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In her recent book a psychologist described several cases that exhibit the following pattern: A child, denied something by its parent, initiates problematic behavior such as screaming; the behavior escalates until finally the exasperated parent acquiesces to the child's demand. At this point the child, having obtained the desired goal, stops the problematic behavior, to the parent's relief. This self-reinforcing pattern of misbehavior and accommodation is repeated with steadily increasing levels of misbehavior by the child. | 200810_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"A child can develop problematic behavior patterns as a result of getting what it wants.",
"A child and parent can mutually influence each other's behavior.",
"Parents, by their choices, can inadvertently increase their child's level of misbehavior.",
"A child can unintentionally influence a parent's behavior in ways contrary to the child's intended goals.",
"A child can get what it wants by doing what its parent doesn't want it to do."
]
| 3 | The cases described by the psychologist illustrate each of the following generalizations EXCEPT: |
Scientist: In our study, chemical R did not cause cancer in laboratory rats. But we cannot conclude from this that chemical R is safe for humans. After all, many substances known to be carcinogenic to humans cause no cancer in rats; this is probably because some carcinogens cause cancer only via long-term exposure and rats are short lived. | 200810_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"It is cited as evidence against the conclusion that chemical R is safe for humans.",
"It is advanced to support the contention that test results obtained from laboratory rats cannot be extrapolated to humans.",
"It illustrates the claim that rats are too short lived to be suitable as test subjects for the carcinogenic properties of substances to which humans are chronically exposed.",
"It is used as evidence to support the hypothesis that chemical R causes cancer in humans via long-term exposure.",
"It is cited as being insufficient to support the conclusion that chemical R is safe for humans."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most precisely describes the role played in the scientist's argument by the statement that chemical R did not cause cancer in laboratory rats? |
Department store manager: There is absolutely no reason to offer our customers free gift wrapping again this holiday season. If most customers take the offer, it will be expensive and time-consuming for us. On the other hand, if only a few customers want it, there is no advantage in offering it. | 200810_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"Gift wrapping would cost the store more during this holiday season than in previous holiday seasons.",
"Anything that slows down shoppers during the holiday season costs the store money.",
"It would be to the store's advantage to charge customers for gift wrapping services.",
"It would be expensive to inform customers about the free gift wrapping service.",
"Either few customers would want free gift wrapping or most customers would want it."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the department store manager's argument? |
Among people who have a history of chronic trouble falling asleep, some rely only on sleeping pills to help them fall asleep, and others practice behavior modification techniques and do not take sleeping pills. Those who rely only on behavior modification fall asleep more quickly than do those who rely only on sleeping pills, so behavior modification is more effective than are sleeping pills in helping people to fall asleep. | 200810_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"People who do not take sleeping pills spend at least as many total hours asleep each night as do the people who take sleeping pills.",
"Most people who have trouble falling asleep and who use behavior modification techniques fall asleep more slowly than do most people who have no trouble falling asleep.",
"Many people who use only behavior modification techniques to help them fall asleep have never used sleeping pills.",
"The people who are the most likely to take sleeping pills rather than practice behavior modification techniques are those who have previously had the most trouble falling asleep.",
"The people who are the most likely to practice behavior modification techniques rather than take sleeping pills are those who prefer not to use drugs if other treatments are available."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Lawyer: This witness acknowledges being present at the restaurant and watching when my client, a famous television personality, was assaulted. Yet the witness claims to recognize the assailant, but not my famous client. Therefore, the witness's testimony should be excluded. | 200810_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"If a witness claims to recognize both parties involved in an assault, then the witness's testimony should be included.",
"There are other witnesses who can identify the lawyer's client as present during the assault.",
"It is impossible to determine whether the witness actually recognized the assailant.",
"The testimony of a witness to an assault should be included only if the witness claims to recognize both parties involved in the assault.",
"It is unlikely that anyone would fail to recognize the lawyer's client."
]
| 3 | The lawyer's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Biologist: Many paleontologists have suggested that the difficulty of adapting to ice ages was responsible for the evolution of the human brain. But this suggestion must be rejected, for most other animal species adapted to ice ages with no evolutionary changes to their brains. | 200810_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"It fails to address adequately the possibility that even if a condition is sufficient to produce an effect in a species, it may not be necessary to produce that effect in that species.",
"It fails to address adequately the possibility that a condition can produce a change in a species even if it does not produce that change in other species.",
"It overlooks the possibility that a condition that is needed to produce a change in one species is not needed to produce a similar change in other species.",
"It presumes without warrant that human beings were presented with greater difficulties during ice ages than were individuals of most other species.",
"It takes for granted that, if a condition coincided with the emergence of a certain phenomenon, that condition must have been causally responsible for the phenomenon."
]
| 1 | The biologist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
The total number of book titles published annually in North America has approximately quadrupled since television first became available. Retail sales of new titles, as measured in copies, increased rapidly in the early days of television, though the rate of increase has slowed in recent years. Library circulation has been flat or declining in recent years. | 200810_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"Television has, over the years, brought about a reduction in the amount of per capita reading in North America.",
"The introduction of television usually brings about a decrease in library use.",
"Book publishers in North America now sell fewer copies per title than they sold in the early days of television.",
"The availability of television does not always cause a decline in the annual number of book titles published or in the number of books sold.",
"The introduction of television expanded the market for books in North America."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Botanist: It has long been believed that people with children or pets should keep poinsettia plants out of their homes. Although this belief has been encouraged by child-rearing books, which commonly list poinsettias as poisonous and therefore dangerous, it is mistaken. Our research has shown, conclusively, that poinsettias pose no risk to children or pets. | 200810_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"Child-rearing books should encourage people with children to put poinsettias in their homes.",
"Poinsettias are not dangerously poisonous.",
"According to many child-rearing books, poinsettias are dangerous.",
"The belief that households with children or pets should not have poinsettias is mistaken.",
"Poinsettias pose no risk to children or pets."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the botanist's argument? |
Archaeologist: An ancient stone building at our excavation site was composed of three kinds of stone—quartz, granite, and limestone. Of these, only limestone occurs naturally in the area. Most of the buildings at the site from the same time period had limestone as their only stone component, and most were human dwellings. Therefore, the building we are studying probably was not a dwelling. | 200810_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"Most of the buildings that were used as dwellings at the site were made, at least in part, of limestone.",
"Most of the buildings at the site that were not dwellings were made, at least in part, from types of stone that do not occur naturally in the area.",
"Most of the buildings that were built from stones not naturally occurring in the area were not built with both quartz and granite.",
"Most of the buildings at the site were used as dwellings.",
"No quartz has been discovered on the site other than that found in the building being studied."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the archaeologist's reasoning? |
Theodore will be able to file his tax return on time only in the event that he has an accountant prepare his tax return and the accountant does not ask Theodore for any additional documentation of his business expenses. If he does have an accountant prepare his return, the accountant will necessarily ask Theodore to provide this additional documentation. Therefore, Theodore will not be able to file on time. | 200810_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"Given the demands of Timothy's job, his next free evening will occur next Friday. Since he spent a lot of money on his last evening out, he will probably decide to spend his next free evening at home. Therefore, Timothy will probably be at home next Friday evening.",
"Tovah cannot attend the concert next week if she is away on business. If she misses that concert, she will not have another opportunity to attend a concert this month. Since she will be away on business, Tovah will not be able to attend a concert this month.",
"Mark's children will not be content this weekend unless he lets them play video games some of the time. Mark will let them play video games, but only at times when he has no other activities planned. Therefore, unless Mark and his children take a break from planned activities, Mark's children will not be content this weekend.",
"If Teresa is not seated in first class on her airline flight, she will be seated in business class. Therefore, since she cannot be seated in first class on that flight, she will necessarily be seated in business class.",
"Susannah will have a relaxing vacation only if her children behave especially well and she does not start to suspect that they are planning some mischief. Since she will certainly start to suspect that they are planning some mischief if they behave especially well, Susannah's vacation cannot possibly be relaxing."
]
| 4 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely parallels the pattern of reasoning in the argument above? |
When a threat to life is common, as are automobile and industrial accidents, only unusual instances tend to be prominently reported by the news media. Instances of rare threats, such as product tampering, however, are seen as news by reporters and are universally reported in featured stories. People in general tend to estimate the risk of various threats by how frequently those threats come to their attention. | 200810_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"Whether governmental action will be taken to lessen a common risk depends primarily on the prominence given to the risk by the news media.",
"People tend to magnify the risk of a threat if the threat seems particularly dreadful or if those who would be affected have no control over it.",
"Those who get their information primarily from the news media tend to overestimate the risk of uncommon threats relative to the risk of common threats.",
"Reporters tend not to seek out information about long-range future threats but to concentrate their attention on the immediate past and future.",
"The resources that are spent on avoiding product tampering are greater than the resources that are spent on avoiding threats that stem from the weather."
]
| 2 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following is most strongly supported on the basis of them? |
Real estate agent: Upon selling a home, the sellers are legally entitled to remove any items that are not permanent fixtures. Legally, large appliances like dishwashers are not permanent fixtures. However, since many prospective buyers of the home are likely to assume that large appliances in the home would be included with its purchase, sellers who will be keeping the appliances are morally obliged either to remove them before showing the home or to indicate in some other way that the appliances are not included. | 200810_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"If a home's sellers will be keeping any belongings that prospective buyers of the home might assume would be included with the purchase of the home, the sellers are morally obliged to indicate clearly that those belongings are not included.",
"A home's sellers are morally obliged to ensure that prospective buyers of the home do not assume that any large appliances are permanent fixtures in the home.",
"A home's sellers are morally obliged to include with the sale of the home at least some of the appliances that are not permanent fixtures but were in the home when it was shown to prospective buyers.",
"A home's sellers are morally obliged not to deliberately mislead any prospective buyers of their home about which belongings are included with the sale of the home and which are not.",
"If a home's sellers have indicated in some way that a large appliance is included with the home's purchase, then they are morally obliged not to remove that appliance after showing the home."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the real estate agent's argumentation? |
Many parents rigorously organize their children's activities during playtime, thinking that doing so will enhance their children's cognitive development. But this belief is incorrect. To thoroughly structure a child's playtime and expect this to produce a creative and resourceful child would be like expecting a good novel to be produced by someone who was told exactly what the plot and characters must be. | 200810_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"It takes for granted that if something is conducive to a certain goal it cannot also be conducive to some other goal.",
"It overlooks the possibility that many children enjoy rigorously organized playtime.",
"It takes a necessary condition for something's enhancing a child's creativity and resourcefulness to be a sufficient condition for its doing so.",
"It fails to consider the possibility that being able to write a good novel requires something more than creativity and resourcefulness.",
"It fails to consider the possibility that something could enhance a child's overall cognitive development without enhancing the child's creativity and resourcefulness."
]
| 4 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Bureaucrat: The primary, constant goal of an ideal bureaucracy is to define and classify all possible problems and set out regulations regarding each eventuality. Also, an ideal bureaucracy provides an appeal procedure for any complaint. If a complaint reveals an unanticipated problem, the regulations are expanded to cover the new issue, and for this reason an ideal bureaucracy will have an ever-expanding system of regulations. | 200810_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"An ideal bureaucracy will provide an appeal procedure for complaints even after it has defined and classified all possible problems and set out regulations regarding each eventuality.",
"For each problem that an ideal bureaucracy has defined and classified, the bureaucracy has received at least one complaint revealing that problem.",
"An ideal bureaucracy will never be permanently without complaints about problems that are not covered by that bureaucracy's regulations.",
"An ideal bureaucracy can reach its primary goal if, but only if, its system of regulations is always expanding to cover problems that had not been anticipated.",
"Any complaint that an ideal bureaucracy receives will reveal an unanticipated problem that the bureaucracy is capable of defining and classifying."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption the bureaucrat's argument requires? |
Scientists studying a common type of bacteria have discovered that most bacteria of that type are in hibernation at any given time. Some microbiologists have concluded from this that bacteria in general are usually in hibernation. This conclusion would be reasonable if all types of bacteria were rather similar. But, in fact, since bacteria are extremely diverse, it is unlikely that most types of bacteria hibernate regularly. | 200810_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"Bacteria of most types are usually in hibernation.",
"It is probably not true that most types of bacteria hibernate regularly.",
"If bacteria are extremely diverse, it is unlikely that most types of bacteria hibernate regularly.",
"The conclusion that bacteria in general are usually in hibernation would be reasonable if all types of bacteria were rather similar.",
"It is likely that only one type of bacteria hibernates regularly."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion of the argument? |
Any student who is not required to hand in written homework based on the reading assignments in a course will not complete all of the reading assignments. Even highly motivated students will neglect their reading assignments if they are not required to hand in written homework. Therefore, if the students in a course are given several reading assignments and no written assignments, no student in that course will receive a high grade for the course. | 200810_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"No student who completes anything less than all of the reading assignments for a course will earn a high grade for that course.",
"Any student who completes all of the reading and written assignments for a course will earn a high grade in that course.",
"All highly motivated students who complete all of the reading assignments for a course will receive high grades for that course.",
"If highly motivated students are required to hand in written homework on their reading assignments, then they will complete all of their reading assignments.",
"Some highly motivated students will earn high grades in a course if they are required to hand in written homework on their reading assignments."
]
| 0 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
In a study, one group of volunteers was fed a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet; another group was fed a low-protein, high-carbohydrate diet. Both diets contained the same number of calories, and each volunteer's diet prior to the experiment had contained moderate levels of proteins and carbohydrates. After ten days, those on the low-carbohydrate diet had lost more weight than those on the high-carbohydrate diet. Thus, the most effective way to lose body fat is to eat much protein and shun carbohydrates. | 200810_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"A low-protein, high-carbohydrate diet causes the human body to retain water, the added weight of which largely compensates for the weight of any body fat lost, whereas a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet does not.",
"Many people who consume large quantities of protein nevertheless gain significant amounts of body fat.",
"A high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet will often enable the human body to convert some body fat into muscle, without causing any significant overall weight loss.",
"In the experiment, the volunteers on the high-carbohydrate diet engaged in regular exercise of a kind known to produce weight loss, and those on the low-carbohydrate diet did not.",
"Many of the volunteers who had been on the low-carbohydrate diet eventually regained much of the weight they had lost on the diet after returning to their normal diets."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument above? |
Essayist: Computers have the capacity to represent and to perform logical transformations on pieces of information. Since exactly the same applies to the human mind, the human mind is a type of computer. | 200810_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"Often individual animals sacrifice their lives when the survival of their offspring or close relatives is threatened. It is probable, therefore, that there is a biological basis for the fact that human beings are similarly often willing to sacrifice their own well-being for the good of their community.",
"In the plastic arts, such as sculpture or painting, no work can depend for its effectiveness upon a verbal narrative that explains it. Since the same can be said of poetry, we cannot consider this characteristic as a reasonable criterion for distinguishing the plastic arts from other arts.",
"In any organism, the proper functioning of each component depends upon the proper functioning of every other component. Thus, communities belong to the category of organisms, since communities are invariably characterized by this same interdependence of components.",
"Some vitamins require the presence in adequate amounts of some mineral in order to be fully beneficial to the body. Thus, since selenium is needed to make vitamin E fully active, anyone with a selenium deficiency will have a greater risk of contracting those diseases from which vitamin E provides some measure of protection.",
"Friendship often involves obligations whose fulfillment can be painful or burdensome. The same can be said of various forms of cooperation that cannot strictly be called friendship. Thus cooperation, like friendship, can require that priority be given to goals other than mere self-interest."
]
| 2 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in which one of the following most closely resembles the flawed pattern of reasoning in the essayist's argument? |
It is popularly believed that a poem has whatever meaning is assigned to it by the reader. But objective evaluation of poetry is possible only if this popular belief is false; for the aesthetic value of a poem cannot be discussed unless it is possible for at least two readers to agree on the correct interpretation of the poem. | 200810_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"Only if they find the same meaning in a poem can two people each judge that it has aesthetic value.",
"If two readers agree about the meaning of a given poem, that ensures that an objective evaluation of the poem can be made.",
"Discussion of a poem is possible only if it is false that a poem has whatever meaning is assigned to it by the reader.",
"A given poem can be objectively evaluated only if the poem's aesthetic value can be discussed.",
"Aesthetic evaluation of literature is best accomplished through discussion by more than two readers."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Dean: The mathematics department at our university has said that it should be given sole responsibility for teaching the course Statistics for the Social Sciences. But this course has no more mathematics in it than high school algebra does. The fact that a course has mathematics in it does not mean that it needs to be taught by a mathematics professor, any more than a course approaching its subject from a historical perspective must be taught by a history professor. Such demands by the mathematics department are therefore unjustified. | 200810_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that expertise in a subject does not enable one to teach that subject well",
"purports to refute a view by showing that one possible reason for that view is insufficient",
"presumes, without providing justification, that most students are as knowledgeable about mathematics as they are about history",
"fails to establish that mathematics professors are not capable of teaching Statistics for the Social Sciences effectively",
"presumes, without providing justification, that any policies that apply to history courses must be justified with respect to mathematics courses"
]
| 1 | The dean's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
This region's swimmers generally swim during the day because they are too afraid of sharks to swim after dark but feel safe swimming during daylight hours. Yet all recent shark attacks on swimmers in the area have occurred during the day, indicating that, contrary to popular opinion, it is not more dangerous to swim here at night than during the day. | 200812_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"overlooks the possibility that some sharks are primarily nocturnal hunters",
"bases its conclusion on evidence from an unreliable source",
"overlooks the possibility that swimmers might feel anxiety caused by not being able to see one's surroundings in the dark",
"presumes, without providing justification, that swimmers cannot be the most knowledgeable about which times of day are safest for swimming",
"fails to take into account the possibility that the number of shark attacks at night would increase dramatically if more people swam at night"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Denise: Crime will be reduced only when punishment is certain and is sufficiently severe to give anyone considering committing a crime reason to decide against doing so. Reshmi: No, crime will be most effectively reduced if educational opportunities are made readily available to everyone, so that those who once viewed criminal activity as the only means of securing a comfortable lifestyle will choose a different path. | 200812_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"people are capable of choosing whether or not to commit crimes",
"crime is the most important issue facing modern society",
"reducing crime requires fair and consistent responses to criminal behavior",
"crimes are committed in response to economic need",
"reducing crime requires focusing on assured punishments"
]
| 0 | Their dialogue provides the most support for the claim that Denise and Reshmi agree that |
Acme Corporation offers unskilled workers excellent opportunities for advancement. As evidence, consider the fact that the president of the company, Ms. Garon, worked as an assembly line worker, an entry-level position requiring no special skills, when she first started at Acme. | 200812_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"Acme's vice president of operations also worked as an assembly line worker when he first started at Acme.",
"Acme regularly hires top graduates of business schools and employs them briefly in each of a succession of entry-level positions before promoting them to management.",
"Acme promotes its own employees to senior management positions much more frequently than it hires senior managers from other companies.",
"Ms. Garon worked at Acme for more than 20 years before she was promoted to president.",
"Acme pays entry-level employees slightly higher wages than most other businesses in the same industry."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the reasoning above? |
The song of the yellow warbler signals to other yellow warblers that a particular area has been appropriated by the singer as its own feeding territory. Although the singing deters other yellow warblers from taking over the feeding territory of the singer, other yellow warblers may range for food within a portion of the singer's territory. However, a warbler sings a special song when it molts (sheds its feathers). Other yellow warblers will not enter the smaller core territory of a yellow warbler singing its molting song. Therefore yellow warblers, which can only fly short distances during molting, have no competition for the food supply within the range of their restricted flying. | 200812_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"The core areas contain just enough food to sustain one yellow warbler while it molts.",
"Warblers are the only molting birds that lay claim to core areas of feeding territories by singing.",
"There are no birds other than yellow warblers that compete with yellow warblers for food.",
"Warblers often share their feeding areas with other kinds of birds, which often do not eat the same insects or seeds as warblers do.",
"The core areas of each feeding territory are the same size for each molting warbler."
]
| 2 | The argument makes which one of the following assumptions? |
Chinh: Television producers should not pay attention to the preferences of the viewing public when making creative decisions. Great painters do not consider what the museum-going public wants to see. Lana: But television is expressly for the viewing public. So a producer is more like a CEO than like an artist. Just as a company would be foolhardy not to consider consumers' tastes when developing products, the TV producer must consider viewers' preferences. | 200812_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"is circular",
"relies on a sample of consumers that is unrepresentative of consumers in general",
"infers from the effect produced by an action that the action is intended to produce that effect",
"fails to consider the possibility that painters may in fact try to please the museum-going public",
"offers a faulty analogy"
]
| 4 | According to Lana, Chinh's argument is flawed in that it |
Dietitian: High consumption of sodium increases some people's chances of developing heart disease. To maintain cardiac health without lowering sodium consumption, therefore, these people should eat fresh, rather than canned or frozen, fruit and vegetables, since the potassium in plant foods helps to prevent sodium's malign effects. | 200812_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"Fresh fruits and vegetables contain more potassium than sodium.",
"Food processing businesses often add sodium to foods being canned or frozen.",
"Potassium is the only mineral that helps to prevent sodium's malign effects.",
"Potassium in fruits and vegetables has few negative side effects.",
"Fresh fruits and vegetables contain more potassium than do canned or frozen ones."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the dietitian's argument? |
Dana intentionally watered the plant every other day. But since the plant was a succulent, and needed dry soil, the frequent watering killed the plant. Therefore Dana intentionally killed the plant. | 200812_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"Jack stole $10 from Kelly and bet it on a race. The bet returned $100 to Jack. Therefore Jack really stole $100 from Kelly.",
"Celeste knows that coffee is grown in the mountains in Peru and that Peru is in South America. Therefore Celeste should know that coffee is grown in South America.",
"The restaurant owner decided to take an item off her restaurant's menu. This decision disappointed Jerry because that item was his favorite dish. Therefore the restaurant owner decided to disappoint Jerry.",
"The heavy rain caused the dam to break, and the breaking of the dam caused the fields downstream to be flooded. Therefore the heavy rain caused the flooding of the fields.",
"The power plant raised the water temperature, and whatever raised the water temperature is responsible for the decrease in fish. Therefore the power plant is responsible for the decrease in fish."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to the flawed pattern of reasoning exhibited in the argument above? |
This boulder is volcanic in origin and yet the rest of the rock in this area is sedimentary. Since this area was covered by southward-moving glaciers during the last ice age, this boulder was probably deposited here, hundreds of miles from its geological birthplace, by a glacier. | 200812_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"Most boulders that have been moved by glaciers have not been moved more than 100 miles.",
"The closest geological source of volcanic rock is 50 miles south of this boulder.",
"The closest geological source of volcanic rock is 50 miles north of this boulder.",
"There are no geological sources of volcanic rock north of this boulder.",
"No other boulders of volcanic origin exist within 50 miles of this boulder."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion drawn in the argument above? |
Rifka: We do not need to stop and ask for directions. We would not need to do that unless, of course, we were lost. Craig: The fact that we are lost is precisely why we need to stop. | 200812_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"contradict the conclusion of Rifka's argument without offering any reason to reject any of Rifka's implicit premises",
"deny one of Rifka's implicit premises and thereby arrive at a different conclusion",
"imply that Rifka's argument is invalid by accepting the truth of its premises while rejecting its conclusion",
"provide a counterexample to Rifka's generalization",
"affirm the truth of the stated premise of Rifka's argument while remaining noncommittal about its conclusion"
]
| 1 | In the exchange above, the function of Craig's comment is to |
Critic: The idealized world portrayed in romance literature is diametrically opposed to the debased world portrayed in satirical literature. Nevertheless, the major characters in both types of works have moral qualities that reflect the worlds in which they are presented. Comedy and tragedy, meanwhile, require that the moral qualities of major characters change during the course of the action. Therefore, neither tragedy nor comedy can be classified as satirical literature or romance literature. | 200812_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"Some characters in comedies and tragedies are neither debased nor idealized.",
"The visions of the world portrayed in works of tragedy and works of comedy change during the course of the action.",
"If a character in a tragedy is idealized at the beginning of the action depicted in the tragedy, he or she must be debased at the end.",
"In romance literature and satirical literature, characters' moral qualities do not change during the course of the action.",
"Both comedy and tragedy require that the moral qualities of minor characters change during the course of the action."
]
| 3 | The critic's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Lance: If experience teaches us nothing else, it teaches us that every general rule has at least one exception. Frank: What you conclude is itself a general rule. If we assume that it is true, then there is at least one general rule that has no exceptions. Therefore, you must withdraw your conclusion. | 200812_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"demonstrating that Lance assumes the very thing he sets out to prove",
"showing that Lance's conclusion involves him in a contradiction",
"showing that no general rule can have exceptions",
"establishing that experience teaches us the opposite of what Lance concludes",
"showing that it has no implications for any real cases"
]
| 1 | Frank's argument is an attempt to counter Lance's conclusion by |
Throughout a certain nation, electricity has actually become increasingly available to people in urban areas while energy production has been subsidized to help residents of rural areas gain access to electricity. However, even with the subsidy, many of the most isolated rural populations still have no access to electricity. Thus, the energy subsidy has failed to achieve its intended purpose. | 200812_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"takes for granted that the subsidy's intended purpose could have been achieved if the subsidy had not existed",
"takes for granted that if a subsidy has any benefit for those whom it was not intended to benefit, then that subsidy has failed to achieve its intended purpose",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the intended purpose of the subsidy was to benefit not only rural populations in the nation who have no electricity, but other people in the nation as well",
"overlooks the possibility that even many of the people in the nation who live in urban areas would have difficulty gaining access to electricity without the subsidy",
"fails to take into account that the subsidy could have helped many of the rural residents in the nation gain access to electricity even if many other rural residents in the nation were not helped in this way"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Heart attacks are most likely to occur on Mondays. The accepted explanation is that because Monday is the first day of the workweek, people feel more stress on Mondays than on other days. However, research shows that even unemployed retired people are more likely to have heart attacks on Mondays than on other days. | 200812_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"Because they associate Monday with work, retired people are more likely to begin large projects on Mondays.",
"Many retired people take up part-time jobs after they retire from their careers.",
"People seldom change their dietary and other health habits after retirement.",
"Stress is the major factor influencing the risk of heart attack.",
"Unemployed retired people are even more likely to have heart attacks than are people who have jobs."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the increased likelihood that an unemployed retiree will have a heart attack on a Monday? |
Psychologist: We asked 100 entrepreneurs and 100 business managers to answer various questions and rate how confident they were that their responses were correct. While members of each group were overconfident, in general the entrepreneurs were much more so than the business managers. This indicates that people who are especially overconfident are more likely to attempt to start a business in spite of the enormous odds against success than people who are less confident. | 200812_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"The questions asked of the entrepreneurs and business managers included personal, political, and business questions.",
"At least some of the entrepreneurs surveyed had accurately determined before attempting to start their businesses what the odds were against their attempts being successful.",
"Another survey showed that degree of confidence was highly correlated with success in business.",
"The business managers who were most overconfident were found to have attempted to start businesses in the past.",
"How confident each person surveyed was that his or her answers to the questions asked were correct corresponded closely to that person's confidence in his or her business acumen."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, lends the most support to the psychologist's conclusion? |
If Agnes's research proposal is approved, the fourth-floor lab must be cleaned out for her use. Immanuel's proposal, on the other hand, requires less space. So if his proposal is approved, he will continue to work in the second-floor lab. Only those proposals the director supports will be approved. So since the director will support both proposals, the fourth-floor lab must be cleaned out. | 200812_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that the fourth-floor lab is bigger than the second-floor lab",
"fails to consider the possibility that a proposal will be rejected even with the director's support",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the director will support both proposals with equal enthusiasm",
"fails to consider the possibility that Immanuel will want to move to a bigger lab once his proposal is approved",
"presumes, without providing justification, that no lab other than the fourth-floor lab would be adequate for Agnes's research"
]
| 1 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument |
In order to expand its mailing lists for e-mail advertising, the Outdoor Sports Company has been offering its customers financial incentives if they provide the e-mail addresses of their friends. However, offering such incentives is an unethical business practice, because it encourages people to exploit their personal relationships for profit, which risks damaging the integrity of those relationships. | 200812_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"It is unethical for people to exploit their personal relationships for profit if in doing so they risk damaging the integrity of those relationships.",
"If it would be unethical to use information that was gathered in a particular way, then it is unethical to gather that information in the first place.",
"It is an unethical business practice for a company to deliberately damage the integrity of its customers' personal relationships in any way.",
"It is unethical to encourage people to engage in behavior that could damage the integrity of their personal relationships.",
"Providing a friend's personal information to a company in exchange for a financial reward will almost certainly damage the integrity of one's personal relationship with that friend."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument? |
Glen: An emphasis on law's purely procedural side produces a concern with personal rights that leads to the individual's indifference to society's welfare. Law's primary role should be to create virtuous citizens. Sara: But such a role would encourage government to decide which modes of life are truly virtuous; that would be more dangerous than government's being overprotective of individuals' rights. | 200812_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"citizens can be assumed to be capable of making good choices without governmental interference",
"virtuousness on the part of citizens is more important than the protection of citizens' rights",
"there is an inherent danger in allowing government to decide what constitutes virtuous behavior among citizens",
"an emphasis on law's purely procedural side results in government's being overprotective of citizens' rights",
"the cultivation of virtue among citizens should be the primary role of law"
]
| 4 | The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that Glen and Sara disagree about whether |
Some credit card companies allow cardholders to skip payments for up to six months under certain circumstances, but it is almost never in a cardholder's interest to do so. Finance charges accumulate during the skipped-payment period, and the cost to the cardholder is much greater in the long run. | 200812_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"Although insecticides are effective in ridding the environment of insect pests, they often kill beneficial insects at the same time. Since these beneficial insects are so important, we must find other ways to combat insect pests.",
"Increasing the base salary of new employees is good for a company. Although the company's payroll will increase, it will be easier for the company to recruit new employees.",
"It is unwise to use highway maintenance funds for construction of new roads. There is some immediate benefit from new roads, but if these funds are not used for maintenance, the total maintenance cost will be greater in the long run.",
"It is better to invest in a used piece of equipment than to purchase a new one. Although used equipment requires more repairs and is sometimes more costly in the long run, buying a new machine requires a far greater initial outlay of capital.",
"Sports cars are impractical for most drivers. While there is undoubtedly a certain thrill associated with driving these cars, their small size makes them incapable of transporting any but the smallest amounts of cargo."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following arguments illustrates a principle most similar to the principle underlying the argument above? |
None of the students taking literature are taking physics, but several of the students taking physics are taking art. In addition, none of the students taking rhetoric are taking physics. | 200812_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"There are students who are taking art but not literature.",
"None of the students taking literature are taking art.",
"There are students who are taking rhetoric but not literature.",
"None of the students taking rhetoric are taking literature.",
"There are students who are taking both art and literature."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following statements follows logically from the statements above? |
Psychologist: Psychotherapists who attempt to provide psychotherapy on radio or television talk shows are expected to do so in ways that entertain a broad audience. However, satisfying this demand is nearly always incompatible with providing high-quality psychological help. For this reason, psychotherapists should never provide psychotherapy on talk shows. | 200812_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"It is never appropriate for psychotherapists to attempt to entertain a broad audience.",
"The context in which psychological help is presented has a greater impact on its quality than the nature of the advice that is given.",
"Psychotherapy should never be provided in a context in which there is any chance that the therapy might be of less than high quality.",
"Most members of radio and television talk show audiences are seeking entertainment rather than high-quality psychological help.",
"Psychotherapists should never attempt to provide psychological help in a manner that makes it unlikely to be of high quality."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles must be assumed in order for the psychologist's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Tania: A good art critic is not fair in the ordinary sense; it is only about things that do not interest one that one can give a truly unbiased opinion. Since art is a passion, good criticism of art cannot be separated from emotion. Monique: Art is not simply a passion. The best art critics passionately engage with the artwork, but render their criticism only after shedding all of their biases and consulting general principles of aesthetics. | 200812_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"art is not simply a passion",
"good art criticism is sometimes unbiased",
"art critics should not feel emotion toward artworks",
"fairness generally requires minimizing the influence of bias",
"the passionate engagement of the art critic with the artwork is the most important aspect of art criticism"
]
| 1 | The dialogue most strongly supports the claim that Tania and Monique disagree about whether |
The writing styles in works of high literary quality are not well suited to the avoidance of misinterpretation. For this reason, the writing in judicial decisions, which are primarily intended as determinations of law, is rarely of high literary quality. However, it is not uncommon to find writing of high literary quality in dissenting opinions, which are sometimes included in written decisions in cases heard by a panel of judges. | 200812_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"It is not uncommon for more than one judge to have an influence on the way a dissenting opinion is written.",
"Unlike literary works, legal opinions rely heavily on the use of technical terminology.",
"The law is not to any great extent determined by dissenting opinions.",
"Judges spend much more time reading judicial decisions than reading works of high literary quality.",
"Judicial decisions issued by panels of judges are likely to be more widely read than are judicial decisions issued by a single judge who hears a case alone."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the statements above? |
Ecologist: Without the intervention of conservationists, squirrel monkeys will become extinct. But they will survive if large tracts of second-growth forest habitat are preserved for them. Squirrel monkeys flourish in second-growth forest because of the plentiful supply of their favorite insects and fruit. | 200812_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"No habitat other than second-growth forest contains plentiful supplies of squirrel monkeys' favorite insects and fruit.",
"At least some of the conservationists who intervene to help the squirrel monkeys survive will do so by preserving second-growth forest habitat for the monkeys.",
"Without plentiful supplies of their favorite insects and fruit, squirrel monkeys will become extinct.",
"If conservationists intervene to help squirrel monkeys survive, then the squirrel monkeys will not become extinct.",
"Without the intervention of conservationists, large tracts of second-growth forest habitat will not be preserved for squirrel monkeys."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the ecologist's statements? |
Over 40,000 lead seals from the early Byzantine Empire remain today. Apart from the rare cases where the seal authenticated a document of special importance, most seals had served their purpose when the document was opened. Lead was not expensive, but it was not free: most lead seals would have been recast once they had served their purpose. Thus the number of early Byzantine documents sealed in such a fashion must have been many times the number of remaining lead seals. | 200812_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Most of the lead seals produced during the early Byzantine Empire were affixed to documents that were then opened during that period.",
"Most of the lead seals produced during the early Byzantine Empire were affixed to documents that have since been destroyed.",
"The amount of lead available for seals in the early Byzantine Empire was much greater than the amount of lead that remains in the seals today.",
"During the time of the early Byzantine Empire there were at most 40,000 documents of enough importance to prevent the removing and recycling of the seal.",
"During the time of the early Byzantine Empire there were fewer than 40,000 seals affixed to documents at any given time."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Farmer: In the long run, it is counterproductive for farmers to use insecticides. Because insects' resistance to insecticides increases with insecticide use, farmers have to use greater and greater amounts of costly insecticides to control insect pests. | 200812_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"It is the argument's main conclusion, but not its only conclusion.",
"It is a claim for which a causal explanation is provided and which itself is used as direct support for the argument's only conclusion.",
"It is the argument's only conclusion.",
"It is a claim that is used as direct support for an intermediary conclusion, which in turn is used as direct support for the argument's main conclusion.",
"It identifies a phenomenon for which the argument's main conclusion offers a causal explanation."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the farmer's argument by the proposition that farmers have to use greater and greater amounts of costly insecticides to control insect pests? |
Anna: Did you know that rainbows always occur opposite the sun, appearing high in the sky when the sun is low, and low in the sky when the sun is high? The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder claimed that this was so, in the first century A.D. William: His claim cannot be correct. After all, Pliny the Elder wrote that there are tribes of dog-headed people and beings with no heads or necks but with eyes on their shoulders, and said that smearing snails on your forehead cures headaches! | 200812_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"inappropriately distorts Anna's conclusion, making it appear more extreme than it really is",
"takes for granted that Pliny the Elder was in bad faith when he reported about unheard-of creatures",
"illicitly infers that, because Pliny the Elder made some incorrect assertions, Pliny the Elder's assertions about rainbows are also incorrect",
"accepts the assertions of an ancient scholar without presenting contemporary verification of that scholar's views",
"implies that Pliny the Elder's writings are too outdated to be of any value"
]
| 2 | William's argument against Anna's claims about rainbows is most vulnerable to criticism because it |
Shareholder: The company's current operations are time-proven successes. The move into food services may siphon off funds needed by these other operations. Also, the food service industry is volatile, with a higher inherent risk than with, for instance, pharmaceuticals, another area into which the company has considered expanding. | 200812_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"The company's present operations require increased funding.",
"Investment into pharmaceuticals would not siphon off money from other operations.",
"The company will lose money as it expands into the food service industry.",
"Only if the company expands its operations into pharmaceuticals are increased profits possible.",
"The company has a greater chance of losing money in food services than in pharmaceuticals."
]
| 4 | If the shareholder's statements are true, which one of the following is most strongly supported by them? |
Mariah: Joanna has argued that Adam should not judge the essay contest because several of his classmates have entered the contest. However, the essays are not identified by author to the judge and, moreover, none of Adam's friends are classmates of his. Still, Adam has no experience in critiquing essays. Therefore, I agree with Joanna that Adam should not judge the contest. | 200812_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"A suspicion of bias is insufficient grounds on which to disqualify someone from judging a contest.",
"Expertise should be the primary prerequisite for serving as a contest judge.",
"The ability of a judge to make objective decisions is more important than that judge's content expertise.",
"In selecting a contest judge, fairness concerns should override concern for the appropriate expertise.",
"A contest judge, no matter how well qualified, cannot judge properly if the possibility of bias exists."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify Mariah's argument? |
The manufacturers of NoSmoke claim that their product reduces smokers' cravings for cigarettes. However, in a recent study, smokers given the main ingredient in NoSmoke reported no decrease in cravings for cigarettes. Thus, since NoSmoke has only two ingredients, if similar results are found for the second ingredient, we can conclude that NoSmoke does not reduce smokers' cravings. | 200812_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"illicitly presumes that a whole must lack a certain quality if all of its parts lack that quality",
"confuses a mere correlation with a cause",
"relies on a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative",
"overlooks the possibility that NoSmoke helps people to quit smoking in ways other than by reducing smokers' cravings for cigarettes",
"illicitly presumes that a claim must be false because the people making the claim are biased"
]
| 0 | The argument above is flawed in that it |
Gardener: Researchers encourage us to allow certain kinds of weeds to grow among garden vegetables because they can repel caterpillars from the garden. While it is wise to avoid unnecessary use of insecticides, the researchers' advice is premature. For all we know, those kinds of weeds can deplete the soil of nutrients and moisture that garden crops depend on, and might even attract other kinds of damaging pests. | 200812_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"To the extent that it is possible to do so, we should eliminate the use of insecticides in gardening.",
"Allowing certain kinds of weeds to grow in vegetable gardens may contribute to a net increase in unwanted garden pests.",
"Allowing the right kinds of weeds to grow in vegetable gardens can help toward controlling caterpillars without the use of insecticides.",
"We should be cautious about the practice of allowing certain kinds of weeds to grow among garden vegetables.",
"We should be skeptical about the extent to which certain kinds of weeds can reduce the presence of caterpillars in gardens."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the gardener's argument? |
Executive: We recently ran a set of advertisements in the print version of a travel magazine and on that magazine's website. We were unable to get any direct information about consumer response to the print ads. However, we found that consumer response to the ads on the website was much more limited than is typical for website ads. We concluded that consumer response to the print ads was probably below par as well. | 200812_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"bases a prediction of the intensity of a phenomenon on information about the intensity of that phenomenon's cause",
"uses information about the typical frequency of events of a general kind to draw a conclusion about the probability of a particular event of that kind",
"infers a statistical generalization from claims about a large number of specific instances",
"uses a case in which direct evidence is available to draw a conclusion about an analogous case in which direct evidence is unavailable",
"bases a prediction about future events on facts about recent comparable events"
]
| 3 | The executive's reasoning does which one of the following? |
Conservation officers justified their decision to remove a pack of ten coyotes from a small island by claiming that the coyotes, which preyed on wild cats and plover, were decimating the plover population and would soon wipe it out. After the coyotes were removed, however, the plover population plummeted dramatically, and within two years plover could no longer be found on the island. | 200812_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"Plover are ground-nesting birds, which makes them easy prey for coyotes.",
"Wild cat and plover populations tend to fluctuate together.",
"Coyotes are not susceptible to any of the diseases that commonly infect plover or wild cats.",
"The wild cat population on the island was once significantly larger than it is currently.",
"The coyotes preyed mainly on wild cats, and wild cats prey on plover."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following would, if true, most help explain the phenomenon described above? |
Economist: During a recession, a company can cut personnel costs either by laying off some employees without reducing the wages of remaining employees or by reducing the wages of all employees without laying off anyone. Both damage morale, but layoffs damage it less, since the aggrieved have, after all, left. Thus, when companies must reduce personnel costs during recessions, they are likely to lay off employees. | 200812_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"Employee morale is usually the primary concern driving companies' decisions about whether to lay off employees or to reduce their wages.",
"In general, companies increase wages only when they are unable to find enough qualified employees.",
"Some companies will be unable to make a profit during recessions no matter how much they reduce personnel costs.",
"When companies cut personnel costs during recessions by reducing wages, some employees usually resign.",
"Some companies that have laid off employees during recessions have had difficulty finding enough qualified employees once economic growth resumed."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the economist's reasoning? |
There are far fewer independent bookstores than there were 20 years ago, largely because chain bookstores prospered and multiplied during that time. Thus, chain bookstores' success has been to the detriment of book consumers, for the shortage of independent bookstores has prevented the variety of readily available books from growing as much as it otherwise would have. | 200812_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Book consumers would be better off if there were a greater variety of readily available books than there currently is.",
"Independent bookstores typically do not sell the kinds of books that are available in chain bookstores.",
"The average bookstore today is larger than the average bookstore of 20 years ago.",
"The average bookstore today is smaller than the average bookstore of 20 years ago.",
"Some book consumers value low prices more highly than wide selection."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? |
Concert promoter: Some critics claim that our concert series lacks popular appeal. But our income from the sales of t-shirts and other memorabilia at the concerts is equal to or greater than that for similar sales at comparable series. So those critics are mistaken. | 200812_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"attacks the critics on the basis of emotional considerations rather than factual ones",
"takes for granted that income from sales of memorabilia is the sole indicator of popular appeal",
"takes for granted that the comparable series possess popular appeal",
"draws a conclusion about the popularity of a series based on a comparison with other, dissimilar events",
"fails to adequately distinguish the series as a whole from individual concerts in it"
]
| 2 | The concert promoter's argument is flawed in that it |
The sun emits two types of ultraviolet radiation that damage skin: UV-A, which causes premature wrinkles, and UV-B, which causes sunburn. Until about ten years ago, sunscreens protected against UV-B radiation but not against UV-A radiation. | 200812_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"Since about ten years ago, the percentage of people who wear sunscreen every time they spend time in the sun has increased.",
"Most people whose skin is prematurely wrinkled have spent a large amount of time in the sun without wearing sunscreen.",
"The specific cause of premature skin wrinkling was not known until about ten years ago.",
"People who wear sunscreen now are less likely to become sunburned than were people who spent the same amount of time in the sun wearing sunscreen ten years ago.",
"Until about ten years ago, people who wore sunscreen were no less likely to have premature wrinkles than were people who spent the same amount of time in the sun without wearing sunscreen."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is best supported by the information above? |
Advice columnist: Several scientific studies have shown that, when participating in competitive sports, those people who have recently been experiencing major stress in their lives are several times more likely to suffer serious injuries than are other participants in competitive sports. Since risking serious injury is unwise, no sports activity should be used as a method for coping with stress. | 200812_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"If people recently under stress should avoid a subset of activities of a certain type, they should avoid all activities of that type.",
"A method for coping with stress should be used only if it has been subjected to scientific study.",
"People who have not been experiencing major stress in their lives should participate in competitive sports.",
"When people have been under considerable stress, they should engage in competitive activities in order to relieve the stress.",
"People with a history of sports injuries should not engage in sports activities if they have recently been under stress."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the advice columnist's argument? |
Tent caterpillars' routes between their nests and potential food sources are marked with chemical traces called pheromones that the caterpillars leave behind. Moreover, routes from food sources back to the nest are marked more heavily than are merely exploratory routes that have failed to turn up a food source. Thus, tent caterpillars are apparently among the insect species that engage in communal foraging, which consists in the conveying of information concerning the location of food to other members of the colony, nest, or hive. | 200812_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"A hungry tent caterpillar is more likely to follow heavily marked routes than lightly marked routes.",
"Tent caterpillars can detect the presence but not the concentration of pheromones.",
"Sometimes individual tent caterpillars will not return to the nest until a food source is located.",
"The pheromones left by tent caterpillars are different from the pheromones left by other animals.",
"The pheromones that tent caterpillars leave behind are detectable by certain other species of caterpillars."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, adds the most support to the argument? |
Many movies starring top actors will do well at the box office because the actors are already well known and have a loyal following. Movies starring unknown actors are therefore unlikely to do well. | 200812_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"Many animals must devote most of their energy to locating food, or they will not get enough food to maintain optimal energy levels. Thus, if immediate survival requires such an animal to devote most of its energy to some other purpose, optimal energy levels generally will not be maintained.",
"Often the presence of the flower bee balm in a garden will attract bumblebees that pollinate the plants and enable the garden to produce an abundant crop. So, gardens that lack bee balm usually do not produce abundant crops.",
"A person's ability to keep confidences is a large part of being a friend, since frequently such an ability enables a high degree of openness in communication. Thus, a high degree of openness in communication is an essential feature of friendship.",
"Visual aids can be very useful in effectively teaching math skills, because they generally allow vivid conceptualization of math principles. If such visual aids were never employed, therefore, teaching math skills might sometimes be more difficult.",
"An understanding of the rules of perspective is necessary for achieving success as a painter, since it is the understanding of these most basic rules that allows the painter to paint realistically. Thus, painters with an understanding of the rules of perspective will achieve success."
]
| 1 | The flawed reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
As part of a new trend in the writing of history, an emphasis on the details of historical events and motivations has replaced the previous emphasis on overarching historical trends and movements, with the result that the latter are often overlooked. In consequence, the ominous parallels that may exist between historical trends and current trends are also overlooked, which lessens our ability to learn from history. | 200812_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"Studying the details of historical events and motivations lessens our ability to learn from history.",
"Overarching historical trends and movements can be discerned only when details of historical events and motivations are not emphasized.",
"Those who attend to overall trends and movements in history and not to details are the best able to learn from history.",
"A change in emphasis in the interpretation of history has lessened our ability to learn from history.",
"History should be interpreted in a way that gives equal emphasis to overarching historical trends and movements and to the details of historical events and motivations."
]
| 3 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Therapist: The ability to trust other people is essential to happiness, for without trust there can be no meaningful emotional connection to another human being, and without meaningful emotional connections to others we feel isolated. | 200812_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"No one who is feeling isolated can feel happy.",
"Anyone who has a meaningful emotional connection to another human being can be happy.",
"To avoid feeling isolated, it is essential to trust other people.",
"At least some people who do not feel isolated are happy.",
"Anyone who is able to trust other people has a meaningful emotional connection to at least one other human being."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion of the therapist's argument to be properly inferred? |
Of all the Arabic epic poems that have been popular at various times, only Sirat Bani Hilal is still publicly performed. Furthermore, while most other epics were only recited, Sirat Bani Hilal has usually been sung. The musical character of the performance, therefore, is the main reason for its longevity. | 200812_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"relies on evidence that is in principle impossible to corroborate",
"relies on a source of evidence that may be biased",
"takes for granted that a particular correlation is causal",
"takes what may be mere popular opinion to be an established fact",
"takes a sufficient condition to be a necessary condition"
]
| 2 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Fund-raiser: A charitable organization rarely gives its donors the right to vote on its policies. The inability to directly influence how charities spend contributions makes potential donors feel less of an emotional connection to the charity. Thus, most charities could probably increase the amount of money they raise through donations by giving donors the right to vote. | 200812_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"The most effective way for a charity to give potential donors the ability to directly influence what that charity does is by giving donors the right to vote on the charity's policies.",
"Most charities that have increased the amount of money they raise through donations have done so by making potential donors feel a greater emotional connection to the charity.",
"Every charity that has given donors the right to vote on its policies has seen a marked increase in the emotional connection donors have to that charity.",
"Most potential donors to a charity are unwilling to give that charity any money if there is no possible way for them to have any influence on that charity's policies.",
"The emotional connection potential donors feel to a charity can affect the amount of money that charity raises through donations."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption that the fund-raiser's argument depends on? |
Leslie: I'll show you that your quest for the treasure is irrational. Suppose you found a tablet inscribed, "Whoever touches this tablet will lose a hand, yet will possess the world." Would you touch it? Erich: Certainly not. Leslie: Just as I expected! It is clear from your answer that your hands are more important to you than possessing the world. But your entire body is necessarily more important to you than your hands. Yet you are ruining your health and harming your body in your quest for a treasure that is much less valuable than the whole world. I rest my case. | 200812_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"Erich would not sacrifice one of his hands in order to possess the world.",
"Erich should not risk his physical well-being regardless of the possible gains that such risks might bring.",
"Erich is irrationally risking something that is precious to him for something that is of no value.",
"Erich can be convinced that his quest for the treasure is irrational.",
"Erich is engaging in irrational behavior by pursuing his quest for the treasure."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in Leslie's argument? |
Newspaper article: People who take vitamin C supplements tend to be healthier than average. This was shown by a study investigating the relationship between high doses of vitamin C and heart disease, which showed that people who regularly consume high doses of vitamin C supplements have a significantly lower than average risk of heart disease. | 200812_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"Vitamin C taken in the form of supplements has a different effect on the body than does vitamin C taken in food.",
"The reduction in risk of heart disease due to the consumption of vitamin C is no greater than the reduction due to certain other dietary changes.",
"Taking both vitamin C supplements and vitamin E supplements lowers one's risk of heart disease far more than does taking either one alone.",
"High doses of vitamin C supplements tend to reduce slightly one's resistance to certain common infectious diseases.",
"Taking vitamin C supplements has been found to lower one's risk of developing cancer."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument in the newspaper article? |
George: Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, hardly anyone learned ballroom dancing. Why is it that a large number of people now take ballroom dancing lessons? Boris: It's because, beginning in 1995, many people learned the merengue and several related ballroom dances. Because these dances are so popular, other ballroom dances are now catching on. | 200812_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"show that the people who learned the merengue are the same people who are now interested in other ballroom dances",
"explain why ballroom dancing was so unpopular before 1995",
"relate the merengue to the forms of dancing that were more prevalent before 1995",
"account for the beginning of the revival of interest in ballroom dancing",
"demonstrate that all types of ballroom dancing are currently popular"
]
| 3 | Boris's response to George is most vulnerable to criticism because it fails to |
On the basis of relatively minor morphological differences, some scientists suggest that Neanderthals should be considered a species distinct from Cro-Magnons, the forerunners of modern humans. Yet the fact that the tools used by these two groups of hominids living in different environments were of exactly the same type indicates uncanny behavioral similarities, for only if they faced the same daily challenges and met them in the same way would they have used such similar tools. This suggests that they were members of the same species, and that the morphological differences are due merely to their having lived in different environments. | 200812_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"Morphological differences between the members of two populations do not guarantee that the two populations do not belong to the same species.",
"The daily challenges with which an environment confronts its inhabitants are unique to that environment.",
"There are greater morphological differences between Cro-Magnons and modern humans than there are between Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals.",
"Use of similar tools is required if members of two distinct groups of tool-making hominids are to be considered members of the same species.",
"Through much of their coexistence, Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals were geographically isolated from one another."
]
| 1 | If the statements above are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
A summer day is "pleasant" if there are intermittent periods of wind and the temperature stays below 84°F (29°C) all afternoon. A summer day with high humidity levels is "oppressive" either if the temperature stays above 84°F (29°C) all afternoon or if there is no wind. | 200812_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"The temperature on Friday stayed below 82°F (28°C) all day, and there was no wind at all. It was a day of low humidity, and it was a pleasant day.",
"On Monday, the temperature ranged from 85°F to 90°F (30°C to 32°C) from early morning until night. It was an oppressive day even though the humidity levels were low.",
"On Tuesday, the temperature neither rose above nor fell below 84°F (29°C) throughout late morning and all afternoon. It was a pleasant day because there were occasional periods of wind.",
"On Wednesday, a refreshing breeze in the early morning became intermittent by late morning, and the day's humidity levels were constantly high. It was an oppressive day, even though the temperature did not rise above 84°F (29°C) all day.",
"On Thursday morning, the air was very still, and it remained windless for the whole day. Humidity levels for the day were high, and even though the temperature fell below 84°F (29°C) between early and late afternoon, it was an oppressive day."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following summer weather reports most closely conforms to the principles stated above? |
The local radio station will not win the regional ratings race this year. In the past ten years the station has never finished better than fifth place in the ratings. The station's manager has not responded to its dismal ratings by changing its musical format or any key personnel, while the competition has often sought to respond to changing tastes in music and has aggressively recruited the region's top radio personalities. | 200812_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"Every swan I have seen was white. Therefore all swans are probably white.",
"A fair coin was fairly flipped six times and was heads every time. The next flip will probably be heads too.",
"All lions are mammals. Therefore Leo, the local zoo's oldest lion, is a mammal too.",
"Recently stock prices have always been lower on Mondays. Therefore they will be lower this coming Monday too.",
"Only trained swimmers are lifeguards, so it follows that the next lifeguard at the local pool will be a trained swimmer."
]
| 3 | The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Chef: This mussel recipe's first step is to sprinkle the live mussels with cornmeal. The cornmeal is used to clean them out: they take the cornmeal in and eject the sand that they contain. But I can skip this step, because the mussels available at seafood markets are farm raised and therefore do not contain sand. | 200812_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"Cornmeal is not used to clean out farm-raised mussels before they reach seafood markets.",
"Mussels contain no contaminants other than sand.",
"Sprinkling the mussels with cornmeal does not affect their taste.",
"The chef's mussel recipe was written before farm-raised mussels became available.",
"The mussels the chef is using for the mussel recipe came from a seafood market."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the chef's argument? |
Many doctors cater to patients' demands that they be prescribed antibiotics for their colds. However, colds are caused by viruses, and antibiotics have no effect on viruses, and so antibiotics have no effect on colds. Such treatments are also problematic because antibiotics can have dangerous side effects. So doctors should never prescribe antibiotics to treat colds. | 200906_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"A doctor should not prescribe a drug for a condition if it cannot improve that condition and if the drug potentially has adverse side effects.",
"A doctor should not prescribe any drug that might have harmful effects on the patient even if the drug might have a positive effect on the patient.",
"A doctor should attempt to prescribe every drug that is likely to affect the patient's health positively.",
"A doctor should withhold treatment from a patient if the doctor is uncertain whether the treatment will benefit the patient.",
"A doctor should never base the decision to prescribe a certain medication for a patient on the patient's claims about the effectiveness of that medication."
]
| 0 | The reasoning above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
Long-distance runners use two different kinds of cognitive strategies: "associative" and "dissociative." Associative strategies involve attending closely to physical sensations, while dissociative strategies involve mostly ignoring physical sensations. Associative strategies, unlike dissociative ones, require so much concentration that they result in mental exhaustion lasting more than a day. Since it is important for long-distance runners to enter a race mentally refreshed, ____. | 200906_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"long-distance runners should not rely heavily on associative strategies during training the day before they run in a race",
"unless they regularly train using associative strategies, long-distance runners should use dissociative strategies during races",
"maximizing the benefits of training for long-distance running involves frequently alternating associative and dissociative strategies",
"long-distance runners are about evenly divided between those who use dissociative strategies during races and those who use associative strategies during races",
"in long-distance running, dissociative strategies are generally more effective for a day's training run than are associative strategies"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
MetroBank made loans to ten small companies, in amounts ranging from $1,000 to $100,000. These ten loans all had graduated payment plans, i.e., the scheduled monthly loan payment increased slightly each month over the five-year term of the loan. Nonetheless, the average payment received by MetroBank for these ten loans had decreased by the end of the five-year term. | 200906_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"The number of small companies receiving new loans from MetroBank increased over the five-year term.",
"Several of the ten small companies also borrowed money from other banks.",
"Most banks offer a greater number of loans for under $100,000 than for over $100,000.",
"Of the ten small companies, the three that had borrowed the largest amounts paid off their loans within three years.",
"For some loans made by MetroBank, the monthly payment decreases slightly over the term of the loan."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the statements above? |
Professor: A guest speaker recently delivered a talk entitled "The Functions of Democratic Governments" to a Political Ideologies class at this university. The talk was carefully researched and theoretical in nature. But two students who disagreed with the theory hurled vicious taunts at the speaker. Several others applauded their attempt to humiliate the speaker. This incident shows that universities these days do not foster fair-minded and tolerant intellectual debate. | 200906_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"draws a conclusion based on the professor's own opinion rather than on that of the majority of the students present at the talk",
"is inconsistent in advocating tolerance while showing intolerance of the dissenting students' views",
"relies primarily on an emotional appeal",
"draws a general conclusion based on too small a sample",
"incorrectly focuses on the behavior of the dissenting students rather than relating the reasons for that behavior"
]
| 3 | The professor's reasoning is flawed in that it |
Studies reveal that most people select the foods they eat primarily on the basis of flavor, and that nutrition is usually a secondary concern at best. This suggests that health experts would have more success in encouraging people to eat wholesome foods if they emphasized how flavorful those foods truly are rather than how nutritious they are. | 200906_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"Most people currently believe that wholesome foods are more flavorful, on average, than unwholesome foods are.",
"Few people, when given a choice between foods that are flavorful but not nutritious and foods that are nutritious but not flavorful, will choose the foods that are nutritious but not flavorful.",
"Health experts' attempts to encourage people to eat wholesome foods by emphasizing how nutritious those foods are have been moderately successful.",
"The studies that revealed that people choose the foods they eat primarily on the basis of flavor also revealed that people rated as most flavorful those foods that were least nutritious.",
"In a study, subjects who were told that a given food was very flavorful were more willing to try the food and more likely to enjoy it than were subjects who were told that the food was nutritious."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument above? |
Studies show that individuals with a high propensity for taking risks tend to have fewer ethical principles to which they consciously adhere in their business interactions than do most people. On the other hand, individuals with a strong desire to be accepted socially tend to have more such principles than do most people. And, in general, the more ethical principles to which someone consciously adheres, the more ethical is that person's behavior. Therefore, business schools can promote more ethical behavior among future businesspeople by promoting among their students the desire to be accepted socially and discouraging the propensity for taking risks. | 200906_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"infers from the fact that something is usually true that it is always true",
"takes for granted that promoting ethical behavior is more important than any other goal",
"concludes merely from the fact that two things are correlated that one causes the other",
"takes for granted that certain actions are morally wrong simply because most people believe that they are morally wrong",
"draws a conclusion that simply restates a claim presented in support of that conclusion"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Essayist: Lessing contended that an art form's medium dictates the kind of representation the art form must employ in order to be legitimate; painting, for example, must represent simultaneous arrays of colored shapes, while literature, consisting of words read in succession, must represent events or actions occurring in sequence. The claim about literature must be rejected, however, if one regards as legitimate the imagists' poems, which consist solely of amalgams of disparate images. | 200906_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"An amalgam of disparate images cannot represent a sequence of events or actions.",
"Poems whose subject matter is not appropriate to their medium are illegitimate.",
"Lessing was not aware that the imagists' poetry consists of an amalgam of disparate images.",
"All art, even the imagists' poetry, depicts or represents some subject matter.",
"All art represents something either as simultaneous or as successive."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the essayist's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
A psychiatrist argued that there is no such thing as a multiple personality disorder on the grounds that in all her years of clinical practice, she had never encountered one case of this type. | 200906_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"Anton concluded that colds are seldom fatal on the grounds that in all his years of clinical practice, he never had a patient who died of a cold.",
"Lyla said that no one in the area has seen a groundhog and so there are probably no groundhogs in the area.",
"Sauda argued that because therapy rarely had an effect on her patient's type of disorder, therapy was not warranted.",
"Thomas argued that because Natasha has driven her car to work every day since she bought it, she would probably continue to drive her car to work.",
"Jerod had never spotted a deer in his area and concluded from this that there are no deer in the area."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most closely parallels the questionable reasoning cited above? |
Even if many more people in the world excluded meat from their diet, world hunger would not thereby be significantly reduced. | 200906_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"Hunger often results from natural disasters like typhoons or hurricanes, which sweep away everything in their path.",
"Both herds and crops are susceptible to devastating viral and other diseases.",
"The amount of land needed to produce enough meat to feed one person for a week can grow enough grain to feed more than ten people for a week.",
"Often people go hungry because they live in remote barren areas where there is no efficient distribution for emergency food relief.",
"Most historical cases of famine have been due to bad social and economic policies or catastrophes such as massive crop failure."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the claim above? |
Dairy farmer: On our farm, we have great concern for our cows' environmental conditions. We have recently made improvements that increase their comfort, such as providing them with special sleeping mattresses. These changes are intended to increase blood flow to the udder. This increased blood flow would boost milk output and thus increase profits. | 200906_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"Dairy cows cannot have comfortable living conditions unless farmers have some knowledge about the physiology of milk production.",
"Farming practices introduced for the sake of maximizing profits can improve the living conditions of farm animals.",
"More than other farm animals, dairy cows respond favorably to improvements in their living environments.",
"The productivity of dairy farms should be increased only if the quality of the product is not compromised.",
"The key to maximizing profits on a dairy farm is having a concern for dairy cows' environment."
]
| 1 | Of the following propositions, which one is best illustrated by the dairy farmer's statements? |
Pat: E-mail fosters anonymity, which removes barriers to self-revelation. This promotes a degree of intimacy with strangers that would otherwise take years of direct personal contact to attain. Amar: Frankness is not intimacy. Intimacy requires a real social bond, and social bonds cannot be formed without direct personal contact. | 200906_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"barriers to self-revelation hinder the initial growth of intimacy",
"E-mail can increase intimacy between friends",
"intimacy between those who communicate with each other solely by e-mail is possible",
"real social bonds always lead to intimacy",
"the use of e-mail removes barriers to self-revelation"
]
| 2 | The dialogue most strongly supports the claim that Pat and Amar disagree with each other about whether |
Criminologist: The main purpose of most criminal organizations is to generate profits. The ongoing revolutions in biotechnology and information technology promise to generate enormous profits. Therefore, criminal organizations will undoubtedly try to become increasingly involved in these areas. | 200906_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"If an organization tries to become increasingly involved in areas that promise to generate enormous profits, then the main purpose of that organization is to generate profits.",
"At least some criminal organizations are or will at some point become aware that the ongoing revolutions in biotechnology and information technology promise to generate enormous profits.",
"Criminal organizations are already heavily involved in every activity that promises to generate enormous profits.",
"Any organization whose main purpose is to generate profits will try to become increasingly involved in any technological revolution that promises to generate enormous profits.",
"Most criminal organizations are willing to become involved in legal activities if those activities are sufficiently profitable."
]
| 3 | The conclusion of the criminologist's argument is properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? |
Administrators of educational institutions are enthusiastic about the educational use of computers because they believe that it will enable schools to teach far more courses with far fewer teachers than traditional methods allow. Many teachers fear computers for the same reason. But this reason is mistaken. Computerized instruction requires more, not less, time of instructors, which indicates that any reduction in the number of teachers would require an accompanying reduction in courses offered. | 200906_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"It is presented as a possible explanation for an observation that follows it.",
"It is a statement of the problem the argument sets out to solve.",
"It is a statement that the argument is designed to refute.",
"It is a statement offered in support of the argument's main conclusion.",
"It is the argument's main conclusion."
]
| 2 | The statement that the educational use of computers enables schools to teach far more courses with far fewer teachers figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
Scientists have shown that older bees, which usually forage outside the hive for food, tend to have larger brains than do younger bees, which usually do not forage but instead remain in the hive to tend to newly hatched bees. Since foraging requires greater cognitive ability than does tending to newly hatched bees, it appears that foraging leads to the increased brain size of older bees. | 200906_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"Bees that have foraged for a long time do not have significantly larger brains than do bees that have foraged for a shorter time.",
"The brains of older bees that stop foraging to take on other responsibilities do not become smaller after they stop foraging.",
"Those bees that travel a long distance to find food do not have significantly larger brains than do bees that locate food nearer the hive.",
"In some species of bees, the brains of older bees are only marginally larger than those of younger bees.",
"The brains of older bees that never learn to forage are the same size as those of their foraging counterparts of the same age."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above? |
Carla: Professors at public universities should receive paid leaves of absence to allow them to engage in research. Research not only advances human knowledge, but also improves professors' teaching by keeping them abreast of the latest information in their fields. David: But even if you are right about the beneficial effects of research, why should our limited resources be devoted to supporting professors taking time off from teaching? | 200906_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"ignores the part of Carla's remarks that could provide an answer to David's question",
"takes for granted that the only function of a university professor is teaching",
"incorrectly takes Carla's remarks as claiming that all funding for professors comes from tax money",
"takes for granted that providing the opportunity for research is the only function of paid leaves of absence",
"presumes, without providing justification, that professors do not need vacations"
]
| 0 | David's response to Carla is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Software reviewer: Dictation software allows a computer to produce a written version of sentences that are spoken to it. Although dictation software has been promoted as a labor-saving invention, it fails to live up to its billing. The laborious part of writing is in the thinking and the editing, not in the typing. And proofreading the software's error-filled output generally squanders any time saved in typing. | 200906_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"It is the argument's main conclusion but not its only conclusion.",
"It is the argument's only conclusion.",
"It is an intermediate conclusion that is offered as direct support for the argument's main conclusion.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the argument's conclusion.",
"It is a premise offered as direct support for an intermediate conclusion of the argument."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the software reviewer's argument by the claim that dictation software fails to live up to its billing? |
Poetry journal patron: Everybody who publishes in The Brick Wall Review has to agree in advance that if a poem is printed in one of its regular issues, the magazine also has the right to reprint it, without monetary compensation, in its annual anthology. The Brick Wall Review makes enough money from sales of its anthologies to cover most operating expenses. So, if your magazine also published an anthology of poems first printed in your magazine, you could depend less on donations. After all, most poems published in your magazine are very similar to those published in The Brick Wall Review. | 200906_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"Neither The Brick Wall Review nor the other magazine under discussion depends on donations to cover most operating expenses.",
"Many of the poets whose work appears in The Brick Wall Review have had several poems rejected for publication by the other magazine under discussion.",
"The only compensation poets receive for publishing in the regular issues of the magazines under discussion are free copies of the issues in which their poems appear.",
"The Brick Wall Review depends on donations to cover most operating expenses not covered by income from anthology sales.",
"The Brick Wall Review's annual poetry anthology always contains a number of poems by famous poets not published in the regular issues of the magazine."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the patron's argument? |
No one with a serious medical problem would rely on the average person to prescribe treatment. Similarly, since a good public servant has the interest of the public at heart, ____. | 200906_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"public servants should not be concerned about the outcomes of public opinion surveys",
"the average public servant knows more about what is best for society than the average person does",
"public servants should be more knowledgeable about the public good than they are",
"public servants should base decisions on something other than the average person's recommendations",
"one is a good public servant if one is more knowledgeable about the public good than is the average person"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following statements would most reasonably complete the argument? |
Team captain: Winning requires the willingness to cooperate, which in turn requires motivation. So you will not win if you are not motivated. | 200906_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"Being healthy requires exercise. But exercising involves risk of injury. So, paradoxically, anyone who wants to be healthy will not exercise.",
"Learning requires making some mistakes. And you must learn if you are to improve. So you will not make mistakes without there being a noticeable improvement.",
"Our political party will retain its status only if it raises more money. But raising more money requires increased campaigning. So our party will not retain its status unless it increases its campaigning.",
"You can repair your own bicycle only if you are enthusiastic. And if you are enthusiastic, you will also have mechanical aptitude. So if you are not able to repair your own bicycle, you lack mechanical aptitude.",
"Getting a ticket requires waiting in line. Waiting in line requires patience. So if you do not wait in line, you lack patience."
]
| 2 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |
In the past, when there was no highway speed limit, the highway accident rate increased yearly, peaking a decade ago. At that time, the speed limit on highways was set at 90 kilometers per hour (kph) (55 miles per hour). Every year since the introduction of the highway speed limit, the highway accident rate has been at least 15 percent lower than that of its peak rate. Thus, setting the highway speed limit at 90 kph (55 mph) has reduced the highway accident rate by at least 15 percent. | 200906_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"In the years prior to the introduction of the highway speed limit, many cars could go faster than 90 kph (55 mph).",
"Ten years ago, at least 95 percent of all automobile accidents in the area occurred on roads with a speed limit of under 80 kph (50 mph).",
"Although the speed limit on many highways is officially set at 90 kph (55 mph), most people typically drive faster than the speed limit.",
"Thanks to changes in automobile design in the past ten years, drivers are better able to maintain control of their cars in dangerous situations.",
"It was not until shortly after the introduction of the highway speed limit that most cars were equipped with features such as seat belts and airbags designed to prevent harm to passengers."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Editorial: It is a travesty of justice, social critics say, that we can launch rockets into outer space but cannot solve social problems that have plagued humanity. The assumption underlying this assertion is that there are greater difficulties involved in a space launch than are involved in ending long-standing social problems, which in turn suggests that a government's failure to achieve the latter is simply a case of misplaced priorities. The criticism is misplaced, however, for rocket technology is much simpler than the human psyche, and until we adequately understand the human psyche we cannot solve the great social problems. | 200906_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"It is cited as a possible objection to the argument's conclusion.",
"According to the argument, it is a fact that has misled some social critics.",
"It is the argument's conclusion.",
"It is claimed to be a false assumption on which the reasoning that the argument seeks to undermine rests.",
"It is used by the argument to attempt to undermine the reasoning behind a viewpoint."
]
| 4 | The statement that rocket technology is much simpler than the human psyche plays which one of the following roles in the editorial's argument? |
Archaeologist: After the last ice age, groups of paleohumans left Siberia and crossed the Bering land bridge, which no longer exists, into North America. Archaeologists have discovered in Siberia a cache of Clovis points—the distinctive stone spear points made by paleohumans. This shows that, contrary to previous belief, the Clovis point was not invented in North America. | 200906_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"The Clovis points found in Siberia are older than any of those that have been found in North America.",
"The Bering land bridge disappeared before any of the Clovis points found to date were made.",
"Clovis points were more effective hunting weapons than earlier spear points had been.",
"Archaeologists have discovered in Siberia artifacts that date from after the time paleohumans left Siberia.",
"Some paleohuman groups that migrated from Siberia to North America via the Bering land bridge eventually returned to Siberia."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the archaeologist's argument? |
Taxi drivers, whose income is based on the fares they receive, usually decide when to finish work each day by setting a daily income target; they stop when they reach that target. This means that they typically work fewer hours on a busy day than on a slow day. | 200906_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"The number of hours per day that a person is willing to work depends on that person's financial needs.",
"People work longer when their effective hourly wage is high than when it is low.",
"Workers will accept a lower hourly wage in exchange for the freedom to set their own schedules.",
"People are willing to work many hours a day in order to avoid a reduction in their standard of living.",
"People who are paid based on their production work more efficiently than those who are paid a fixed hourly wage."
]
| 1 | The facts described above provide the strongest evidence against which one of the following? |
Sometimes one reads a poem and believes that the poem expresses contradictory ideas, even if it is a great poem. So it is wrong to think that the meaning of a poem is whatever the author intends to communicate to the reader by means of the poem. No one who is writing a great poem intends it to communicate contradictory ideas. | 200906_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Different readers will usually disagree about what the author of a particular poem intends to communicate by means of that poem.",
"If someone writes a great poem, he or she intends the poem to express one primary idea.",
"Readers will not agree about the meaning of a poem if they do not agree about what the author of the poem intended the poem to mean.",
"Anyone reading a great poem can discern every idea that the author intended to express in the poem.",
"If a reader believes that a poem expresses a particular idea, then that idea is part of the meaning of the poem."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
The law of the city of Weston regarding contributions to mayoral campaigns is as follows: all contributions to these campaigns in excess of $100 made by nonresidents of Weston who are not former residents of Weston must be registered with the city council. Brimley's mayoral campaign clearly complied with this law since it accepted contributions only from residents and former residents of Weston. | 200906_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"No nonresident of Weston contributed in excess of $100 to Brimley's campaign.",
"Some contributions to Brimley's campaign in excess of $100 were registered with the city council.",
"No contributions to Brimley's campaign needed to be registered with the city council.",
"All contributions to Brimley's campaign that were registered with the city council were in excess of $100.",
"Brimley's campaign did not register any contributions with the city council."
]
| 2 | If all the statements above are true, which one of the following statements must be true? |
Historian: Flavius, an ancient Roman governor who believed deeply in the virtues of manual labor and moral temperance, actively sought to discourage the arts by removing state financial support for them. Also, Flavius was widely unpopular among his subjects, as we can conclude from the large number of satirical plays that were written about him during his administration. | 200906_2-LR1_26_26 | [
"fails to consider the percentage of plays written during Flavius's administration that were not explicitly about Flavius",
"treats the satirical plays as a reliable indicator of Flavius's popularity despite potential bias on the part of the playwrights",
"presumes, without providing evidence, that Flavius was unfavorably disposed toward the arts",
"takes for granted that Flavius's attempt to discourage the arts was successful",
"fails to consider whether manual labor and moral temperance were widely regarded as virtues in ancient Rome"
]
| 1 | The historian's argumentation is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Educators studied the performance of 200 students in a university's history classes. They found that those students who performed the best had either part-time jobs or full-time jobs, had their history classes early in the morning, and had a very limited social life, whereas those students who performed the worst had no jobs, had their history classes early in the morning, and had a very active social life. | 200906_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"The students compensated for any study time lost due to their jobs but they did not compensate for any study time lost due to their social lives.",
"The students who had full-time jobs typically worked late-night hours at those jobs.",
"Better students tend to choose classes that are scheduled to meet early in the morning.",
"A larger percentage of those students interested in majoring in history had part-time jobs than had full-time jobs.",
"Although having a job tends to provide a release from stress, thus increasing academic performance, having a full-time job, like having an active social life, can distract a student from studying."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the educators' findings? |
Politician: Most of those at the meeting were not persuaded by Kuyler's argument, nor should they have been, for Kuyler's argument implied that it would be improper to enter into a contract with the government; and yet—as many people know— Kuyler's company has had numerous lucrative contracts with the government. | 200906_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"It concludes that an argument is defective merely on the grounds that the argument has failed to persuade anyone of the truth of its conclusion.",
"It relies on testimony that is likely to be biased.",
"It rejects an argument merely on the grounds that the arguer has not behaved in a way that is consistent with the argument.",
"It rejects a position merely on the grounds that an inadequate argument has been given for it.",
"It rejects an argument on the basis of an appeal to popular opinion."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following describes a flaw in the politician's argument? |
Although free international trade allows countries to specialize, which in turn increases productivity, such specialization carries risks. After all, small countries often rely on one or two products for the bulk of their exports. If those products are raw materials, the supply is finite and can be used up. If they are foodstuffs, a natural disaster can wipe out a season's production overnight. | 200906_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Specialization within international trade comes with risks.",
"A natural disaster can destroy a whole season's production overnight, devastating a small country's economy.",
"A small country's supply of raw materials can be used up in a short period.",
"Some countries rely on a small number of products for the export-based sectors of their economies.",
"When international trade is free, countries can specialize in what they export."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the argument as a whole? |
Two randomly selected groups of 30 adults each were asked to write short stories on a particular topic. One group was told that the best stories would be awarded cash prizes, while the other group was not told of any prizes. Each story was evaluated by a team of judges who were given no indication of the group from which the story came. The stories submitted by those who thought they were competing for prizes were ranked on average significantly lower than the stories from the other group. | 200906_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"The cash prizes were too small to motivate an average adult to make a significant effort to produce stories of high quality.",
"People writing to win prizes show a greater than usual tendency to produce stereotypical stories that show little creativity.",
"Most adults show little originality in writing stories on a topic suggested by someone else.",
"The team of judges was biased in favor of stories that they judged to be more realistic.",
"No one explained clearly to either group what standards would be used in judging their stories."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the difference in average ranking between the two groups' stories? |
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