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Researcher: The use of the newest drug in treating this disease should be discontinued. The treatment usually wreaks havoc with the normal functioning of the human body, causing severe side effects such as total loss of hair, debilitating nausea, and intense pain in the joints. | 200609_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"fails to specify what is meant by \"normal functioning of the human body\"",
"fails to consider the consequences of not administering the treatment",
"presumes that every patient with the disease is treated with the drug",
"does not consider the length of time needed for the treatment to begin taking effect",
"does not acknowledge that the effects of the treatment may not be of the same severity in all cases"
]
| 1 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument |
Otis: Aristotle's principle of justice says that we should treat relevantly similar cases similarly. Therefore, it is wrong for a dentist to schedule an after-hours appointment to suit a family friend but refuse to do it for anyone else. Tyra: I accept Aristotle's principle of justice, but it's human nature to want to do special favors for friends. Indeed, that's what friends are—those for whom you would do special favors. It's not unjust for dentists to do that. | 200609_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"Aristotle's principle of justice is widely applicable",
"situations involving friends and situations involving others should be considered relevantly similar cases",
"human nature makes it impossible to treat relevantly similar cases similarly",
"dentists should be willing to schedule an after-hours appointment for anyone who asks",
"Aristotle recognizes that friendship sometimes morally outweighs justice"
]
| 1 | It can be inferred on the basis of their statements that Otis and Tyra disagree about whether |
Typically, people who have diets high in saturated fat have an increased risk of heart disease. Those who replace saturated fat in their diets with unsaturated fat decrease their risk of heart disease. Therefore, people who eat a lot of saturated fat can lower their risk of heart disease by increasing their intake of unsaturated fat. | 200609_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"People who add unsaturated fat to their diets will eat less food that is high in saturated fat.",
"Adding unsaturated fat to a diet brings health benefits other than a reduced risk of heart disease.",
"Diet is the most important factor in a person's risk of heart disease.",
"Taking steps to prevent heart disease is one of the most effective ways of increasing life expectancy.",
"It is difficult to move from a diet that is high in saturated fat to a diet that includes very little fat."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Only people who are willing to compromise should undergo mediation to resolve their conflicts. Actual litigation should be pursued only when one is sure that one's position is correct. People whose conflicts are based on ideology are unwilling to compromise. | 200609_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"People who do not undergo mediation to resolve their conflicts should be sure that their positions are correct.",
"People whose conflicts are not based on ideology should attempt to resolve their conflicts by means of litigation.",
"People whose conflicts are based on ideology are not always sure that their positions are correct.",
"People who are sure of the correctness of their positions are not people who should undergo mediation to resolve their conflicts.",
"People whose conflicts are based on ideology are not people who should undergo mediation to resolve their conflicts."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are true, then which one of the following must be true? |
Scientists have long thought that omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil tend to lower blood cholesterol and strongly suspected that a diet that includes a modest amount of fish would provide substantial health benefits. Now these views have acquired strong support from a recent study showing that middle-aged people who eat fish twice a week are nearly 30 percent less likely to develop heart disease than are those who do not eat fish. | 200609_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"The test subjects in the recent study who did not eat fish were not vegetarians.",
"The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week did not have a diet that was otherwise conducive to the development of heart disease.",
"The test subjects in the recent study who did not eat fish were significantly more likely to eat red meat several times per week than were those who did eat fish.",
"The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week were not significantly more likely than those who did not to engage regularly in activities known to augment cardiorespiratory health.",
"The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week were no more likely than those who did not to have sedentary occupations."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Researcher: A number of studies have suggested that, on average, clients in short-term psychotherapy show similar levels of improvement regardless of the kind of psychotherapy they receive. So any client improvement in short-term psychotherapy must be the result of some aspect or aspects of therapy that are common to all psychotherapies—for example, the presence of someone who listens and gives attention to the client. | 200609_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"The methods by which the studies measured whether clients improved primarily concerned immediate symptom relief and failed to address other important kinds of improvement.",
"On average, clients improve more dramatically when they receive long-term psychotherapy, a year or longer in duration, than when clients receive short-term psychotherapy.",
"The studies found that psychotherapy by a trained counselor does not result in any greater improvement, on average, among clients than does simple counseling by an untrained layperson.",
"The specific techniques and interventions used by therapists practicing different kinds of psychotherapy differ dramatically.",
"More-experienced therapists tend to use a wider range of techniques and interventions in psychotherapy than do inexperienced therapists."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the researcher's argument? |
Journalists sometimes use historical photographs to illustrate articles about current events. But this recycling of old photographs overstates the similarities between past and present, and thereby denies the individual significance of those current events. Hence, the use of historical photographs in this manner by journalists distorts public understanding of the present by presenting current events as mere repetitions of historical incidents. | 200609_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"Any practice by which journalists present current events as mere repetitions of historical incidents overstates the similarities between past and present.",
"If the work of a journalist overstates the similarities between past and present, then it distorts public understanding of the present by presenting current events as mere repetitions of historical incidents.",
"If a journalistic practice distorts public understanding of the present by overstating the similarities between past and present, then it denies the individual significance of any articles about current events.",
"No article about a current event treats that event as merely a repetition of historical incidents unless it uses historical photographs to illustrate that article.",
"If journalists believe current events to be mere repetitions of historical incidents, then public understanding of the present will be distorted."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the conclusion of the argument to be properly inferred? |
If Juan went to the party, it is highly unlikely that Maria would have enjoyed the party. But in fact it turned out that Maria did enjoy the party; therefore, it is highly unlikely that Juan was at the party. | 200609_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"According to the newspaper, all eight teams in the soccer tournament have an equal chance of winning it. If so, then we will probably lose our goalie, since if we do lose our goalie we will probably not win the tournament.",
"Kapinski, our new neighbor, is probably friendly, for Kapinski sells insurance and most people who sell insurance are friendly.",
"If the lottery were fair, the person who won the lottery would not have been likely to win it. Thus, since this person would have been likely to win the lottery if it were unfair, the lottery was probably unfair.",
"If Clarissa missed the bus today, it is quite unlikely that she would have gotten to work on time. So, it is quite unlikely that Clarissa missed the bus, since she actually was at work on time today.",
"This year's election will probably be fair. But Popov probably will not win unless the election is unfair. So, Popov will not win the election."
]
| 3 | The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Sonya: Anyone who lives without constant awareness of the fragility and precariousness of human life has a mind clouded by illusion. Yet those people who are perpetually cognizant of the fragility and precariousness of human life surely taint their emotional outlook on existence. | 200609_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"Anyone who places a higher priority on maintaining a positive emotional outlook than on dispelling illusion will be completely unaware of the fragility and precariousness of human life.",
"Either no one has a tainted emotional outlook on existence, or no one has a mind clouded by illusion.",
"It is impossible for anyone to live without some degree of self-deception.",
"Everyone whose emotional outlook on existence is untainted has a mind clouded by illusion.",
"It is better to be aware of the fragility and precariousness of human life than to have an untainted emotional outlook on existence."
]
| 3 | Sonya's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
In a study, shoppers who shopped in a grocery store without a shopping list and bought only items that were on sale for half price or less spent far more money on a comparable number of items than did shoppers in the same store who used a list and bought no sale items. | 200609_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"Only the shoppers who used a list used a shopping cart.",
"The shoppers who did not use lists bought many unnecessary items.",
"Usually, only the most expensive items go on sale in grocery stores.",
"The grocery store in the study carries many expensive items that few other grocery stores carry.",
"The grocery store in the study places relatively few items on sale."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the apparent paradox in the study's results? |
A group of mountain climbers was studied to determine how they were affected by diminished oxygen in the air at high altitudes. As they climbed past 6,100 meters above sea level, the climbers slurred words, took longer to understand simple sentences, and demonstrated poor judgment. This combination of worsened performances disproves the theory that the area of the brain controlling speech is distinct from that controlling other functions. | 200609_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"the climbers' performance in speech, comprehension, and reasoning was impaired because oxygen deprivation affected their entire brains",
"the climbers' performance in speech, comprehension, and reasoning was better than average before they were studied",
"the climbers showed different levels of impairment in their performance in speech, comprehension, and reasoning",
"some of the effects described were apparent just before the climbers reached 6,100 meters",
"many of the climbers had engaged in special training before the climb because they wanted to improve the efficiency with which their bodies use oxygen"
]
| 0 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it overlooks the possibility that |
It was once thought that pesticide TSX-400 was extremely harmful to the environment but that pesticides Envirochem and Zanar were environmentally harmless. TSX-400 was banned; Envirochem and Zanar were not. However, according to recent studies, Envirochem and Zanar each cause greater environmental harm than does TSX-400. If these studies are accurate, then either Envirochem and Zanar should be banned or TSX-400 should be legalized. | 200609_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"Two pesticides should not both be legal if one is measurably more harmful to the environment than the other is.",
"Two pesticides should both be legal only if neither is harmful to the environment.",
"Two pesticides should both be illegal only if both are harmful to the environment.",
"One pesticide should be legal and another illegal only if the former is less harmful to the environment than is the latter.",
"One pesticide should be legal and another illegal if the former is harmless to the environment and the latter is harmful to it."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the argumentation? |
Recent studies have demonstrated that smokers are more likely than nonsmokers to develop heart disease. Other studies have established that smokers are more likely than others to drink caffeinated beverages. Therefore, even though drinking caffeinated beverages is not thought to be a cause of heart disease, there is a positive correlation between drinking caffeinated beverages and the development of heart disease. | 200609_4-LR2_19_19 | [
"smokers who drink caffeinated beverages are less likely to develop heart disease than are smokers who do not drink caffeinated beverages",
"something else, such as dietary fat intake, may be a more important factor in the development of heart disease than are the factors cited in the argument",
"drinking caffeinated beverages is more strongly correlated with the development of heart disease than is smoking",
"it is only among people who have a hereditary predisposition to heart disease that caffeine consumption is positively correlated with the development of heart disease",
"there is a common cause of both the development of heart disease and behaviors such as drinking caffeinated beverages and smoking"
]
| 0 | The argument's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument fails to take into account the possibility that |
The layouts of supermarkets are not accidental: they are part of a plan designed to make customers walk all the way to the back of the store just to pick up a loaf of bread, passing tempting displays the whole way. But supermarkets can alienate customers by placing popular items in the rear; surveys list inconvenience as shoppers' top reason for disliking supermarkets. | 200609_4-LR2_20_20 | [
"Supermarkets should focus on customers who want to purchase many items in a single trip.",
"Alienation of customers is not good for business.",
"Even well-thought-out plans can fail.",
"Distracting customers is not good for business.",
"Manipulation of people can have unwelcome consequences."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following propositions does the passage most precisely illustrate? |
Doctor: Medication to reduce blood pressure often has unhealthy side effects. However, lifestyle changes such as exercising more and avoiding fatty foods reduce blood pressure just as effectively as taking medication does. Therefore, it is healthier to rely on these lifestyle changes than on medication to reduce blood pressure. | 200609_4-LR2_21_21 | [
"Other than medication, the only way to reduce blood pressure is by making lifestyle changes such as exercising more and avoiding fatty foods.",
"If it is healthier to rely on a lifestyle change than on medication to reduce blood pressure, then that lifestyle change reduces blood pressure at least as effectively as medication does.",
"The side effects, if any, of exercising more and avoiding fatty foods in order to reduce blood pressure are less unhealthy than those of taking medication to reduce blood pressure.",
"If an alternative to medication relieves a medical condition just as effectively as medication does, then it is always healthier to rely on that alternative than on medication to relieve that medical condition.",
"If two different methods of treating a medical condition have similar side effects, then it is healthier to rely on the more effective method."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption that the doctor's argument requires? |
Columnist: Several recent studies show, and insurance statistics confirm, that more pedestrians are killed every year in North American cities when crossing with the light than when crossing against it. Crossing against the light in North American cities is therefore less dangerous than crossing with the light. | 200609_4-LR2_22_22 | [
"relies on sources that are likely to be biased in their reporting",
"presumes, without providing justification, that because two things are correlated there must be a causal relationship between them",
"does not adequately consider the possibility that a correlation between two events may be explained by a common cause",
"ignores the possibility that the effects of the types of actions considered might be quite different in environments other than the ones studied",
"ignores possible differences in the frequency of the two actions whose risk is being assessed"
]
| 4 | The columnist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Many scientific studies have suggested that taking melatonin tablets can induce sleep. But this does not mean that melatonin is helpful in treating insomnia. Most of the studies examined only people without insomnia, and in many of the studies, only a few of the subjects given melatonin appeared to be significantly affected by it. | 200609_4-LR2_23_23 | [
"A weaker correlation between taking melatonin and the inducement of sleep was found in the studies that included people with insomnia than in the studies that did not.",
"None of the studies that suggested that taking melatonin tablets can induce sleep examined a fully representative sample of the human population.",
"In the studies that included subjects with insomnia, only subjects without insomnia were significantly affected by doses of melatonin.",
"Several people who were in control groups and only given placebos claimed that the tablets induced sleep.",
"If melatonin were helpful in treating insomnia, then every person with insomnia who took doses of melatonin would appear to be significantly affected by it."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
The asteroid that hit the Yucatán Peninsula 65 million years ago caused both long-term climatic change and a tremendous firestorm that swept across North America. We cannot show that it was this fire that caused the extinction of the triceratops, a North American dinosaur in existence at the time of the impact of the asteroid. Nor can we show that the triceratops became extinct due to the climatic changes resulting from the asteroid's impact. Hence, we cannot attribute the triceratops's extinction to the asteroid's impact. | 200609_4-LR2_24_24 | [
"I know that one cannot move this piano unless one can lift at least 150 kilograms. I doubt that either Leon or Pam can lift 150 kilograms alone. So I doubt that either Leon or Pam can move this piano alone. Thus, I doubt that Leon and Pam can move this piano together.",
"Since we are quite sure that Cheng and Lin are the only candidates in the mayoral election, we can be quite sure that either Cheng or Lin will win the election. Therefore, either we know that Cheng will win or we know that Lin will win.",
"It has not been conclusively proven that the accident was caused by John's driving at excessive speeds. Nor has it been conclusively proven that the accident was the result of John's weaving out of his lane. Hence, it has been conclusively proven that the cause of the accident was neither John's driving at excessive speeds nor John's weaving out of his lane.",
"The flooding in the basement caused damage to the furnace and also caused a short in the electrical system. Fire investigators could not show that the damage to the furnace caused the fire that resulted shortly after the flooding, nor could they show that the fire was caused by the short in the electrical system. Therefore, we cannot claim that the flooding in the basement caused the fire.",
"We have good reason to believe that the cause of the flooding along the coast was the unusually high tides. We also have good reason to believe that the cause of the unusually high tides was either the sun or the moon. So it is reasonable to maintain that the cause of the flooding was either the sun or the moon."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following has flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? |
Economist: Although obviously cuts in personal income tax rates for the upper income brackets disproportionately benefit the wealthy, across-the-board cuts for all brackets tend to have a similar effect. Personal income tax rates are progressive (i.e., graduated), and if total revenue remains constant, then across-the-board cuts in these taxes require increasing the amount of revenue generated through nonprogressive taxes, thereby favoring the wealthy. Yet if nonprogressive taxes are not increased to compensate for the cuts, then the budget deficit will increase, requiring more government borrowing and driving up interest rates. This favors those who have money to lend, once again benefiting primarily the wealthy. | 200609_4-LR2_25_25 | [
"Cuts in personal income tax rates for upper income brackets benefit the wealthy more than they benefit others.",
"Across-the-board cuts in personal income tax rates do not generate enough additional economic activity to prevent a net loss of revenue.",
"It is the wealthy who are favored by generating a high amount of revenue through nonprogressive taxes.",
"It is primarily the wealthy who benefit from increases in the budget deficit, which drive up interest rates.",
"Across-the-board personal income tax rate cuts generally benefit the wealthy more than they benefit others."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following statements most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the economist's argument? |
Editorial: Almost every year the Smithfield River floods the coastal fishing community of Redhook, which annually spends $3 million on the cleanup. Some residents have proposed damming the river, which would cost $5 million but would prevent the flooding. However, their position is misguided. A dam would prevent nutrients in the river from flowing into the ocean. Fish that now feed on those nutrients would start feeding elsewhere. The loss of these fish would cost Redhook $10 million annually. | 200612_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"The Smithfield River should be dammed to prevent flooding.",
"Nutrients from the Smithfield River are essential to the local fish population.",
"Damming the Smithfield River is not worth the high construction costs for such a project.",
"For Redhook to build a dam on the Smithfield River would be a mistake.",
"The Smithfield River floods cost Redhook $3 million every year."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the editorial's argument? |
We already knew from thorough investigation that immediately prior to the accident, either the driver of the first vehicle changed lanes without signaling or the driver of the second vehicle was driving with excessive speed. Either of these actions would make a driver liable for the resulting accident. But further evidence has proved that the first vehicle's turn signal was not on, though the driver of that vehicle admits to having changed lanes. So the driver of the second vehicle is not liable for the accident. | 200612_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"whether the second vehicle was being driven at excessive speed",
"whether the driver of the first vehicle knew that the turn signal was not on",
"whether any other vehicles were involved in the accident",
"whether the driver of the first vehicle was a reliable witness",
"whether the driver of the second vehicle would have seen the turn signal flashing had it been on"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following would be most important to know in evaluating the conclusion drawn above? |
In some places, iceberg lilies are the mainstay of grizzly bears' summer diets. The bears forage meadows for the lilies, uprooting them and eating their bulbs. Although the bears annually destroy a large percentage of the lilies, scientists have determined that the bears' feeding habits actually promote the survival of iceberg lilies. | 200612_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"When grizzly bears forage for iceberg lilies, they generally kill many more lilies than they eat.",
"Iceberg lilies produce so many offspring that, when undisturbed, they quickly deplete the resources necessary for their own survival.",
"A significantly smaller number of iceberg lily flowers are produced in fields where grizzly bears forage than in fields of undisturbed iceberg lilies.",
"The geographic regions in which iceberg lilies are most prevalent are those regions populated by grizzly bears.",
"Iceberg lilies contain plentiful amounts of some nutrients that are necessary for grizzly bears' survival."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the statements above? |
Advertisement: Seventy-five percent of dermatologists surveyed prefer Dermactin to all other brands of skin cream. Why? We consulted dermatologists during the development of Dermactin to ensure that you have the best skin cream on the market. So if you need a skin cream, use Dermactin. | 200612_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"overlooks the possibility that other types of doctors have cause to use Dermactin, which would render the sample unrepresentative",
"fails to state the number of dermatologists surveyed, which leaves open the possibility that the sample of doctors is too small to be reliable",
"presumes, without providing justification, that some dermatologists are less qualified than others to evaluate skin cream",
"relies on an inappropriate appeal to the opinions of consumers with no special knowledge of skin care",
"overlooks the possibility that for a few people, using no skin cream is preferable to using even the best skin cream"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the advertisement is questionable because the advertisement |
Landscape architect: If the screen between these two areas is to be a hedge, that hedge must be of either hemlocks or Leyland cypress trees. However, Leyland cypress trees cannot be grown this far north. So if the screen is to be a hedge, it will be a hemlock hedge. | 200612_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"If there is to be an entrance on the north side of the building, it will have to be approached by a ramp. However, a ramp would become impossibly slippery in winter, so there will be no entrance on the north side.",
"If visitors are to travel to this part of the site by automobile, there will be a need for parking spaces. However, no parking spaces are allowed for in the design. So if visitors are likely to come by automobile, the design will be changed.",
"The subsoil in these five acres either consists entirely of clay or consists entirely of shale. Therefore, if one test hole in the area reveals shale, it will be clear that the entire five acres has a shale subsoil.",
"Any path along this embankment must be either concrete or stone. But a concrete path cannot be built in this location. So if there is to be a path on the embankment, it will be a stone path.",
"A space the size of this meadow would be suitable for a playground or a picnic area. However, a playground would be noisy and a picnic area would create litter. So it will be best for the area to remain a meadow."
]
| 3 | In which one of the following is the pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the landscape architect's argument? |
Deirdre: Many philosophers have argued that the goal of every individual is to achieve happiness—that is, the satisfaction derived from fully living up to one's potential. They have also claimed that happiness is elusive and can be achieved only after years of sustained effort. But these philosophers have been unduly pessimistic, since they have clearly exaggerated the difficulty of being happy. Simply walking along the seashore on a sunny afternoon causes many people to experience feelings of happiness. | 200612_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"It dismisses a claim because of its source rather than because of its content.",
"It fails to take into account that what brings someone happiness at one moment may not bring that person happiness at another time.",
"It allows the key term \"happiness\" to shift in meaning illicitly in the course of the argument.",
"It presumes, without providing justification, that happiness is, in fact, the goal of life.",
"It makes a generalization based on the testimony of a group whose views have not been shown to be representative."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning flaw in Deirdre's argument? |
Global ecological problems reduce to the problem of balancing supply and demand. Supply is strictly confined by the earth's limitations. Demand, however, is essentially unlimited, as there are no limits on the potential demands made by humans. The natural tendency for there to be an imbalance between demand and sustainable supply is the source of these global problems. Therefore, any solutions require reducing current human demand. | 200612_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"Supply and demand tend to balance themselves in the long run.",
"It is possible to determine the limitations of the earth's sustainable supply.",
"Actual human demand exceeds the earth's sustainable supply.",
"It is never possible to achieve a balance between the environmental supply and human demand.",
"Human consumption does not decrease the environmental supply."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
We can now dismiss the widely held suspicion that sugar consumption often exacerbates hyperactivity in children with attention deficit disorder. A scientific study of the effects of three common sugars— sucrose, fructose, and glucose—on children who have attention deficit disorder, with experimental groups each receiving a type of sugar in their diets and a control group receiving a sugar substitute instead of sugar, showed no statistically significant difference between the groups in thinking or behavior. | 200612_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"Only one of the three types of sugar used in the study was ever widely suspected of exacerbating hyperactivity.",
"The consumption of sugar actually has a calming effect on some children.",
"The consumption of some sugar substitutes exacerbates the symptoms of hyperactivity.",
"The study included some observations of each group in contexts that generally tend to make children excited and active.",
"Some children believe that they can tell the difference between the taste of sugar and that of sugar substitutes."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument above? |
Philosopher: An action is morally good if it both achieves the agent's intended goal and benefits someone other than the agent. | 200612_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"Colin chose to lie to the authorities questioning him, in an attempt to protect his friends. The authorities discovered his deception and punished Colin and his friends severely. But because he acted out of love for his friends, Colin's action was morally good.",
"Derek prepared a steak dinner to welcome his new neighbors to the neighborhood. When they arrived for dinner, Derek found out that the newcomers were strict vegetarians. Though the new neighbors were still grateful for Derek's efforts to welcome them, Derek's action was not morally good.",
"Ellen worked overtime hoping to get a promotion. The extra money she earned allowed her family to take a longer vacation that year, but she failed to get the promotion. Nevertheless, Ellen's action was morally good.",
"Louisa tried to get Henry into serious trouble by making it appear that he stole some expensive clothes from a store. But the store's detective realized what Louisa did, and so Louisa was punished rather than Henry. Since she intended to harm Henry, Louisa's action was not morally good.",
"Yolanda took her children to visit their grandfather because she wanted her children to enjoy their vacation and she knew they adored their grandfather. The grandfather and the children all enjoyed the visit. Though Yolanda greatly enjoyed the visit, her action was morally good."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited by the philosopher? |
Columnist: A recent research report suggests that by exercising vigorously, one significantly lowers one's chances of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses. But exercise has this effect, the report concludes, only if the exercise is vigorous. Thus, one should not heed older studies purporting to show that nonstrenuous walking yields the same benefits. | 200612_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"fails to consider the possibility that the risk of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses can be reduced by means other than exercise",
"fails to consider that those who exercise vigorously are at increased risk of physical injury caused by exercise",
"overlooks the possibility that vigorous exercise may prevent life-endangering diseases that have little to do with the cardio-respiratory system",
"fails to consider the possibility that those who engage in vigorous physical exercise are more likely than others to perceive themselves as healthy",
"fails to show that a certain conclusion of the recent report is better justified than an opposing conclusion reached in older studies"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the columnist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Some statisticians believe that the method called extreme value theory (EVT) is a powerful analytical tool. The curves generated by traditional statistical methods to analyze empirical data on human longevity predict that some humans would live beyond 130 years. According to the curves EVT generates, however, the limit on human life spans is probably between 113 and 124 years. To date, no one has lived beyond the upper limits indicated by EVT analysis. | 200612_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"EVT is, in general, a more reliable method for projecting future trends based on past observations than are traditional statistical methods.",
"EVT fits the data about the highest observed human life spans more closely than do traditional statistical methods.",
"According to the findings derived through the use of EVT, it is physically impossible for any human being to live longer than 124 years.",
"Given the results generated by EVT, there is no point in conducting research aimed at greatly extending the upper limit on human life spans.",
"Traditional statistical methods of empirical data analysis should eventually be replaced by some version of EVT."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above? |
The number of different synthetic chemical compounds that are known to be carcinogenic but are nonetheless used as pesticides, preservatives, or food additives is tiny compared to the number of nonsynthetic carcinogenic compounds widely found in plants and animals. It is therefore absurd to suppose that the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to synthetic carcinogens. | 200612_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to increased exposure to nonsynthetic pollutants",
"the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to something other than increased exposure to carcinogens",
"some synthetic chemical compounds that are not known to be carcinogenic are in other respects toxic",
"people undergo significantly less exposure to carcinogens that are not synthetic than to those that are synthetic",
"people can vary greatly in their susceptibility to cancers caused by nonsynthetic carcinogens"
]
| 3 | The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it overlooks the possibility that |
It is a mistake to think, as ecologists once did, that natural selection will eventually result in organisms that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. After all, perfect adaptation of an individual to its environment is impossible, for an individual's environment can vary tremendously; no single set of attributes could possibly prepare an organism to cope with all the conditions that it could face. | 200612_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"It is not possible for an individual to be perfectly adapted to its environment.",
"Natural selection will never result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.",
"No single set of attributes could enable an individual organism to cope with all of the conditions that it might face.",
"Because an individual's environment can vary tremendously, no individual can be perfectly adapted to its environment.",
"Ecologists once believed that natural selection would eventually result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
It would not be surprising to discover that the trade routes between China and the West were opened many centuries, even millennia, earlier than 200 B.C., contrary to what is currently believed. After all, what made the Great Silk Road so attractive as a trade route linking China and the West—level terrain, easily traversable mountain passes, and desert oases—would also have made it an attractive route for the original emigrants to China from Africa and the Middle East, and this early migration began at least one million years ago. | 200612_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"It is cited as conclusive evidence for the claim that trade links between China and the Middle East were established long before 200 B.C.",
"It is an intermediate conclusion made plausible by the description of the terrain along which the migration supposedly took place.",
"It is offered as evidence in support of the claim that trade routes between China and the West could easily have been established much earlier than is currently believed.",
"It is offered as evidence against the claim that trade routes between China and Africa preceded those eventually established between China and the Middle East.",
"It is the main conclusion that the argument attempts to establish about intercourse between China and the West."
]
| 2 | That a migration from Africa and the Middle East to China occurred at least one million years ago figures in the above reasoning in which one of the following ways? |
The typological theory of species classification, which has few adherents today, distinguishes species solely on the basis of observable physical characteristics, such as plumage color, adult size, or dental structure. However, there are many so-called "sibling species," which are indistinguishable on the basis of their appearance but cannot interbreed and thus, according to the mainstream biological theory of species classification, are separate species. Since the typological theory does not count sibling species as separate species, it is unacceptable. | 200612_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"the argument does not evaluate all aspects of the typological theory",
"the argument confuses a necessary condition for species distinction with a sufficient condition for species distinction",
"the argument, in its attempt to refute one theory of species classification, presupposes the truth of an opposing theory",
"the argument takes a single fact that is incompatible with a theory as enough to show that theory to be false",
"the argument does not explain why sibling species cannot interbreed"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that |
Chiu: The belief that a person is always morally blameworthy for feeling certain emotions, such as unjustifiable anger, jealousy, or resentment, is misguided. Individuals are responsible for only what is under their control, and whether one feels such an emotion is not always under one's control. | 200612_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"Individuals do not have control over their actions when they feel certain emotions.",
"If a person is morally blameworthy for something, then that person is responsible for it.",
"Although a person may sometimes be unjustifiably angry, jealous, or resentful, there are occasions when these emotions are appropriate.",
"If an emotion is under a person's control, then that person cannot hold others responsible for it.",
"The emotions for which a person is most commonly blamed are those that are under that person's control."
]
| 1 | Chiu's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Industrial adviser: If two new processes under consideration are not substantially different in cost, then the less environmentally damaging process should be chosen. If, however, a company already employs an environmentally damaging process and retooling for a less damaging process would involve substantial cost, then that company should retool only if retooling is either legally required or likely to bring long-term savings substantially greater than the cost. | 200612_1-LR1_17_17 | [
"A new law offering companies tax credits for reducing pollution would enable a company to realize a slight long-term savings by changing to a more environmentally sound process for manufacturing dye, despite the substantial cost of retooling. In light of the new law, the company should change its process.",
"In manufacturing pincushions, a company uses a process that, though legal, has come under heavy public criticism for the environmental damage it causes. The company should change its process to preserve its public image, despite some expected long-term losses from doing so.",
"A company is considering two new processes for the manufacture of staples. Process A is more expensive than process B but not substantially so. However, process A is substantially less environmentally damaging than process B. The company should implement process A.",
"Two new processes are being considered for the manufacture of ball bearings. The processes are similar, except that the chemicals used in process A will pollute a nearby river slightly more than will the chemicals for process B. Process A is also slightly cheaper than process B. The company should use process A.",
"A company is considering changing its process for manufacturing shoelaces. The new process is cheaper and less environmentally damaging than the old. Both are legal. Changing processes would be costly, but the cost would be almost entirely recovered in long-term savings. The company should switch processes."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following judgments conforms most closely to the principles described by the industrial adviser? |
In a poll of a representative sample of a province's residents, the provincial capital was the city most often selected as the best place to live in that province. Since the capital is also the largest of that province's many cities, the poll shows that most residents of that province generally prefer life in large cities to life in small cities. | 200612_1-LR1_18_18 | [
"overlooks the possibility that what is true of the residents of the province may not be true of other people",
"does not indicate whether most residents of other provinces also prefer life in large cities to life in small cities",
"takes for granted that when people are polled for their preferences among cities, they tend to vote for the city that they think is the best place to live",
"overlooks the possibility that the people who preferred small cities over the provincial capital did so not because of their general feelings about the sizes of cities, but because of their general feelings about capital cities",
"overlooks the possibility that most people may have voted for small cities even though a large city received more votes than any other single city"
]
| 4 | The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it |
Geneticist: Genes, like viruses, have a strong tendency to self-replicate; this has led some biologists to call genes "selfish." This term is, in this instance, intended to be defined behaviorally: it describes what genes do without ascribing intentions to them. But even given that genes are ascribed no intentions, the label "selfish" as applied to genes is a misnomer. Selfishness only concerns bringing about the best conditions for oneself; creating replicas of oneself is not selfish. | 200612_1-LR1_19_19 | [
"Bringing about the best conditions for oneself is less important than doing this for others.",
"Creating replicas of oneself does not help bring about the best conditions for oneself.",
"The behavioral definition of \"selfish\" is incompatible with its everyday definition.",
"To ignore the fact that self-replication is not limited to genes is to misunderstand genetic behavior.",
"Biologists have insufficient evidence about genetic behavior to determine whether it is best described as selfish."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the geneticist's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Only experienced salespeople will be able to meet the company's selling quota. Thus, I must not count as an experienced salesperson, since I will be able to sell only half the quota. | 200612_1-LR1_20_20 | [
"Only on Fridays are employees allowed to dress casually. Today is Friday but Hector is dressed formally. So he must not be going to work.",
"Only music lovers take this class. Thus, since Hillary is not taking this class, she apparently does not love music.",
"Only oceanographers enjoy the Atlantic in midwinter. Thus, we may expect that Gerald does not enjoy the Atlantic in midwinter, since he is not an oceanographer.",
"As this tree before us is a giant redwood, it follows that we must be in a northern latitude, since it is only in northern latitudes that one finds giant redwoods.",
"Only accomplished mountain climbers can scale El Capitan. Thus, Michelle must be able to scale El Capitan, since she is an accomplished mountain climber."
]
| 1 | The pattern of flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? |
Designer: Any garden and adjoining living room that are separated from one another by sliding glass doors can visually merge into a single space. If the sliding doors are open, as may happen in summer, this effect will be created if it does not already exist and intensified if it does. The effect remains quite strong during colder months if the garden is well coordinated with the room and contributes strong visual interest of its own. | 200612_1-LR1_21_21 | [
"A garden separated from an adjoining living room by closed sliding glass doors cannot be well coordinated with the room unless the garden contributes strong visual interest.",
"In cold weather, a garden and an adjoining living room separated from one another by sliding glass doors will not visually merge into a single space unless the garden is well coordinated with the room.",
"A garden and an adjoining living room separated by sliding glass doors cannot visually merge in summer unless the doors are open.",
"A garden can visually merge with an adjoining living room into a single space even if the garden does not contribute strong visual interest of its own.",
"Except in summer, opening the sliding glass doors that separate a garden from an adjoining living room does not intensify the effect of the garden and room visually merging into a single space."
]
| 3 | The designer's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Last summer, after a number of people got sick from eating locally caught anchovies, the coastal city of San Martin advised against eating such anchovies. The anchovies were apparently tainted with domoic acid, a harmful neurotoxin. However, a dramatic drop in the population of P. australis plankton to numbers more normal for local coastal waters indicates that it is once again safe to eat locally caught anchovies. | 200612_1-LR1_22_22 | [
"P. australis is one of several varieties of plankton common to the region that, when ingested by anchovies, cause the latter to secrete small amounts of domoic acid.",
"P. australis naturally produces domoic acid, though anchovies consume enough to become toxic only when the population of P. australis is extraordinarily large.",
"Scientists have used P. australis plankton to obtain domoic acid in the laboratory.",
"A sharp decline in the population of P. australis is typically mirrored by a corresponding drop in the local anchovy population.",
"P. australis cannot survive in large numbers in seawater that does not contain significant quantities of domoic acid along with numerous other compounds."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most help to explain why it is now safe to lift the advisory? |
Constance: The traditional definition of full employment as a 5 percent unemployment rate is correct, because at levels below 5 percent, inflation rises. Brigita: That traditional definition of full employment was developed before the rise of temporary and part-time work and the fall in benefit levels. When people are juggling several part-time jobs with no benefits, or working in a series of temporary assignments, as is now the case, 5 percent unemployment is not full employment. | 200612_1-LR1_23_23 | [
"what definition of full employment is applicable under contemporary economic conditions",
"whether it is a good idea, all things considered, to allow the unemployment level to drop below 5 percent",
"whether a person with a part-time job should count as fully employed",
"whether the number of part-time and temporary workers has increased since the traditional definition of full employment was developed",
"whether unemployment levels above 5 percent can cause inflation levels to rise"
]
| 0 | The dialogue most strongly supports the claim that Constance and Brigita disagree with each other about which one of the following? |
The supernova event of 1987 is interesting in that there is still no evidence of the neutron star that current theory says should have remained after a supernova of that size. This is in spite of the fact that many of the most sensitive instruments ever developed have searched for the tell-tale pulse of radiation that neutron stars emit. Thus, current theory is wrong in claiming that supernovas of a certain size always produce neutron stars. | 200612_1-LR1_24_24 | [
"Most supernova remnants that astronomers have detected have a neutron star nearby.",
"Sensitive astronomical instruments have detected neutron stars much farther away than the location of the 1987 supernova.",
"The supernova of 1987 was the first that scientists were able to observe in progress.",
"Several important features of the 1987 supernova are correctly predicted by the current theory.",
"Some neutron stars are known to have come into existence by a cause other than a supernova explosion."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
On average, corporations that encourage frequent social events in the workplace show higher profits than those that rarely do. This suggests that the EZ Corporation could boost its profits by having more staff parties during business hours. | 200612_1-LR1_25_25 | [
"The great majority of corporations that encourage frequent social events in the workplace do so at least in part because they are already earning above-average profits.",
"Corporations that have frequent staff parties after business hours sometimes have higher profits than do corporations that have frequent staff parties during business hours.",
"The EZ Corporation already earns above-average profits, and it almost never brings play into the workplace.",
"Frequent social events in a corporate workplace leave employees with less time to perform their assigned duties than they would otherwise have.",
"At one time the EZ Corporation encouraged social events in the workplace more frequently than it currently does, but it has not always been one of the most profitable corporations of its size."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument above? |
Studies have shown that treating certain illnesses with treatment X produces the same beneficial changes in patients' conditions as treating the same illnesses with treatment Y. Furthermore, treatment X is quicker and less expensive than treatment Y. Thus, in treating these illnesses, treatment X should be preferred to treatment Y. | 200612_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"Unlike treatment Y, treatment X has produced harmful side effects in laboratory animals.",
"There are other illnesses for which treatment Y is more effective than treatment X.",
"Until recently, treatment X was more expensive than treatment Y.",
"Treatment Y is prescribed more often by physicians than treatment X.",
"A third treatment, treatment Z, is even quicker and less expensive than treatment X."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument above? |
Some political thinkers hope to devise a form of government in which every citizen's rights are respected. But such a form of government is impossible. For any government must be defined and controlled by laws that determine its powers and limits; and it is inevitable that some individuals will learn how to interpret these laws to gain a greater share of political power than others have. | 200612_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"In any form of government that leads to unequal distribution of political power, the rights of the majority of people will be violated.",
"A government can ensure that every citizen's rights are respected by keeping the citizens ignorant of the laws.",
"Not all the laws that define a government's power and limits can be misinterpreted.",
"In any form of government, if anybody gains a greater share of political power than others have, then somebody's rights will be violated.",
"People who have more political power than others have tend to use it to acquire an even greater share of political power."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Safety considerations aside, nuclear power plants are not economically feasible. While the cost of fuel for nuclear plants is significantly lower than the cost of conventional fuels, such as coal and oil, nuclear plants are far more expensive to build than are conventional power plants. | 200612_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Safety regulations can increase the costs of running both conventional and nuclear power plants.",
"Conventional power plants spend more time out of service than do nuclear power plants.",
"The average life expectancy of a nuclear power plant is shorter than that of a conventional one.",
"Nuclear power plants cost less to build today than they cost to build when their technology was newly developed.",
"As conventional fuels become scarcer their cost will increase dramatically, which will increase the cost of running a conventional power plant."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Pundit: The average salary for teachers in our society is lower than the average salary for athletes. Obviously, our society values sports more than it values education. | 200612_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that sports have some educational value",
"fails to consider that the total amount of money spent on education may be much greater than the total spent on sports",
"fails to consider both that most teachers are not in the classroom during the summer and that most professional athletes do not play all year",
"compares teachers' salaries only to those of professional athletes rather than also to the salaries of other professionals",
"fails to compare salaries for teachers in the pundit's society to salaries for teachers in other societies"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the pundit's argument is questionable because the argument |
The area of mathematics called "gauge field theory," though investigated in the nineteenth century, has only relatively recently been applied to problems in contemporary quantum mechanics. Differential geometry, another area of mathematics, was investigated by Gauss in the early nineteenth century, long before Einstein determined that one of its offspring, tensor analysis, was the appropriate mathematics for exploring general relativity. | 200612_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"Applications of some new theories or techniques in mathematics are unrecognized until long after the discovery of those theories or techniques.",
"Mathematicians are sometimes able to anticipate which branches of their subject will prove useful to future scientists.",
"The discoveries of modern physics would not have been possible without major mathematical advances made in the nineteenth century.",
"The nineteenth century stands out among other times as a period of great mathematical achievement.",
"Mathematics tends to advance more quickly than any of the physical sciences."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is best illustrated by the examples presented above? |
Recently discovered bird fossils are about 20 million years older than the fossils of the birdlike dinosaurs from which the birds are generally claimed to have descended. So these newly discovered fossils show, contrary to the account espoused by most paleontologists, that no bird descended from any dinosaur. | 200612_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"draws a generalization that is broader than is warranted by the findings cited",
"rejects the consensus view of experts in the field without providing any counterevidence",
"attacks the adherents of the opposing view personally instead of addressing any reason for their view",
"fails to consider the possibility that dinosaurs descended from birds",
"ignores the possibility that dinosaurs and birds descended from a common ancestor"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument |
Whether one is buying men's or women's clothing, it pays to consider fashion trends. A classic suit may stay in style for as long as five years, so it is worthwhile to pay more to get a well-constructed one. A trendy hat that will go out of style in a year or two should be purchased as cheaply as possible. | 200612_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"Formal attire tends to be designed and constructed to last longer than casual attire.",
"The amount of money one spends on a garment should be roughly proportionate to the length of time one plans to keep wearing it.",
"One should not buy a cheaply made garment when a well-constructed garment is available.",
"The amount of money one spends on clothing should be roughly the same whether one is purchasing men's or women's attire.",
"It is more appropriate to spend money on office attire than on casual attire."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying the reasoning above? |
Engineers are investigating the suitability of Wantastiquet Pass as the site of a new bridge. Because one concern is whether erosion could eventually weaken the bridge's foundations, they contracted for two reports on erosion in the region. Although both reports are accurate, one claims that the region suffers relatively little erosion, while the other claims that regional erosion is heavy and a cause for concern. | 200612_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"Neither report presents an extensive chemical analysis of the soil in the region.",
"Both reports include computer-enhanced satellite photographs.",
"One report was prepared by scientists from a university, while the other report was prepared by scientists from a private consulting firm.",
"One report focuses on regional topsoil erosion, while the other report focuses on riverbank erosion resulting from seasonal floods.",
"One report cost nearly twice as much to prepare as did the other report."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain how both reports could be accurate? |
Letter to the editor: I have never seen such flawed reasoning and distorted evidence as that which you tried to pass off as a balanced study in the article "Speed Limits, Fatalities, and Public Policy." The article states that areas with lower speed limits had lower vehicle-related fatality rates than other areas. However, that will not be true for long, since vehicle-related fatality rates are rising in the areas with lower speed limits. So the evidence actually supports the view that speed limits should be increased. | 200612_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"bases its conclusion on findings from the same article that it is criticizing",
"fails to consider the possibility that automobile accidents that occur at high speeds often result in fatalities",
"fails to consider the possibility that not everyone wants to drive faster",
"fails to consider the possibility that the vehicle-related fatality rates in other areas are also rising",
"does not present any claims as evidence against the opposing viewpoint"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the letter writer's argument is flawed because the argument |
Human settlement of previously uninhabited areas tends to endanger species of wildlife. However, the Mississippi kite, a bird found on the prairies of North America, flourishes in areas that people have settled. In fact, during the five years since 1985 its population has risen far more rapidly in towns than in rural areas. | 200612_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"Residents of prairie towns have been setting off loud firecrackers near kites' roosting spots because of the birds' habit of diving at people and frightening them.",
"Towns on the prairies tend to be small, with a low density of human population and large numbers of wild birds and animals.",
"Since the international migratory bird protection treaty of 1972, it has been illegal to shoot kites, and the treaty has been effectively enforced.",
"Wildlife such as pigeons and raccoons had already adapted successfully to towns and cities long before there were towns on the North American prairies.",
"Trees are denser in towns than elsewhere on the prairie, and these denser trees provide greater protection from hail and windstorms for kites' nests and eggs."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why the Mississippi kite population does not follow the usual pattern? |
When a major record label signs a contract with a band, the label assumes considerable financial risk. It pays for videos, album art, management, and promotions. Hence, the band does not need to assume nearly as much risk as it would if it produced its own records independently. For this reason, it is only fair for a major label to take a large portion of the profits from the record sales of any band signed with it. | 200612_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"It is the only conclusion that the argument attempts to establish.",
"It is one of two unrelated conclusions, each of which the same premises are used to support.",
"It is a general principle from which the argument's conclusion follows as a specific instance.",
"It describes a phenomenon for which the rest of the argument offers an explanation.",
"Premises are used to support it, and it is used to support the main conclusion."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that a band signed with a major label does not need to assume nearly as much risk as it would if it produced its own records independently? |
Commentator: Recently, articles criticizing the environmental movement have been appearing regularly in newspapers. According to Winslow, this is due not so much to an antienvironmental bias among the media as to a preference on the part of newspaper editors for articles that seem "daring" in that they seem to challenge prevailing political positions. It is true that editors like to run antienvironmental pieces mainly because they seem to challenge the political orthodoxy. But serious environmentalism is by no means politically orthodox, and antienvironmentalists can hardly claim to be dissidents, however much they may have succeeded in selling themselves as renegades. | 200612_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"Winslow is correct about the preference of newspaper editors for controversial articles.",
"Critics of environmentalism have not successfully promoted themselves as renegades.",
"Winslow's explanation is not consonant with the frequency with which critiques of environmentalism are published.",
"The position attacked by critics of environmentalism is actually the prevailing political position.",
"Serious environmentalism will eventually become a prevailing political position."
]
| 0 | The commentator's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Philosopher: Some of the most ardent philosophical opponents of democracy have rightly noted that both the inherently best and the inherently worst possible forms of government are those that concentrate political power in the hands of a few. Thus, since democracy is a consistently mediocre form of government, it is a better choice than rule by the few. | 200612_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"A society should adopt a democratic form of government if and only if most members of the society prefer a democratic form of government.",
"In choosing a form of government, it is better for a society to avoid the inherently worst than to seek to attain the best.",
"The best form of government is the one that is most likely to produce an outcome that is on the whole good.",
"Democratic governments are not truly equitable unless they are designed to prevent interest groups from exerting undue influence on the political process.",
"It is better to choose a form of government on the basis of sound philosophical reasons than on the basis of popular preference."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the philosopher's argument? |
Expert: What criteria distinguish addictive substances from nonaddictive ones? Some have suggested that any substance that at least some habitual users can cease to use is nonaddictive. However, if this is taken to be the sole criterion of nonaddictiveness, some substances that most medical experts classify as prime examples of addictive substances would be properly deemed nonaddictive. Any adequate set of criteria for determining a substance's addictiveness must embody the view, held by these medical experts, that a substance is addictive only if withdrawal from its habitual use causes most users extreme psychological and physiological difficulty. | 200612_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"If a person experiences extreme psychological and physiological difficulty in ceasing to use a substance habitually, that substance is addictive.",
"Fewer substances would be deemed addictive than are deemed so at present if an adequate definition of \"addictive\" were employed.",
"A substance that some habitual users can cease to use with little or no psychological or physiological difficulty is addictive only if that is not true for most habitual users.",
"A chemical substance habitually used by a person throughout life without significant psychological or physiological difficulty is nonaddictive.",
"\"Addiction\" is a term that is impossible to define with precision."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the expert's statements? |
Sociologist: A contention of many of my colleagues—that the large difference between the wages of the highest- and lowest-paid workers will inevitably become a source of social friction—is unfounded. Indeed, the high differential should have an opposite effect, for it means that companies will be able to hire freely in response to changing conditions. Social friction arises not from large wage differences, but from wage levels that are static or slow changing. | 200612_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"When companies can hire freely in response to changing conditions, wage levels do not tend to be static or slow changing.",
"People who expect their wages to rise react differently than do others to obvious disparities in income.",
"A lack of financial caution causes companies to expand their operations.",
"A company's ability to respond swiftly to changing conditions always benefits its workers.",
"Even relatively well-paid workers may become dissatisfied with their jobs if their wages never change."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the sociologist's argument? |
Publisher: The new year is approaching, and with it the seasonal demand for books on exercise and fitness. We must do whatever it takes to ship books in that category on time; our competitors have demonstrated a high level of organization, and we cannot afford to be outsold. | 200612_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"The company should make shipping books its highest priority.",
"By increasing its efficiency, the company can maintain its competitive edge.",
"The company will be outsold if it does not maintain its competitors' high level of organization.",
"It is imperative that the company ship fitness and exercise books on time.",
"The company should do whatever is required in order to adopt its competitors' shipping practices."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the publisher's argument? |
Advertiser: There's nothing wrong with a tool that has ten functions until you need a tool that can perform an eleventh function! The VersaTool can perform more functions than any other tool. If you use the VersaTool, therefore, you will need additional tools less often than you would using any other multiple-function tool. | 200612_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"include some functions that are infrequently or never needed",
"include a number of functions that are difficult to perform with any tool",
"cost more than the combined cost of two other multiple-function tools that together perform more functions than the VersaTool",
"be able to perform fewer often-needed functions than some other multiple-function tool",
"not be able to perform individual functions as well as single-function tools"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the advertiser's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the VersaTool might |
The flagellum, which bacteria use to swim, requires many parts before it can propel a bacterium at all. Therefore, an evolutionary ancestor of bacteria that had only a few of these parts would gain no survival advantage from them. | 200612_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"Any of bacteria's evolutionary ancestors that had only a few of the parts of the flagellum would be at a disadvantage relative to similar organisms that had none of these parts.",
"For parts now incorporated into the flagellum to have aided an organism's survival, they would have had to help it swim.",
"All parts of the flagellum are vital to each of its functions.",
"No evolutionary ancestor of bacteria had only a few of the parts of the flagellum.",
"Any of bacteria's evolutionary ancestors that lacked a flagellum also lacked the capacity to swim."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Style manual: Archaic spellings and styles of punctuation in direct quotations from older works are to be preserved if they occur infrequently and do not interfere with a reader's comprehension. However, if they occur frequently, the editor may modernize them, inserting a note with an explanation to this effect in the text, or if similar modernizing has been done in more than one quotation, inserting a general statement in the preface. On the other hand, obvious typographical errors in quotations from modern works may be corrected without explanation. | 200612_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"If an editor corrects the spelling of a quoted word and the word occurs only once in the text, then an explanation should appear in a note or in the text.",
"An editor may modernize an archaic spelling of a word found in a modern work without providing an explanation.",
"An editor should modernize an archaic spelling of a word that is quoted from an older work if the spelling interferes with reader comprehension.",
"An editor may modernize punctuation directly quoted from an older work if that punctuation occurs frequently and interferes with reader comprehension.",
"If an editor modernizes only one of several similar instances of quoted archaic punctuation, an explanation should appear in the preface of the work."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following follows logically from the statements above? |
Whoever murdered Jansen was undoubtedly in Jansen's office on the day of the murder, and both Samantha and Herbert were in Jansen's office on that day. If Herbert had committed the murder, the police would have found either his fingerprints or his footprints at the scene of the crime. But if Samantha was the murderer, she would have avoided leaving behind footprints or fingerprints. The police found fingerprints but no footprints at the scene of the crime. Since the fingerprints were not Herbert's, he is not the murderer. Thus Samantha must be the killer. | 200612_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"If there had been footprints at the scene of the crime, the police would have found them.",
"Jansen's office was the scene of the crime.",
"No one but Herbert and Samantha was in Jansen's office on the day of the murder.",
"The fingerprints found at the scene of the crime were not Jansen's.",
"The fingerprints found at the scene of the crime were not Samantha's."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion that Samantha was the killer to be properly inferred? |
Most opera singers who add demanding roles to their repertoires at a young age lose their voices early. It has been said that this is because their voices have not yet matured and hence lack the power for such roles. But young singers with great vocal power are the most likely to ruin their voices. The real problem is that most young singers lack the technical training necessary to avoid straining their vocal cords— especially when using their full vocal strength. Such misuse of the cords inevitably leads to a truncated singing career. | 200612_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"Young opera singers without great vocal power are unlikely to ruin their voices by singing demanding roles.",
"Some young opera singers ruin their voices while singing demanding roles because their vocal cords have not yet matured.",
"Only opera singers with many years of technical training should try to sing demanding roles.",
"Only mature opera singers can sing demanding roles without undue strain on their vocal cords.",
"Most young opera singers who sing demanding roles strain their vocal cords."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following does the information above most strongly support? |
Food that is very high in fat tends to be unhealthy. These brownies are fat-free, while those cookies contain a high percentage of fat. Therefore, these fat-free brownies are healthier than those cookies are. | 200612_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"Canned foods always contain more salt than frozen foods do. Therefore, these canned peas contain more salt than those frozen peas do.",
"Vegetables that are overcooked generally have few vitamins. Therefore, these carrots, which are overcooked, contain fewer vitamins than those peas, which are uncooked.",
"The human body needs certain amounts of many minerals to remain healthy. Therefore, this distilled water, which has no minerals, is unhealthy.",
"Some types of nuts make Roy's throat itch. These cookies contain a greater percentage of nuts than that pie contains. Therefore, these cookies are more likely to make Roy's throat itch.",
"Eating at a restaurant costs more than eating food prepared at home. Therefore, this home-cooked meal is less expensive than a restaurant meal of the same dishes would be."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above? |
Ethicist: It would be a mistake to say that just because someone is not inclined to do otherwise, she or he does not deserve to be praised for doing what is right, for although we do consider people especially virtuous if they successfully resist a desire to do what is wrong, they are certainly no less virtuous if they have succeeded in extinguishing all such desires. | 200612_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"It is a claim for which the argument attempts to provide justification.",
"It makes an observation that, according to the argument, is insufficient to justify the claim that the argument concludes is false.",
"It is a claim, acceptance of which, the argument contends, is a primary obstacle to some people's having an adequate conception of virtue.",
"It is, according to the argument, a commonly held opinion that is nevertheless false.",
"It reports an observation that, according to the argument, serves as evidence for the truth of its conclusion."
]
| 1 | The assertion that people are considered especially virtuous if they successfully resist a desire to do what is wrong plays which one of the following roles in the ethicist's argument? |
Ecologists predict that the incidence of malaria will increase if global warming continues or if the use of pesticides is not expanded. But the use of pesticides is known to contribute to global warming, so it is inevitable that we will see an increase in malaria in the years to come. | 200612_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"The crime rate will increase if the economy does not improve or if we do not increase the number of police officers. But we will be able to hire more police officers if the economy does improve. Therefore, the crime rate will not increase.",
"If educational funds remain at their current level or if we fail to recruit qualified teachers, student performance will worsen. But we will fail to recruit qualified teachers. Therefore, student performance will worsen.",
"If interest rates increase or demand for consumer goods does not decline, inflation will rise. But if there is a decline in the demand for consumer goods, that will lead to higher interest rates. Therefore, inflation will rise.",
"If global warming continues or if the rate of ozone depletion is not reduced, there will be an increase in the incidence of skin cancer. But reduced use of aerosols ensures both that global warming will not continue and that ozone depletion will be reduced. Thus, the incidence of skin cancer will not increase.",
"If deforestation continues at the current rate and the use of chemicals is not curtailed, wildlife species will continue to become extinct. But because of increasing population worldwide, it is inevitable that the current rate of deforestation will continue and that the use of chemicals will not be curtailed. Thus, wildlife species will continue to become extinct."
]
| 2 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |
In ancient Greece, court witnesses were not cross-examined and the jury, selected from the citizenry, received no guidance on points of law; thus, it was extremely important for litigants to make a good impression on the jurors. For this reason, courtroom oratory by litigants is a good source of data on the common conceptions of morality held by the citizens of ancient Greece. | 200612_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"Litigants believed jurors were more likely to be impressed by litigants whose personality they preferred.",
"Litigants believed jurors were more likely to subject the litigants' personal moral codes to close critical scrutiny than were people who did not sit on juries.",
"Litigants believed jurors were likely to be impressed by litigants whose professed moral code most resembled their own.",
"Litigants believed jurors to be more impressed by litigants who were of the same economic class as the jurors.",
"Litigants believed jurors were likely to render their decisions based on a good understanding of the law."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument? |
Economist: Every business strives to increase its productivity, for this increases profits for the owners and the likelihood that the business will survive. But not all efforts to increase productivity are beneficial to the business as a whole. Often, attempts to increase productivity decrease the number of employees, which clearly harms the dismissed employees as well as the sense of security of the retained employees. | 200706_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"If an action taken to secure the survival of a business fails to enhance the welfare of the business's employees, that action cannot be good for the business as a whole.",
"Some measures taken by a business to increase productivity fail to be beneficial to the business as a whole.",
"Only if the employees of a business are also its owners will the interests of the employees and owners coincide, enabling measures that will be beneficial to the business as a whole.",
"There is no business that does not make efforts to increase its productivity.",
"Decreasing the number of employees in a business undermines the sense of security of retained employees."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the economist's argument? |
All Labrador retrievers bark a great deal. All Saint Bernards bark infrequently. Each of Rosa's dogs is a cross between a Labrador retriever and a Saint Bernard. Therefore, Rosa's dogs are moderate barkers. | 200706_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"All students who study diligently make good grades. But some students who do not study diligently also make good grades. Jane studies somewhat diligently. Therefore, Jane makes somewhat good grades.",
"All type A chemicals are extremely toxic to human beings. All type B chemicals are nontoxic to human beings. This household cleaner is a mixture of a type A chemical and a type B chemical. Therefore, this household cleaner is moderately toxic.",
"All students at Hanson School live in Green County. All students at Edwards School live in Winn County. Members of the Perry family attend both Hanson and Edwards. Therefore, some members of the Perry family live in Green County and some live in Winn County.",
"All transcriptionists know shorthand. All engineers know calculus. Bob has worked both as a transcriptionist and as an engineer. Therefore, Bob knows both shorthand and calculus.",
"All of Kenisha's dresses are very well made. All of Connie's dresses are very badly made. Half of the dresses in this closet are very well made, and half of them are very badly made. Therefore, half of the dresses in this closet are Kenisha's and half of them are Connie's."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following uses flawed reasoning that most closely resembles the flawed reasoning used in the argument above? |
A century in certain ways is like a life, and as the end of a century approaches, people behave toward that century much as someone who is nearing the end of life does toward that life. So just as people in their last years spend much time looking back on the events of their life, people at a century's end ____. | 200706_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"reminisce about their own lives",
"fear that their own lives are about to end",
"focus on what the next century will bring",
"become very interested in the history of the century just ending",
"reflect on how certain unfortunate events of the century could have been avoided"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Consumer: The latest Connorly Report suggests that Ocksenfrey prepackaged meals are virtually devoid of nutritional value. But the Connorly Report is commissioned by Danto Foods, Ocksenfrey's largest corporate rival, and early drafts of the report are submitted for approval to Danto Foods' public relations department. Because of the obvious bias of this report, it is clear that Ocksenfrey's prepackaged meals really are nutritious. | 200706_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"treats evidence that there is an apparent bias as evidence that the Connorly Report's claims are false",
"draws a conclusion based solely on an unrepresentative sample of Ocksenfrey's products",
"fails to take into account the possibility that Ocksenfrey has just as much motivation to create negative publicity for Danto as Danto has to create negative publicity for Ocksenfrey",
"fails to provide evidence that Danto Foods' prepackaged meals are not more nutritious than Ocksenfrey's are",
"presumes, without providing justification, that Danto Foods' public relations department would not approve a draft of a report that was hostile to Danto Foods' products"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the consumer's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Scientist: Earth's average annual temperature has increased by about 0.5 degrees Celsius over the last century. This warming is primarily the result of the buildup of minor gases in the atmosphere, blocking the outward flow of heat from the planet. | 200706_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"Only some of the minor gases whose presence in the atmosphere allegedly resulted in the phenomenon described by the scientist were produced by industrial pollution.",
"Most of the warming occurred before 1940, while most of the buildup of minor gases in the atmosphere occurred after 1940.",
"Over the last century, Earth received slightly more solar radiation in certain years than it did in others.",
"Volcanic dust and other particles in the atmosphere reflect much of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can reach Earth's surface.",
"The accumulation of minor gases in the atmosphere has been greater over the last century than at any other time in Earth's history."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would count as evidence against the scientist's explanation of Earth's warming? |
An undergraduate degree is necessary for appointment to the executive board. Further, no one with a felony conviction can be appointed to the board. Thus, Murray, an accountant with both a bachelor's and a master's degree, cannot be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator, since he has a felony conviction. | 200706_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"Anyone with a master's degree and without a felony conviction is eligible for appointment to the executive board.",
"Only candidates eligible for appointment to the executive board can be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"An undergraduate degree is not necessary for acceptance for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"If Murray did not have a felony conviction, he would be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"The felony charge on which Murray was convicted is relevant to the duties of the position of Executive Administrator."
]
| 1 | The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Ethicist: The most advanced kind of moral motivation is based solely on abstract principles. This form of motivation is in contrast with calculated self-interest or the desire to adhere to societal norms and conventions. | 200706_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"Bobby contributed money to a local charity during a charity drive at work because he worried that not doing so would make him look stingy.",
"Wes contributed money to a local charity during a charity drive at work because he believed that doing so would improve his employer's opinion of him.",
"Donna's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Donna did not report this practice to the authorities, out of fear that her employers would retaliate against her.",
"Jadine's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Jadine reported this practice to the authorities out of a belief that protecting the environment is always more important than monetary profit.",
"Leigh's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Leigh reported this practice to the authorities only because several colleagues had been pressuring her to do so."
]
| 3 | The actions of which one of the following individuals exhibit the most advanced kind of moral motivation, as described by the ethicist? |
Proponents of the electric car maintain that when the technical problems associated with its battery design are solved, such cars will be widely used and, because they are emission-free, will result in an abatement of the environmental degradation caused by auto emissions. But unless we dam more rivers, the electricity to charge these batteries will come from nuclear or coal-fired power plants. Each of these three power sources produces considerable environmental damage. Thus, the electric car ____. | 200706_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"will have worse environmental consequences than its proponents may believe",
"will probably remain less popular than other types of cars",
"requires that purely technical problems be solved before it can succeed",
"will increase the total level of emissions rather than reduce it",
"will not produce a net reduction in environmental degradation"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Although video game sales have increased steadily over the past 3 years, we can expect a reversal of this trend in the very near future. Historically, over three quarters of video games sold have been purchased by people from 13 to 16 years of age, and the number of people in this age group is expected to decline steadily over the next 10 years. | 200706_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"Most people 17 years old or older have never purchased a video game.",
"Video game rentals have declined over the past 3 years.",
"New technology will undoubtedly make entirely new entertainment options available over the next 10 years.",
"The number of different types of video games available is unlikely to decrease in the near future.",
"Most of the people who have purchased video games over the past 3 years are over the age of 16."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument? |
Double-blind techniques should be used whenever possible in scientific experiments. They help prevent the misinterpretations that often arise due to expectations and opinions that scientists already hold, and clearly scientists should be extremely diligent in trying to avoid such misinterpretations. | 200706_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"Scientists' objectivity may be impeded by interpreting experimental evidence on the basis of expectations and opinions that they already hold.",
"It is advisable for scientists to use double-blind techniques in as high a proportion of their experiments as they can.",
"Scientists sometimes neglect to adequately consider the risk of misinterpreting evidence on the basis of prior expectations and opinions.",
"Whenever possible, scientists should refrain from interpreting evidence on the basis of previously formed expectations and convictions.",
"Double-blind experimental techniques are often an effective way of ensuring scientific objectivity."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
It is now a common complaint that the electronic media have corroded the intellectual skills required and fostered by the literary media. But several centuries ago the complaint was that certain intellectual skills, such as the powerful memory and extemporaneous eloquence that were intrinsic to oral culture, were being destroyed by the spread of literacy. So, what awaits us is probably a mere alteration of the human mind rather than its devolution. | 200706_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"evidence supporting the claim that the intellectual skills fostered by the literary media are being destroyed by the electronic media",
"an illustration of the general hypothesis being advanced that intellectual abilities are inseparable from the means by which people communicate",
"an example of a cultural change that did not necessarily have a detrimental effect on the human mind overall",
"evidence that the claim that the intellectual skills required and fostered by the literary media are being lost is unwarranted",
"possible evidence, mentioned and then dismissed, that might be cited by supporters of the hypothesis being criticized"
]
| 2 | The reference to the complaint of several centuries ago that powerful memory and extemporaneous eloquence were being destroyed plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Suppose I have promised to keep a confidence and someone asks me a question that I cannot answer truthfully without thereby breaking the promise. Obviously, I cannot both keep and break the same promise. Therefore, one cannot be obliged both to answer all questions truthfully and to keep all promises. | 200706_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"It is claimed that we have the unencumbered right to say whatever we want. It is also claimed that we have the obligation to be civil to others. But civility requires that we not always say what we want. So, it cannot be true both that we have the unencumbered right to say whatever we want and that we have the duty to be civil.",
"Some politicians could attain popularity with voters only by making extravagant promises; this, however, would deceive the people. So, since the only way for some politicians to be popular is to deceive, and any politician needs to be popular, it follows that some politicians must deceive.",
"If we put a lot of effort into making this report look good, the client might think we did so because we believed our proposal would not stand on its own merits. On the other hand, if we do not try to make the report look good, the client might think we are not serious about her business. So, whatever we do, we risk her criticism.",
"If creditors have legitimate claims against a business and the business has the resources to pay those debts, then the business is obliged to pay them. Also, if a business has obligations to pay debts, then a court will force it to pay them. But the courts did not force this business to pay its debts, so either the creditors did not have legitimate claims or the business did not have sufficient resources.",
"If we extend our business hours, we will either have to hire new employees or have existing employees work overtime. But both new employees and additional overtime would dramatically increase our labor costs. We cannot afford to increase labor costs, so we will have to keep our business hours as they stand."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
Standard aluminum soft-drink cans do not vary in the amount of aluminum that they contain. Fifty percent of the aluminum contained in a certain group (M) of standard aluminum soft-drink cans was recycled from another group (L) of used, standard aluminum softdrink cans. Since all the cans in L were recycled into cans in M and since the amount of material other than aluminum in an aluminum can is negligible, it follows that M contains twice as many cans as L. | 200706_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"The aluminum in the cans of M cannot be recycled further.",
"Recycled aluminum is of poorer quality than unrecycled aluminum.",
"All of the aluminum in an aluminum can is recovered when the can is recycled.",
"None of the soft-drink cans in group L had been made from recycled aluminum.",
"Aluminum soft-drink cans are more easily recycled than are soft-drink cans made from other materials."
]
| 2 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
A cup of raw milk, after being heated in a microwave oven to 50 degrees Celsius, contains half its initial concentration of a particular enzyme, lysozyme. If, however, the milk reaches that temperature through exposure to a conventional heat source of 50 degrees Celsius, it will contain nearly all of its initial concentration of the enzyme. Therefore, what destroys the enzyme is not heat but microwaves, which generate heat. | 200706_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"Heating raw milk in a microwave oven to a temperature of 100 degrees Celsius destroys nearly all of the lysozyme initially present in that milk.",
"Enzymes in raw milk that are destroyed through excessive heating can be replaced by adding enzymes that have been extracted from other sources.",
"A liquid exposed to a conventional heat source of exactly 50 degrees Celsius will reach that temperature more slowly than it would if it were exposed to a conventional heat source hotter than 50 degrees Celsius.",
"Milk that has been heated in a microwave oven does not taste noticeably different from milk that has been briefly heated by exposure to a conventional heat source.",
"Heating any liquid by microwave creates small zones within it that are much hotter than the overall temperature that the liquid will ultimately reach."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
A new government policy has been developed to avoid many serious cases of influenza. This goal will be accomplished by the annual vaccination of high-risk individuals: everyone 65 and older as well as anyone with a chronic disease that might cause them to experience complications from the influenza virus. Each year's vaccination will protect only against the strain of the influenza virus deemed most likely to be prevalent that year, so every year it will be necessary for all high-risk individuals to receive a vaccine for a different strain of the virus. | 200706_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"The number of individuals in the high-risk group for influenza will not significantly change from year to year.",
"The likelihood that a serious influenza epidemic will occur varies from year to year.",
"No vaccine for the influenza virus protects against more than one strain of that virus.",
"Each year the strain of influenza virus deemed most likely to be prevalent will be one that had not previously been deemed most likely to be prevalent.",
"Each year's vaccine will have fewer side effects than the vaccine of the previous year since the technology for making vaccines will constantly improve."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption that would allow the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
Taylor: Researchers at a local university claim that 61 percent of the information transferred during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals. But this claim, like all such mathematically precise claims, is suspect, because claims of such exactitude could never be established by science. Sandra: While precision is unobtainable in many areas of life, it is commonplace in others. Many scientific disciplines obtain extremely precise results, which should not be doubted merely because of their precision. | 200706_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"Research might reveal that 61 percent of the information taken in during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals.",
"It is possible to determine whether 61 percent of the information taken in during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals.",
"The study of verbal and nonverbal communication is an area where one cannot expect great precision in one's research results.",
"Some sciences can yield mathematically precise results that are not inherently suspect.",
"If inherently suspect claims are usually false, then the majority of claims made by scientists are false as well."
]
| 3 | The statements above provide the most support for holding that Sandra would disagree with Taylor about which one of the following statements? |
Hospital executive: At a recent conference on nonprofit management, several computer experts maintained that the most significant threat faced by large institutions such as universities and hospitals is unauthorized access to confidential data. In light of this testimony, we should make the protection of our clients' confidentiality our highest priority. | 200706_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"The argument confuses the causes of a problem with the appropriate solutions to that problem.",
"The argument relies on the testimony of experts whose expertise is not shown to be sufficiently broad to support their general claim.",
"The argument assumes that a correlation between two phenomena is evidence that one is the cause of the other.",
"The argument draws a general conclusion about a group based on data about an unrepresentative sample of that group.",
"The argument infers that a property belonging to large institutions belongs to all institutions."
]
| 1 | The hospital executive's argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following objections? |
Modern science is built on the process of posing hypotheses and testing them against observations—in essence, attempting to show that the hypotheses are incorrect. Nothing brings more recognition than overthrowing conventional wisdom. It is accordingly unsurprising that some scientists are skeptical of the widely accepted predictions of global warming. What is instead remarkable is that with hundreds of researchers striving to make breakthroughs in climatology, very few find evidence that global warming is unlikely. | 200706_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"Most scientists who are reluctant to accept the global warming hypothesis are not acting in accordance with the accepted standards of scientific debate.",
"Most researchers in climatology have substantial motive to find evidence that would discredit the global warming hypothesis.",
"There is evidence that conclusively shows that the global warming hypothesis is true.",
"Scientists who are skeptical about global warming have not offered any alternative hypotheses to explain climatological data.",
"Research in global warming is primarily driven by a desire for recognition in the scientific community."
]
| 1 | The information above provides the most support for which one of the following statements? |
Historian: The Land Party achieved its only national victory in Banestria in 1935. It received most of its support that year in rural and semirural areas, where the bulk of Banestria's population lived at the time. The economic woes of the years surrounding that election hit agricultural and small business interests the hardest, and the Land Party specifically targeted those groups in 1935. I conclude that the success of the Land Party that year was due to the combination of the Land Party's specifically addressing the concerns of these groups and the depth of the economic problems people in these groups were facing. | 200706_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"In preceding elections the Land Party made no attempt to address the interests of economically distressed urban groups.",
"Voters are more likely to vote for a political party that focuses on their problems.",
"The Land Party had most of its successes when there was economic distress in the agricultural sector.",
"No other major party in Banestria specifically addressed the issues of people who lived in semirural areas in 1935.",
"The greater the degree of economic distress someone is in, the more likely that person is to vote."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the historian's argument EXCEPT: |
Gamba: Muñoz claims that the Southwest Hopeville Neighbors Association overwhelmingly opposes the new water system, citing this as evidence of citywide opposition. The association did pass a resolution opposing the new water system, but only 25 of 350 members voted, with 10 in favor of the system. Furthermore, the 15 opposing votes represent far less than 1 percent of Hopeville's population. One should not assume that so few votes represent the view of the majority of Hopeville's residents. | 200706_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"questioning a conclusion based on the results of a vote, on the grounds that people with certain views are more likely to vote",
"questioning a claim supported by statistical data by arguing that statistical data can be manipulated to support whatever view the interpreter wants to support",
"attempting to refute an argument by showing that, contrary to what has been claimed, the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion",
"criticizing a view on the grounds that the view is based on evidence that is in principle impossible to disconfirm",
"attempting to cast doubt on a conclusion by claiming that the statistical sample on which the conclusion is based is too small to be dependable"
]
| 4 | Of the following, which one most accurately describes Gamba's strategy of argumentation? |
Driver: My friends say I will one day have an accident because I drive my sports car recklessly. But I have done some research, and apparently minivans and larger sedans have very low accident rates compared to sports cars. So trading my sports car in for a minivan would lower my risk of having an accident. | 200706_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"infers a cause from a mere correlation",
"relies on a sample that is too narrow",
"misinterprets evidence that a result is likely as evidence that the result is certain",
"mistakes a condition sufficient for bringing about a result for a condition necessary for doing so",
"relies on a source that is probably not well-informed"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the driver's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Editorialist: News media rarely cover local politics thoroughly, and local political business is usually conducted secretively. These factors each tend to isolate local politicians from their electorates. This has the effect of reducing the chance that any particular act of resident participation will elicit a positive official response, which in turn discourages resident participation in local politics. | 200706_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"Particular acts of resident participation would be likely to elicit a positive response from local politicians if those politicians were less isolated from their electorate.",
"Local political business should be conducted less secretively because this would avoid discouraging resident participation in local politics.",
"The most important factor influencing a resident's decision as to whether to participate in local politics is the chance that the participation will elicit a positive official response.",
"More-frequent thorough coverage of local politics would reduce at least one source of discouragement from resident participation in local politics.",
"If resident participation in local politics were not discouraged, this would cause local politicians to be less isolated from their electorate."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the editorialist's statements? |
Philosopher: An action is morally right if it would be reasonably expected to increase the aggregate well-being of the people affected by it. An action is morally wrong if and only if it would be reasonably expected to reduce the aggregate wellbeing of the people affected by it. Thus, actions that would be reasonably expected to leave unchanged the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them are also right. | 200706_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"Only wrong actions would be reasonably expected to reduce the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them.",
"No action is both right and wrong.",
"Any action that is not morally wrong is morally right.",
"There are actions that would be reasonably expected to leave unchanged the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them.",
"Only right actions have good consequences."
]
| 2 | The philosopher's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Car companies solicit consumer information on such human factors as whether a seat is comfortable or whether a set of controls is easy to use. However, designer interaction with consumers is superior to survey data; the data may tell the designer why a feature on last year's model was given a low rating, but data will not explain how that feature needs to be changed in order to receive a higher rating. | 200706_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Getting consumer input for design modifications can contribute to successful product design.",
"Car companies traditionally conduct extensive postmarket surveys.",
"Designers aim to create features that will appeal to specific market niches.",
"A car will have unappealing features if consumers are not consulted during its design stage.",
"Consumer input affects external rather than internal design components of cars."
]
| 0 | The reasoning above conforms most closely to which one of the following propositions? |
During the nineteenth century, the French academy of art was a major financial sponsor of painting and sculpture in France; sponsorship by private individuals had decreased dramatically by this time. Because the academy discouraged innovation in the arts, there was little innovation in nineteenth century French sculpture. Yet nineteenth century French painting showed a remarkable degree of innovation. | 200706_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"In France in the nineteenth century, the French academy gave more of its financial support to painting than it did to sculpture.",
"The French academy in the nineteenth century financially supported a greater number of sculptors than painters, but individual painters received more support, on average, than individual sculptors.",
"Because stone was so much more expensive than paint and canvas, far more unsponsored paintings were produced than were unsponsored sculptures in France during the nineteenth century.",
"Very few of the artists in France in the nineteenth century who produced sculptures also produced paintings.",
"Although the academy was the primary sponsor of sculpture and painting, the total amount of financial support that French sculptors and painters received from sponsors declined during the nineteenth century."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the difference between the amount of innovation in French painting and the amount of innovation in French sculpture during the nineteenth century? |
Situation: Someone living in a cold climate buys a winter coat that is stylish but not warm in order to appear sophisticated. Analysis: People are sometimes willing to sacrifice sensual comfort or pleasure for the sake of appearances. | 200706_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"A person buys an automobile to commute to work even though public transportation is quick and reliable.",
"A parent buys a car seat for a young child because it is more colorful and more comfortable for the child than the other car seats on the market, though no safer.",
"A couple buys a particular wine even though their favorite wine is less expensive and better tasting because they think it will impress their dinner guests.",
"A person sets her thermostat at a low temperature during the winter because she is concerned about the environmental damage caused by using fossil fuels to heat her home.",
"An acrobat convinces the circus that employs him to purchase an expensive outfit for him so that he can wear it during his act to impress the audience."
]
| 2 | The analysis provided for the situation above is most appropriate for which one of the following situations? |
After replacing his old gas water heater with a new, pilotless, gas water heater that is rated as highly efficient, Jimmy's gas bills increased. | 200706_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"The new water heater uses a smaller percentage of the gas used by Jimmy's household than did the old one.",
"Shortly after the new water heater was installed, Jimmy's uncle came to live with him, doubling the size of the household.",
"After having done his laundry at a laundromat, Jimmy bought and started using a gas dryer when he replaced his water heater.",
"Jimmy's utility company raised the rates for gas consumption following installation of the new water heater.",
"Unusually cold weather following installation of the new water heater resulted in heavy gas usage."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the increase mentioned above EXCEPT: |
Carolyn: The artist Marc Quinn has displayed, behind a glass plate, biologically replicated fragments of Sir John Sulston's DNA, calling it a "conceptual portrait" of Sulston. But to be a portrait, something must bear a recognizable resemblance to its subject. Arnold: I disagree. Quinn's conceptual portrait is a maximally realistic portrait, for it holds actual instructions according to which Sulston was created. | 200706_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"should be considered to be art",
"should be considered to be Quinn's work",
"bears a recognizable resemblance to Sulston",
"contains instructions according to which Sulston was created",
"is actually a portrait of Sulston"
]
| 4 | The dialogue provides most support for the claim that Carolyn and Arnold disagree over whether the object described by Quinn as a conceptual portrait of Sir John Sulston |
Many corporations have begun decorating their halls with motivational posters in hopes of boosting their employees' motivation to work productively. However, almost all employees at these corporations are already motivated to work productively. So these corporations' use of motivational posters is unlikely to achieve its intended purpose. | 200706_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"fails to consider whether corporations that do not currently use motivational posters would increase their employees' motivation to work productively if they began using the posters",
"takes for granted that, with respect to their employees' motivation to work productively, corporations that decorate their halls with motivational posters are representative of corporations in general",
"fails to consider that even if motivational posters do not have one particular beneficial effect for corporations, they may have similar effects that are equally beneficial",
"does not adequately address the possibility that employee productivity is strongly affected by factors other than employees' motivation to work productively",
"fails to consider that even if employees are already motivated to work productively, motivational posters may increase that motivation"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Atrens: An early entomologist observed ants carrying particles to neighboring ant colonies and inferred that the ants were bringing food to their neighbors. Further research, however, revealed that the ants were emptying their own colony's dumping site. Thus, the early entomologist was wrong. | 200706_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"Ant societies do not interact in all the same ways that human societies interact.",
"There is only weak evidence for the view that ants have the capacity to make use of objects as gifts.",
"Ant dumping sites do not contain particles that could be used as food.",
"The ants to whom the particles were brought never carried the particles into their own colonies.",
"The entomologist cited retracted his conclusion when it was determined that the particles the ants carried came from their dumping site."
]
| 2 | Atrens's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Jablonski, who owns a car dealership, has donated cars to driver education programs at area schools for over five years. She found the statistics on car accidents to be disturbing, and she wanted to do something to encourage better driving in young drivers. Some members of the community have shown their support for this action by purchasing cars from Jablonski's dealership. | 200706_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"The only way to reduce traffic accidents is through driver education programs.",
"Altruistic actions sometimes have positive consequences for those who perform them.",
"Young drivers are the group most likely to benefit from driver education programs.",
"It is usually in one's best interest to perform actions that benefit others.",
"An action must have broad community support if it is to be successful."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the passage? |
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