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Antonio: One can live a life of moderation by never deviating from the middle course. But then one loses the joy of spontaneity and misses the opportunities that come to those who are occasionally willing to take great chances, or to go too far. Marla: But one who, in the interests of moderation, never risks going too far is actually failing to live a life of moderation: one must be moderate even in one's moderation. | 200706_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"whether it is desirable for people occasionally to take great chances in life",
"what a life of moderation requires of a person",
"whether it is possible for a person to embrace other virtues along with moderation",
"how often a person ought to deviate from the middle course in life",
"whether it is desirable for people to be moderately spontaneous"
]
| 1 | Antonio and Marla disagree over |
Advertisement: Fabric-Soft leaves clothes soft and fluffy, and its fresh scent is a delight. We conducted a test using over 100 consumers to prove Fabric-Soft is best. Each consumer was given one towel washed with Fabric-Soft and one towel washed without it. Ninety-nine percent of the consumers preferred the Fabric-Soft towel. So Fabric-Soft is the most effective fabric softener available. | 200706_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"any of the consumers tested are allergic to fabric softeners",
"Fabric-Soft is more or less harmful to the environment than other fabric softeners",
"Fabric-Soft is much cheaper or more expensive than other fabric softeners",
"the consumers tested find the benefits of using fabric softeners worth the expense",
"the consumers tested had the opportunity to evaluate fabric softeners other than Fabric-Soft"
]
| 4 | The advertisement's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider whether |
Naturalist: The recent claims that the Tasmanian tiger is not extinct are false. The Tasmanian tiger's natural habitat was taken over by sheep farming decades ago, resulting in the animal's systematic elimination from the area. Since then naturalists working in the region have discovered no hard evidence of its survival, such as carcasses or tracks. In spite of alleged sightings of the animal, the Tasmanian tiger no longer exists. | 200706_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Sheep farming drove the last Tasmanian tigers to starvation by chasing them from their natural habitat.",
"Some scavengers in Tasmania are capable of destroying tiger carcasses without a trace.",
"Every naturalist working in the Tasmanian tiger's natural habitat has looked systematically for evidence of the tiger's survival.",
"The Tasmanian tiger did not move and adapt to a different region in response to the loss of habitat.",
"Those who have reported sightings of the Tasmanian tiger are not experienced naturalists."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the naturalist's argument depends? |
Advertisers have learned that people are more easily encouraged to develop positive attitudes about things toward which they originally have neutral or even negative attitudes if those things are linked, with pictorial help rather than exclusively through prose, to things about which they already have positive attitudes. Therefore, advertisers are likely to ____. | 200706_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"use little if any written prose in their advertisements",
"try to encourage people to develop positive attitudes about products that can be better represented pictorially than in prose",
"place their advertisements on television rather than in magazines",
"highlight the desirable features of the advertised product by contrasting them pictorially with undesirable features of a competing product",
"create advertisements containing pictures of things most members of the target audience like"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Feathers recently taken from seabirds stuffed and preserved in the 1880s have been found to contain only half as much mercury as feathers recently taken from living birds of the same species. Since mercury that accumulates in a seabird's feathers as the feathers grow is derived from fish eaten by the bird, these results indicate that mercury levels in saltwater fish are higher now than they were 100 years ago. | 200706_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"the proportion of a seabird's diet consisting of fish was not as high, on average, in the 1880s as it is today",
"the amount of mercury in a saltwater fish depends on the amount of pollution in the ocean habitat of the fish",
"mercury derived from fish is essential for the normal growth of a seabird's feathers",
"the stuffed seabirds whose feathers were tested for mercury were not fully grown",
"the process used to preserve birds in the 1880s did not substantially decrease the amount of mercury in the birds' feathers"
]
| 4 | The argument depends on assuming that |
Novel X and Novel Y are both semiautobiographical novels and contain many very similar themes and situations, which might lead one to suspect plagiarism on the part of one of the authors. However, it is more likely that the similarity of themes and situations in the two novels is merely coincidental, since both authors are from very similar backgrounds and have led similar lives. | 200706_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"Novel X and Novel Y are both semiautobiographical novels, and the two novels contain many very similar themes and situations.",
"The fact that Novel X and Novel Y are both semiautobiographical novels and contain many very similar themes and situations might lead one to suspect plagiarism on the part of one of the authors.",
"The author of Novel X and the author of Novel Y are from very similar backgrounds and have led very similar lives.",
"It is less likely that one of the authors of Novel X or Novel Y is guilty of plagiarism than that the similarity of themes and situations in the two novels is merely coincidental.",
"If the authors of Novel X and Novel Y are from very similar backgrounds and have led similar lives, suspicions that either of the authors plagiarized are very likely to be unwarranted."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument? |
Therapist: Cognitive psychotherapy focuses on changing a patient's conscious beliefs. Thus, cognitive psychotherapy is likely to be more effective at helping patients overcome psychological problems than are forms of psychotherapy that focus on changing unconscious beliefs and desires, since only conscious beliefs are under the patient's direct conscious control. | 200706_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"Psychological problems are frequently caused by unconscious beliefs that could be changed with the aid of psychotherapy.",
"It is difficult for any form of psychotherapy to be effective without focusing on mental states that are under the patient's direct conscious control.",
"Cognitive psychotherapy is the only form of psychotherapy that focuses primarily on changing the patient's conscious beliefs.",
"No form of psychotherapy that focuses on changing the patient's unconscious beliefs and desires can be effective unless it also helps change beliefs that are under the patient's direct conscious control.",
"All of a patient's conscious beliefs are under the patient's conscious control, but other psychological states cannot be controlled effectively without the aid of psychotherapy."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the therapist's argument? |
Commentator: In academic scholarship, sources are always cited, and methodology and theoretical assumptions are set out, so as to allow critical study, replication, and expansion of scholarship. In open-source software, the code in which the program is written can be viewed and modified by individual users for their purposes without getting permission from the producer or paying a fee. In contrast, the code of proprietary software is kept secret, and modifications can be made only by the producer, for a fee. This shows that open-source software better matches the values embodied in academic scholarship, and since scholarship is central to the mission of universities, universities should use only open-source software. | 200706_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"Whatever software tools are most advanced and can achieve the goals of academic scholarship are the ones that should alone be used in universities.",
"Universities should use the type of software technology that is least expensive, as long as that type of software technology is adequate for the purposes of academic scholarship.",
"Universities should choose the type of software technology that best matches the values embodied in the activities that are central to the mission of universities.",
"The form of software technology that best matches the values embodied in the activities that are central to the mission of universities is the form of software technology that is most efficient for universities to use.",
"A university should not pursue any activity that would block the achievement of the goals of academic scholarship at that university."
]
| 2 | The commentator's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
A consumer magazine surveyed people who had sought a psychologist's help with a personal problem. Of those responding who had received treatment for 6 months or less, 20 percent claimed that treatment "made things a lot better." Of those responding who had received longer treatment, 36 percent claimed that treatment "made things a lot better." Therefore, psychological treatment lasting more than 6 months is more effective than shorter-term treatment. | 200706_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"Of the respondents who had received treatment for longer than 6 months, 10 percent said that treatment made things worse.",
"Patients who had received treatment for longer than 6 months were more likely to respond to the survey than were those who had received treatment for a shorter time.",
"Patients who feel they are doing well in treatment tend to remain in treatment, while those who are doing poorly tend to quit earlier.",
"Patients who were dissatisfied with their treatment were more likely to feel a need to express their feelings about it and thus to return the survey.",
"Many psychologists encourage their patients to receive treatment for longer than 6 months."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Philosopher: Nations are not literally persons; they have no thoughts or feelings, and, literally speaking, they perform no actions. Thus they have no moral rights or responsibilities. But no nation can survive unless many of its citizens attribute such rights and responsibilities to it, for nothing else could prompt people to make the sacrifices national citizenship demands. Obviously, then, a nation ____. | 200706_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"cannot continue to exist unless something other than the false belief that the nation has moral rights motivates its citizens to make sacrifices",
"cannot survive unless many of its citizens have some beliefs that are literally false",
"can never be a target of moral praise or blame",
"is not worth the sacrifices that its citizens make on its behalf",
"should always be thought of in metaphorical rather than literal terms"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most logically completes the philosopher's argument? |
When exercising the muscles in one's back, it is important, in order to maintain a healthy back, to exercise the muscles on opposite sides of the spine equally. After all, balanced muscle development is needed to maintain a healthy back, since the muscles on opposite sides of the spine must pull equally in opposing directions to keep the back in proper alignment and protect the spine. | 200706_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"Muscles on opposite sides of the spine that are equally well developed will be enough to keep the back in proper alignment.",
"Exercising the muscles on opposite sides of the spine unequally tends to lead to unbalanced muscle development.",
"Provided that one exercises the muscles on opposite sides of the spine equally, one will have a generally healthy back.",
"If the muscles on opposite sides of the spine are exercised unequally, one's back will be irreparably damaged.",
"One should exercise daily to ensure that the muscles on opposite sides of the spine keep the back in proper alignment."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Editorialist: In all cultures, it is almost universally accepted that one has a moral duty to prevent members of one's family from being harmed. Thus, few would deny that if a person is known by the person's parents to be falsely accused of a crime, it would be morally right for the parents to hide the accused from the police. Hence, it is also likely to be widely accepted that it is sometimes morally right to obstruct the police in their work. | 200706_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"utilizes a single type of example for the purpose of justifying a broad generalization",
"fails to consider the possibility that other moral principles would be widely recognized as overriding any obligation to protect a family member from harm",
"presumes, without providing justification, that allowing the police to arrest an innocent person assists rather than obstructs justice",
"takes for granted that there is no moral obligation to obey the law",
"takes for granted that the parents mentioned in the example are not mistaken about their child's innocence"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the editorialist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Editor: Many candidates say that if elected they will reduce governmental intrusion into voters' lives. But voters actually elect politicians who instead promise that the government will provide assistance to solve their most pressing problems. Governmental assistance, however, costs money, and money can come only from taxes, which can be considered a form of governmental intrusion. Thus, governmental intrusion into the lives of voters will rarely be substantially reduced over time in a democracy. | 200706_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"Politicians who win their elections usually keep their campaign promises.",
"Politicians never promise what they really intend to do once in office.",
"The most common problems people have are financial problems.",
"Governmental intrusion into the lives of voters is no more burdensome in nondemocratic countries than it is in democracies.",
"Politicians who promise to do what they actually believe ought to be done are rarely elected."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the editor's argument? |
We should accept the proposal to demolish the old train station, because the local historical society, which vehemently opposes this, is dominated by people who have no commitment to long-term economic well-being. Preserving old buildings creates an impediment to new development, which is critical to economic health. | 200706_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"Our country should attempt to safeguard works of art that it deems to possess national cultural significance. These works might not be recognized as such by all taxpayers, or even all critics. Nevertheless, our country ought to expend whatever money is needed to procure all such works as they become available.",
"Documents of importance to local heritage should be properly preserved and archived for the sake of future generations. For, if even one of these documents is damaged or lost, the integrity of the historical record as a whole will be damaged.",
"You should have your hair cut no more than once a month. After all, beauticians suggest that their customers have their hair cut twice a month, and they do this as a way of generating more business for themselves.",
"The committee should endorse the plan to postpone construction of the new expressway. Many residents of the neighborhoods that would be affected are fervently opposed to that construction, and the committee is obligated to avoid alienating those residents.",
"One should not borrow even small amounts of money unless it is absolutely necessary. Once one borrows a few dollars, the interest starts to accumulate. The longer one takes to repay, the more one ends up owing, and eventually a small debt has become a large one."
]
| 2 | The flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following arguments? |
Ethicist: On average, animals raised on grain must be fed sixteen pounds of grain to produce one pound of meat. A pound of meat is more nutritious for humans than a pound of grain, but sixteen pounds of grain could feed many more people than could a pound of meat. With grain yields leveling off, large areas of farmland going out of production each year, and the population rapidly expanding, we must accept the fact that consumption of meat will soon be morally unacceptable. | 200706_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"Even though it has been established that a vegetarian diet can be healthy, many people prefer to eat meat and are willing to pay for it.",
"Often, cattle or sheep can be raised to maturity on grass from pastureland that is unsuitable for any other kind of farming.",
"If a grain diet is supplemented with protein derived from non-animal sources, it can have nutritional value equivalent to that of a diet containing meat.",
"Although prime farmland near metropolitan areas is being lost rapidly to suburban development, we could reverse this trend by choosing to live in areas that are already urban.",
"Nutritionists agree that a diet composed solely of grain products is not adequate for human health."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the ethicist's argument? |
If the price it pays for coffee beans continues to increase, the Coffee Shoppe will have to increase its prices. In that case, either the Coffee Shoppe will begin selling noncoffee products or its coffee sales will decrease. But selling noncoffee products will decrease the Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability. Moreover, the Coffee Shoppe can avoid a decrease in overall profitability only if its coffee sales do not decrease. | 200706_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"If the Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability decreases, the price it pays for coffee beans will have continued to increase.",
"If the Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability decreases, either it will have begun selling noncoffee products or its coffee sales will have decreased.",
"The Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability will decrease if the price it pays for coffee beans continues to increase.",
"The price it pays for coffee beans cannot decrease without the Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability also decreasing.",
"Either the price it pays for coffee beans will continue to increase or the Coffee Shoppe's coffee sales will increase."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements follows logically from the statements above? |
Political candidates' speeches are loaded with promises and with expressions of good intention, but one must not forget that the politicians' purpose in giving these speeches is to get themselves elected. Clearly, then, these speeches are selfishly motivated and the promises made in them are unreliable. | 200706_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"The argument presumes, without providing justification, that if a person's promise is not selfishly motivated then that promise is reliable.",
"The argument presumes, without providing justification, that promises made for selfish reasons are never kept.",
"The argument confuses the effect of an action with its cause.",
"The argument overlooks the fact that a promise need not be unreliable just because the person who made it had an ulterior motive for doing so.",
"The argument overlooks the fact that a candidate who makes promises for selfish reasons may nonetheless be worthy of the office for which he or she is running."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument above? |
Sociologist: Romantics who claim that people are not born evil but may be made evil by the imperfect institutions that they form cannot be right, for they misunderstand the causal relationship between people and their institutions. After all, institutions are merely collections of people. | 200706_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"People acting together in institutions can do more good or evil than can people acting individually.",
"Institutions formed by people are inevitably imperfect.",
"People should not be overly optimistic in their view of individual human beings.",
"A society's institutions are the surest gauge of that society's values.",
"The whole does not determine the properties of the things that compose it."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the sociologist's argument? |
Some anthropologists argue that the human species could not have survived prehistoric times if the species had not evolved the ability to cope with diverse natural environments. However, there is considerable evidence that Australopithecus afarensis, a prehistoric species related to early humans, also thrived in a diverse array of environments, but became extinct. Hence, the anthropologists' claim is false. | 200706_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"confuses a condition's being required for a given result to occur in one case with the condition's being sufficient for such a result to occur in a similar case",
"takes for granted that if one species had a characteristic that happened to enable it to survive certain conditions, at least one related extinct species must have had the same characteristic",
"generalizes, from the fact that one species with a certain characteristic survived certain conditions, that all related species with the same characteristic must have survived exactly the same conditions",
"fails to consider the possibility that Australopithecus afarensis had one or more characteristics that lessened its chances of surviving prehistoric times",
"fails to consider the possibility that, even if a condition caused a result to occur in one case, it was not necessary to cause the result to occur in a similar case"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Certain companies require their managers to rank workers in the groups they supervise from best to worst, giving each worker a unique ranking based on job performance. The top 10 percent of the workers in each group are rewarded and the bottom 10 percent are penalized or fired. But this system is unfair to workers. Good workers could receive low rankings merely because they belong to groups of exceptionally good workers. Furthermore, managers often give the highest rankings to workers who share the manager's interests outside of work. | 200709_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"Some companies require their managers to give unique rankings to the workers they supervise.",
"Under the ranking system, the top 10 percent of the workers in each group are rewarded and the bottom 10 percent are penalized or fired.",
"The ranking system is not a fair way to determine penalties or rewards for workers.",
"Workers in exceptionally strong work groups are unfairly penalized under the ranking system.",
"Managers often give the highest rankings to workers who share the manager's outside interests."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument? |
Psychologist: A study of 436 university students found that those who took short naps throughout the day suffered from insomnia more frequently than those who did not. Moreover, people who work on commercial fishing vessels often have irregular sleep patterns that include frequent napping, and they also suffer from insomnia. So it is very likely that napping tends to cause insomnia. | 200709_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that university students suffer from insomnia more frequently than do members of the general population",
"presumes that all instances of insomnia have the same cause",
"fails to provide a scientifically respectable definition for the term \"napping\"",
"fails to consider the possibility that frequent daytime napping is an effect rather than a cause of insomnia",
"presumes, without providing justification, that there is such a thing as a regular sleep pattern for someone working on a commercial fishing vessel"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the psychologist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Whenever Joe's car is vacuumed, the employees of K & L Auto vacuum it; they are the only people who ever vacuum Joe's car. If the employees of K & L Auto vacuumed Joe's car, then Joe took his car to K & L Auto to be fixed. Joe's car was recently vacuumed. Therefore, Joe took his car to K & L Auto to be fixed. | 200709_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"Emily's water glass is wet and it would be wet only if she drank water from it this morning. Since the only time she drinks water in the morning is when she takes her medication, Emily took her medication this morning.",
"Lisa went to the hair salon today since either she went to the hair salon today or she went to the bank this morning, but Lisa did not go to the bank this morning.",
"There are no bills on John's kitchen table. Since John gets at least one bill per day and he always puts his bills on his kitchen table, someone else must have checked John's mail today.",
"Linda is grumpy only if she does not have her coffee in the morning, and Linda does not have her coffee in the morning only if she runs out of coffee. Therefore, Linda runs out of coffee only on days that she is grumpy.",
"Jeff had to choose either a grapefruit or cereal for breakfast this morning. Given that Jeff is allergic to grapefruit, Jeff must have had cereal for breakfast this morning."
]
| 0 | The pattern of reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? |
Editorialist: In a large corporation, one of the functions of the corporation's president is to promote the key interests of the shareholders. Therefore, the president has a duty to keep the corporation's profits high. | 200709_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"Shareholders sometimes will be satisfied even if dividends paid to them from company profits are not high.",
"The president and the board of directors of a corporation are jointly responsible for advancing the key interests of the shareholders.",
"Keeping a corporation's profits high is likely to advance the important interests of the corporation's shareholders.",
"In considering where to invest, most potential shareholders are interested in more than just the profitability of a corporation.",
"The president of a corporation has many functions besides advancing the important interests of the corporation's shareholders."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the editorialist's argument? |
Everyone in Biba's neighborhood is permitted to swim at Barton Pool at some time during each day that it is open. No children under the age of 6 are permitted to swim at Barton Pool between noon and 5 P.M. From 5 P.M. until closing, Barton Pool is reserved for adults only. | 200709_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"Few children under the age of 6 live in Biba's neighborhood.",
"If Biba's next-door neighbor has a child under the age of 6, then Barton Pool is open before noon.",
"If most children who swim in Barton Pool swim in the afternoon, then the pool is generally less crowded after 5 P.M.",
"On days when Barton Pool is open, at least some children swim there in the afternoon.",
"Any child swimming in Barton Pool before 5 P.M. must be breaking Barton Pool rules."
]
| 1 | If all the sentences above are true, then which one of the following must be true? |
Beck: Our computer program estimates municipal automotive use based on weekly data. Some staff question the accuracy of the program's estimates. But because the figures it provides are remarkably consistent from week to week, we can be confident of its accuracy. | 200709_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"fails to establish that consistency is a more important consideration than accuracy",
"fails to consider the program's accuracy in other tasks that it may perform",
"takes for granted that the program's output would be consistent even if its estimates were inaccurate",
"regards accuracy as the sole criterion for judging the program's value",
"fails to consider that the program could produce consistent but inaccurate output"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in Beck's argument is flawed in that it |
Inertia affects the flow of water pumped through a closed system of pipes. When the pump is first switched on, the water, which has mass, takes time to reach full speed. When the pump is switched off, inertia causes the decrease in the water flow to be gradual. The effects of inductance in electrical circuits are similar to the effects of inertia in water pipes. | 200709_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"The rate at which electrical current flows is affected by inductance.",
"The flow of electrical current in a circuit requires inertia.",
"Inertia in the flow of water pumped by an electrically powered pump is caused by inductance in the pump's circuits.",
"Electrical engineers try to minimize the effects of inductance in electrical circuits.",
"When a water pump is switched off it continues to pump water for a second or two."
]
| 0 | The information above provides the most support for which one of the following? |
Journalist: To reconcile the need for profits sufficient to support new drug research with the moral imperative to provide medicines to those who most need them but cannot afford them, some pharmaceutical companies feel justified in selling a drug in rich nations at one price and in poor nations at a much lower price. But this practice is unjustified. A nation with a low average income may still have a substantial middle class better able to pay for new drugs than are many of the poorer citizens of an overall wealthier nation. | 200709_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"People who are ill deserve more consideration than do healthy people, regardless of their relative socioeconomic positions.",
"Wealthy institutions have an obligation to expend at least some of their resources to assist those incapable of assisting themselves.",
"Whether one deserves special consideration depends on one's needs rather than on characteristics of the society to which one belongs.",
"The people in wealthy nations should not have better access to health care than do the people in poorer nations.",
"Unequal access to health care is more unfair than an unequal distribution of wealth."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the journalist's reasoning? |
Robert: The school board is considering adopting a year-round academic schedule that eliminates the traditional three-month summer vacation. This schedule should be adopted, since teachers need to cover more new material during the school year than they do now. Samantha: The proposed schedule will not permit teachers to cover more new material. Even though the schedule eliminates summer vacation, it adds six new two-week breaks, so the total number of school days will be about the same as before. | 200709_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"Teachers would be willing to accept elimination of the traditional three-month summer vacation as long as the total vacation time they are entitled to each year is not reduced.",
"Most parents who work outside the home find it difficult to arrange adequate supervision for their school-age children over the traditional three-month summer vacation.",
"In school districts that have adopted a year-round schedule that increases the number of school days per year, students show a deeper understanding and better retention of new material.",
"Teachers spend no more than a day of class time reviewing old material when students have been away from school for only a few weeks, but have to spend up to a month of class time reviewing after a three-month summer vacation.",
"Students prefer taking a long vacation from school during the summer to taking more frequent but shorter vacations spread throughout the year."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, is a response Robert could make that would counter Samantha's argument? |
In order to reduce traffic congestion and raise revenue for the city, the mayor plans to implement a charge of $10 per day for driving in the downtown area. Payment of this charge will be enforced using a highly sophisticated system that employs digital cameras and computerized automobile registration. This system will not be ready until the end of next year. Without this system, however, mass evasion of the charge will result. Therefore, when the mayor's plan is first implemented, payment of the charge will not be effectively enforced. | 200709_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"The mayor's plan to charge for driving downtown will be implemented before the end of next year.",
"The city will incur a budget deficit if it does not receive the revenue it expects to raise from the charge for driving downtown.",
"The plan to charge for driving downtown should be implemented as soon as payment of the charge can be effectively enforced.",
"Raising revenue is a more important consideration for the city than is reducing traffic congestion.",
"A daily charge for driving downtown is the most effective way to reduce traffic congestion."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends for its conclusion to be properly drawn? |
A recent study revealed that the percentage of people treated at large, urban hospitals who recover from their illnesses is lower than the percentage for people treated at smaller, rural hospitals. | 200709_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"Because there are fewer patients to feed, nutritionists at small hospitals are better able to tailor meals to the dietary needs of each patient.",
"The less friendly, more impersonal atmosphere of large hospitals can be a source of stress for patients at those hospitals.",
"Although large hospitals tend to draw doctors trained at the more prestigious schools, no correlation has been found between the prestige of a doctor's school and patients' recovery rate.",
"Because space is relatively scarce in large hospitals, doctors are encouraged to minimize the length of time that patients are held for observation following a medical procedure.",
"Doctors at large hospitals tend to have a greater number of patients and consequently less time to explain to staff and to patients how medications are to be administered."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in recovery rates EXCEPT: |
Perry: Worker-owned businesses require workers to spend time on management decision-making and investment strategy, tasks that are not directly productive. Also, such businesses have less extensive divisions of labor than do investor-owned businesses. Such inefficiencies can lead to low profitability, and thus increase the risk for lenders. Therefore, lenders seeking to reduce their risk should not make loans to worker-owned businesses. | 200709_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"Businesses with the most extensive divisions of labor sometimes fail to make the fullest use of their most versatile employees' potential.",
"Lenders who specialize in high-risk loans are the largest source of loans for worker-owned businesses.",
"Investor-owned businesses are more likely than worker-owned businesses are to receive start-up loans.",
"Worker-owned businesses have traditionally obtained loans from cooperative lending institutions established by coalitions of worker-owned businesses.",
"In most worker-owned businesses, workers compensate for inefficiencies by working longer hours than do workers in investor-owned businesses."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens Perry's argument? |
Some paleontologists believe that certain species of dinosaurs guarded their young in protective nests long after the young hatched. As evidence, they cite the discovery of fossilized hadrosaur babies and adolescents in carefully designed nests. But similar nests for hatchlings and adolescents are constructed by modern crocodiles, even though crocodiles guard their young only for a very brief time after they hatch. Hence, . | 200709_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"paleontologists who believe that hadrosaurs guarded their young long after the young hatched have no evidence to support this belief",
"we will never be able to know the extent to which hadrosaurs guarded their young",
"hadrosaurs guarded their young for at most very brief periods after hatching",
"it is unclear whether what we learn about hadrosaurs from their fossilized remains tells us anything about other dinosaurs",
"the construction of nests for hatchlings and adolescents is not strong evidence for the paleontologists' belief"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
For one academic year all the students at a high school were observed. The aim was to test the hypothesis that studying more increased a student's chances of earning a higher grade. It turned out that the students who spent the most time studying did not earn grades as high as did many students who studied less. Nonetheless, the researchers concluded that the results of the observation supported the initial hypothesis. | 200709_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"The students who spent the most time studying earned higher grades than did some students who studied for less time than the average.",
"The students tended to get slightly lower grades as the academic year progressed.",
"In each course, the more a student studied, the better his or her grade was in that course.",
"The students who spent the least time studying tended to be students with no more than average involvement in extracurricular activities.",
"Students who spent more time studying understood the course material better than other students did."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why the researchers drew the conclusion described above? |
Researchers had three groups of professional cyclists cycle for one hour at different levels of intensity. Members of groups A, B, and C cycled at rates that sustained, for an hour, pulses of about 60 percent, 70 percent, and 85 percent, respectively, of the recommended maximum pulse rate for recreational cyclists. Most members of Group A reported being less depressed and angry afterward. Most members of Group B did not report these benefits. Most members of Group C reported feeling worse in these respects than before the exercise. | 200709_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"The higher the pulse rate attained in sustained exercise, the less psychological benefit the exercise tends to produce.",
"The effect that a period of cycling has on the mood of professional cyclists tends to depend at least in part on how intense the cycling is.",
"For professional cyclists, the best exercise from the point of view of improving mood is cycling that pushes the pulse no higher than 60 percent of the maximum pulse rate.",
"Physical factors, including pulse rate, contribute as much to depression as do psychological factors.",
"Moderate cycling tends to benefit professional cyclists physically as much or more than intense cycling."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Anyone who believes in extraterrestrials believes in UFOs. But the existence of UFOs has been conclusively refuted. Therefore a belief in extraterrestrials is false as well. | 200709_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But it has been demonstrated that there are no centaurs, so there are no unicorns either.",
"Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But you do not believe in centaurs, so you do not believe in unicorns either.",
"Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But you do not believe in unicorns, so you do not believe in centaurs either.",
"Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But there is no good reason to believe in centaurs, so a belief in unicorns is unjustified as well.",
"Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But it has been conclusively proven that there is no such thing as a unicorn, so a belief in centaurs is mistaken as well."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
People want to be instantly and intuitively liked. Those persons who are perceived as forming opinions of others only after cautiously gathering and weighing the evidence are generally resented. Thus, it is imprudent to appear prudent. | 200709_1-LR1_17_17 | [
"People who act spontaneously are well liked.",
"Imprudent people act instantly and intuitively.",
"People resent those less prudent than themselves.",
"People who are intuitive know instantly when they like someone.",
"It is imprudent to cause people to resent you."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Journalist: Recent studies have demonstrated that a regular smoker who has just smoked a cigarette will typically display significantly better short-term memory skills than a nonsmoker, whether or not the nonsmoker has also just smoked a cigarette for the purposes of the study. Moreover, the majority of those smokers who exhibit this superiority in short-term memory skills will do so for at least eight hours after having last smoked. | 200709_1-LR1_18_18 | [
"The short-term memory skills exhibited by a nonsmoker who has just smoked a cigarette are usually substantially worse than the short-term memory skills exhibited by a nonsmoker who has not recently smoked a cigarette.",
"The short-term memory skills exhibited by a nonsmoker who has just smoked a cigarette are typically superior to those exhibited by a regular smoker who has just smoked a cigarette.",
"The short-term memory skills exhibited by a nonsmoker who has just smoked a cigarette are typically superior to those exhibited by a regular smoker who has not smoked for more than eight hours.",
"A regular smoker who, immediately after smoking a cigarette, exhibits short-term memory skills no better than those typically exhibited by a nonsmoker is nevertheless likely to exhibit superior short-term memory skills in the hours following a period of heavy smoking.",
"The short-term memory skills exhibited by a regular smoker who last smoked a cigarette five hours ago are typically superior to those exhibited by a regular smoker who has just smoked a cigarette."
]
| 1 | If the journalist's statements are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
Educator: It has been argued that our professional organization should make decisions about important issues—such as raising dues and taking political stands—by a direct vote of all members rather than by having members vote for officers who in turn make the decisions. This would not, however, be the right way to decide these matters, for the vote of any given individual is much more likely to determine organizational policy by influencing the election of an officer than by influencing the result of a direct vote on a single issue. | 200709_1-LR1_19_19 | [
"No procedure for making organizational decisions should allow one individual's vote to weigh more than that of another.",
"Outcomes of organizational elections should be evaluated according to their benefit to the organization as a whole, not according to the fairness of the methods by which they are produced.",
"Important issues facing organizations should be decided by people who can devote their full time to mastering the information relevant to the issues.",
"An officer of an organization should not make a particular decision on an issue unless a majority of the organization's members would approve of that decision.",
"An organization's procedures for making organizational decisions should maximize the power of each member of the organization to influence the decisions made."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles would, if valid, most help to justify the educator's reasoning? |
Neural connections carrying signals from the cortex (the brain region responsible for thought) down to the amygdala (a brain region crucial for emotions) are less well developed than connections carrying signals from the amygdala up to the cortex. Thus, the amygdala exerts a greater influence on the cortex than vice versa. | 200709_1-LR1_20_20 | [
"The influence that the amygdala exerts on the rest of the brain is dependent on the influence that the cortex exerts on the rest of the brain.",
"No other brain region exerts more influence on the cortex than does the amygdala.",
"The region of the brain that has the most influence on the cortex is the one that has the most highly developed neural connections to the cortex.",
"The amygdala is not itself controlled by one or more other regions of the brain.",
"The degree of development of a set of neural connections is directly proportional to the influence transmitted across those connections."
]
| 4 | The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
The Iliad and the Odyssey were both attributed to Homer in ancient times. But these two poems differ greatly in tone and vocabulary and in certain details of the fictional world they depict. So they are almost certainly not the work of the same poet. | 200709_1-LR1_21_21 | [
"Several hymns that were also attributed to Homer in ancient times differ more from the Iliad in the respects mentioned than does the Odyssey.",
"Both the Iliad and the Odyssey have come down to us in manuscripts that have suffered from minor copying errors and other textual corruptions.",
"Works known to have been written by the same modern writer are as different from each other in the respects mentioned as are the Iliad and the Odyssey.",
"Neither the Iliad nor the Odyssey taken by itself is completely consistent in all of the respects mentioned.",
"Both the Iliad and the Odyssey were the result of an extended process of oral composition in which many poets were involved."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the reasoning above? |
Moralist: A statement is wholly truthful only if it is true and made without intended deception. A statement is a lie if it is intended to deceive or if its speaker, upon learning that the statement was misinterpreted, refrains from clarifying it. | 200709_1-LR1_22_22 | [
"Ted's statement to the investigator that he had been abducted by extraterrestrial beings was wholly truthful even though no one has ever been abducted by extraterrestrial beings. After all, Ted was not trying to deceive the investigator.",
"Tony was not lying when he told his granddaughter that he did not wear dentures, for even though Tony meant to deceive his granddaughter, she made it clear to Tony that she did not believe him.",
"Siobhan did not tell a lie when she told her supervisor that she was ill and hence would not be able to come to work for an important presentation. However, even though her statement was true, it was not wholly truthful.",
"Walter's claim to a potential employer that he had done volunteer work was a lie. Even though Walter had worked without pay in his father's factory, he used the phrase \"volunteer work\" in an attempt to deceive the interviewer into thinking he had worked for a socially beneficial cause.",
"The tour guide intended to deceive the tourists when he told them that the cabin they were looking at was centuries old. Still, his statement about the cabin's age was not a lie, for if he thought that this statement had been misinterpreted, he would have tried to clarify it."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principles stated by the moralist? |
Principle: It is healthy for children to engage in an activity that promotes their intellectual development only if engaging in that activity does not detract from their social development. Application: Although Megan's frequent reading stimulates her intellectually, it reduces the amount of time she spends interacting with other people. Therefore, it is not healthy for her to read as much as she does. | 200709_1-LR1_23_23 | [
"It misinterprets the principle as a universal claim intended to hold in all cases without exception, rather than as a mere generalization.",
"It overlooks the possibility that the benefits of a given activity may sometimes be important enough to outweigh the adverse health effects.",
"It misinterprets the principle to be, at least in part, a claim about what is unhealthy, rather than solely a claim about what is healthy.",
"It takes for granted that any decrease in the amount of time a child spends interacting with others detracts from that child's social development.",
"It takes a necessary condition for an activity's being healthy as a sufficient condition for its being so."
]
| 3 | The application of the principle is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
In response to several bacterial infections traced to its apple juice, McElligott now flash pasteurizes its apple juice by quickly heating and immediately rechilling it. Intensive pasteurization, in which juice is heated for an hour, eliminates bacteria more effectively than does any other method, but is likely to destroy the original flavor. However, because McElligott's citrus juices have not been linked to any bacterial infections, they remain unpasteurized. | 200709_1-LR1_24_24 | [
"McElligott's citrus juices contain fewer infectious bacteria than do citrus juices produced by other companies.",
"McElligott's apple juice is less likely to contain infectious bacteria than are McElligott's citrus juices.",
"McElligott's citrus juices retain more of the juices' original flavor than do any pasteurized citrus juices.",
"The most effective method for eliminating bacteria from juice is also the method most likely to destroy flavor.",
"Apple juice that undergoes intensive pasteurization is less likely than McElligott's apple juice is to contain bacteria."
]
| 4 | The statements above, if true, provide the most support for which one of the following claims? |
Sociologist: Widespread acceptance of the idea that individuals are incapable of looking after their own welfare is injurious to a democracy. So legislators who value democracy should not propose any law prohibiting behavior that is not harmful to anyone besides the person engaging in it. After all, the assumptions that appear to guide legislators will often become widely accepted. | 200709_1-LR1_25_25 | [
"democratically elected legislators invariably have favorable attitudes toward the preservation of democracy",
"people tend to believe what is believed by those who are prominent and powerful",
"legislators often seem to be guided by the assumption that individuals are incapable of looking after their own welfare, even though these legislators also seem to value democracy",
"in most cases, behavior that is harmful to the person who engages in it is harmful to no one else",
"a legislator proposing a law prohibiting an act that can harm only the person performing the act will seem to be assuming that individuals are incapable of looking after their own welfare"
]
| 4 | The sociologist's argument requires the assumption that |
Any museum that owns the rare stamp that features an airplane printed upside down should not display it. Ultraviolet light causes red ink to fade, and a substantial portion of the stamp is red. If the stamp is displayed, it will be damaged. It should be kept safely locked away, even though this will deny the public the chance to see it. | 200709_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"The public should judge the quality of a museum by the rarity of the objects in its collection.",
"Museum display cases should protect their contents from damage caused by ultraviolet light.",
"Red ink should not be used on items that will not be exposed to ultraviolet light.",
"A museum piece that would be damaged by display should not be displayed.",
"The primary purpose of a museum is to educate the public."
]
| 3 | The reasoning above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
Dietitian: Many diet-conscious consumers are excited about new "fake fat" products designed to give food the flavor and consistency of fatty foods, yet without fat's harmful effects. Consumers who expect the new fat substitute to help them lose weight arc likely to be disappointed, however. Research has shown that when people knowingly or unknowingly eat foods containing "fake fat," they tend to take in at least as many additional calories as are saved by eating "fake fat." | 200709_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"People tend to take in a certain number of daily calories, no matter what types of food they eat",
"Most consumers who think that foods with \"fake fat\" are more nutritious than fatty foods are destined to be disappointed.",
"\"Fake fat\" products are likely to contribute to obesity more than do other foods.",
"\"Fake fat\" in foods is probably not going to help consumers meet weight loss goals.",
"\"Fake fat\" in foods is indistinguishable from genuine fat by most consumers on the basis of taste alone."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the dietitian's argument? |
Banking analyst: Banks often offer various services to new customers at no charge. But this is not an ideal business practice, since regular, long-term customers, who make up the bulk of the business for most banks, are excluded from these special offers. | 200709_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Most banks have similar charges for most services and pay similar interest rates on deposits.",
"Banks do best when offering special privileges only to their most loyal customers.",
"Offering services at no charge to all of its current customers would be prohibitively expensive for a bank.",
"Once they have chosen a bank, people tend to remain loyal to that bank.",
"Some banks that offer services at no charge to new customers are very successful."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the banking analyst's argument'? |
Panelist: Medical research articles cited in popular newspapers or magazines are more likely than other medical research articles to be cited in subsequent medical research. Thus, it appears that medical researchers' judgments of the importance of prior research are strongly influenced by the publicity received by that research and do not strongly correspond to the research's true importance. | 200709_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"presents counterarguments to a view that is not actually held by any medical researcher",
"fails to consider the possibility that popular newspapers and magazines do a good job of identifying the most important medical research articles",
"takes for granted that coverage of medical research in the popular press is more concerned with the eminence of the scientists involved than with the content of their research",
"fails to consider the possibility that popular newspapers and magazines are able to review only a minuscule percentage of medical research articles",
"draws a conclusion that is logically equivalent to its premise"
]
| 1 | The panelist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Lahar: We must now settle on a procedure for deciding on meeting agendas. Our club's constitution allows three options: unanimous consent, majority vote, or assigning the task to a committee. Unanimous consent is unlikely. Forming a committee has usually led to factionalism and secret deals. Clearly, we should subject meeting agendas to majority vote. | 200709_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"rejects suggested procedures on constitutional grounds",
"claims that one procedure is the appropriate method for reaching every decision in the club",
"suggests a change to a constitution on the basis of practical considerations",
"recommends a choice based on the elimination of alternative options",
"supports one preference by arguing against those who have advocated alternatives"
]
| 3 | Lahar's argument does which one of the following? |
Mayor: Local antitobacco activists are calling for expanded antismoking education programs paid for by revenue from heavily increased taxes on cigarettes sold in the city. Although the effectiveness of such education programs is debatable, there is strong evidence that the taxes themselves would produce the sought after reduction in smoking. Surveys show that cigarette sales drop substantially in cities that impose stiff tax increases on cigarettes. | 200709_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"A city-imposed tax on cigarettes will substantially reduce the amount of smoking in the city if the tax is burdensome to the average cigarette consumer.",
"Consumers are more likely to continue buying a product if its price increases due to higher taxes than if its price increases for some other reason.",
"Usually, cigarette sales will increase substantially in the areas surrounding a city after that city imposes stiff taxes on cigarettes.",
"People who are well informed about the effects of long-term tobacco use are significantly less likely to smoke than are people who are not informed.",
"Antismoking education programs that are funded by taxes on cigarettes will tend to lose their funding if they are successful."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the reasoning in the argument above? |
Gotera: Infants lack the motor ability required to voluntarily produce particular sounds, but produce various babbling sounds randomly. Most children are several years old before they can voluntarily produce most of the vowel and consonant sounds of their language. We can conclude that speech acquisition is entirely a motor control process rather than a process that is abstract or mental. | 200709_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"Speech acquisition is a function only of one's ability to produce the sounds of spoken language.",
"During the entire initial babbling stage, infants cannot intentionally move their tongues while they are babbling.",
"The initial babbling stage is completed during infancy.",
"The initial babbling stage is the first stage of the speech acquisition process.",
"Control of tongue and mouth movements requires a sophisticated level of mental development."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by Gotera's argument? |
Caldwell: The government recently demolished a former naval base. Among the complex's facilities were a gymnasium, a swimming pool, office buildings, gardens, and housing for hundreds of people. Of course the government was legally permitted to use these facilities as it wished. But clearly, using them for the good of the community would have benefited everyone, and thus the government's actions were not only inefficient but immoral. | 200709_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"fails to consider that an action may be morally permissible even if an alternative course of action is to everyone's advantage",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the actual consequences of an action are irrelevant to the action's moral permissibility",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the government never acts in the most efficient manner",
"presumes, without providing justification, that any action that is efficient is also moral",
"inappropriately treats two possible courses of action as if they were the only options"
]
| 0 | Caldwell's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Reducing stress lessens a person's sensitivity to pain. This is the conclusion reached by researchers who played extended audiotapes to patients before they underwent surgery and afterward while they were recovering. One tape consisted of conversation; the other consisted of music. Those who listened only to the latter tape required less anesthesia during surgery and fewer painkillers afterward than those who listened only to the former tape. | 200709_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"All of the patients in the study listened to the same tape before surgery as they listened to after surgery.",
"Anticipating surgery is no less stressful than recovering from surgery.",
"Listening to music reduces stress.",
"The psychological effects of music are not changed by anesthesia or painkillers.",
"Both anesthesia and painkillers tend to reduce stress."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the researchers' reasoning depends? |
Samuel: Because communication via computer is usually conducted privately and anonymously between people who would otherwise interact in person, it contributes to the dissolution, not the creation, of lasting communal bonds. Tova: You assume that communication via computer replaces more intimate forms of communication and interaction, when more often it replaces asocial or even antisocial behavior. | 200709_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"A general trend of modern life is to dissolve the social bonds that formerly connected people.",
"All purely private behavior contributes to the dissolution of social bonds.",
"Face-to-face communication is more likely to contribute to the creation of social bonds than is anonymous communication.",
"It is desirable that new social bonds be created to replace the ones that have dissolved.",
"If people were not communicating via computer, they would most likely be engaged in activities that create stronger social bonds."
]
| 4 | On the basis of their statements, Samuel and Tova are committed to disagreeing about which one of the following? |
Spreading iron particles over the surface of the earth's oceans would lead to an increase in phytoplankton, decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and thereby counteracting the greenhouse effect. But while counteracting the greenhouse effect is important, the side effects of an iron-seeding strategy have yet to be studied. Since the oceans represent such an important resource, this response to the greenhouse effect should not be implemented immediately. | 200709_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"A problem-solving strategy should be implemented if the side effects of the strategy are known.",
"Implementing a problem-solving strategy that alters an important resource is impermissible if the consequences are not adequately understood.",
"We should not implement a problem-solving strategy if the consequences of doing so are more serious than the problem itself.",
"We should not implement a problem-solving strategy if that strategy requires altering an important resource.",
"As long as there is a possibility that a strategy for solving a problem may instead exacerbate that problem, such a solution should not be adopted."
]
| 1 | The reasoning above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
No matter how conscientious they are, historians always have biases that affect their work. Hence, rather than trying to interpret historical events, historians should instead interpret what the people who participated in historical events thought about those events. | 200709_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"historians who have different biases often agree about many aspects of some historical events",
"scholars in disciplines other than history also risk having their biases affect their work",
"many of the ways in which historians' biases affect their work have been identified",
"not all historians are aware of the effect that their particular biases have on their work",
"the proposed shift in focus is unlikely to eliminate the effect that historians' biases have on their work"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument fails to consider the possibility that |
Humanitarian considerations aside, sheer economics dictates that country X should institute, as country Y has done, a nationwide system of air and ground transportation for conveying seriously injured persons to specialized trauma centers. Timely access to the kind of medical care that only specialized centers can provide could save the lives of many people. The earnings of these people would result in a substantial increase in country X's gross national product, and the taxes paid on those earnings would substantially augment government revenues. | 200709_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"lifetime per-capita income is roughly the same in country X as it is in country Y",
"there are no specialized trauma centers in country X at present",
"the treatment of seriously injured persons in trauma centers is not more costly than treatment elsewhere",
"there would be a net increase in employment in country X if more persons survived serious injury",
"most people seriously injured in automobile accidents in country X do not now receive treatment in specialized trauma centers"
]
| 3 | The argument depends on the assumption that |
Early urban societies could not have been maintained without large-scale farming nearby. This is because other methods of food acquisition, such as foraging, cannot support populations as dense as urban ones. Large-scale farming requires irrigation, which remained unfeasible in areas far from rivers or lakes until more recent times. | 200709_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"Most peoples who lived in early times lived in areas near rivers or lakes.",
"Only if farming is possible in the absence of irrigation can societies be maintained in areas far from rivers or lakes.",
"In early times it was not possible to maintain urban societies in areas far from rivers or lakes.",
"Urban societies with farms near rivers or lakes do not have to rely upon irrigation to meet their farming needs.",
"Early rural societies relied more on foraging than on agriculture for food."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Economist: A country's rapid emergence from an economic recession requires substantial new investment in that country's economy. Since people's confidence in the economic policies of their country is a precondition for any new investment, countries that put collective goals before individuals' goals cannot emerge quickly from an economic recession. | 200709_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"No new investment occurs in any country that does not emerge quickly from an economic recession.",
"Recessions in countries that put collective goals before individuals' goals tend not to affect the country's people's support for their government's policies.",
"If the people in a country that puts individuals' goals first are willing to make new investments in their country's economy, their country will emerge quickly from an economic recession.",
"People in countries that put collective goals before individuals' goals lack confidence in the economic policies of their countries.",
"A country's economic policies are the most significant factor determining whether that country's economy will experience a recession."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the economist's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
The average length of stay for patients at Edgewater Hospital is four days, compared to six days at University Hospital. Since studies show that recovery rates at the two hospitals are similar for patients with similar illnesses, University Hospital could decrease its average length of stay without affecting quality of care. | 200709_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"equates the quality of care at a hospital with patients' average length of stay",
"treats a condition that will ensure the preservation of quality of care as a condition that is required to preserve quality of care",
"fails to take into account the possibility that patients at Edgewater Hospital tend to be treated for different illnesses than patients at University Hospital",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the length of time patients stay in the hospital is never relevant to the recovery rates of these patients",
"fails to take into account the possibility that patients at University Hospital generally prefer longer hospital stays"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Philosopher: Graham argues that since a person is truly happy only when doing something, the best life is a life that is full of activity. But we should not be persuaded by Graham's argument. People sleep, and at least sometimes when sleeping, they are truly happy, even though they are not doing anything. | 200709_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"It is a premise of Graham's argument.",
"It is an example intended to show that a premise of Graham's argument is false.",
"It is an analogy appealed to by Graham but that the philosopher rejects.",
"It is an example intended to disprove the conclusion of Graham's argument.",
"It is the main conclusion of the philosopher's argument."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the philosopher's argument by the claim that at least sometimes when sleeping, people are truly happy, even though they are not doing anything? |
Historian: In rebuttal of my claim that West influenced Stuart, some people point out that West's work is mentioned only once in Stuart's diaries. But Stuart's diaries mention several meetings with West, and Stuart's close friend, Abella, studied under West. Furthermore, Stuart's work often uses West's terminology which, though now commonplace, none of Stuart's contemporaries used. | 200709_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"Stuart's discussions with Abella were one of the means by which West influenced Stuart.",
"It is more likely that Stuart influenced West than that West influenced Stuart.",
"Stuart's contemporaries were not influenced by West.",
"Stuart's work was not entirely free from West's influence",
"Because of Stuart's influence on other people, West's terminology is now commonplace."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following propositions is most supported by the historian's statements, if those statements are true? |
One theory to explain the sudden extinction of all dinosaurs points to "drug overdoses" as the cause. Angiosperms, a certain class of plants, first appeared at the time that dinosaurs became extinct. These plants produce amino-acid-based alkaloids that are psychoactive agents. Most plant-eating mammals avoid these potentially lethal poisons because they taste bitter. Moreover, mammals have livers that help detoxify such drugs. However, dinosaurs could neither taste the bitterness nor detoxify the substance once it was ingested. This theory receives its strongest support from the fact that it helps explain why so many dinosaur fossils are found in unusual and contorted positions. | 200709_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"Many fossils of large mammals are found in contorted positions.",
"Angiosperms provide a great deal of nutrition.",
"Carnivorous dinosaurs mostly ate other, vegetarian, dinosaurs that fed on angiosperms.",
"Some poisonous plants do not produce amino-acid-based alkaloids.",
"Mammals sometimes die of drug overdoses from eating angiosperms."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most undermine the theory presented above? |
There are two ways to manage an existing transportation infrastructure: continuous maintenance at adequate levels, and periodic radical reconstruction. Continuous maintenance dispenses with the need for radical reconstruction, and radical reconstruction is necessitated by failing to perform continuous maintenance. Over the long run, continuous maintenance is far less expensive; nevertheless, it almost never happens. | 200709_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"Since different parts of the transportation infrastructure are the responsibility of different levels of government, radical reconstruction projects are very difficult to coordinate efficiently.",
"When funds for transportation infrastructure maintenance are scarce, they are typically distributed in proportion to the amount of traffic that is borne by different elements of the infrastructure.",
"If continuous maintenance is performed at less-than-adequate levels, the need for radical reconstruction will often arise later than if maintenance had been restricted to responding to emergencies.",
"Radical reconstruction projects are, in general, too costly to be paid for from current revenue.",
"For long periods, the task of regular maintenance lacks urgency, since the consequences of neglecting it are very slow to manifest themselves."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most contributes to an explanation of why the first alternative mentioned is almost never adopted? |
A good way to get over one's fear of an activity one finds terrifying is to do it repeatedly. For instance, over half of people who have parachuted only once report being extremely frightened by the experience, while less than 1 percent of those who have parachuted ten times or more report being frightened by it. | 200709_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"takes for granted that the greater the number of dangerous activities one engages in the less one is frightened by any one of them",
"neglects to consider those people who have parachuted more than once but fewer than ten times",
"takes for granted that people do not know how frightening something is unless they have tried it",
"fails to take into account the possibility that people would be better off if they did not do things that terrify them",
"overlooks the possibility that most people who have parachuted many times did not find it frightening initially"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Most economists believe that reducing the price of any product generally stimulates demand for it. However, most wine merchants have found that reducing the price of domestic wines to make them more competitive with imported wines with which they were previously comparably priced is frequently followed by an increase in sales of those imported wines. | 200709_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"Economists' studies of the prices of grocery items and their rates of sales rarely cover alcoholic beverages.",
"Few merchants of any kind have detailed knowledge of economic theories about the relationship between item prices and sales rates.",
"Consumers are generally willing to forgo purchasing other items they desire in order to purchase a superior wine.",
"Imported wines in all price ranges are comparable in quality to domestic wines that cost less.",
"An increase in the demand for a consumer product is compatible with an increase in demand for a competing product."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the belief of most economists with the consequences observed by most wine merchants? |
Certain bacteria that produce hydrogen sulfide as a waste product would die if directly exposed to oxygen. The hydrogen sulfide reacts with oxygen, removing it and so preventing it from harming the bacteria. Furthermore, the hydrogen sulfide tends to kill other organisms in the area, thereby providing the bacteria with a source of food. As a result, a dense colony of these bacteria produces for itself an environment in which it can continue to thrive indefinitely. | 200709_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"A dense colony of the bacteria can indefinitely continue to produce enough hydrogen sulfide to kill other organisms in the area and to prevent oxygen from harming the bacteria.",
"The hydrogen sulfide produced by the bacteria kills other organisms in the area by reacting with and removing oxygen.",
"Most organisms, if killed by the hydrogen sulfide produced by the bacteria, can provide a source of food for the bacteria.",
"The bacteria can continue to thrive indefinitely only in an environment in which the hydrogen sulfide they produce has removed all oxygen and killed other organisms in the area.",
"If any colony of bacteria produces hydrogen sulfide as a waste product, it thereby ensures that it is both provided with a source of food and protected from harm by oxygen."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Books that present a utopian future in which the inequities and sufferings of the present are replaced by more harmonious and rational social arrangements will always find enthusiastic buyers. Since gloomy books predicting that even more terrifying times await us are clearly not of this genre, they are unlikely to be very popular. | 200709_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"Art that portrays people as happy and contented has a tranquilizing effect on the viewer, an effect that is appealing to those who are tense or anxious. Thus, people who dislike such art are neither tense nor anxious.",
"People who enjoy participating in activities such as fishing or hiking may nevertheless enjoy watching such spectator sports as boxing or football. Thus, one cannot infer from someone's participating in vigorous contact sports that he or she is not also fond of less violent forms of recreation.",
"Action movies that involve complicated and dangerous special-effects scenes are enormously expensive to produce. Hence, since traditional dramatic or comedic films contain no such scenes, it is probable that they are relatively inexpensive to produce.",
"Adults usually feel a pleasant nostalgia when hearing the music they listened to as adolescents, but since adolescents often like music specifically because they think it annoys their parents, adults rarely appreciate the music that their children will later listen to with nostalgia.",
"All self-employed businesspeople have salaries that fluctuate with the fortunes of the general economy, but government bureaucrats are not self-employed. Therefore, not everyone with an income that fluctuates with the fortunes of the general economy is a government bureaucrat."
]
| 2 | The questionable pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Some people mistakenly believe that since we do not have direct access to the distant past we cannot learn much about it. Contemporary historians and archaeologists find current geography, geology, and climate to be rich in clues about a given region's distant history. However, the more distant the period we are studying is, the less useful the study of the present becomes. | 200709_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"Astronomers often draw inferences about the earlier years of our solar system on the basis of recently collected data. Unfortunately, they have been able to infer comparatively little about the origin of our solar system.",
"Much can be learned about the perpetrator of a crime by applying scientific methods of investigation to the crime scene. But the more the crime scene has been studied the less likely anything will be learned from further study.",
"To understand a literary text one needs to understand the author's world view. However, the farther that world view gets from one's own the less one will be able to appreciate the text.",
"We often extrapolate from ordinary sensory experience to things beyond such experience and form a rash judgment, such as the claim that the earth is the center of the universe because it appears that way to us.",
"One crucial clue to the extent of the ancient Egyptians' mathematical knowledge came from studying the pyramids. The more we studied such structures, the more impressed we were by how much the Egyptians knew."
]
| 0 | Of the following, which one most closely conforms to the principle that the passage illustrates? |
Consumer advocate: Businesses are typically motivated primarily by the desire to make as great a profit as possible, and advertising helps businesses to achieve this goal. But it is clear that the motive of maximizing profits does not impel businesses to present accurate information in their advertisements. It follows that consumers should be skeptical of the claims made in advertisements. | 200712_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"Businesses know that they can usually maximize their profits by using inaccurate information in their advertisements.",
"Businesses have often included inaccurate information in their advertisements.",
"Many consumers have a cynical attitude toward advertising.",
"Those who create advertisements are less concerned with the accuracy than with the creativity of advertisements.",
"The laws regulating truth in advertising are not applicable to many of the most common forms of inaccurate advertising."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, would strengthen the consumer advocate's argument EXCEPT: |
Elaine: The purpose of art museums is to preserve artworks and make them available to the public. Museums, therefore, should seek to acquire and display the best examples of artworks from each artistic period and genre, even if some of these works are not recognized by experts as masterpieces. Frederick: Art museums ought to devote their limited resources to acquiring the works of recognized masters in order to ensure the preservation of the greatest artworks. | 200712_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"many artistic masterpieces are not recognized as such by art experts",
"museums should seek to represent all genres of art in their collections",
"art museums should seek to preserve works of art",
"an art museum ought to acquire an unusual example of a period or genre if more characteristic examples are prohibitively expensive",
"all of the artworks that experts identify as masterpieces are actually masterpieces"
]
| 1 | Elaine's and Frederick's statements provide the most support for the claim that they would disagree about whether |
Science columnist: It is clear why humans have so many diseases in common with cats. Many human diseases are genetically based, and cats are genetically closer to humans than are any other mammals except nonhuman primates. Each of the genes identified so far in cats has an exact counterpart in humans. | 200712_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"Cats have built up resistance to many of the diseases they have in common with humans.",
"Most diseases that humans have in common with cats have no genetic basis.",
"Cats have more diseases in common with nonhuman primates than with humans.",
"Many of the diseases humans have in common with cats are mild and are rarely diagnosed.",
"Humans have more genes in common with nonhuman primates than with cats."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the science columnist's explanation for the claim that humans have so many diseases in common with cats? |
This region must find new ways to help business grow. After all, shoe manufacturing used to be a major local industry, but recently has experienced severe setbacks due to overseas competition, so there is a need for expansion into new manufacturing areas. Moreover, our outdated public policy generally inhibits business growth. | 200712_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"The region needs to find new ways to enhance business growth.",
"Shoe manufacturing is no longer a major source of income in the region.",
"Shoe manufacturing in the region has dramatically declined due to overseas competition.",
"Business in the region must expand into new areas of manufacturing.",
"Outdated public policy inhibits business growth in the region."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the argument? |
As a result of modern medicine, more people have been able to enjoy long and pain-free lives. But the resulting increase in life expectancy has contributed to a steady increase in the proportion of the population that is of advanced age. This population shift is creating potentially devastating financial problems for some social welfare programs. | 200712_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"Technical or scientific innovation cannot be the solution to all problems.",
"Implementing technological innovations should be delayed until the resulting social changes can be managed.",
"Every enhancement of the quality of life has unavoidable negative consequences.",
"All social institutions are affected by a preoccupation with prolonging life.",
"Solving one set of problems can create a different set of problems."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following propositions is most precisely exemplified by the situation presented above? |
Since Jackie is such a big fan of Moral Vacuum's music, she will probably like The Cruel Herd's new album. Like Moral Vacuum, The Cruel Herd on this album plays complex rock music that employs the acoustic instrumentation and harmonic sophistication of early sixties jazz. The Cruel Herd also has very witty lyrics, full of puns and sardonic humor, like some of Moral Vacuum's best lyrics. | 200712_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"Jackie has not previously cared for The Cruel Herd, but on the new album The Cruel Herd's previous musical arranger has been replaced by Moral Vacuum's musical arranger.",
"Though The Cruel Herd's previous albums' production quality was not great, the new album is produced by one of the most widely employed producers in the music industry.",
"Like Moral Vacuum, The Cruel Herd regularly performs in clubs popular with many students at the university that Jackie attends.",
"All of the music that Jackie prefers to listen to on a regular basis is rock music.",
"Jackie's favorite Moral Vacuum songs have lyrics that are somber and marked by a strong political awareness."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Superconductors are substances that conduct electricity without resistance at low temperatures. Their use, however, will never be economically feasible, unless there is a substance that superconducts at a temperature above minus 148 degrees Celsius. If there is such a substance, that substance must be an alloy of niobium and germanium. Unfortunately, such alloys superconduct at temperatures no higher than minus 160 degrees Celsius. | 200712_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"The use of superconductors will never be economically feasible.",
"If the alloys of niobium and germanium do not superconduct at temperatures above minus 148 degrees Celsius, then there are other substances that will do so.",
"The use of superconductors could be economically feasible if there is a substance that superconducts at temperatures below minus 148 degrees Celsius.",
"Alloys of niobium and germanium do not superconduct at temperatures below minus 160 degrees Celsius.",
"No use of alloys of niobium and germanium will ever be economically feasible."
]
| 0 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
Doctor: In three separate studies, researchers compared children who had slept with night-lights in their rooms as infants to children who had not. In the first study, the children who had slept with night-lights proved more likely to be nearsighted, but the later studies found no correlation between night-lights and nearsightedness. However, the children in the first study were younger than those in the later studies. This suggests that if night-lights cause nearsightedness, the effect disappears with age. | 200712_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"A fourth study comparing infants who were currently sleeping with night-lights to infants who were not did not find any correlation between night-lights and nearsightedness.",
"On average, young children who are already very nearsighted are no more likely to sleep with night-lights than young children who are not already nearsighted.",
"In a study involving children who had not slept with night-lights as infants but had slept with night-lights when they were older, most of the children studied were not nearsighted.",
"The two studies in which no correlation was found did not examine enough children to provide significant support for any conclusion regarding a causal relationship between night-lights and nearsightedness.",
"In a fourth study involving 100 children who were older than those in any of the first three studies, several of the children who had slept with night-lights as infants were nearsighted."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the doctor's argument? |
Global surveys estimate the earth's population of nesting female leatherback turtles has fallen by more than two-thirds in the past 15 years. Any species whose population declines by more than two-thirds in 15 years is in grave danger of extinction, so the leatherback turtle is clearly in danger of extinction. | 200712_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"The decline in the population of nesting female leatherback turtles is proportional to the decline in the leatherback turtle population as a whole.",
"If the global population of leatherback turtles falls by more than two-thirds over the next 15 years, the species will eventually become extinct.",
"The global population of leatherback turtles consists in roughly equal numbers of females and males.",
"Very few leatherback turtles exist in captivity.",
"The only way to ensure the continued survival of leatherback turtles in the wild is to breed them in captivity."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires? |
Public health experts have waged a long-standing educational campaign to get people to eat more vegetables, which are known to help prevent cancer. Unfortunately, the campaign has had little impact on people's diets. The reason is probably that many people simply dislike the taste of most vegetables. Thus, the campaign would probably be more effective if it included information on ways to make vegetables more appetizing. | 200712_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"The campaign to get people to eat more vegetables has had little impact on the diets of most people who love the taste of vegetables.",
"Some ways of making vegetables more appetizing diminish vegetables' ability to help prevent cancer.",
"People who find a few vegetables appetizing typically do not eat substantially more vegetables than do people who dislike the taste of most vegetables.",
"People who dislike the taste of most vegetables would eat many more vegetables if they knew how to make them more appetizing.",
"The only way to make the campaign to get people to eat more vegetables more effective would be to ensure that anyone who at present dislikes the taste of certain vegetables learns to find those vegetables appetizing."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Pure science—research with no immediate commercial or technological application—is a public good. Such research requires a great amount of financial support and does not yield profits in the short term. Since private corporations will not undertake to support activities that do not yield short-term profits, a society that wants to reap the benefits of pure science ought to use public funds to support such research. | 200712_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"It expresses the conclusion of the argument.",
"It explains what is meant by the expression \"pure research\" in the context of the argument.",
"It distracts attention from the point at issue by introducing a different but related goal.",
"It supports the conclusion by ruling out an alternative way of achieving the benefits mentioned.",
"It illustrates a case where unfortunate consequences result from a failure to accept the recommendation offered."
]
| 3 | The claim about private corporations serves which one of the following functions in the argument? |
Melinda: Hazard insurance decreases an individual's risk by judiciously spreading the risk among many policyholders. Jack: I disagree. It makes sense for me to buy fire insurance for my house, but I don't see how doing so lessens the chances that my house will burn down. | 200712_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"judiciously spreading",
"many policyholders",
"risk",
"decreases",
"hazard insurance"
]
| 2 | Jack's response most clearly trades on an ambiguity in which one of the following expressions used by Melinda? |
Some doctors believe that a certain drug reduces the duration of episodes of vertigo, claiming that the average duration of vertigo for people who suffer from it has decreased since the drug was introduced. However, during a recent three-month shortage of the drug, there was no significant change in the average duration of vertigo. Thus, we can conclude that the drug has no effect on the duration of vertigo. | 200712_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"If a drug made a difference in the duration of vertigo, a three-month shortage of that drug would have caused a significant change in the average duration of vertigo.",
"If there were any change in the average duration of vertigo since the introduction of the drug, it would have demonstrated that the drug has an effect on the duration of vertigo.",
"A period of time greater than three months would not have been better to use in judging whether the drug has an effect on the duration of vertigo.",
"Changes in diet and smoking habits are not responsible for any change in the average duration of vertigo since the introduction of the drug.",
"There are various significant factors other than drugs that decrease the duration of vertigo for many people who suffer from it."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
It has been suggested that a television set should be thought of as nothing more than "a toaster with pictures" and that since we let market forces determine the design of kitchen appliances we can let them determine what is seen on television. But that approach is too simple. Some governmental control is needed, since television is so important politically and culturally. It is a major source of commercial entertainment. It plays an important political role because it is the primary medium through which many voters obtain information about current affairs. It is a significant cultural force in that in the average home it is on for more than five hours a day. | 200712_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"It states a view that the argument as a whole is designed to discredit.",
"It is an intermediate conclusion that is offered in support of the claim that a television set should be thought of as nothing more than \"a toaster with pictures\" and for which the claim that we can let market forces determine what is seen on television is offered as support.",
"It is a premise that is offered in support of the claim that we let market forces determine the design of kitchen appliances.",
"It is an intermediate conclusion that is offered in support of the claim that some governmental control of television is needed and for which the claim that the television is on for more than five hours a day in the average home is offered as partial support.",
"It is a premise that is offered in support of the claim that television is the primary medium through which many voters obtain information about current affairs."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the role played in the argument by the claim that television is so important politically and culturally? |
Earthworms, vital to the health of soil, prefer soil that is approximately neutral on the acid-to-alkaline scale. Since decomposition of dead plants makes the top layer of soil highly acidic, application of crushed limestone, which is highly alkaline, to the soil's surface should make the soil more attractive to earthworms. | 200712_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"As far as soil health is concerned, aiding the decomposition of dead plants is the most important function performed by earthworms.",
"After its application to the soil's surface, crushed limestone stays in the soil's top layer long enough to neutralize some of the top layer's acidity.",
"Crushed limestone contains available calcium and magnesium, both of which are just as vital as earthworms to healthy soil.",
"By itself, acidity of soil does nothing to hasten decomposition of dead plants.",
"Alkaline soil is significantly more likely to benefit from an increased earthworm population than is highly acidic soil."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Jurist: A nation's laws must be viewed as expressions of a moral code that transcends those laws and serves as a measure of their adequacy. Otherwise, a society can have no sound basis for preferring any given set of laws to all others. Thus, any moral prohibition against the violation of statutes must leave room for exceptions. | 200712_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"Those who formulate statutes are not primarily concerned with morality when they do so.",
"Sometimes criteria other than the criteria derived from a moral code should be used in choosing one set of laws over another.",
"Unless it is legally forbidden ever to violate some moral rules, moral behavior and compliance with laws are indistinguishable.",
"There is no statute that a nation's citizens have a moral obligation to obey.",
"A nation's laws can sometimes come into conflict with the moral code they express."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the jurist's statements? |
An association between two types of conditions does not establish that conditions of one type cause conditions of the other type. Even persistent and inviolable association is inconclusive; such association is often due to conditions of both types being effects of the same kind of cause. | 200712_1-LR1_17_17 | [
"Some people claim that rapid growth of the money supply is what causes inflation. But this is a naive view. What these people do not realize is that growth in the money supply and inflation are actually one and the same phenomenon.",
"People who have high blood pressure tend to be overweight. But before we draw any inferences, we should consider that an unhealthy lifestyle can cause high blood pressure, and weight gain can result from living unhealthily.",
"In some areas, there is a high correlation between ice cream consumption and the crime rate. Some researchers have proposed related third factors, but we cannot rule out that the correlation is purely coincidental.",
"People's moods seem to vary with the color of the clothes they wear. Dark colors are associated with gloomy moods, and bright colors are associated with cheerful moods. This correlation resolves nothing, however. We cannot say whether it is the colors that cause the moods or the converse.",
"Linguists propose that the similarities between Greek and Latin are due to their common descent from an earlier language. But how are we to know that the similarities are not actually due to the two languages having borrowed structures from one another, as with the languages Marathi and Telegu?"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle stated above? |
Salesperson: When a salesperson is successful, it is certain that that person has been in sales for at least three years. This is because to succeed as a salesperson, one must first establish a strong client base, and studies have shown that anyone who spends at least three years developing a client base can eventually make a comfortable living in sales. | 200712_1-LR1_18_18 | [
"salespeople who have spent three years developing a client base might not yet be successful in sales",
"some salespeople require fewer than three years in which to develop a strong client base",
"a salesperson who has not spent three years developing a client base may not succeed in sales",
"it takes longer than three years for a salesperson to develop a strong client base",
"few salespeople can afford to spend three years building a client base"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the salesperson's argument is vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider the possibility that |
People who have habitually slept less than six hours a night and then begin sleeping eight or more hours a night typically begin to feel much less anxious. Therefore, most people who sleep less than six hours a night can probably cause their anxiety levels to fall by beginning to sleep at least eight hours a night. | 200712_1-LR1_19_19 | [
"When a small company first begins to advertise on the Internet, its financial situation generally improves. This shows that most small companies that have never advertised on the Internet can probably improve their financial situation by doing so.",
"Certain small companies that had never previously advertised on the Internet have found that their financial situations began to improve after they started to do so. So most small companies can probably improve their financial situations by starting to advertise on the Internet.",
"It must be true that any small company that increases its Internet advertising will improve its financial situation, since most small companies that advertise on the Internet improved their financial situations soon after they first began to do so.",
"Usually, the financial situation of a small company that has never advertised on the Internet will improve only if that company starts to advertise on the Internet. Therefore, a typical small company that has never advertised on the Internet can probably improve its financial situation by doing so.",
"A small company's financial situation usually improves soon after that company first begins to advertise on the Internet. Thus, most small companies that have never advertised on the Internet could probably become financially strong."
]
| 0 | The reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Biologist: Lions and tigers are so similar to each other anatomically that their skeletons are virtually indistinguishable. But their behaviors are known to be quite different: tigers hunt only as solitary individuals, whereas lions hunt in packs. Thus, paleontologists cannot reasonably infer solely on the basis of skeletal anatomy that extinct predatory animals, such as certain dinosaurs, hunted in packs. | 200712_1-LR1_20_20 | [
"The skeletons of lions and tigers are at least somewhat similar in structure in certain key respects to the skeletons of at least some extinct predatory animals.",
"There have existed at least two species of extinct predatory dinosaurs that were so similar to each other that their skeletal anatomy is virtually indistinguishable.",
"If skeletal anatomy alone is ever an inadequate basis for inferring a particular species' hunting behavior, then it is never reasonable to infer, based on skeletal anatomy alone, that a species of animals hunted in packs.",
"If any two animal species with virtually indistinguishable skeletal anatomy exhibit quite different hunting behaviors, then it is never reasonable to infer, based solely on the hunting behavior of those species, that the two species have the same skeletal anatomy.",
"If it is unreasonable to infer, solely on the basis of differences in skeletal anatomy, that extinct animals of two distinct species differed in their hunting behavior, then the skeletal remains of those two species are virtually indistinguishable."
]
| 2 | The conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
The trees always blossom in May if April rainfall exceeds 5 centimeters. If April rainfall exceeds 5 centimeters, then the reservoirs are always full on May 1. The reservoirs were not full this May 1 and thus the trees will not blossom this May. | 200712_1-LR1_21_21 | [
"If the garlic is in the pantry, then it is still fresh. And the potatoes are on the basement stairs if the garlic is in the pantry. The potatoes are not on the basement stairs, so the garlic is not still fresh.",
"The jar reaches optimal temperature if it is held over the burner for 2 minutes. The contents of the jar liquefy immediately if the jar is at optimal temperature. The jar was held over the burner for 2 minutes, so the contents of the jar must have liquefied immediately.",
"A book is classified \"special\" if it is more than 200 years old. If a book was set with wooden type, then it is more than 200 years old. This book is not classified \"special,\" so it is not printed with wooden type.",
"The mower will operate only if the engine is not flooded. The engine is flooded if the foot pedal is depressed. The foot pedal is not depressed, so the mower will operate.",
"If the kiln is too hot, then the plates will crack. If the plates crack, then the artisan must redo the order. The artisan need not redo the order. Thus, the kiln was not too hot."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to the flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above? |
Doctor: Being overweight has long been linked with a variety of health problems, such as high blood pressure and heart disease. But recent research conclusively shows that people who are slightly overweight are healthier than those who are considerably underweight. Therefore, to be healthy, it suffices to be slightly overweight. | 200712_1-LR1_22_22 | [
"ignores medical opinions that tend to lead to a conclusion contrary to the one drawn",
"never adequately defines what is meant by \"healthy\"",
"does not take into account the fact that appropriate weight varies greatly from person to person",
"holds that if a person lacks a property that would suffice to make the person unhealthy, then that person must be healthy",
"mistakes a merely relative property for one that is absolute"
]
| 4 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument |
Robust crops not only withstand insect attacks more successfully than other crops, they are also less likely to be attacked in the first place, since insects tend to feed on weaker plants. Killing insects with pesticides does not address the underlying problem of inherent vulnerability to damage caused by insect attacks. Thus, a better way to reduce the vulnerability of agricultural crops to insect pest damage is to grow those crops in good soil—soil with adequate nutrients, organic matter, and microbial activity. | 200712_1-LR1_23_23 | [
"The application of nutrients and organic matter to farmland improves the soil's microbial activity.",
"Insects never attack crops grown in soil containing adequate nutrients, organic matter, and microbial activity.",
"The application of pesticides to weak crops fails to reduce the extent to which they are damaged by insect pests.",
"Crops that are grown in good soil tend to be more robust than other crops.",
"Growing crops without the use of pesticides generally produces less robust plants than when pesticides are used."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
People perceive color by means of certain photopigments in the retina that are sensitive to certain wavelengths of light. People who are color-blind are unable to distinguish between red and green, for example, due to an absence of certain photopigments. What is difficult to explain, however, is that in a study of people who easily distinguish red from green, 10 to 20 percent failed to report distinctions between many shades of red that the majority of the subjects were able to distinguish. | 200712_1-LR1_24_24 | [
"People with abnormally low concentrations of the photopigments for perceiving red can perceive fewer shades of red than people with normal concentrations.",
"Questions that ask subjects to distinguish between different shades of the same color are difficult to phrase with complete clarity.",
"Some people are uninterested in fine gradations of color and fail to notice or report differences they do not care about.",
"Some people are unable to distinguish red from green due to an absence in the retina of the photopigment sensitive to green.",
"Some people fail to report distinctions between certain shades of red because they lack the names for those shades."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, helps to explain the result of the study cited above EXCEPT: |
Occultist: The issue of whether astrology is a science is easily settled: it is both an art and a science. The scientific components are the complicated mathematics and the astronomical knowledge needed to create an astrological chart. The art is in the synthesis of a multitude of factors and symbols into a coherent statement of their relevance to an individual. | 200712_1-LR1_25_25 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that any science must involve complicated mathematics",
"incorrectly infers that a practice is a science merely from the fact that the practice has some scientific components",
"denies the possibility that astrology involves components that are neither artistic nor scientific",
"incorrectly infers that astronomical knowledge is scientific merely from the fact that such knowledge is needed to create an astrological chart",
"presumes, without providing justification, that any art must involve the synthesis of a multitude of factors and symbols"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the occultist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
At many electronics retail stores, the consumer has the option of purchasing product warranties that extend beyond the manufacturer's warranty. However, consumers are generally better off not buying extended warranties. Most problems with electronic goods occur within the period covered by the manufacturer's warranty. | 200712_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"Problems with electronic goods that occur after the manufacturer's warranty expires are generally inexpensive to fix in comparison with the cost of an extended warranty.",
"Because problems are so infrequent after the manufacturer's warranty expires, extended warranties on electronic goods are generally inexpensive.",
"Most of those who buy extended warranties on electronic goods do so because special circumstances make their item more likely to break than is usually the case.",
"Some extended warranties on electronic goods cover the product for the period covered by the manufacturer's warranty as well as subsequent years.",
"Retail stores sell extended warranties in part because consumers who purchase them are likely to purchase other products from the same store."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Since the 1970s, environmentalists have largely succeeded in convincing legislators to enact extensive environmental regulations. Yet, as environmentalists themselves not only admit but insist, the condition of the environment is worsening, not improving. Clearly, more environmental regulations are not the solution to the environment's problems. | 200712_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"attacks the environmentalists themselves instead of their positions",
"presumes, without providing warrant, that only an absence of environmental regulations could prevent environmental degradation",
"fails to consider the possibility that the condition of the environment would have worsened even more without environmental regulations",
"fails to justify its presumption that reducing excessive regulations is more important than preserving the environment",
"fails to consider the views of the environmentalists' opponents"
]
| 2 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument |
Although it is unwise to take a developmental view of an art like music—as if Beethoven were an advance over Josquin, or Miles Davis an advance over Louis Armstrong—there are ways in which it makes sense to talk about musical knowledge growing over time. We certainly know more about certain sounds than was known five centuries ago; that is, we understand how sounds that earlier composers avoided can be used effectively in musical compositions. For example, we now know how the interval of the third, which is considered dissonant, can be used in compositions to create consonant musical phrases. | 200712_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Sounds that were never used in past musical compositions are used today.",
"Sounds that were once considered dissonant are more pleasing to modern listeners.",
"It is inappropriate to take a developmental view of music.",
"It is unwise to say that one composer is better than another.",
"Our understanding of music can improve over the course of time."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
A recent test of an electric insect control device discovered that, of the more than 300 insects killed during one 24-hour period, only 12 were mosquitoes. Thus this type of device may kill many insects, but will not significantly aid in controlling the potentially dangerous mosquito population. | 200712_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"A careful search discovered no live mosquitoes in the vicinity of the device after the test.",
"A very large proportion of the insects that were attracted to the device were not mosquitoes.",
"The device is more likely to kill beneficial insects than it is to kill harmful insects.",
"Many of the insects that were killed by the device are mosquito-eating insects.",
"The device does not succeed in killing all of the insects that it attracts."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Brain-scanning technology provides information about processes occurring in the brain. For this information to help researchers understand how the brain enables us to think, however, researchers must be able to rely on the accuracy of the verbal reports given by subjects while their brains are being scanned. Otherwise brain-scan data gathered at a given moment might not contain information about what the subject reports thinking about at that moment, but instead about some different set of thoughts. | 200712_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"It is unlikely that brain-scanning technology will ever enable researchers to understand how the brain enables us to think.",
"There is no way that researchers can know for certain that subjects whose brains are being scanned are accurately reporting what they are thinking.",
"Because subjects whose brains are being scanned may not accurately report what they are thinking, the results of brain-scanning research should be regarded with great skepticism.",
"Brain scans can provide information about the accuracy of the verbal reports of subjects whose brains are being scanned.",
"Information from brain scans can help researchers understand how the brain enables us to think only if the verbal reports of those whose brains are being scanned are accurate."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
Ornithologist: This bird species is widely thought to subsist primarily on vegetation, but my research shows that this belief is erroneous. While concealed in a well-camouflaged blind, I have observed hundreds of these birds every morning over a period of months, and I estimate that over half of what they ate consisted of insects and other animal food sources. | 200712_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"assumes, without providing justification, that the feeding behavior of the birds observed was not affected by the ornithologist's act of observation",
"fails to specify the nature of the animal food sources, other than insects, that were consumed by the birds",
"adopts a widespread belief about the birds' feeding habits without considering the evidence that led to the belief",
"neglects the possibility that the birds have different patterns of food consumption during different parts of the day and night",
"fails to consider the possibility that the birds' diet has changed since the earlier belief about their diet was formed"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the ornithologist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
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