously, and she is willing to starve for her career, so she must be a talented artist.",
"Herbert will stop selling office supplies in his store if none of his regular customers complains. Some of his regular customers never knew that Herbert sold office supplies, so those customers will not complain.",
"If all whales need to surface for air, then whales must be easy to observe. Blue whales are easily observed, so they must surface for air.",
"If all of a restaurant's customers like its food, it must be an exceptional restaurant. Everyone whom Sherryl consulted liked the food at Chez Louis, so it must be an exceptional restaurant."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following uses flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? |
Scientist: Genetic engineering has aided new developments in many different fields. But because these techniques require the manipulation of the genetic codes of organisms, they are said to be unethical. What the critics fail to realize is that this kind of manipulation has been going on for millennia; virtually every farm animal is the result of selective breeding for desired traits. Since selective breeding is genetic engineering of a crude sort, genetic engineering is not unethical. | 200506_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"The manipulation of the genetic code of organisms is never unethical.",
"Anything that is accomplished by nature is not unethical to accomplish with science.",
"The manipulation of the genetic code through selective breeding for desired traits is not unethical.",
"The manipulation of the genetic code through selective breeding for desired traits is important for human survival.",
"Science can accomplish only what is already in some sense natural, and nothing natural is unethical."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the scientist's argument depends? |
Baumgartner's comparison of the environmental hazards of gasoline-powered cars with those of electric cars is misleading. He examines only production of the cars, whereas it is the product's total life cycle—production, use, and recycling—that matters in determining its environmental impact. A typical gasoline-powered car consumes 3 times more resources and produces 15 to 20 times more air pollution than a typical electric car. | 200506_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"Baumgartner makes a deceptive comparison between the environmental hazards of gasoline-powered and electric cars.",
"The use of a typical gasoline-powered car results in much greater resource depletion than does the use of a typical electric car.",
"Baumgartner uses inaccurate data in his comparison of the environmental hazards of gasoline-powered and electric cars.",
"The total life cycle of a product is what matters in assessing its environmental impact.",
"The production of gasoline-powered cars creates more environmental hazards than does that of electric cars."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the argument? |
Over the last 10 years, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of people over the age of 65 living in this region. This is evident from the fact that during this time the average age of people living in this region has increased from approximately 52 to 57 years. | 200506_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"The number of people in the region under the age of 18 has increased over the last 10 years.",
"The birth rate for the region decreased significantly over the last 10 years.",
"The total number of people living in the region has decreased over the last 10 years.",
"The number of people who moved into the region over the last 10 years is greater than the number of those who moved out.",
"The average age for people in the region is higher than that for people in surrounding regions."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument? |
Editorial: A recently passed law limits freedom of speech in order to silence dissenters. It has been said that those who are ignorant of history will repeat its patterns. If this is true, then those responsible for passing the law must be ignorant of a great deal of history. Historically, silencing dissenters has tended to promote undemocratic policies and the establishment of authoritarian regimes. | 200506_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"the law may have other purposes in addition to silencing dissenters",
"certain freedoms might sometimes need to be limited in order to ensure the protection of certain other freedoms",
"some historical accounts report that legal restrictions on freedom of speech have occasionally undermined the establishment of authoritarian regimes",
"many good laws have been passed by people who are largely ignorant of history",
"even those who are not ignorant of history may repeat its patterns"
]
| 4 | The editorialist's reasoning is flawed in that it fails to take into account that |
Editorialist: Despite the importance it seems to have in our lives, money does not really exist. This is evident from the fact that all that would be needed to make money disappear would be a universal loss of belief in it. We witness this phenomenon on a small scale daily in the rises and falls of financial markets, whose fluctuations are often entirely independent of concrete causes and are the results of mere beliefs of investors. | 200506_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"Anything that exists would continue to exist even if everyone were to stop believing in it.",
"Only if one can have mistaken beliefs about a thing does that thing exist, strictly speaking.",
"In order to exist, an entity must have practical consequences for those who believe in it.",
"If everyone believes in something, then that thing exists.",
"Whatever is true of money is true of financial markets generally."
]
| 0 | The conclusion of the editorialist's argument can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
False chicory's taproot is always one half as long as the plant is tall. Furthermore, the more rain false chicory receives, the taller it tends to grow. In fact, false chicory plants that receive greater than twice the average rainfall of the species' usual habitat always reach above-average heights for false chicory. | 200506_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"If two false chicory plants differ in height, then it is likely that the one with the shorter taproot has received less than twice the average rainfall of the species' usual habitat.",
"If a false chicory plant has a longer-than-average taproot, then it is likely to have received more than twice the average rainfall of the species' usual habitat.",
"It is not possible for a false chicory plant to receive only the average amount of rainfall of the species' usual habitat and be of above-average height.",
"If the plants in one group of false chicory are not taller than those in another group of false chicory, then the two groups must have received the same amount of rainfall.",
"If a false chicory plant receives greater than twice the average rainfall of the species' usual habitat, then it will have a longer taproot than that of an average-sized false chicory plant."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are true, then which one of the following must also be true? |
Fossilized teeth of an extinct species of herbivorous great ape have on them phytoliths, which are microscopic petrified remains of plants. Since only phytoliths from certain species of plants are found on the teeth, the apes' diet must have consisted only of those plants. | 200506_3-LR2_26_26 | [
"None of the plant species that left phytoliths on the apes' teeth has since become extinct.",
"Plants of every type eaten by the apes left phytoliths on their teeth.",
"Each of the teeth examined had phytoliths of the same plant species on it as all the other teeth.",
"Phytoliths have also been found on the fossilized teeth of apes of other extinct species.",
"Most species of great ape alive today have diets that consist of a fairly narrow range of plants."
]
| 1 | The argument assumes which one of the following? |
While it might be expected that those neighborhoods most heavily patrolled by police have the least crime, the statistical evidence overwhelmingly supports the claim that such neighborhoods have the most crime. This shows that the presence of police does not decrease crime in a neighborhood. | 200510_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"attempts to support its conclusion by making an appeal to emotions",
"fails to consider the possibility that criminals may commit crimes in more than one neighborhood",
"draws a general conclusion from too small a sample of data",
"fails to consider the possibility that police presence in a particular area is often a response to the relatively high crime rate in that area",
"takes for granted that public resources devoted to police presence could be allocated in another manner that would be a stronger deterrent to crime"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Despite increasing international efforts to protect the natural habitats of endangered species of animals, the rate at which these species are becoming extinct continues to rise. It is clear that these efforts are wasted. | 200510_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"Scientists are better able to preserve the habitats of endangered species now than ever before.",
"Species that would have become extinct have been saved due to the establishment of animal refuges.",
"Scientists estimate that at least 2000 species become extinct every year.",
"Many countries do not recognize the increased economic benefit of tourism associated with preserved natural habitats.",
"Programs have been proposed that will transfer endangered species out of habitats that are in danger of being destroyed."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
When a lawmaker spoke out against a research grant awarded to a professor in a university's psychology department as a foolish expenditure of public money, other professors in that department drafted a letter protesting the lawmaker's interference in a field in which he was not trained. The chair of the psychology department, while privately endorsing the project, refused to sign the protest letter on the ground that she had previously written a letter applauding the same legislator when he publicized a senseless expenditure by the country's military. | 200510_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"A person should not publicly criticize the actions of a lawmaker in different cases without giving careful consideration to the circumstances of each particular case.",
"The chair of an academic department has an obligation to ensure that public funds allocated to support projects within that department are spent wisely.",
"A person who has praised a lawmaker for playing a watchdog role in one case should not criticize the lawmaker for attempting to play a watchdog role in another case that involves the person's professional interests.",
"Since academic institutions accept public funds but do not pay taxes, a representative of an academic institution should not publicly pass judgment on the actions of government officials.",
"Academic institutions have the same responsibility as military institutions have to spend public money wisely."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if established, provides the strongest justification for the department chair's refusal, on the ground she gives, to sign the protest letter? |
Aaron:A prominent judge, criticizing "famous lawyers who come before courts ill-prepared to argue their cases," recently said, "This sort of cavalier attitude offends the court and can do nothing but harm to the client's cause." I find the judge's remarks irresponsible. Belinda:I find it natural and an admirable display of candor. Letting people know of the damage their negligence causes is responsible behavior. | 200510_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"ill-prepared lawyers damage their clients' causes",
"the judge's criticism of lawyers is irresponsible",
"a lawyer's being ill-prepared to argue a client's case constitutes negligence",
"famous lawyers have a greater responsibility to be well prepared than do lawyers who are not famous",
"it is to be expected that ill-prepared lawyers would offend the court in which they appear"
]
| 1 | The point at issue between Aaron and Belinda is whether |
The human emotional response presents an apparent paradox. People believe that they can be genuinely moved only by those things and events that they believe to be actual, yet they have genuine emotional responses to what they know to be fictional. | 200510_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"Fred was watching a horror movie. Although he did not expect to be bothered by make-believe monsters, he nonetheless felt frightened when they appeared on the screen.",
"Tamara was reading Hamlet. Although she knew that it was a work of fiction, she still made statements such as \"Hamlet was born in Denmark\" and \"Hamlet was a prince.\"",
"Raheem thought that his sister was in the hospital. Although he was mistaken, he was nevertheless genuinely worried when he believed she was there.",
"Jeremy was upset by the actions that a writer attributed to a secret organization, although he considered it unlikely that the writer's account was accurate.",
"Sandy was watching a film about World War II. Although the film's details were accurate, it was nevertheless difficult for Sandy to maintain interest in the characters."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following situations most closely conforms to the principle cited above? |
Recent investigations of earthquakes have turned up a previously unknown type of seismic shock, known as a displacement pulse, which is believed to be present in all earthquakes. Alarmingly, high-rise buildings are especially vulnerable to displacement pulses, according to computer models. Yet examination of high-rises within cities damaged by recent powerful earthquakes indicates little significant damage to these structures. | 200510_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"Displacement pulses travel longer distances than other types of seismic shock.",
"Scientific predictions based on computer models often fail when tested in the field.",
"While displacement pulses have only recently been discovered, they have accompanied all earthquakes that have ever occurred.",
"The displacement pulses made by low- and medium-intensity earthquakes are much less powerful than those made by the strongest earthquakes.",
"Computer models have been very successful in predicting the effects of other types of seismic shock."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, contributes to a resolution of the apparent paradox? |
Terry: Months ago, I submitted a claim for my stolen bicycle to my insurance company. After hearing nothing for several weeks, I contacted the firm and found they had no record of my claim. Since then, I have resubmitted the claim twice and called the firm repeatedly, but I have yet to receive a settlement. Anyone can make mistakes, of course, but the persistence of the error makes me conclude that the company is deliberately avoiding paying up. | 200510_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"Consumers should avoid attributing dishonesty to a corporation when the actions of the corporation might instead be explained by incompetence.",
"Consumers should attempt to keep themselves informed of corporate behavior that directly affects their interests.",
"In judging the quality of service of a corporation, a consumer should rely primarily on the consumer's own experience with the corporation.",
"In judging the morality of a corporation's behavior, as opposed to that of an individual, mitigating circumstances are irrelevant.",
"Corporations ought to make available to a customer any information the customer requests that is relevant to the customer's interests."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles is violated by Terry's reasoning? |
Fortune-teller: Admittedly, the claims of some self-proclaimed "psychics" have been shown to be fraudulent, but the exposure of a few charlatans cannot alter the fundamental fact that it has not been scientifically proven that there is no such thing as extrasensory perception (ESP). Furthermore, since the failed attempts to produce such a proof have been so numerous, one must conclude that some individuals do possess ESP. | 200510_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"takes for granted that proof that many people lack a characteristic does not establish that everyone lacks that characteristic",
"takes for granted that the number of unsuccessful attempts to prove a claim is the only factor relevant to whether one should accept that claim",
"overlooks the possibility that some of the scientific studies mentioned reached inaccurate conclusions about whether ESP exists",
"takes for granted that there is no scientific way to determine whether some individuals possess ESP",
"takes for granted that the fact that a claim has not been demonstrated to be false establishes that it is true"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the fortune-teller's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Film historians have made two major criticisms of Depression-era filmmakers: first, that they were too uncritical of the economic status quo; and second, that they self-indulgently created films reflecting their own dreams and desires. However, these filmmakers made their movies with an eye to profit, and so they provided what their audiences most wanted in a film: a chance to imagine being wealthy enough not to have a care in the world. Thus, the second criticism cannot be accurate. | 200510_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"To avoid self-indulgence, filmmakers should take a critical stance toward the existing economic system and should allow audiences to form their own personal aspirations.",
"It is unjustified to demand of all filmmakers that their films engage in criticism of the economic status quo.",
"The people who regularly went to movies during the Depression were those likely to have been most satisfied with the economic status quo.",
"Depression-era filmmakers who did not make films for profit could not take radical critical stances toward then-current economic and political issues.",
"It cannot be self-indulgent for a filmmaker to give an audience what it most wants."
]
| 4 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Editorial: Many observers note with dismay the decline in the number of nongovernmental, voluntary community organizations. They argue that this decline is caused by the corresponding growth of government services once provided by these voluntary community groups. But this may not be true. The increase in government services may coincide with a decrease in volunteerism, but the former does not necessarily cause the latter; the latter may indeed cause the former. | 200510_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"showing that there is no causality involved",
"offering a counterexample to the alleged correlation",
"proving that no generalization can properly be drawn about people's motives for volunteering",
"offering an alternate explanation of the correlation cited",
"proving that governments must do what community organizations fail to do"
]
| 3 | The editorial undermines the conclusion of the causal argument by |
In contemplating major purchases, businesses often consider only whether there is enough money left from monthly revenues after paying monthly expenses to cover the cost of the purchase. But many expenses do not occur monthly; taking into account only monthly expenses can cause a business to overexpand. So the use of a cash-flow statement is critical for all businesses. | 200510_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"Only a cash-flow statement can accurately document all monthly expenses.",
"Any business that has overexpanded can benefit from the use of a cash-flow statement.",
"When a business documents only monthly expenses it also documents only monthly revenue.",
"A cash-flow statement is the only way to track both monthly expenses and expenses that are not monthly.",
"When a business takes into account all expenses, not just monthly ones, it can make better decisions."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
All known living things are made of the same basic kinds of matter, are carbon based, and are equipped with genetic codes. So human life has the same origin as all other known life. | 200510_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"Without the existence of other life forms, human life would never have come into existence.",
"There are not any living beings that have genetic codes but are not carbon based.",
"There can never be any living thing that does not have a genetic code.",
"Many yet-to-be-discovered types of living things will also be carbon based.",
"Any two living things made of the same basic kinds of matter have the same origin."
]
| 4 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
All societies recognize certain rules to be so crucial that they define those rules as duties, such as rules restricting violence and those requiring the keeping of agreements. Contained in the notion of a duty is the idea that its fulfillment is so fundamental to a properly functioning society that persons obligated by it cannot be excused on the ground that its fulfillment would be harmful to their self-interest. This shows that ____. | 200510_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"all societies overrate the benefits of certain rules, such as those governing the keeping of agreements",
"all societies have certain rules that no people are capable of following",
"all societies recognize the possibility of clashes between individual self-interest and the performance of duty",
"a properly functioning society will recognize that some duties take priority over others",
"societies have no right to expect people always to perform their duties"
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most reasonably completes the argument? |
Linguist: Regional dialects, many of which eventually become distinct languages, are responses by local populations to their own particular communicative needs. So even when the unification of the world economy forces the adoption of a universal language for use in international trade, this language itself will inevitably develop many regional dialects. | 200510_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"No two local populations have the same communicative needs as each other.",
"In some regions of the world, at least some people will not engage in international trade after the unification of the world economy.",
"A universal language for use in international trade will not arise unless the world economy is unified.",
"When the unification of the world economy forces the adoption of a universal language for use in international trade, many regional dialects of other languages will be eradicated.",
"After the unification of the world economy, there will be variation among many different local populations in their communicative needs in international trade."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption that the linguist's argument requires? |
Often, a product popularly believed to be the best of its type is no better than any other; rather, the product's reputation, which may be independent of its quality, provides its owner with status. Thus, although there is no harm in paying for status if that is what one wants, one should know that one is paying for prestige, not quality. | 200510_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"Often, choosing the best job offer is a matter of comparing the undesirable features of the different jobs. Thus, those who choose a job because it has a desirable location should know that they might be unhappy with its hours.",
"Most people have little tolerance for boastfulness. Thus, although one's friends may react positively when hearing the details of one's accomplishments, it is unlikely that their reactions are entirely honest.",
"Those beginning a new hobby sometimes quit it because of the frustrations involved in learning a new skill. Thus, although it is fine to try to learn a skill quickly, one is more likely to learn a skill if one first learns to enjoy the process of acquiring it.",
"Personal charm is often confused with virtue. Thus, while there is nothing wrong with befriending a charming person, anyone who does so should realize that a charming friend is not necessarily a good and loyal friend.",
"Many theatrical actors cannot enjoy watching a play because when they watch others, they yearn to be on stage themselves. Thus, although there is no harm in yearning to perform, such performers should, for their own sakes, learn to suppress that yearning."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
Essayist: Many people are hypocritical in that they often pretend to be more morally upright than they really are. When hypocrisy is exposed, hypocrites are embarrassed by their moral lapse, which motivates them and others to try to become better people. On the other hand, when hypocrisy persists without exposure, the belief that most people are good is fostered, which motivates most people to try to be good. | 200510_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"The existence of hypocrisy encourages people to believe that no one is morally blameless.",
"The existence of hypocrisy encourages people to make efforts to live by moral standards.",
"The existence of hypocrisy in some people encourages others to fall into moral lapses.",
"The hiding of hypocrisy is a better way of motivating people to try to be good than is the exposing of it.",
"There is no stronger motivator for people to try to be good than the exposing of hypocrisy."
]
| 1 | The essayist's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
"Multiple use" refers to the utilization of natural resources in combinations that will best meet the present and future needs of the public. Designating land as a wilderness area does not necessarily violate the multiple-use philosophy, for even when such use does not provide the greatest dollar return, it can provide the greatest overall benefit from that site. | 200510_1-LR1_17_17 | [
"Natural resources should be used in combinations that will most greatly benefit present and future generations.",
"Designating a wilderness area prevents any exploitation of natural resources in that area.",
"The present and future needs of the public would best be met by designating greater numbers of wilderness areas.",
"The multiple-use philosophy takes into account some nonfinancial needs of the public.",
"The multiple-use philosophy holds that the future needs of the public are more important than the present ones."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
In the troposphere, the lowest level of the earth's atmosphere, the temperature decreases as one progresses straight upward. At the top, the air temperature ranges from -50 degrees Celsius over the poles to -85 degrees Celsius over the equator. At that point the stratosphere begins, and the temperature stops decreasing and instead increases as one progresses straight upward through the stratosphere. The stratosphere is warmed by ozone. When an ozone particle absorbs a dose of ultraviolet sunlight, heat is generated. | 200510_1-LR1_18_18 | [
"The troposphere over the poles is thicker than the troposphere over the equator.",
"It is warmer at the top of the stratosphere over the poles than it is at the top of the stratosphere over the equator.",
"The temperature in the middle part of the stratosphere over the North Pole is at least as great as the temperature in the middle part of the stratosphere over the equator.",
"The temperature at any point at the top of the stratosphere is at least as great as the temperature at the top of the troposphere directly beneath that point.",
"Depletion of the earth's ozone layer would increase the air temperature in the stratosphere and decrease the air temperature in the troposphere."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
There have been no new cases of naturally occurring polio in North America in recent years. Yet there are approximately 12 new cases of polio each year in North America, all caused by the commonly administered live oral polio vaccine (OPV). Substituting inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) for most childhood polio immunizations would cut the number of cases of vaccination-caused polio about in half. Clearly it is time to switch from OPV to IPV as the most commonly used polio vaccine for North American children. | 200510_1-LR1_19_19 | [
"If IPV replaces OPV as the most commonly used polio vaccine, at least a few new cases of naturally occurring polio in North America will result each year.",
"The vast majority of cases of polio caused by OPV have occurred in children with preexisting but unsuspected immunodeficiency disorders.",
"A child's risk of contracting polio from OPV has been estimated at 1 in 8.7 million, which is significantly less than the risk of being struck by lightning.",
"Although IPV is preferred in some European nations, most countries with comprehensive child immunization programs use OPV.",
"IPV, like most vaccines, carries a slight risk of inducing seizures in children with neurological diseases such as epilepsy."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Professor: Each government should do all that it can to improve the well-being of all the children in the society it governs. Therefore, governments should help finance high-quality day care since such day care will become available to families of all income levels if and only if it is subsidized. | 200510_1-LR1_20_20 | [
"Only governments that subsidize high-quality day care take an interest in the well-being of all the children in the societies they govern.",
"Government subsidy of high-quality day care would not be so expensive that it would cause a government to eliminate benefits for adults.",
"High-quality day care should be subsidized only for those who could not otherwise afford it.",
"At least some children would benefit from high-quality day care.",
"Government is a more efficient provider of certain services than is private enterprise."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the professor's argument depends? |
Opposition leader: Our country has the least fair court system of any country on the continent and ought not to be the model for others. Thus, our highest court is the least fair of any on the continent and ought not to be emulated by other countries. | 200510_1-LR1_21_21 | [
"The residents of medium-sized towns are, on average, more highly educated than people who do not live in such towns. Therefore, Maureen, who was born in a medium-sized town, is more highly educated than Monica, who has just moved to such a town.",
"At a certain college, either philosophy or engineering is the most demanding major. Therefore, either the introductory course in philosophy or the introductory course in engineering is the most demanding introductory-level course at that college.",
"For many years its superior engineering has enabled the Lawson Automobile Company to make the best racing cars. Therefore, its passenger cars, which use many of the same parts, are unmatched by those of any other company.",
"Domestic cats are closely related to tigers. Therefore, even though they are far smaller than tigers, their eating habits are almost the same as those of tigers.",
"If a suit of questionable merit is brought in the first district rather than the second district, its chances of being immediately thrown out are greater. Therefore, to have the best chance of winning the case, the lawyers will bring the suit in the second district."
]
| 1 | The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the opposition leader's argument? |
Columnist: There are certain pesticides that, even though they have been banned for use in the United States for nearly 30 years, are still manufactured there and exported to other countries. In addition to jeopardizing the health of people in these other countries, this practice greatly increases the health risk to U.S. consumers, for these pesticides are often used on agricultural products imported into the United States. | 200510_1-LR1_22_22 | [
"Trace amounts of some of the pesticides banned for use in the United States can be detected in the soil where they were used 30 years ago.",
"Most of the pesticides that are manufactured in the United States and exported are not among those banned for use in the United States.",
"The United States is not the only country that manufactures and exports the pesticides that are banned for use in the United States.",
"The banned pesticides pose a greater risk to people in the countries in which they are used than to U.S. consumers.",
"There are many pesticides that are banned for use in other countries that are not banned for use in the United States."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the columnist's argument? |
Columnist: Neuroscientists have found that states of profound creativity are accompanied by an increase of theta brain waves, which occur in many regions of the brain, including the hippocampus. They also found that listening to music increases theta waves dramatically. Thus, one can attain a state of profound creativity merely by listening to a tape of recorded music. | 200510_1-LR1_23_23 | [
"takes for granted that there is a causal connection between the hippocampus and being in a state of profound creativity",
"fails to consider that music is not necessary for one to be in a state of profound creativity",
"does not rule out the possibility that listening to music by means other than a tape recording also increases theta waves",
"ignores the possibility that an increase in theta waves may not always be accompanied by a state of profound creativity",
"provides insufficient reasons to believe that people who are not in states of profound creativity have low levels of theta brain waves"
]
| 3 | The columnist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Consumer advocate: The manufacturer's instructions for assembling a product should be written in such a way that most consumers would find it much easier to put the product together if the instructions were available than if they were not. | 200510_1-LR1_24_24 | [
"The typical consumer who assembles a product does so using the manufacturer's instructions, but still has great difficulty.",
"Often the store at which a consumer purchases an unassembled product will offer, for a fee, to assemble the product and deliver it.",
"For the typical product, most consumers who assemble it do so very easily and without ever consulting the manufacturer's instructions.",
"Usually a consumer who is trying to assemble a product using the manufacturer's instructions has no difficulty understanding the instructions.",
"Some consumers refer to the manufacturer's instructions for assembling a product only if they have difficulty assembling the product."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would provide the strongest reason for thinking that the principle advanced by the consumer advocate cannot always be followed? |
Claude: Because of the relatively high number of middle-aged people in the workforce, there will be fewer opportunities for promotion into upper-management positions. Since this will decrease people's incentive to work hard, economic productivity and the quality of life will diminish. Thelma: This glut of middle-aged workers will lead many people to form their own companies. They will work hard and thus increase economic productivity, improving the quality of life even if many of the companies ultimately fail. | 200510_1-LR1_25_25 | [
"The quality of life in a society affects that society's economic productivity.",
"The failure of many companies will not necessarily have a negative effect on overall economic productivity.",
"How hard a company's employees work is a function of what they think their chances for promotion are in that company.",
"The number of middle-aged people in the workforce will increase in the coming years.",
"Economic productivity will be affected by the number of middle-aged people in the workforce."
]
| 4 | On the basis of their statements, Claude and Thelma are committed to agreeing about which one of the following? |
Researchers gave 100 first-graders after-school lessons in handwriting. They found that those whose composition skills had improved the most had learned to write letters the most automatically. This suggests that producing characters more automatically frees up mental resources for other activities. | 200510_1-LR1_26_26 | [
"Among the first-graders who received the after-school lessons in handwriting, those who practiced the most learned to write letters the most automatically.",
"The first-graders who wrote letters the most automatically before receiving the after-school lessons in handwriting showed the greatest improvement in their composition skills over the course of the lessons.",
"Over the course of the lessons, the first-graders who showed greater improvement in their ability to write letters automatically also generally showed greater improvement in their composition skills.",
"Before receiving the after-school lessons in handwriting, the 100 first-graders who received the lessons were representative of first-graders more generally, with respect to their skills in both handwriting and composition.",
"Among the first-graders who received the lessons in handwriting, those who started out with strong composition skills showed substantial improvement in how automatically they could write letters."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Although fiber-optic telephone cable is more expensive to manufacture than copper telephone cable, a telephone network using fiber-optic cable is less expensive overall than a telephone network using copper cable. This is because copper cable requires frequent amplification of complex electrical signals to carry them for long distances, whereas the pulses of light that are transmitted along fiber-optic cable can travel much farther before amplification is needed. | 200510_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"The material from which fiber-optic cable is manufactured is more expensive than the copper from which copper cable is made.",
"The increase in the number of transmissions of complex signals through telephone cables is straining those telephone networks that still use copper cable.",
"Fiber-optic cable can carry many more signals simultaneously than copper cable can.",
"Signals transmitted through fiber-optic cable travel at the same speed as signals transmitted through copper cable.",
"The cost associated with frequent amplification of signals traveling through copper cable exceeds the extra manufacturing cost of fiber-optic cable."
]
| 4 | The above statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Being near woodlands, the natural habitat of bees, promotes the health of crops that depend on pollination. Bees, the most common pollinators, visit flowers far from woodlands less often than they visit flowers close to woodlands. | 200510_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"The likelihood that a plant is pollinated increases as the number of visits from pollinators increases.",
"Many bees live in habitats other than woodlands.",
"Woodlands are not the natural habitat of all pollinators.",
"Some pollinators visit flowers far from their habitats more often than they visit flowers close to their habitats.",
"Many crops that are not near woodlands depend on pollination."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
According to the rules of the university's housing lottery, the only students guaranteed dormitory rooms are fourth-year students. In addition, any fourth-year student on the dean's list can choose a dormitory room before anyone who is not a fourth-year student. | 200510_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Benizer is a fourth-year student who is not on the dean's list, so she is not guaranteed a dormitory room.",
"Ivan and Naomi are both fourth-year students but only Naomi is on the dean's list. Therefore, Ivan can choose a dormitory room before Naomi.",
"Halle, a third-year student, is on the dean's list. Thus, she is guaranteed a dormitory room.",
"Gerald and Katrina are both on the dean's list but only Gerald is a fourth-year student. Thus, Gerald can choose a dormitory room before Katrina.",
"Anissa is a fourth-year student who is on the dean's list. Thus, since Jehan is a second-year student who is also on the dean's list, he can choose a dormitory room before Anissa."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following inferences is most strongly supported by the rules described above? |
To the editor: For generations, magnificent racehorses have been bred in our area. Our most valuable product, however, has been generations of children raised with the character that makes them winners in the contests of life. Gambling is wrong, and children raised in an atmosphere where the goal is to get something for nothing will not develop good character. Those who favor developing good character in children over gambling on horses should vote against allowing our first racetrack to be built. L.E. | 200510_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"If good character is developed in children early, the children continue to have good character in different environments.",
"In other areas with gambling, parents are able to raise children of good character.",
"In most areas with horse racing, the percentage of adults who gamble increases gradually from year to year.",
"Children whose parents gamble do not necessarily gamble when they become adults.",
"Where voters have had the opportunity to vote on horse racing, they have consistently approved it."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens L.E.'s argument? |
Azadeh: The recent increase in the amount of organically produced food indicates that consumers are taking a greater interest in the environment. Thus, there is new hope for a healthier planet. Ben: No, Azadeh, if you interviewed people who buy organic produce, you'd see that they're actually as selfish as everyone else, since they're motivated only by worries about their own health. | 200510_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"it is likely that a healthy planet can be maintained if most people continue in their present eating habits",
"people can become healthier by increasing their consumption of organic foods",
"people ought to be more concerned about the environment than they currently are",
"the rise in organic food production shows people to have a greater concern for the environment than they had before",
"people can be persuaded to have a greater concern for the environment than they now have"
]
| 3 | Azadeh's and Ben's statements provide the most support for holding that they disagree about whether |
Citizen: The primary factor determining a dog's disposition is not its breed, but its home environment. A bad owner can undo generations of careful breeding. Legislation focusing on specific breeds of dogs would not address the effects of human behavior in raising and training animals. As a result, such breed-specific legislation could never effectively protect the public from vicious dogs. Moreover, in my view, the current laws are perfectly adequate. | 200510_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"The public would not be effectively protected from violent dogs by breed-specific legislation.",
"A good home environment is more important than breeding to a dog's disposition.",
"The home environment of dogs would not be regulated by breed-specific legislation.",
"Irresponsible dog owners are capable of producing dogs with bad dispositions regardless of generations of careful breeding.",
"The vicious-dog laws that are currently in effect do not address the effects of human behavior in raising and training dogs."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn by the citizen? |
Legislator: To keep our food safe, we must prohibit the use of any food additives that have been found to cause cancer. Commentator: An absolute prohibition is excessive. Today's tests can detect a single molecule of potentially cancer-causing substances, but we know that consuming significantly larger amounts of such a chemical does not increase one's risk of getting cancer. Thus, we should instead set a maximum acceptable level for each problematic chemical, somewhat below the level at which the substance has been shown to lead to cancer but above zero. | 200510_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"The level at which a given food additive has been shown to lead to cancer in children is generally about half the level at which it leads to cancer in adults.",
"Consuming small amounts of several different cancer-causing chemicals can lead to cancer even if consuming such an amount of any one cancer-causing chemical would not.",
"The law would prohibit only the deliberate addition of cancer-causing chemicals and would not require the removal of naturally occurring cancer-causing substances.",
"For some food additives, the level at which the substance has been shown to lead to cancer is lower than the level at which the additive provides any benefit.",
"All food additives have substitutes that can be used in their place."
]
| 1 | Of the following, which one, if true, is the logically strongest counter the legislator can make to the commentator's argument? |
Consumer advocate: There is ample evidence that the model of car one drives greatly affects the chances that one's car will be stolen. The model of car stolen most often in our country last year, for example, was also the model stolen most often in the preceding year. | 200510_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"fails to address adequately the possibility that the model of car that was stolen most often last year was the most common model of car in the consumer advocate's country",
"fails to address adequately the possibility that the age of a car also greatly affects its chances of being stolen",
"fails to address adequately the possibility that the car model that was stolen most often last year was stolen as often as it was because it has a very high resale value",
"presumes, without providing justification, that someone considering whether or not to steal a particular car considers only what model the car is",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the likelihood of a car's being stolen should override other considerations in deciding which car one should drive"
]
| 0 | The consumer advocate's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Laird: Pure research provides us with new technologies that contribute to saving lives. Even more worthwhile than this, however, is its role in expanding our knowledge and providing new, unexplored ideas. Kim: Your priorities are mistaken. Saving lives is what counts most of all. Without pure research, medicine would not be as advanced as it is. | 200510_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"derives its significance in part from its providing new technologies",
"expands the boundaries of our knowledge of medicine",
"should have the saving of human lives as an important goal",
"has its most valuable achievements in medical applications",
"has any value apart from its role in providing new technologies to save lives"
]
| 3 | Laird and Kim disagree on whether pure research |
Naturalist: To be dependable, the accounting framework used by national economists to advise the government must take into account all of our nation's assets; but the current accounting framework used by our national economists assigns no value to government-owned natural resources, which are clearly assets. | 200510_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"Economists' indifference toward the destruction of natural resources will lead policymakers to make poor decisions.",
"Naturalists and economists disagree about whether natural resources have value.",
"The accounting framework used by national economists is not reliable.",
"Natural resources are a vital economic asset for every nation.",
"Changes in the environment have a value that is not represented in any accounting framework."
]
| 2 | The naturalist's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Carrots are known to be one of the best sources of naturally occurring vitamin A. However, although farmers in Canada and the United States report increasing demand for carrots over the last decade, the number of people diagnosed with vitamin A deficiency in these countries has also increased in that time. | 200510_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"The population has significantly increased in every age group.",
"The purchase of peeled and chopped carrots has become very popular, though carrots are known to lose their vitamins quickly once peeled.",
"Certain cuisines that have become popular use many more vegetable ingredients, including carrots, than most cuisines that were previously popular.",
"Carrot consumption has increased only among those demographic groups that have historically had low vitamin A deficiency rates.",
"Weather conditions have caused a decrease in the availability of carrots."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true of Canada and the United States over the last decade, helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above EXCEPT: |
Critics have argued that because Freudianism holds that people have unconscious desires that can defeat their attempts to follow rational life plans, it is incompatible with the predominantly rationalistic spirit of Western philosophical and psychological thought. But it is a central tenet of Freudianism that through psychoanalysis one can become conscious of one's previously unconscious desires, enabling one to avoid being defeated by them. Therefore, ____. | 200510_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"Freudianism does not run counter to the rationalistic mainstream of Western philosophical and psychological thought",
"Freudianism holds that people can always achieve happiness through psychoanalysis",
"Freudianism may be the beginning of a new trend in Western philosophical and psychological thought",
"psychoanalysis provides one with a rational life plan",
"Freudianism reflects the predominantly rationalistic spirit of Western philosophical and psychological thought more than any other psychological theory"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Writer: In the diplomat's or lawyer's world, a misinterpreted statement can result in an international incident or an undeserved prison term. Thus, legal and diplomatic language is stilted and utterly without literary merit, since by design it prevents misinterpretation, which in these areas can have severe consequences. | 200510_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"Language that has literary value is more likely to be misunderstood than language without literary value.",
"Literary documents are generally less important than legal or diplomatic documents.",
"Lawyers and diplomats are much less likely to be misunderstood than are novelists.",
"The issues that are of interest to lawyers and diplomats are of little interest to others.",
"People express themselves more cautiously when something important is at stake."
]
| 0 | The writer's argument requires assuming which one of the following? |
Overexposure to certain wavelengths of strong sunlight is the main cause of melanoma, a virulent form of skin cancer. For this reason, doctors now urge everyone to put adequate sunblock on skin exposed to strong sunlight. Adequate sunblock, according to doctors, is any preparation that prevents sunburn even if the person is exposed to strong sunlight for a significant length of time. | 200510_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"There is no evidence that there are wavelengths of sunlight that lead to both sunburn and melanoma.",
"There are people who have allergic reactions to certain chemicals found in many sunblocks.",
"Many sunblocks need repeated applications to remain effective for a significant length of time.",
"Toxins contained in certain chemical compounds also cause melanoma.",
"Sunburns appear immediately after exposure to the sun but melanoma appears years after repeated exposures."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the recommendation that people wear adequate sunblock? |
In a study, parents were asked to rate each television program that their children watched. The programs were rated for violent content on a scale of one to five, with "one" indicating no violence and "five" indicating a great deal. The number of times their children were disciplined in school was also recorded. Children who watched programs with an average violence rating of three or higher were 50 percent more likely to have been disciplined than other children. | 200510_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"Children who are excited by violent action programs on television tend to become bored with schoolwork and to express their boredom in an unacceptable fashion.",
"When parents watch violent programs on television with their children, those children become more likely to regard antisocial behavior as legitimate.",
"Parents who rated their children's television viewing low on violence had become desensitized to the violence on television by watching too much of it.",
"Children learn from violent programs on television to disrespect society's prohibitions of violence and, as a result, are more likely than other children to disrespect the school disciplinary codes.",
"Parents who do not allow their children to watch programs with a high level of violence are more likely than other parents to be careful about other aspects of their children's behavior."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, helps to explain the statistical relationship described above EXCEPT: |
In the last election, 89 percent of reporters voted for the incumbent. The content of news programs reveals that reporters allowed the personal biases reflected in this voting pattern to affect their news coverage: 54 percent of coverage concerning the challenger was negative, compared with only 30 percent of that concerning the incumbent. | 200510_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that both candidates received equal amounts of coverage overall",
"ignores the possibility that there was more negative news worthy of reporting concerning the challenger than there was concerning the incumbent",
"presumes, without providing justification, that allowing biases to influence reporting is always detrimental to the resulting news coverage",
"ignores the possibility that the electorate's voting behavior is not significantly affected by the content of coverage of candidates",
"ignores the possibility that reporters generally fear losing access to incumbents more than they fear losing access to challengers"
]
| 1 | The argument is logically most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Art critic: Abstract paintings are nonrepresentational, and so the only measure of their worth is their interplay of color, texture, and form. But for a painting to spur the viewer to political action, instances of social injustice must be not only represented, but also clearly comprehensible as such. Therefore, abstract painting can never be a politically significant art form. | 200510_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"Abstract painting cannot stimulate people to act.",
"Unless people view representations of social injustice, their political activity is insignificant.",
"Only art that prompts people to counter social injustice is significant art.",
"Paintings that fail to move a viewer to political action cannot be politically significant.",
"The interplay of color, texture, and form is not a measure of the worth of representational paintings."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption that is required by the art critic's argument? |
North Americans who travel to Europe for the first time should include significant time in Italy on their itinerary. To develop an appreciation of a continent that goes beyond the mere accumulation of impressions, one needs to acquire a thorough knowledge of at least one country, and North Americans seem to find it easier to get to know Italy than other European countries. | 200510_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"A person who wants to learn to play the piano should study classical music, because though it is more difficult to play than is popular music, mastery of its techniques enables one to quickly master popular pieces.",
"To overcome a fear of water that prevents one from swimming, one should paddle about in shallow water with a trusted friend who is a good swimmer.",
"Edith Wharton is the most accessible of the classical U.S. writers. So in order to provide a superb introduction to U.S. literature, a class should emphasize her work while also studying the works of others.",
"One can appreciate Taiko-drumming only if one understands how physically demanding it is. Thus, one should see Taiko-drumming and not just hear it in order to appreciate it fully.",
"One should travel through North America by train rather than by automobile, because train travel imparts the same sense of open space as does automobile travel, while also affording one the full leisure to attend to the scenery."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following best illustrates the principle illustrated by the argument above? |
Although high cholesterol levels have been associated with the development of heart disease, many people with high cholesterol never develop heart disease, while many without high cholesterol do. Recently, above average concentrations of the blood particle lipoprotein(a) were found in the blood of many people whose heart disease was not attributable to other causes. Dietary changes that affect cholesterol levels have no effect on lipoprotein(a) levels. Hence, there is no reason for anyone to make dietary changes for the sake of preventing heart disease. | 200510_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"It fails to consider the possibility that lipoprotein(a) raises cholesterol levels.",
"It provides no evidence for a link between lipoprotein(a) and heart disease.",
"It presents but ignores evidence that, for some people, high cholesterol contributes to heart disease.",
"It fails to consider the possibility that poor diets cause some people to develop health problems other than heart disease.",
"It offers no explanation for why some people with high cholesterol levels never develop heart disease."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument? |
Philosopher: It is absurd to argue that people are morally obligated to act in a certain way simply because not acting in that way would be unnatural. An unnatural action is either a violation of the laws of nature or a statistical anomaly. There is no possibility of acting as one cannot, nor does the mere fact that something is not usually done provide any good reason not to do it. | 200510_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"undermining a concept by showing that its acceptance would violate a law of nature",
"stating the definition of a key term of the argument",
"using statistical findings to dispute a claim",
"undermining a claim by showing that the claim is self-contradictory",
"using empirical evidence to support one definition of a key term of the argument over another"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a technique used in the philosopher's argument? |
Clearly, fitness consultants who smoke cigarettes cannot help their clients become healthier. If they do not care about their own health, they cannot really care for their clients' health, and if they do not care for their clients' health, they cannot help them to become healthier. | 200510_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"Anyone who does not care for his or her own health cannot help others become healthier.",
"Anyone who cares about the health of others can help others become healthier.",
"Anyone who does not care for the health of others cannot help them become healthier.",
"Anyone who does not smoke cares about the health of others.",
"Anyone who cares about his or her own health does not smoke."
]
| 4 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
If one does not have enough information to make a well-informed decision, one should not make a decision solely on the basis of the information one does possess. Instead, one should continue to seek information until a well-informed decision can be made. | 200510_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"Economists should not believe the predictions of an economic model simply because it is based on information about the current economy. Many conflicting models are based on such information, and they cannot all be accurate.",
"When deciding which career to pursue, one needs to consider carefully all of the information one has. One should not choose a career solely on the basis of financial compensation; instead, one should consider other factors such as how likely one is to succeed at the career and how much one would enjoy it.",
"Though a researcher may know a great deal about a topic, she or he should not assume that all information relevant to the research is already in her or his possession. A good researcher always looks for further relevant information.",
"When one wants to buy a reliable car, one should not choose which car to buy just on the inadequate basis of one's personal experience with cars. Rather, one should study various models' reliability histories that summarize many owners' experiences.",
"When there is not enough information available to determine the meaning of a line of poetry, one should not form an opinion based on the insufficient information. Instead, one should simply acknowledge that it is impossible to determine what the line means."
]
| 3 | Of the following, which one most closely conforms to the principle stated above? |
Television network executive: Some scientists have expressed concern about the numerous highly popular television programs that emphasize paranormal incidents, warning that these programs will encourage superstition and thereby impede the public's scientific understanding. But these predictions are baseless. Throughout recorded history, dramatists have relied on ghosts and spirits to enliven their stories, and yet the scientific understanding of the populace has steadily advanced. | 200510_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"It fails to consider that one phenomenon can steadily advance even when it is being impeded by another phenomenon.",
"It takes for granted that if a correlation has been observed between two phenomena, they must be causally connected.",
"It fails to consider that the occurrence of one phenomenon can indirectly affect the pervasiveness of another even if the former does not impede the latter.",
"It fails to consider that just because one phenomenon is known to affect another, the latter does not also affect the former.",
"It takes for granted that the contention that one phenomenon causes another must be baseless if the latter phenomenon has persisted despite steady increases in the pervasiveness of the former."
]
| 0 | The television network executive's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Police commissioner: Last year our city experienced a 15 percent decrease in the rate of violent crime. At the beginning of that year a new mandatory sentencing law was enacted, which requires that all violent criminals serve time in prison. Since no other major policy changes were made last year, the drop in the crime rate must have been due to the new mandatory sentencing law. | 200510_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"Studies of many other cities have shown a correlation between improving economic conditions and decreased crime rates.",
"Prior to the enactment of the mandatory sentencing law, judges in the city had for many years already imposed unusually harsh penalties for some crimes.",
"Last year, the city's overall crime rate decreased by only 5 percent.",
"At the beginning of last year, the police department's definition of \"violent crime\" was broadened to include 2 crimes not previously classified as \"violent.\"",
"The city enacted a policy 2 years ago requiring that 100 new police officers be hired in each of the 3 subsequent years."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the police commissioner's argument? |
A corporation created a new division. To staff it, applicants were rigorously screened and interviewed. Those selected were among the most effective, efficient, and creative workers that the corporation had ever hired. Thus, the new division must have been among the most effective, efficient, and creative divisions the corporation had ever created. | 200510_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"In order to obtain the best players for its country's Olympic team, a committee reviewed the performance of its country's teams. After reviewing statistics and reading reports, the committee chose one player from each of the six best teams, thus assuring that the six best players in the country had been chosen.",
"Several salespeople were given incentives to recruit the largest number of new customers in one month. To monitor the incentive program, the boss interviewed one of the salespeople and found that the salesperson had already exceeded the minimum goals of the program. Thus the incentive program was indeed effective.",
"A law firm decided to add a department devoted to family law. To obtain the best employees it could, the firm studied the credentials and composition of several other firms well known to have successful staffs working in family law. Eventually, the firm hired a staff of new lawyers and support personnel having training and aptitudes as much like those of the studied firms as possible. Thus the law firm must have created one of the best family-law departments.",
"To put together this year's two All-Star Teams, the best players in the league were selected. Half of them were put on Team One, and half were put on Team Two. Since each player on the two teams was one of the best players in the league this year, it follows that the two All-Star Teams are the two best teams this year.",
"Various schools chose teams of students to compete in a debate tournament. Each school's team presented a position and rebutted the others' positions. After the initial scores were in, the ten top teams competed against each other. Since one team eventually emerged with the highest average score, it was clearly the best team."
]
| 3 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Students in a college ethics class were asked to judge whether two magazines had been morally delinquent in publishing a particular classified advertisement that was highly offensive in its demeaning portrayal of some people.They were told only that the first magazine had undertaken to screen all classified advertisements and reject for publication those it found offensive,whereas the second magazine's policy was to publish any advertisement received from its subscribers. Most students judged the first magazine,but not the second,to have been morally delinquent in publishing the advertisement. | 200510_3-LR2_26_26 | [
"It is wrong to publish messages that could cause direct or indirect harm to innocent people.",
"Anyone regularly transmitting messages to the public has a moral responsibility to monitor the content of those messages.",
"If two similar agents commit two similar actions, those agents should be held to the same standard of accountability.",
"Failure to uphold a moral standard is not necessarily a moral failing except for those who have specifically committed themselves to upholding that standard.",
"A magazine should not be considered at fault for publishing a classified advertisement if that advertisement would not be offensive to any of the magazine's subscribers."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if established, provides the strongest justification for the judgment that the first magazine and not the second was morally delinquent? |
The effort involved in lying produces measurable physiological reactions such as a speedup of the heartbeat. Since lying is accompanied by physiological reactions, lie-detector tests that can detect these reactions are a sure way of determining when someone is lying. | 200512_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"Lie-detector tests can measure only some of the physiological reactions that occur when someone is lying.",
"People are often unaware that they are having physiological reactions of the sort measured by lie-detector tests.",
"Lying about past criminal behavior does not necessarily produce stronger physiological reactions than does lying about other things.",
"For people who are not lying, the tension of taking a lie-detector test can produce physiological reactions identical to the ones that accompany the act of lying.",
"When employers use lie-detector tests as part of their preemployment screening, some candidates tested are highly motivated to lie."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Publishing executive: Our company must sell at least 100,000 books to make a profit this year. However, it is unlikely that we will sell that many, since of the twelve titles we will sell, the one with the best sales prospects, a novel, is unlikely to sell as many as 100,000 copies. | 200512_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"the publishing company will sell considerably fewer than 100,000 copies of the novel",
"the publishing company will not make a profit even if it sells more than 100,000 books",
"what is true of the overall profitability of a publishing company is not true of its profitability in a particular year",
"what is true of the sales prospects of the publishing company's individual titles is not true of the sales prospects of the group of titles as a whole",
"the publishing company will sell even fewer books if it does not advertise its books efficiently"
]
| 3 | The publishing executive's argument is most vulnerable to criticism because it overlooks the possibility that |
A recent study proves that at least some people possess an independent "sixth sense" that allows them to detect whether someone is watching them. In the study, subjects were seated one at a time in the center of a room facing away from a large window. On average, subjects decided correctly 60 percent of the time whether or not they were being watched through the window. | 200512_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"Most of the time, subjects said they were being watched.",
"The person recording the experimental results was careful not to interact with the subjects after the experiment ended.",
"A similar result was found when the subjects were watched from another room on a video monitor.",
"The room in which the subjects were seated was not soundproof.",
"The subjects were mostly graduate students in psychology from a nearby university."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most supports the conclusion drawn from the study mentioned above? |
Philosopher: We should not disapprove of the unearthing of truths that we would rather not acknowledge or that, by their dissemination, might influence society in pernicious ways. | 200512_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"A law enforcement officer should not act upon illegally obtained information, even though such action might, in some cases, result in a benefit to society.",
"Scientific research should not be restricted even if it could lead to harmful applications, such as the manufacture of sophisticated weapons.",
"A physician should never withhold the truth from a patient, except in cases where depression induced by bad news might significantly affect the patient's recuperation.",
"Investigative journalists who employ illegal means of obtaining information should not be subjected to moral disapproval, if the revelation of that information does more good for society than does its suppression.",
"A poem need not adhere too strictly to the truth. Art is exempt from such requirements—it matters only that the poem provoke a response in the reader."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle stated by the philosopher? |
Compact discs (CDs) offer an improvement in artistic freedom over vinyl records. As the record needle moves in toward a vinyl record's center, it must fight centrifugal force. Wide, shallow, or jagged grooves will cause the needle to jump; consequently, the song nearest the center—the last song on the side—cannot have especially loud, high-pitched, or low-pitched passages. The CD suffers no such limitations, leaving artists free to end recordings with any song. | 200512_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"CDs provide greater artistic latitude than do vinyl records.",
"On vinyl records, the song farthest from the center can have loud, high-pitched, or low-pitched passages.",
"As the record needle moves in toward the vinyl record's center, the centrifugal force on the needle becomes stronger.",
"CDs represent a considerable technological advance over vinyl records.",
"CDs can have louder passages, as well as both higher- and lower-pitched passages, than can vinyl records."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
The public interest comprises many interests and the broadcast media must serve all of them. Perhaps most television viewers would prefer an action show to an opera. But a constant stream of action shows on all channels is not in the public interest. Thus, ____. | 200512_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"broadcasters' obligations are not satisfied if they look only to popularity to decide their programming schedules",
"television networks should broadcast more artistic and cultural shows and fewer action shows",
"the public interest should be considered whenever television producers develop a new program",
"the popularity of a television program is a poor indicator of its artistic quality",
"broadcast media could be rightly accused of neglecting the public interest only if all channels carried mostly action shows"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Enthusiasm for the use of calculators in the learning of mathematics is misplaced. Teachers rightly observe that in some cases calculators enable students to focus on general principles rather than the tedious, largely rote calculations that constitute the application of these principles. But principles are more likely to be remembered when knowledge of them is grounded in habits ingrained by painstaking applications of those principles. The very fact that calculators make calculation easier, therefore, makes it reasonable to restrict their use. | 200512_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"Some students who know how to use calculators also thoroughly understand the mathematical principles that calculators obey.",
"Slide rules, which are less technologically sophisticated analogues of calculators, were widely used in the learning of mathematics several decades ago.",
"It is much more important that students retain the knowledge of general principles than that this knowledge be easily acquired.",
"Habits that are acquired by laborious and sometimes tedious practice are not as valuable as those that are painlessly mastered.",
"Teachers' enthusiasm for new educational aids is often not proportional to the pedagogical effectiveness of those devices."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Commentator: Most journalists describe their individual political orientations as liberal, and it is often concluded that there is therefore a liberal bias in current journalism. This is not the case, however, because newspapers, magazines, radio, and television are all in the business of selling news and advertising, and therefore face market pressures that tend to keep them impartial, since in order to maximize profits they must target the broadest customer base possible. | 200512_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"The individual political orientations of journalists do not constitute acceptable evidence regarding media bias.",
"Major media face significant market pressures.",
"Current journalism does not have a liberal political bias.",
"Major media must target the broadest customer base possible in order to maximize profits.",
"It is often maintained that current journalism has a liberal bias."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn by the commentator's argument? |
Theories generated by scientific research were used to develop several products that, although useful, damage the environment severely. The scientists who conducted the research, however, should not be held responsible for that damage, since they merely generated the theories and could neither foresee nor restrict the kinds of products that might be designed using those theories. | 200512_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"Individuals who develop something that has desirable characteristics should not be held responsible for any undesirable characteristics that the thing has if improperly used.",
"Individuals are justified in performing an activity that has both desirable and undesirable foreseeable consequences only if they alone bear its undesirable consequences.",
"Individuals should receive credit for the foreseeable desirable consequences of the activities they perform only if those individuals are to be held responsible for any unforeseeable undesirable consequences those activities might have.",
"Individuals who perform an activity should not be held responsible for any unforeseen undesirable consequences that arise from the use to which others put the results of that activity.",
"Individuals should be held responsible for the foreseeable undesirable consequences of the activities that they perform and receive credit for the foreseeable desirable consequences of those activities."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if established, justifies the conclusion above? |
The administration at a certain university has explained this year's tuition increase by citing increased spending on faculty salaries and on need-based aid to students. However, this year's budget indicated that faculty salaries constitute a small part of the university's expenditure, and the only significant increases in scholarship aid have gone to academic scholarships awarded regardless of need. The administration's explanation is not believable. | 200512_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"With this year's budget, the university has increased its total spending on scholarship aid by 5 percent.",
"With this year's budget, the university increased the allotment for faculty salaries by 5 percent while tuition was increased by 6 percent.",
"Faculty salaries at the university have increased in line with the national average, and substantial cuts in government student-loan programs have caused financial difficulties for many students at the university.",
"Of the substantial items in the budget, the greatest increase was in administrative costs, facilities maintenance costs, and costs associated with the provision of athletic facilities.",
"Because enrollment projections at the university are very unreliable, it is difficult to accurately estimate the amount of money the university will collect from tuition fees ahead of time."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument that the administration's explanation is not believable? |
Students asked by a psychologist to tell a lie before discussion groups vastly overestimated how many people in the discussion groups could tell they were lying. Other research has found that when volleyball players perform unusually poorly on the court, teammates notice this far less often than the players expect. Finally, in one research experiment a student wearing a funny T-shirt entered a room full of people. Questioning revealed that only a small fraction of the people in the room noticed the shirt, contrary to the student's expectations. | 200512_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"People tend to be far less aware of their own appearance and behavior than are other people.",
"People tend not to notice the appearance or behavior of others.",
"We are actually less observant of the appearance and behavior of others than we think ourselves to be.",
"People will notice the appearance or behavior of others only if it is specifically highlighted in some way.",
"People tend to believe their appearance and behavior are noticed by others more often than is actually the case."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is best illustrated by the statements above? |
Extinction is inevitable for all biological species. In fact, the vast majority of all species that have ever lived are now extinct. Since all species die out eventually, there is no justification for trying to protect species that are presently endangered, even those that can be saved from extinction now. | 200512_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"look for a book in the library because it is sometimes checked out",
"spend money on preventive maintenance of a car because no car can last indefinitely",
"reinforce bridges against earthquakes in earthquake-prone areas because earthquakes occur only very infrequently",
"take a route that will avoid the normal traffic jams because traffic jams can occur along any route",
"plant a flower garden in soil that is not beneficial to plants because the plants are likely to die in such soil"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the argument above is most closely paralleled by the argument that there is no reason to |
Psychology professor: Applied statistics should be taught only by the various social science departments. These departments can best teach their respective students which statistical methodologies are most useful for their discipline, and how best to interpret collected data and the results of experiments. Mathematics professor: I disagree. My applied statistics course covers much of the same material taught in the applied statistics courses in social science departments. In fact, my course uses exactly the same textbook as those courses! | 200512_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"The response gives no evidence for its presumption that students willing to take a course in one department would choose a similar course in another.",
"The response gives no evidence for its presumption that social science students should have the same competence in statistics as mathematics students.",
"The response does not effectively address a key reason given in support of the psychology professor's position.",
"The response depends for its plausibility on a personal attack made against the psychology professor.",
"The response takes for granted that unless the course textbook is the same the course content will not be the same."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a questionable aspect of the reasoning in the mathematics professor's response to the psychology professor? |
Among a sample of diverse coins from an unfamiliar country, each face of any coin portrays one of four things: a judge's head, an explorer's head, a building, or a tree. By examining the coins, a collector determines that none of them have heads on both sides and that all coins in the sample with a judge's head on one side have a tree on the other. | 200512_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"All those with an explorer's head on one side have a building on the other.",
"All those with a tree on one side have a judge's head on the other.",
"None of those with a tree on one side have an explorer's head on the other.",
"None of those with a building on one side have a judge's head on the other.",
"None of those with an explorer's head on one side have a building on the other."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true of the coins in the sample? |
There are two supposedly conflicting hypotheses as to what makes for great national leaders: one is that such leaders successfully shape public opinion, and the other is that they are adept at reacting to it. However, treating these hypotheses as mutually exclusive is evidently a mistake. All leaders who have had success getting their programs passed by their country's legislature have been adroit both in shaping and reacting to public opinion. | 200512_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"Having success getting programs passed by the legislature is indicative of being a great national leader.",
"It is impossible to successfully shape public opinion without in some way reacting to it.",
"To lead, one must either successfully shape public opinion or be adept at reacting to it, or both.",
"Having a good rapport with the members of the legislature allows a leader to shape public opinion.",
"To be a great leader one must not be swayed by public opinion."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Most business ethics courses and textbooks confine themselves to considering specific cases and principles. For example, students are often given lists of ethical rules for in-class discussion and role-playing. This approach fails to provide a framework for understanding specific principles and should thus be changed to include abstract ethical theory. | 200512_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"A moralizing approach that fails to recognize the diversity of the ethical rules in use is unacceptable.",
"Courses that concentrate mainly on role-playing are undesirable because students must adopt alien personae.",
"People have no obligation to always behave ethically unless they are acquainted with abstract ethical theory.",
"Abstract ethical theory is the most appropriate of any context for understanding specific principles.",
"An ethics course should acquaint students with a wide range of specific principles and appropriate applications."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Some classes of animal are so successful that they spread into virtually every ecosystem, whereas others gradually recede until they inhabit only small niches in geographically isolated areas and thereby become threatened. Insects are definitely of the former sort and ants are the most successful of these, ranging from the Arctic Circle to Tierra del Fuego. Hence, no species of ant is a threatened species. | 200512_1-LR1_17_17 | [
"the Arctic Circle and Tierra del Fuego do not constitute geographically isolated areas",
"because ants do not inhabit only a small niche in a geographically isolated area, they are unlike most other insects",
"the only way a class of animal can avoid being threatened is to spread into virtually every ecosystem",
"what is true of the constituent elements of a whole is also true of the whole",
"what is true of a whole is also true of its constituent elements"
]
| 4 | The argument is flawed because it takes for granted that |
Advocate: You claim that it is wrong to own gasoline-powered cars because they pollute too much; you have an electric car, which pollutes far less. But the company that made your car also makes millions of gasoline-powered vehicles, so your patronage benefits a producer of products to which you object. Thus, if you are right about gasoline-powered cars, you should not have your electric car either. | 200512_1-LR1_18_18 | [
"An action can be wrong even if it has fewer negative consequences than another action.",
"One should purchase a product only if it pollutes less than any competing product.",
"One should purchase every product whose use has no negative consequences.",
"One should not support an organization that does anything one believes to be wrong.",
"One should not purchase products from companies that make no environmentally sound products."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the advocate's reasoning? |
Analyst: A recent survey showed that although professors of biology who teach but do not pursue research made up one twentieth of all science professors, they were appointed to fewer than one twentieth of all the scientific administrative positions in universities. We can conclude from this survey that failing to pursue research tends to bias university administrators against appointing these professors to scientific administrative positions. | 200512_1-LR1_19_19 | [
"In universities there are fewer scientific administrative positions than there are nonscientific administrative positions.",
"Biologists who do research fill a disproportionately low number of scientific administrative positions in universities.",
"Biology professors get more than one twentieth of all the science grant money available.",
"Conducting biological research tends to take significantly more time than does teaching biology.",
"Biologists who hold scientific administrative positions in the university tend to hold those positions for a shorter time than do other science professors."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the support for the analyst's conclusion? |
Researcher: We have found that some cases of high blood pressure can be treated effectively with medicine. Since it is generally accepted that any illness caused by stress is treatable only by the reduction of stress, some cases of high blood pressure must not be caused by stress. | 200512_1-LR1_20_20 | [
"The correlation between stress and all cases of high blood pressure is merely coincidental.",
"The reduction of stress in a person's life can at times lower that person's blood pressure.",
"Reduced stress does not reduce a person's responsiveness to medicine used to treat high blood pressure.",
"Some conditions that are treated effectively by medicines are not also treatable through the reduction of stress.",
"Medicine used to treat high blood pressure does not itself reduce stress."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the researcher's argument? |
Catmull: Although historians consider themselves to be social scientists, different historians never arrive at the same conclusions about specific events of the past. Thus historians never determine what actually happened; like novelists, they merely create interesting fictional stories about the many different problems that people have faced. | 200512_1-LR1_21_21 | [
"draws a conclusion that simply restates a claim presented in support of that conclusion",
"concludes, solely on the basis of the claim that different people have reached different conclusions about a topic, that none of these conclusions is true",
"presumes, without providing justification, that unless historians' conclusions are objectively true, they have no value whatsoever",
"bases its conclusion on premises that contradict each other",
"mistakes a necessary condition for the objective truth of historians' conclusions for a sufficient condition for the objective truth of those conclusions"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in Catmull's argument is flawed because the argument |
In a poll conducted by interviewing eligible voters in their homes just before the recent election, incumbent candidate Kenner was significantly ahead of candidate Muratori. Nonetheless, Muratori won the recent election. | 200512_1-LR1_22_22 | [
"The positions taken by Muratori and Kenner on many election issues were not very similar to each other.",
"Kenner had held elected office for many years before the recent election.",
"In the year leading up to the election, Kenner was implicated in a series of political scandals.",
"Six months before the recent election, the voting age was lowered by three years.",
"In the poll, supporters of Muratori were more likely than others to describe the election as important."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described by the statements above? |
Statistical analysis is a common tool for explanation in the physical sciences. It can only be used, however, to explain events that can be replicated to the last detail. Since human mental events never precisely recur, statistical analysis cannot be employed to explain these events. Therefore, they cannot be explained by the physical sciences. | 200512_1-LR1_23_23 | [
"Computer modeling is used to try to explain the way in which wind resistance affects the movement of bicycles. To use computer modeling, the phenomenon being modeled must be predictable. But wind resistance is not predictable. Therefore, the way in which wind resistance affects the movement of bicycles cannot be explained by computer modeling.",
"The only way to explain how music affects the emotional state of a person is to appeal to the psychology of emotion. The psychology of emotion can be applied only to cases involving human beings. But not all music is created by human beings; some music is computer generated. Therefore, the way in which music affects the emotional state of a person cannot be explained.",
"The best way to explain why an object has a particular color is in terms of the interaction of light and matter. It is sometimes impossible to find out what kind of matter constitutes an object. Therefore, the color of such objects has nothing to do with the interaction of light and matter.",
"To determine which explanation of the origin of the universe is correct, we would need to know about the first moments of the existence of the universe. Due to the immense time that has passed since the universe began, it is impossible to get such information. Therefore, none of the explanations of the origin of the universe is likely to be correct.",
"A good way to explain historical events is to construct a coherent narrative about those events. In order to construct such a narrative, a great many details about the events must be known. Virtually no details can be known of certain very ancient historical events. Therefore, no historical explanation can be given for these events."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its flawed reasoning to the argument above? |
Journalist: Although a recent poll found that more than half of all eligible voters support the idea of a political party whose primary concern is education, only 26 percent would like to join it, and only 16 percent would be prepared to donate money to it. Furthermore, there is overwhelming historical evidence that only a party that has at least 30 percent of eligible voters prepared to support it by either joining it or donating money to it is viable in the long run. Therefore, it is unlikely that an education party is viable in the long run. | 200512_1-LR1_24_24 | [
"some of those who said they were willing to donate money to an education party might not actually do so if such a party were formed",
"an education party could possibly be viable with a smaller base than is customarily needed",
"the 16 percent of eligible voters prepared to donate money to an education party might donate almost as much money as a party would ordinarily expect to get if 30 percent of eligible voters contributed",
"a party needs the appropriate support of at least 30 percent of eligible voters in order to be viable and more than half of all eligible voters support the idea of an education party",
"some of the eligible voters who would donate money to an education party might not be prepared to join such a party"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the journalist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument fails to consider that |
Almost all microbe species live together in dense, interdependent communities, supporting the environment for each other, and regulating the population balances for their different species through a complex system of chemical signals. For this reason, it is currently impossible to cultivate any one such species in isolation. Thus, microbiologists lack complete knowledge of most microbe species. | 200512_1-LR1_25_25 | [
"It is currently impossible for microbiologists to reproduce the complex systems of chemical signals with which microbe communities regulate the population balances for their different species.",
"If it is currently impossible to reproduce the environmental supports and chemical signals in dense, interdependent communities of microbe species, then it is also impossible to cultivate any microbe species from such a community in isolation.",
"No microbiologist can have complete knowledge of any species of organism unless that microbiologist can cultivate that species in isolation.",
"At least some microbiologists lack complete knowledge of any microbe species that live together in dense, interdependent communities.",
"No microbe species that normally lives together with other microbe species in dense, interdependent communities can survive outside such a community."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Reza: Language requires the use of verbal signs for objects as well as for feelings. Many animals can vocally express hunger, but only humans can ask for an egg or an apple by naming it. And using verbal signs for objects requires the ability to distinguish these objects from other objects, which in turn requires conceptual thought. | 200512_1-LR1_26_26 | [
"Conceptual thought is required for language.",
"Conceptual thought requires the use of verbal signs for objects.",
"It is not possible to think conceptually about feelings.",
"All humans are capable of conceptual thought.",
"The vocal expressions of animals other than humans do not require conceptual thought."
]
| 0 | If all of Reza's statements are true, then which one of the following must also be true? |
While 65 percent of the eligible voters who were recently polled favor Perkins over Samuels in the coming election, the results of that poll are dubious because it was not based on a representative sample. Given that Perkins predominantly advocates the interests of the upper-middle class and that the survey was conducted at high-priced shopping malls, it is quite probable that Perkins's supporters were overrepresented. | 200512_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"The poll was intentionally designed to favor Perkins over Samuels.",
"Samuels's supporters believe that they were probably not adequately represented in the poll.",
"The poll's results probably do not accurately represent the opinions of the voters in the coming election.",
"Samuels is quite likely to have a good chance of winning the coming election.",
"Those who designed the poll should have considered more carefully where to conduct the survey."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
Sleep research has demonstrated that sleep is characterized by periods of different levels of brain activity. People experience dreams during only one of these periods, known as REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Test subjects who are chronically deprived of REM sleep become irritable during waking life. This shows that REM sleep relieves the stresses of waking life. | 200512_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"Test subjects who are chronically deprived of non-REM sleep also become irritable during waking life.",
"Chronically having bad dreams can cause stress, but so can chronically having pleasant but exciting dreams.",
"During times of increased stress, one's REM sleep is disturbed in a way that prevents one from dreaming.",
"Only some people awakened during REM sleep can report the dreams they were having just before being awakened.",
"Other factors being equal, people who normally have shorter periods of REM sleep tend to experience more stress."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Since 1989 the importation of ivory from African elephants into the United States and Canada has been illegal, but the importation of ivory from the excavated tusks of ancient mammoths remains legal in both countries. Following the ban, there was a sharp increase in the importation of ivory that importers identified as mammoth ivory. In 1989 customs officials lacked a technique for distinguishing elephant ivory from that of mammoths. Just after such a technique was invented and its use by customs officials became widely known, there was a dramatic decrease in the amount of ivory presented for importation into the U.S. and Canada that was identified by importers as mammoth ivory. | 200512_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Customs officials still cannot reliably distinguish elephant ivory from mammoth ivory.",
"Most of the ivory currently imported into the U.S. and Canada comes from neither African elephants nor mammoths.",
"In the period since the technique for distinguishing elephant ivory from mammoth ivory was implemented, the population of African elephants has declined.",
"Much of the ivory imported as mammoth ivory just after the ban on ivory from African elephants went into effect was actually elephant ivory.",
"Shortly after the importation of ivory from African elephants was outlawed, there was a sharp increase in the total amount of all ivory presented for importation into the U.S. and Canada."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
My suspicion that there is some truth to astrology has been confirmed. Most physicians I have talked to believe in it. | 200512_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"Professor Smith was convicted of tax evasion last year. So I certainly wouldn't give any credence to Smith's economic theories.",
"I have come to the conclusion that several governmental social programs are wasteful. This is because most of the biology professors I have discussed this with think that this is true.",
"Quantum mechanics seems to be emerging as the best physical theory we have today. Most prominent physicists subscribe to it.",
"Most mechanical engineers I have talked to say that it is healthier to refrain from eating meat. So most mechanical engineers are vegetarians.",
"For many years now, many people, some famous, have reported that they have seen or come in contact with unidentified flying objects. So there are probably extraterrestrial societies trying to contact us."
]
| 1 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
The best explanation for Mozart's death involves the recently detected fracture in his skull. The crack, most likely the result of an accident, could have easily torn veins in his brain, allowing blood to leak into his brain. When such bleeding occurs in the brain and the blood dries, many of the brain's faculties become damaged, commonly, though not immediately, leading to death. This explanation of Mozart's death is bolstered by the fact that the fracture shows signs of partial healing. | 200512_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"It shows that Mozart's death could have been avoided.",
"It shows that the fracture did not occur after Mozart's death.",
"It shows that the dried blood impaired Mozart's brain's faculties.",
"It shows that Mozart's death occurred suddenly.",
"It suggests that Mozart's death was accidental."
]
| 1 | The claim that the fracture shows signs of partial healing figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
In the first phase of the Industrial Revolution, machines were invented whose main advantage was that they worked faster than human workers. This technology became widely used because it was economically attractive; many unskilled workers could be replaced by just a few skilled workers. Today managers are looking for technology that will allow them to replace highly paid skilled workers with a smaller number of less-skilled workers. | 200512_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"Employers utilize new technology because it allows them to reduce labor costs.",
"Workers will need to acquire more education and skills to remain competitive in the labor market.",
"In seeking employment, highly skilled workers no longer have an advantage over less-skilled workers.",
"Technology eliminates many jobs but also creates just as many jobs.",
"Whereas technological innovations were once concentrated in heavy industry, they now affect all industries."
]
| 0 | The examples presented above best illustrate which one of the following propositions? |
For many types of crops, hybrid strains have been developed that have been found in test plantings to produce significantly higher yields than were produced by traditional nonhybrid strains of those crops planted alongside them. However, in many parts of the world where farmers have abandoned traditional nonhybrid strains in favor of the hybrid strains, crop yields have not increased. | 200512_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"Most farmers who plant the hybrid strains of their crops have larger farms than do farmers who continue to plant traditional nonhybrid strains of the same crops.",
"Hybrid strains of crops produced higher yields in some areas than did nonhybrid strains in those areas.",
"The hybrid strains were tested under significantly better farming conditions than are found in most areas where farmers grow those strains.",
"Many traditional nonhybrid strains of plants produce crops that taste better and thus sell better than the hybrid strains of those crops.",
"Many governments subsidize farmers who plant only hybrid strains of staple crops."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy? |
This stamp is probably highly valuable, since it exhibits a printing error. The most important factors in determining a stamp's value, assuming it is in good condition, are its rarity and age. This is clearly a fine specimen, and it is quite old as well. | 200512_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"The older a stamp is, the more valuable it is.",
"Printing errors are always confined to a few individual stamps.",
"Most stamps with printing errors are already in the hands of collectors.",
"Rarity and age are of equal importance to a stamp's value.",
"Even old and rare stamps are usually not valuable if they are in poor condition."
]
| 1 | The conclusion is properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? |
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