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Hemoglobin, a substance in human blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. With each oxygen molecule it picks up, a hemoglobin molecule becomes more effective at picking up additional oxygen molecules until its maximum capacity of four oxygen molecules is reached. Grabbing an oxygen molecule changes the shape of the hemoglobin molecule, each time causing it literally to open itself to receive more oxygen. | 200912_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"A hemoglobin molecule that has picked up three oxygen molecules will probably acquire a fourth oxygen molecule.",
"The only factor determining how effective a hemoglobin molecule is at picking up oxygen molecules is how open the shape of that hemoglobin molecule is.",
"A hemoglobin molecule that has picked up three oxygen molecules will be more effective at picking up another oxygen molecule than will a hemoglobin molecule that has picked up only one oxygen molecule.",
"A hemoglobin molecule that has picked up four oxygen molecules will have the same shape as a hemoglobin molecule that has not picked up any oxygen molecules.",
"Each hemoglobin molecule in human blood picks up between one and four oxygen molecules in or near the lungs and transports them to some other part of the body."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
On a short trip a driver is more likely to have an accident if there is a passenger in the car, presumably because passengers distract drivers. However, on a long trip a driver is more likely to have an accident if the driver is alone. | 200912_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"People are much more likely to drive alone on short trips than on long trips.",
"Good drivers tend to take more long trips than bad drivers.",
"The longer a car trip is, the more likely a passenger is to help the driver maintain alertness.",
"On a long trip the likelihood of an accident does not increase with each additional passenger.",
"Most drivers take far more short trips than long trips."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the facts described above? |
Challenger: The mayor claims she has vindicated those who supported her in the last election by fulfilling her promise to increase employment opportunities in our city, citing the 8 percent increase in the number of jobs in the city since she took office. But during her administration, the national government relocated an office to our city, bringing along nearly the entire staff from the outside. The 8 percent increase merely represents the jobs held by these newcomers. Mayor: Clearly my opponent does not dispute the employment statistics. The unemployed voters in this city want jobs. The 8 percent increase in the number of jobs during my term exceeds that of any of my predecessors. | 200912_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"takes for granted that those who supported the mayor in the last election believed job availability to be a significant city issue",
"does not consider whether the number of unemployed persons within the city represents more than 8 percent of the eligible voters",
"fails to address the challenger's objection that the 8 percent increase did not result in an increase in job availability for those who lived in the city at the time of the last election",
"ignores the challenger's contention that the influx of newcomers during the mayor's administration has increased the size of the voting public and altered its priorities",
"explicitly attributes to the challenger beliefs that the challenger has neither asserted nor implied"
]
| 2 | As a response to the challenger, the mayor's answer is flawed in that it |
A recent magazine editorial criticizes psychologists for not attempting to establish the order in which different areas of the brain are activated during a cognitive task such as imagining the face of a friend. However, the editorial is unfair because there is currently no technology that can detect the order of activation of brain areas. | 200912_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"Construction companies have been unfairly criticized for using fewer layers of heating insulation in new houses than the number of layers used in previous years. Recent technology has made insulation more efficient, so fewer layers are required.",
"Utility companies have been unfairly criticized for not using nuclear fusion to meet the nation's electricity needs. There is no way to harness fusion that could produce enough electricity to supply even one small town.",
"The food industry has been unfairly criticized for attempting to preserve food longer by treating it with radiation. If food remained edible for longer, the cost of food would decrease substantially.",
"The school system has been unfairly criticized for not making familiarity with computer technology a requirement. Computer studies could not be added to the curriculum without sacrificing some other subject.",
"CEOs of large companies have been unfairly criticized for not always using their knowledge of economic theory to run their companies. Economic theory is sometimes irrelevant to making wise corporate decisions."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle to which the reasoning in the passage conforms? |
Although most people know what their bad habits are and want to rid themselves of them, a majority of these people find it very difficult to do so. This is because cessation of habitual behavior is immediately and vividly painful, while whatever benefit is to be gained by the absence of the habit is perceived only dimly because it is remote. | 200912_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"can vividly imagine remote but attainable benefit",
"can vividly imagine their present pain being felt in the future",
"have succeeded in the past at modifying their behavior",
"are relatively unaware of their own behavioral characteristics",
"can vividly remember the pain caused them in the past by their bad habits"
]
| 0 | The information above most strongly supports the statement that the people who are most successful at ending their bad habits are those who |
The more modern archaeologists learn about Mayan civilization, the better they understand its intellectual achievements. Not only were numerous scientific observations and predictions made by Mayan astronomers, but the people in general seem to have had a strong grasp of sophisticated mathematical concepts. We know this from the fact that the writings of the Mayan religious scribes exhibit a high degree of mathematical competence. | 200912_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"fails to provide an adequate definition of the term \"intellectual achievement\"",
"bases a generalization on a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative",
"overlooks the impressive achievements of other past civilizations",
"relies on two different senses of the term \"scientific\"",
"takes a mere correlation to be evidence of a causal relationship"
]
| 1 | The argument's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Manager: There is no good reason to suppose that promoting creativity is a proper goal of an employee training program. Many jobs require little or no creativity and, in those positions, using creativity is more likely to be disruptive than innovative. Furthermore, even if creativity were in demand, there is no evidence that it can be taught. | 200912_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Using creativity in jobs that require little or no creativity can be disruptive.",
"Employee training programs are not able to teach employees creativity.",
"Many jobs require little or no creativity.",
"There is no good reason to suppose that employee training programs should promote creativity.",
"Creativity is in demand, but there is no evidence that it can be taught."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the manager's argument? |
Producer: It has been argued that, while the government should not censor television shows, the public should boycott the advertisers of shows that promote violence and erode our country's values. But this would be censorship nonetheless, for if the public boycotted the advertisers, then they would cancel their advertisements, causing some shows to go off the air; the result would be a restriction of the shows that the public can watch. | 200912_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"If there is neither government censorship nor boycotting of advertisers, there will be no restriction of the television shows that the public can watch.",
"Public boycotts could force some shows off the air even though the shows neither promote violence nor erode values.",
"For any television show that promotes violence and erodes values, there will be an audience.",
"There is widespread public agreement about which television shows promote violence and erode values.",
"Any action that leads to a restriction of what the public can view is censorship."
]
| 4 | The producer's conclusion is properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? |
Predictions that printed books will soon be replaced by books in electronic formats such as CD-ROM are exaggerated. While research libraries may find an electronic format more convenient for scholars and scientists, bookstores and public libraries will stock books in the format desired by the general public, which will be something other than an electronic format. | 200912_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"Scholars and scientists find an electronic format for books the most convenient one for quick searching and cross-referencing.",
"Publishers will continue to print books in the format stocked by bookstores and public libraries.",
"Scholars and scientists do not usually conduct their research in public libraries.",
"At some bookstores and libraries, the popularity of books on tape and of videos is beginning to rival that of printed books.",
"Some members of the general public prefer to purchase books in an electronic format rather than borrow them from the library."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
To cut costs, a high school modified its air-conditioning system to increase its efficiency. The modified system, however, caused the humidity in the school air to decrease by 18 percent. Twenty-four hours after the decrease in air humidity, a 25 percent increase in the number of visits to the school nurse was reported. This shows that a decrease in humidity can make people ill. | 200912_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"At least some of the visits to the school nurse after the system was modified were due to illness.",
"Most of the students at the high school suffered from the decrease in air humidity.",
"It takes 24 hours after a person is infected with a virus for that person to exhibit symptoms.",
"A decrease of 18 percent in air humidity causes an increase of 25 percent in one's probability of becoming ill.",
"Modifying the air-conditioning system proved to be an ineffective way to cut costs."
]
| 0 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
A recent study of 10,000 people who were involved in automobile accidents found that a low percentage of those driving large automobiles at the time of their accidents were injured, but a high percentage of those who were driving small automobiles at the time of their accidents were injured. Thus, one is less likely to be injured in an automobile accident if one drives a large car rather than a small car. | 200912_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"Most of the accidents analyzed in the study occurred in areas with very high speed limits.",
"Most people who own small cars also drive large cars on occasion.",
"Half of the study participants drove medium-sized cars at the time of their accidents.",
"A large automobile is far more likely to be involved in an accident than is a small automobile.",
"Only a small percentage of those people involved in an automobile accident are injured as a result."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Economist: A country's trade deficit may indicate weakness in its economy, but it does not in itself weaken that economy. So restricting imports to reduce a trade deficit would be like sticking a thermometer into a glass of cold water in the hope of bringing down a patient's feverish temperature. | 200912_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"claiming that a crucial assumption entails a falsehood",
"demonstrating that an analogy explicitly used to establish a certain conclusion is faulty",
"appealing to an analogy in order to indicate the futility of a course of action",
"calling into question the authority on the basis of which a claim is made",
"showing that a recommended course of action would have disastrous consequences"
]
| 2 | The economist's argument employs which one of the following techniques? |
There are circumstances in which it is not immoral to make certain threats, and there are circumstances in which it is not immoral to ask for money or some other favor. Therefore, there are circumstances in which it is not immoral to ask for money or a favor while making a threat. | 200912_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"There are many business events for which casual dress is appropriate, and there are many social events for which casual dress is appropriate; therefore, if an occasion is neither a business event nor a social event, casual dress is not likely to be appropriate.",
"It is usually easy to move a piano after you have convinced five people to help you, provided that you do not need to take it up or down stairs. Therefore, it is usually easy to move a piano.",
"It is healthful to take drug A for a headache, and it is healthful to take drug B for a headache; therefore, it is healthful to take drug A together with drug B for a headache.",
"Heavy trucks are generally operated in a safe manner, but the ability to drive a truck safely can be impaired by certain prescription drugs. Therefore, heavy trucks cannot be operated safely while the driver is under the effect of a prescription drug.",
"The mountain roads are treacherous after it rains, and the mountain streams are full after a rain. So, if the roads in the mountains are treacherous, and the mountain streams are full, it surely has rained recently."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
A common genetic mutation that lowers levels of the enzyme cathepsin C severely reduces a person's ability to ward off periodontitis, or gum disease. The enzyme triggers immunological reactions that destroy diseased cells and eliminate infections in the mouth. But researchers are developing ways to restore the enzyme to normal levels. Once that happens, we will be able to eliminate periodontitis. | 200912_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"Restoring cathepsin C to normal levels is the only way to eliminate periodontitis.",
"Genetic mutation is the only cause of lowered levels of cathepsin C.",
"Researchers will soon succeed in finding means of restoring cathepsin C to normal levels.",
"Persons who do not have the genetic mutation that lowers levels of cathepsin C do not get gum disease.",
"A person whose cathepsin C level has been restored to normal will not suffer from periodontitis."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
A recent study of major motion pictures revealed that the vast majority of their plots were simply variations on plots that had been used many times before. Despite this fact, many people enjoy seeing several new movies each year. | 200912_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"Movies based on standard plots are more likely to be financially successful than are ones based on original plots.",
"If the details of their stories are sufficiently different, two movies with the same basic plot will be perceived by moviegoers as having different plots.",
"Because of the large number of movies produced each year, the odds of a person seeing two movies with the same general plot structure in a five-year period are fairly low.",
"A certain aesthetic pleasure is derived from seeing several movies that develop the same plot in slightly different ways.",
"Although most modern movie plots have been used before, most of those previous uses occurred during the 1940s and 1950s."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, would contribute to an explanation of the apparent discrepancy in the information above EXCEPT: |
Those who claim that governments should not continue to devote resources to space exploration are wrong. Although most people's lives are relatively unaffected by the direct consequences of space exploration, many modern technologies that have a tremendous impact on daily life—e.g., fiber optics, computers, and lasers—are unexpected consequences of it. Society might have missed the benefits of these technologies if governments had not devoted resources to space exploration. | 200912_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"Governments should not be prevented from allocating resources to projects whose intended consequences do not directly benefit most people.",
"One can never underestimate the beneficial consequences of government support of ambitious technological undertakings.",
"The less practical the goal of a government-supported project, the more unexpected the consequences of that project.",
"Governments should continue to support those projects that have, in the past, produced unintended benefits.",
"In attempting to advance the welfare of society, governments should continue to dedicate resources to ambitious technological undertakings."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying the argument above? |
If understanding a word always involves knowing its dictionary definition, then understanding a word requires understanding the words that occur in that definition. But clearly there are people—for example, all babies—who do not know the dictionary definitions of some of the words they utter. | 200912_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"Some babies utter individual words that they do not understand.",
"Any number of people can understand some words without knowing their dictionary definitions.",
"If some words can be understood without knowing their dictionary definitions, then babies understand some words.",
"If it is possible to understand a word without knowing its dictionary definition, then it is possible to understand a word without having to understand any other word.",
"If some babies understand all the words they utter, then understanding a word does not always involve knowing its dictionary definition."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following statements follows logically from the statements above? |
The peppered moth avoids predators by blending into its background, typically the bark of trees. In the late nineteenth century, those peppered moths with the lightest pigmentation had the greatest contrast with their backgrounds, and therefore were the most likely to be seen and eaten by predators. It follows, then, that the darkest peppered moths were the least likely to be seen and eaten. | 200912_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"The argument overlooks the possibility that light peppered moths had more predators than dark peppered moths.",
"The argument takes for granted that peppered moths are able to control the degree to which they blend into their backgrounds.",
"The argument presumes, without providing justification, that all peppered moths with the same coloring had the same likelihood of being seen and eaten by a predator.",
"The argument overlooks the possibility that there were peppered moths of intermediate color that contrasted less with their backgrounds than the darkest peppered moths did.",
"The argument presumes, without providing justification, that the only defense mechanism available to peppered moths was to blend into their backgrounds."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning of the argument? |
Historian: The standard "QWERTY" configuration of the keys on typewriters and computer keyboards was originally designed to be awkward and limit typing speed. This was because early typewriters would jam frequently if adjacent keys were struck in quick succession. Experiments have shown that keyboard configurations more efficient than QWERTY can double typing speed while tremendously reducing typing effort. However, the expense and inconvenience of switching to a new keyboard configuration prevent any configuration other than QWERTY from attaining widespread use. | 200912_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"Most people who have tried typing with non-QWERTY keyboards have typed significantly more quickly using those keyboards than they usually have done using QWERTY keyboards.",
"Early QWERTY typewriters were less likely to jam than were at least some more recent typewriters if adjacent keys were struck in quick succession.",
"If the designers of early typewriters had foreseen the possibility that technology would make it possible for adjacent keyboard keys to be struck in rapid succession without jamming, then they would not have proposed the QWERTY configuration.",
"The benefit to society that would result from switching to a keyboard configuration other than QWERTY is significantly greater than the overall cost of such a switch.",
"If the keyboard had been designed for computers, then it would not have been designed to limit typing speed."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the historian's statements? |
Since anyone who makes an agreement has an obligation to fulfill the terms of that agreement, it follows that anyone who is obligated to perform an action has agreed to perform that action. Hence, saying that one has a legal obligation to perform a given action is the same as saying that one is required to fulfill one's agreement to perform that action. | 200912_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"The argument fails to make a crucial distinction between an action one is legally obligated to perform and an action with good consequences, and it takes for granted that everything true of legal obligations is true of obligations generally.",
"The argument takes for granted that there are obligations other than those resulting from agreements made, and it fails to consider the possibility that actions that uphold agreements made are sometimes performed for reasons other than to uphold those agreements.",
"The argument contains a premise that is logically equivalent to its conclusion, and it takes for granted that there are only certain actions that one should agree to perform.",
"The argument treats a condition that is sufficient to make something an obligation as also a requirement for something to be an obligation, and it takes for granted that any obligation to perform an action is a legal obligation.",
"The argument rests on an ambiguous use of the term \"action,\" and it fails to consider the possibility that people are sometimes unwilling to perform actions that they have agreed to perform."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following statements most accurately characterizes the argument's reasoning flaws? |
To predict that a device will be invented, one must develop a conception of the device that includes some details at least about how it will function and the consequences of its use. But clearly, then, the notion of predicting an invention is self-contradictory, for inventing means developing a detailed conception, and one cannot predict what has already taken place. | 200912_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"constructing a counterexample to a general hypothesis about the future",
"appealing to definitions to infer the impossibility of a kind of occurrence",
"countering a hypothesis by indicating the falsehood of the implications of that hypothesis",
"pointing out how a problem is widely thought to be scientific yet is really conceptual",
"attempting to show that predicting any event implies that it has in fact already taken place"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the technique of reasoning employed by the argument? |
Eighteenth-century European aesthetics was reasonably successful in providing an understanding of all art, including early abstract art, until the 1960s, when artists self-consciously rebelled against earlier notions of art. Since the work of these rebellious artists is quite beautiful but outside the bounds of the aesthetic theory then current, there can be no complete theory of aesthetics. | 200912_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"takes for granted that it is more important for a complete aesthetic theory to account for the beauty of traditional art than for it to account for the beauty of self-consciously rebellious art",
"presumes, without providing justification, that artists' rebellion in the 1960s against earlier notions of art was not guided by their knowledge of eighteenth-century European aesthetic theory",
"presumes, without providing justification, that an aesthetic theory developed in one part of the world cannot be applied in another",
"presumes, without providing justification, that art from the 1960s is the only art that cannot be adequately addressed by eighteenth-century European aesthetics",
"presumes, without providing justification, that eighteenth-century European aesthetics is as encompassing as an aesthetic theory can be"
]
| 4 | The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism in that it |
Science writer: All scientists have beliefs and values that might slant their interpretations of the data from which they draw their conclusions. However, serious scientific papers are carefully reviewed by many other scientists before publication. These reviewers are likely to notice and object to biases that they do not share. Thus, any slanted interpretations of scientific data will generally have been removed before publication. | 200912_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"The scientists reviewing serious scientific papers for publication do not always have biases likely to slant their interpretations of the data in those papers.",
"In general, biases that slant interpretations of data in serious scientific papers being reviewed for publication are not shared among all scientists.",
"Biases that are present in published scientific papers and shared by most scientists, including those who review the papers, are unlikely to impair the scientific value of those papers.",
"The interpretation of data is the only part of a serious scientific paper that is sometimes slanted by the beliefs and values of scientists.",
"Slanted interpretations of data in a scientific paper can be removed only through careful review by scientists who do not share the biases of the author or authors of the paper."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the science writer's argument? |
Jim's teacher asked him to determine whether a sample of a substance contained iron. Jim knew that magnets attract iron, so he placed a magnet near the substance. Jim concluded that the substance did contain iron, because the substance became attached to the magnet. | 201006_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"iron sometimes fails to be attracted to magnets",
"iron is attracted to other objects besides magnets",
"the magnet needed to be oriented in a certain way",
"magnets attract substances other than iron",
"some magnets attract iron more strongly than others"
]
| 3 | Jim's reasoning is questionable in that it fails to consider the possibility that |
All the books in the library have their proper shelf locations recorded in the catalog. The book Horatio wants is missing from its place on the library shelves, and no one in the library is using it. Since it is not checked out to a borrower nor awaiting shelving nor part of a special display, it must have been either misplaced or stolen. | 201006_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"An observation about one object is used as a basis for a general conclusion regarding the status of similar objects.",
"A deficiency in a system is isolated by arguing that the system failed to control one of the objects that it was intended to control.",
"A conclusion about a particular object is rebutted by observing that a generalization that applies to most such objects does not apply to the object in question.",
"A generalization is rejected by showing that it fails to hold in one particular instance.",
"The conclusion is supported by ruling out other possible explanations of an observed fact."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the method of reasoning used in the argument? |
The level of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is slightly higher than it was ten years ago. This increase is troubling because ten years ago the Interior Ministry imposed new, stricter regulations on emissions from coal-burning power plants. If these regulations had been followed, then the level of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere would have decreased. | 201006_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"If current regulations on emissions from coal-burning power plants are not followed from now on, then the level of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere will continue to increase.",
"There have been violations of the regulations on emissions from coal-burning power plants that were imposed ten years ago.",
"If the regulations on emissions from coal-burning power plants are made even stronger, the level of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere still will not decrease.",
"Emissions from coal-burning power plants are one of the main sources of air pollution.",
"Government regulations will never reduce the level of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above? |
Ecologist: Landfills are generally designed to hold ten years' worth of waste. Some people maintain that as the number of active landfills consequently dwindles over the coming decade, there will inevitably be a crisis in landfill availability. However, their prediction obviously relies on the unlikely assumption that no new landfills will open as currently active ones close and is therefore unsound. | 201006_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"It follows from the claim stated in the argument's first sentence.",
"It is the main conclusion of the argument.",
"It establishes the truth of the argument's conclusion.",
"It is a claim on which the argument as a whole is designed to cast doubt.",
"It is an intermediate conclusion of the argument."
]
| 3 | The claim that there will be a crisis in landfill availability plays which one of the following roles in the ecologist's argument? |
Recent epidemiological studies report that Country X has the lowest incidence of disease P of any country. Nevertheless, residents of Country X who are reported to have contracted disease P are much more likely to die from it than are residents of any other country. | 201006_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"There are several forms of disease P, some of which are more contagious than others.",
"Most of the fatal cases of disease P found in Country X involve people who do not reside in Country X.",
"In Country X, diagnosis of disease P seldom occurs except in the most severe cases of the disease.",
"The number of cases of disease P that occur in any country fluctuates widely from year to year.",
"Because of its climate, more potentially fatal illnesses occur in Country X than in many other countries."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above? |
After an oil spill, rehabilitation centers were set up to save sea otters by removing oil from them. The effort was not worthwhile, however, since 357 affected live otters and 900 that had died were counted, but only 222 affected otters, or 18 percent of those counted, were successfully rehabilitated and survived. Further, the percentage of all those affected that were successfully rehabilitated was much lower still, because only a fifth of the otters that died immediately were ever found. | 201006_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"Do sea otters of species other than those represented among the otters counted exist in areas that were not affected by the oil spill?",
"How is it possible to estimate, of the sea otters that died, how many were not found?",
"Did the process of capturing sea otters unavoidably involve trapping and releasing some otters that were not affected by the spill?",
"Were other species of wildlife besides sea otters negatively affected by the oil spill?",
"What was the eventual cost, per otter rehabilitated, of the rehabilitation operation?"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, as potential challenges, most seriously calls into question evidence offered in support of the conclusion above? |
Psychologist: Research has shown that a weakened immune system increases vulnerability to cancer. So, cancer-patient support groups, though derided by those who believe that disease is a purely biochemical phenomenon, may indeed have genuine therapeutic value, as it is clear that participation in such groups reduces participants' stress levels. | 201006_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"Cancer patients can learn to function well under extreme stress.",
"Disease is not a biochemical phenomenon at all.",
"Stress can weaken the immune system.",
"Discussing one's condition eliminates the stress of being in that condition.",
"Stress is a symptom of a weakened immune system."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the psychologist's argument? |
Adobe is an ideal material for building in desert environments. It conducts heat very slowly. As a result, a house built of adobe retains the warmth of the desert sun during the cool evenings and then remains cool during the heat of the day, thereby helping to maintain a pleasant temperature. In contrast, houses built of other commonly used building materials, which conduct heat more rapidly, grow hot during the day and cold at night. | 201006_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"Adobe is a suitable substitute for other building materials where the heat-conduction properties of the structure are especially important.",
"In the desert, adobe buildings remain cool during the heat of the day but retain the warmth of the sun during the cool evenings.",
"Because adobe conducts heat very slowly, adobe houses maintain a pleasant, constant temperature.",
"Ideally, a material used for building houses in desert environments should enable those houses to maintain a pleasant, constant temperature.",
"Adobe is an especially suitable material to use for building houses in desert environments."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the argument above? |
In one study of a particular plant species, 70 percent of the plants studied were reported as having patterned stems. In a second study, which covered approximately the same geographical area, only 40 percent of the plants of that species were reported as having patterned stems. | 201006_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"The first study was carried out at the time of year when plants of the species are at their most populous.",
"The first study, but not the second study, also collected information about patterned stems in other plant species.",
"The second study included approximately 15 percent more individual plants than the first study did.",
"The first study used a broader definition of \"patterned.\"",
"The focus of the second study was patterned stems, while the first study collected information about patterned stems only as a secondary goal."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above? |
Letter to the editor: Sites are needed for disposal of contaminated dredge spoils from the local harbor. However, the approach you propose would damage commercial fishing operations. One indication of this is that over 20,000 people have signed petitions opposing your approach and favoring instead the use of sand-capped pits in another area. | 201006_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"The argument distorts the editor's view in a manner that makes that view seem more vulnerable to criticism.",
"The argument fails to establish that the alternative approach referred to is a viable one.",
"The argument attempts to establish a particular conclusion because doing so is in the letter writer's self-interest rather than because of any genuine concern for the truth of the matter.",
"The argument's conclusion is based on the testimony of people who have not been shown to have appropriate expertise.",
"The argument takes for granted that no third option is available that will satisfy all the interested parties."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning flaw in the letter's argument? |
Most universities today offer students a more in-depth and cosmopolitan education than ever before. Until recently, for example, most university history courses required only the reading of textbooks that hardly mentioned the history of Africa or Asia after the ancient periods, or the history of the Americas' indigenous cultures. The history courses at most universities no longer display such limitations. | 201006_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"The history courses that university students find most interesting are comprehensive in their coverage of various periods and cultures.",
"Many students at universities whose history courses require the reading of books covering all periods and world cultures participate in innovative study-abroad programs.",
"The extent to which the textbooks of university history courses are culturally inclusive is a strong indication of the extent to which students at those universities get an in-depth and cosmopolitan education.",
"Universities at which the history courses are quite culturally inclusive do not always have courses in other subject areas that show the same inclusiveness.",
"University students who in their history courses are required only to read textbooks covering the history of a single culture will not get an in-depth and cosmopolitan education from these courses alone."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument above? |
The government has recently adopted a policy of publishing airline statistics, including statistics about each airline's number of near collisions and its fines for safety violations. However, such disclosure actually undermines the government's goal of making the public more informed about airline safety, because airlines will be much less likely to give complete reports if such information will be made available to the public. | 201006_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"fails to consider that, even if the reports are incomplete, they may nevertheless provide the public with important information about airline safety",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the public has a right to all information about matters of public safety",
"presumes, without providing justification, that information about airline safety is impossible to find in the absence of government disclosures",
"presumes, without providing justification, that airlines, rather than the government, should be held responsible for accurate reporting of safety information",
"fails to consider whether the publication of airline safety statistics will have an effect on the revenues of airlines"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Many economists claim that financial rewards provide the strongest incentive for people to choose one job over another. But in many surveys, most people do not name high salary as the most desirable feature of a job. This shows that these economists overestimate the degree to which people are motivated by money in their job choices. | 201006_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"Even high wages do not enable people to obtain all the goods they desire.",
"In many surveys, people say that they would prefer a high-wage job to an otherwise identical job with lower wages.",
"Jobs that pay the same salary often vary considerably in their other financial benefits.",
"Many people enjoy the challenge of a difficult job, as long as they feel that their efforts are appreciated.",
"Some people are not aware that jobs with high salaries typically leave very little time for recreation."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Editorial: A proposed new law would limit elementary school class sizes to a maximum of 20 students. Most parents support this measure and argue that making classes smaller allows teachers to devote more time to each student, with the result that students become more engaged in the learning process. However, researchers who conducted a recent study conclude from their results that this reasoning is questionable. The researchers studied schools that had undergone recent reductions in class size, and found that despite an increase in the amount of time teachers spent individually with students, the students' average grades were unchanged. | 201006_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"The only schools appropriate for study are large elementary schools.",
"Teachers generally devote the same amount of individualized attention to each student in a class.",
"Reductions in class size would also involve a decrease in the number of teachers.",
"Degree of student engagement in the learning process correlates well with students' average grades.",
"Parental support for the proposed law rests solely on expectations of increased student engagement in the learning process."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the researchers' argument? |
Camille: Manufacturers of water-saving faucets exaggerate the amount of money such faucets can save. Because the faucets handle such a low volume of water, people using them often let the water run longer than they would otherwise. Rebecca: It is true that showering now takes longer. Nevertheless, I have had lower water bills since I installed a water-saving faucet. Thus, it is not true that the manufacturers' claims are exaggerated. | 201006_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"the cost of installing her water-saving faucet was less than her overall savings on her water bill",
"she saved as much on her water bills as the manufacturers' claims suggested she would",
"the manufacturers' claims about the savings expected from the installation of water-saving faucets are consistent with one another",
"people who use water-saving faucets are satisfied with the low volume of water handled by such faucets",
"installing more water-saving faucets in her house would increase her savings"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in Rebecca's argument is questionable in that she takes for granted that |
Company spokesperson: In lieu of redesigning our plants, our company recently launched an environmental protection campaign to buy and dispose of old cars, which are generally highly pollutive. Our plants account for just 4 percent of the local air pollution, while automobiles that predate 1980 account for 30 percent. Clearly, we will reduce air pollution more by buying old cars than we would by redesigning our plants. | 201006_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"Only 1 percent of the automobiles driven in the local area predate 1980.",
"It would cost the company over $3 million to reduce its plants' toxic emissions, while its car-buying campaign will save the company money by providing it with reusable scrap metal.",
"Because the company pays only scrap metal prices for used cars, almost none of the cars sold to the company still run.",
"Automobiles made after 1980 account for over 30 percent of local air pollution.",
"Since the company launched its car-buying campaign, the number of citizen groups filing complaints about pollution from the company's plants has decreased."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the company spokesperson's argument? |
Humankind would not have survived, as it clearly has, if our ancestors had not been motivated by the desire to sacrifice themselves when doing so would ensure the survival of their children or other close relatives. But since even this kind of sacrifice is a form of altruism, it follows that our ancestors were at least partially altruistic. | 201006_1-LR1_17_17 | [
"Students do not raise their grades if they do not increase the amount of time they spend studying. Increased study time requires good time management. However, some students do raise their grades. So some students manage their time well.",
"Organisms are capable of manufacturing their own carbohydrate supply if they do not consume other organisms to obtain it. So plants that consume insects must be incapable of photosynthesis, the means by which most plants produce their carbohydrate supplies.",
"If fragile ecosystems are not protected by government action their endemic species will perish, for endemic species are by definition those that exist nowhere else but in those ecosystems.",
"The natural resources used by human beings will be depleted if they are not replaced by alternative materials. But since such replacement generally requires more power, the resources used to create that power will become depleted.",
"Public buildings do not harmonize with their surroundings if they are not well designed. But any well-designed building is expensive to construct. Thus, either public buildings are expensive to construct or else they do not harmonize with their surroundings."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
Bus driver: Had the garbage truck not been exceeding the speed limit, it would not have collided with the bus I was driving. I, on the other hand, was abiding by all traffic regulations—as the police report confirms. Therefore, although I might have been able to avoid the collision had I reacted more quickly, the bus company should not reprimand me for the accident. | 201006_1-LR1_18_18 | [
"If a vehicle whose driver is violating a traffic regulation collides with a vehicle whose driver is not, the driver of the first vehicle is solely responsible for the accident.",
"A bus company should not reprimand one of its drivers whose bus is involved in a collision if a police report confirms that the collision was completely the fault of the driver of another vehicle.",
"Whenever a bus driver causes a collision to occur by violating a traffic regulation, the bus company should reprimand that driver.",
"A company that employs bus drivers should reprimand those drivers only when they become involved in collisions that they reasonably could have been expected to avoid.",
"When a bus is involved in a collision, the bus driver should not be reprimanded by the bus company if the collision did not result from the bus driver's violating a traffic regulation."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the bus driver's argument? |
Historian: Radio drama requires its listeners to think about what they hear, picturing for themselves such dramatic elements as characters' physical appearances and spatial relationships. Hence, while earlier generations, for whom radio drama was the dominant form of popular entertainment, regularly exercised their imaginations, today's generation of television viewers do so less frequently. | 201006_1-LR1_19_19 | [
"People spend as much time watching television today as people spent listening to radio in radio's heyday.",
"The more familiar a form of popular entertainment becomes, the less likely its consumers are to exercise their imaginations.",
"Because it inhibits the development of creativity, television is a particularly undesirable form of popular entertainment.",
"For today's generation of television viewers, nothing fills the gap left by radio as a medium for exercising the imagination.",
"Television drama does not require its viewers to think about what they see."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the historian's argument? |
Each of the candidates in this year's mayoral election is a small-business owner. Most small-business owners are competent managers. Moreover, no competent manager lacks the skills necessary to be a good mayor. So, most of the candidates in this year's mayoral election have the skills necessary to be a good mayor. | 201006_1-LR1_20_20 | [
"Anyone who has worked in sales at this company has done so for at least a year. Most of this company's management has worked in its sales department. So, since no one who has worked in the sales department for more than a year fails to understand marketing, most of this company's upper management understands marketing.",
"Everything on the menu at Maddy's Shake Shop is fat-free. Most fat-free foods and drinks are sugar-free. And all sugar-free foods and drinks are low in calories. Hence, most items on the menu at Maddy's are low in calories.",
"All the books in Ed's apartment are hardcover books. Most hardcover books are more than 100 pages long. Ed has never read a book longer than 100 pages in its entirety in less than 3 hours. So, Ed has never read any of his books in its entirety in less than 3 hours.",
"Each of the avant-garde films at this year's film festival is less than an hour long. Most films less than an hour long do not become commercially successful. So, since no movie less than an hour long has an intermission, it follows that most of the movies at this year's film festival do not have an intermission.",
"All of the bicycle helmets sold in this store have some plastic in them. Most of the bicycle helmets sold in this store have some rubber in them. So, since no helmets that have rubber in them do not also have plastic in them, it follows that most of the helmets in this store that have plastic in them have rubber in them."
]
| 1 | The pattern of flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |
One of the most useful social conventions is money, whose universality across societies is matched only by language. Unlike language, which is rooted in an innate ability, money is an artificial, human invention. Hence, it seems probable that the invention of money occurred independently in more than one society. | 201006_1-LR1_21_21 | [
"Some societies have been geographically isolated enough not to have been influenced by any other society.",
"Language emerged independently in different societies at different times in human history.",
"Universal features of human society that are not inventions are rooted in innate abilities.",
"If money were not useful, it would not be so widespread.",
"No human society that adopted the convention of money has since abandoned it."
]
| 0 | The argument's conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
Libel is defined as damaging the reputation of someone by making false statements. Ironically, strong laws against libel can make it impossible for anyone in the public eye to have a good reputation. For the result of strong libel laws is that, for fear of lawsuits, no one will say anything bad about public figures. | 201006_1-LR1_22_22 | [
"The absence of laws against libel makes it possible for everyone in the public eye to have a good reputation.",
"Even if laws against libel are extremely strong and rigorously enforced, some public figures will acquire bad reputations.",
"If one makes statements that one sincerely believes, then those statements should not be considered libelous even if they are in fact false and damaging to the reputation of a public figure.",
"In countries with strong libel laws, people make negative statements about public figures only when such statements can be proved.",
"Public figures can have good reputations only if there are other public figures who have bad reputations."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument? |
Mammals cannot digest cellulose and therefore cannot directly obtain glucose from wood. Mushrooms can, however; and some mushrooms use cellulose to make highly branched polymers, the branches of which are a form of glucose called beta-glucans. Beta-glucan extracts from various types of mushrooms slow, reverse, or prevent the growth of cancerous tumors in mammals, and the antitumor activity of beta-glucans increases as the degree of branching increases. These extracts prevent tumor growth not by killing cancer cells directly but by increasing immune-cell activity. | 201006_1-LR1_23_23 | [
"Mammals obtain no beneficial health effects from eating cellulose.",
"If extracts from a type of mushroom slow, reverse, or prevent the growth of cancerous tumors in mammals, then the mushroom is capable of using cellulose to make beta-glucans.",
"The greater the degree of branching of beta-glucans, the greater the degree of immune-cell activity it triggers in mammals.",
"Immune-cell activity in mammals does not prevent tumor growth by killing cancer cells.",
"Any organism capable of obtaining glucose from wood can use cellulose to make beta-glucans."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
A law is successful primarily because the behavior it prescribes has attained the status of custom. Just as manners are observed not because of sanctions attached to them but because, through repetition, contrary behavior becomes unthinkable, so societal laws are obeyed not because the behavior is ethically required or because penalties await those who act otherwise, but because to act otherwise would be uncustomary. | 201006_1-LR1_24_24 | [
"As with manners and other customs, laws vary from society to society.",
"As with manners, the primary basis for a society to consider when adopting a law is custom.",
"As with manners, the main factor accounting for compliance with laws is custom.",
"As with manners, most laws do not prescribe behavior that is ethically required.",
"As with manners, most laws do not have strict penalties awaiting those who transgress them."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following comparisons is utilized by the argument? |
A research study revealed that, in most cases, once existing highways near urban areas are widened and extended in an attempt to reduce traffic congestion and resulting delays for motorists, these problems actually increase rather than decrease. | 201006_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"Widened and extended roads tend to attract many more motorists than used them before their improvement.",
"Typically, road widening or extension projects are undertaken only after the population near the road in question has increased and then leveled off, leaving a higher average population level.",
"As a general rule, the greater the number of lanes on a given length of highway, the lower the rate of accidents per 100,000 vehicles traveling on it.",
"Rural, as compared to urban, traffic usually includes a larger proportion of trucks and vehicles used by farmers.",
"Urban traffic generally moves at a slower pace and involves more congestion and delays than rural and suburban traffic."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the discrepancy between the intended results of the highway improvements and the results revealed in the study? |
A study found that consumers reaching supermarket checkout lines within 40 minutes after the airing of an advertisement for a given product over the store's audio system were significantly more likely to purchase the product advertised than were consumers who checked out prior to the airing. Apparently, these advertisements are effective. | 201006_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"During the study, for most of the advertisements more people went through the checkout lines after they were aired than before they were aired.",
"A large proportion of the consumers who bought a product shortly after the airing of an advertisement for it reported that they had not gone to the store intending to buy that product.",
"Many of the consumers reported that they typically bought at least one of the advertised products every time they shopped at the store.",
"Many of the consumers who bought an advertised product and who reached the checkout line within 40 minutes of the advertisement's airing reported that they could not remember hearing the advertisement.",
"Many of the consumers who bought an advertised product reported that they buy that product only occasionally."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Unless the building permit is obtained by February 1 of this year or some of the other activities necessary for construction of the new library can be completed in less time than originally planned, the new library will not be completed on schedule. It is now clear that the building permit cannot be obtained by February 1, so the new library will not be completed on schedule. | 201006_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"All of the other activities necessary for construction of the library will take at least as much time as originally planned.",
"The officials in charge of construction of the new library have admitted that it probably will not be completed on schedule.",
"The application for a building permit was submitted on January 2 of this year, and processing building permits always takes at least two months.",
"The application for a building permit was rejected the first time it was submitted, and it had to be resubmitted with a revised building plan.",
"It is not possible to convince authorities to allow construction of the library to begin before the building permit is obtained."
]
| 0 | The conclusion drawn follows logically from the premises if which one of the following is assumed? |
In a study of patients who enrolled at a sleep clinic because of insomnia, those who inhaled the scent of peppermint before going to bed were more likely to have difficulty falling asleep than were patients who inhaled the scent of bitter orange. Since it is known that inhaling bitter orange does not help people fall asleep more easily, this study shows that inhaling the scent of peppermint makes insomnia worse. | 201006_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"Several studies have shown that inhaling the scent of peppermint tends to have a relaxing effect on people who do not suffer from insomnia.",
"The patients who inhaled the scent of bitter orange were, on average, suffering from milder cases of insomnia than were the patients who inhaled the scent of peppermint.",
"Because the scents of peppermint and bitter orange are each very distinctive, it was not possible to prevent the patients from knowing that they were undergoing some sort of study of the effects of inhaling various scents.",
"Some of the patients who enrolled in the sleep clinic also had difficulty staying asleep once they fell asleep.",
"Several studies have revealed that in many cases inhaling certain pleasant scents can dramatically affect the degree to which a patient suffers from insomnia."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above? |
Dogs learn best when they are trained using both voice commands and hand signals. After all, a recent study shows that dogs who were trained using both voice commands and hand signals were twice as likely to obey as were dogs who were trained using only voice commands. | 201006_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"It is an explicit premise of the argument.",
"It is an implicit assumption of the argument.",
"It is a statement of background information offered to help facilitate understanding the issue in the argument.",
"It is a statement that the argument claims is supported by the study.",
"It is an intermediate conclusion that is offered as direct support for the argument's main conclusion."
]
| 3 | The claim that dogs learn best when they are trained using both voice commands and hand signals figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
Of the many test pilots who have flown the new plane, none has found it difficult to operate. So it is unlikely that the test pilot flying the plane tomorrow will find it difficult to operate. | 201006_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"All of the many book reviewers who read Rachel Nguyen's new novel thought that it was particularly well written. So it is likely that the average reader will enjoy the book.",
"Many of the book reviewers who read Wim Jashka's new novel before it was published found it very entertaining. So it is unlikely that most people who buy the book will find it boring.",
"Neither of the two reviewers who enjoyed Sharlene Lo's new novel hoped that Lo would write a sequel. So it is unlikely that the review of the book in next Sunday's newspaper will express hope that Lo will write a sequel.",
"Many reviewers have read Kip Landau's new novel, but none of them enjoyed it. So it is unlikely that the reviewer for the local newspaper will enjoy the book when she reads it.",
"None of the reviewers who have read Gray Ornsby's new novel were offended by it. So it is unlikely that the book will offend anyone in the general public who reads it."
]
| 3 | The reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to the reasoning in the argument above? |
Scientist: Any theory that is to be taken seriously must affect our perception of the world. Of course, this is not, in itself, enough for a theory to be taken seriously. To see this, one need only consider astrology. | 201006_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"an example of a theory that should not be taken seriously because it does not affect our perception of the world",
"an example of something that should not be considered a theory",
"an example of a theory that should not be taken seriously despite its affecting our perception of the world",
"an example of a theory that affects our perception of the world, and thus should be taken seriously",
"an example of a theory that should be taken seriously, even though it does not affect our perception of the world"
]
| 2 | The point of the scientist's mentioning astrology in the argument is to present |
Clark: Our local community theater often produces plays by critically acclaimed playwrights. In fact, the production director says that critical acclaim is one of the main factors considered in the selection of plays to perform. So, since my neighbor Michaela's new play will be performed by the theater this season, she must be a critically acclaimed playwright. | 201006_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"takes a condition necessary for a playwright's being critically acclaimed to be a condition sufficient for a playwright's being critically acclaimed",
"fails to consider that several different effects may be produced by a single cause",
"treats one main factor considered in the selection of plays to perform as though it were a condition that must be met in order for a play to be selected",
"uses as evidence a source that there is reason to believe is unreliable",
"provides no evidence that a playwright's being critically acclaimed is the result rather than the cause of his or her plays being selected for production"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in Clark's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Legal theorist: Governments should not be allowed to use the personal diaries of an individual who is the subject of a criminal prosecution as evidence against that individual. A diary is a silent conversation with oneself and there is no relevant difference between speaking to oneself, writing one's thoughts down, and keeping one's thoughts to oneself. | 201006_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Governments should not be allowed to compel corporate officials to surrender interoffice memos to government investigators.",
"When crime is a serious problem, governments should be given increased power to investigate and prosecute suspected wrongdoers, and some restrictions on admissible evidence should be relaxed.",
"Governments should not be allowed to use an individual's remarks to prosecute the individual for criminal activity unless the remarks were intended for other people.",
"Governments should not have the power to confiscate an individual's personal correspondence to use as evidence against the individual in a criminal trial.",
"Governments should do everything in their power to investigate and prosecute suspected wrongdoers."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, provides the most support for the legal theorist's argument? |
A ring of gas emitting X-rays flickering 450 times per second has been observed in a stable orbit around a black hole. In light of certain widely accepted physical theories, that rate of flickering can best be explained if the ring of gas has a radius of 49 kilometers. But the gas ring could not maintain an orbit so close to a black hole unless the black hole was spinning. | 201006_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"Black holes that have orbiting rings of gas with radii greater than 49 kilometers are usually stationary.",
"Only rings of gas that are in stable orbits around black holes emit flickering X-rays.",
"The black hole that is within the ring of gas observed by the astronomers is spinning.",
"X-rays emitted by rings of gas orbiting black holes cause those black holes to spin.",
"A black hole is stationary only if it is orbited by a ring of gas with a radius of more than 49 kilometers."
]
| 2 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following, assuming that the widely accepted physical theories referred to above are correct? |
A mass of "black water" containing noxious organic material swept through Laurel Bay last year. Some scientists believe that this event was a naturally occurring but infrequent phenomenon. The black water completely wiped out five species of coral in the bay, including mounds of coral that were more than two centuries old. Therefore, even if this black water phenomenon has struck the bay before, it did not reach last year's intensity at any time in the past two centuries. | 201006_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"Masses of black water such as that observed last summer come into the bay more frequently than just once every two centuries.",
"Every species of coral in the bay was seriously harmed by the mass of black water that swept in last year.",
"The mass of black water that swept through the bay last year did not decimate any plant or animal species that makes use of coral.",
"The mounds of centuries-old coral that were destroyed were not in especially fragile condition just before the black water swept in last year.",
"Older specimens of coral in the bay were more vulnerable to damage from the influx of black water than were young specimens."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Many nurseries sell fruit trees that they label "miniature." Not all nurseries, however, use this term in the same way. While some nurseries label any nectarine trees of the Stark Sweet Melody variety as "miniature," for example, others do not. One thing that is clear is that if a variety of fruit tree is not suitable for growing in a tub or a pot, no tree of that variety can be correctly labeled "miniature." | 201006_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"Most nurseries mislabel at least some of their fruit trees.",
"Some of the nurseries have correctly labeled nectarine trees of the Stark Sweet Melody variety only if the variety is unsuitable for growing in a tub or a pot.",
"Any nectarine tree of the Stark Sweet Melody variety that a nursery labels \"miniature\" is labeled incorrectly.",
"Some nectarine trees that are not labeled \"miniature\" are labeled incorrectly.",
"Unless the Stark Sweet Melody variety of nectarine tree is suitable for growing in a tub or a pot, some nurseries mislabel this variety of tree."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information above? |
Psychologist: Identical twins are virtually the same genetically. Moreover, according to some studies, identical twins separated at birth and brought up in vastly different environments show a strong tendency to report similar ethical beliefs, dress in the same way, and have similar careers. Thus, many of our inclinations must be genetic in origin, and not subject to environmental influences. | 201006_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"Many people, including identical twins, undergo radical changes in their lifestyles at some point in their lives.",
"While some studies of identical twins separated at birth reveal a high percentage of similar personality traits, they also show a few differences.",
"Scientists are far from being able to link any specific genes to specific inclinations.",
"Identical twins who grow up together tend to develop different beliefs, tastes, and careers in order to differentiate themselves from each other.",
"Twins who are not identical tend to develop different beliefs, tastes, and careers."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the psychologist's argument? |
Human beings can live happily only in a society where love and friendship are the primary motives for actions. Yet economic needs can be satisfied in the absence of this condition, as, for example, in a merchant society where only economic utility motivates action. It is obvious then that human beings ____. | 201006_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"can live happily only when economic utility is not a motivator in their society",
"cannot achieve happiness unless their economic needs have already been satisfied",
"cannot satisfy economic needs by means of interactions with family members and close friends",
"can satisfy their basic economic needs without obtaining happiness",
"cannot really be said to have satisfied their economic needs unless they are happy"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Technologically, it is already possible to produce nonpolluting cars that burn hydrogen rather than gasoline. But the national system of fuel stations that would be needed to provide the hydrogen fuel for such cars does not yet exist. However, this infrastructure is likely to appear and grow rapidly. A century ago no fuel-distribution infrastructure existed for gasoline-powered vehicles, yet it quickly developed in response to consumer demand. | 201006_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"It is already technologically possible to produce nonpolluting cars that burn hydrogen rather than gasoline.",
"The fuel-distribution infrastructure for hydrogen-powered cars still needs to be created.",
"If a new kind of technology is developed, the infrastructure needed to support that technology is likely to quickly develop in response to consumer demands.",
"The fuel-distribution infrastructure for hydrogen-powered cars is likely to appear and grow rapidly.",
"Hydrogen-powered vehicles will be similar to gasoline-powered vehicles with regard to the amount of consumer demand for their fuel-distribution infrastructure."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument? |
Wildlife management experts should not interfere with the natural habitats of creatures in the wild, because manipulating the environment to make it easier for an endangered species to survive in a habitat invariably makes it harder for nonendangered species to survive in that habitat. | 201006_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"fails to consider that wildlife management experts probably know best how to facilitate the survival of an endangered species in a habitat",
"fails to recognize that a nonendangered species can easily become an endangered species",
"overlooks the possibility that saving an endangered species in a habitat is incompatible with preserving the overall diversity of species in that habitat",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the survival of each endangered species is equally important to the health of the environment",
"takes for granted that preserving a currently endangered species in a habitat does not have higher priority than preserving species in that habitat that are not endangered"
]
| 4 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Any food that is not sterilized and sealed can contain disease-causing bacteria. Once sterilized and properly sealed, however, it contains no bacteria. There are many different acceptable food-preservation techniques; each involves either sterilizing and sealing food or else at least slowing the growth of disease-causing bacteria. Some of the techniques may also destroy natural food enzymes that cause food to spoil or discolor quickly. | 201006_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"All food preserved by an acceptable method is free of disease-causing bacteria.",
"Preservation methods that destroy enzymes that cause food to spoil do not sterilize the food.",
"Food preserved by a sterilization method is less likely to discolor quickly than food preserved with other methods.",
"Any nonsterilized food preserved by an acceptable method can contain disease-causing bacteria.",
"If a food contains no bacteria, then it has been preserved by an acceptable method."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true? |
Activities that pose risks to life are acceptable if and only if each person who bears the risks either gains some net benefit that cannot be had without such risks, or bears the risks voluntarily. | 201006_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"A door-to-door salesperson declines to replace his older car with a new model with more safety features; this is acceptable because the decision not to replace the car is voluntary.",
"A smoker subjects people to secondhand smoke at an outdoor public meeting; the resulting risks are acceptable because the danger from secondhand smoke is minimal outdoors, where smoke dissipates quickly.",
"A motorcyclist rides without a helmet; the risk of fatal injury to the motorcyclist thus incurred is acceptable because the motorcyclist incurs this risk willingly.",
"Motor vehicles are allowed to emit certain low levels of pollution; the resulting health risks are acceptable because all users of motor vehicles share the resulting benefit of inexpensive, convenient travel.",
"A nation requires all citizens to spend two years in national service; since such service involves no risk to life, the policy is acceptable."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle above? |
Ecologist: One theory attributes the ability of sea butterflies to avoid predation to their appearance, while another attributes this ability to various chemical compounds they produce. Recently we added each of the compounds to food pellets, one compound per pellet. Predators ate the pellets no matter which one of the compounds was present. Thus the compounds the sea butterflies produce are not responsible for their ability to avoid predation. | 201006_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that the two theories are incompatible with each other",
"draws a conclusion about a cause on the basis of nothing more than a statistical correlation",
"treats a condition sufficient for sea butterflies' ability to avoid predators as a condition required for this ability",
"infers, from the claim that no individual member of a set has a certain effect, that the set as a whole does not have that effect",
"draws a conclusion that merely restates material present in one or more of its premises"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the ecologist's argument is flawed in that the argument |
Principle: One should criticize the works or actions of another person only if the criticism will not seriously harm the person criticized and one does so in the hope or expectation of benefiting someone other than oneself. Application: Jarrett should not have criticized Ostertag's essay in front of the class, since the defects in it were so obvious that pointing them out benefited no one. | 201006_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"Jarrett knew that the defects in the essay were so obvious that pointing them out would benefit no one.",
"Jarrett's criticism of the essay would have been to Ostertag's benefit only if Ostertag had been unaware of the defects in the essay at the time.",
"Jarrett knew that the criticism might antagonize Ostertag.",
"Jarrett hoped to gain prestige by criticizing Ostertag.",
"Jarrett did not expect the criticism to be to Ostertag's benefit."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, justifies the above application of the principle? |
Safety consultant: Judged by the number of injuries per licensed vehicle, minivans are the safest vehicles on the road. However, in carefully designed crash tests, minivans show no greater ability to protect their occupants than other vehicles of similar size do. Thus, the reason minivans have such a good safety record is probably not that they are inherently safer than other vehicles, but rather that they are driven primarily by low-risk drivers. | 201006_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"When choosing what kind of vehicle to drive, low-risk drivers often select a kind that they know to perform particularly well in crash tests.",
"Judged by the number of accidents per licensed vehicle, minivans are no safer than most other kinds of vehicles are.",
"Minivans tend to carry more passengers at any given time than do most other vehicles.",
"In general, the larger a vehicle is, the greater its ability to protect its occupants.",
"Minivans generally have worse braking and emergency handling capabilities than other vehicles of similar size."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the safety consultant's argument? |
Consumer advocate: There is no doubt that the government is responsible for the increased cost of gasoline, because the government's policies have significantly increased consumer demand for fuel, and as a result of increasing demand, the price of gasoline has risen steadily. | 201006_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"The government can bear responsibility for that which it indirectly causes.",
"The government is responsible for some unforeseen consequences of its policies.",
"Consumer demand for gasoline cannot increase without causing gasoline prices to increase.",
"The government has an obligation to ensure that demand for fuel does not increase excessively.",
"If the government pursues policies that do not increase the demand for fuel, gasoline prices tend to remain stable."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the consumer advocate's argument? |
A species in which mutations frequently occur will develop new evolutionary adaptations in each generation. Since species survive dramatic environmental changes only if they develop new evolutionary adaptations in each generation, a species in which mutations frequently occur will survive dramatic environmental changes. | 201006_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"In a stone wall that is properly built, every stone supports another stone. Since a wall's being sturdy depends upon its being properly built, only walls that are composed entirely of stones supporting other stones are sturdy.",
"A play that is performed before a different audience every time will never get the same reaction from any two audiences. Since no plays are performed before the same audience every time, no play ever gets the same reaction from any two audiences.",
"A person who is perfectly honest will tell the truth in every situation. Since in order to be a morally upright person one must tell the truth at all times, a perfectly honest person will also be a morally upright person.",
"An herb garden is productive only if the soil that it is planted in is well drained. Since soil that is well drained is good soil, an herb garden is not productive unless it is planted in good soil.",
"A diet that is healthful is well balanced. Since a well-balanced diet includes fruits and vegetables, one will not be healthy unless one eats fruits and vegetables."
]
| 2 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most closely parallel to that in the argument above? |
Music critic: How well an underground rock group's recordings sell is no mark of that group's success as an underground group. After all, if a recording sells well, it may be because some of the music on the recording is too trendy to be authentically underground; accordingly, many underground musicians consider it desirable for a recording not to sell well. But weak sales may simply be the result of the group's incompetence. | 201006_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"If an underground rock group is successful as an underground group, its recordings will sell neither especially well nor especially poorly.",
"An underground rock group is unsuccessful as an underground group if it is incompetent or if any of its music is too trendy to be authentically underground, or both.",
"Whether an underground group's recordings meet criteria that many underground musicians consider desirable is not a mark of that group's success.",
"An underground rock group is successful as an underground group if the group is competent but its recordings nonetheless do not sell well.",
"For an underground rock group, competence and the creation of authentically underground music are not in themselves marks of success."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the music critic's argument? |
Graham: The defeat of the world's chess champion by a computer shows that any type of human intellectual activity governed by fixed principles can be mastered by machines and thus that a truly intelligent machine will inevitably be devised. Adelaide: But you are overlooking the fact that the computer in the case you cite was simply an extension of the people who programmed it. It was their successful distillation of the principles of chess that enabled them to defeat a chess champion using a computer. | 201006_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"chess is the best example of a human intellectual activity that is governed by fixed principles",
"chess is a typical example of the sorts of intellectual activities in which human beings characteristically engage",
"a computer's defeat of a human chess player is an accomplishment that should be attributed to the computer",
"intelligence can be demonstrated by the performance of an activity in accord with fixed principles",
"tools can be designed to aid in any human activity that is governed by fixed principles"
]
| 2 | The statements above provide the most support for holding that Graham and Adelaide disagree about whether |
Mary to Jamal: You acknowledge that as the legitimate owner of this business I have the legal right to sell it whenever I wish. But also you claim that because loyal employees will suffer if I sell it, I therefore have no right to do so. Obviously, your statements taken together are absurd. | 201010_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"overlooks the possibility that when Jamal claims that she has no right to sell the business, he simply means she has no right to do so at this time",
"overlooks the possibility that her employees also have rights related to the sale of the business",
"provides no evidence for the claim that she does have a right to sell the business",
"overlooks the possibility that Jamal is referring to two different kinds of right",
"attacks Jamal's character rather than his argument"
]
| 3 | Mary's reasoning is most vulnerable to the criticism that she |
Since there is no survival value in an animal's having an organ that is able to function when all its other organs have broken down to such a degree that the animal dies, it is a result of the efficiency of natural selection that no organ is likely to evolve in such a way that it greatly outlasts the body's other organs. | 201010_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"A store in a lower-income neighborhood finds that it is unable to sell its higher-priced goods and so stocks them only when ordered by a customer.",
"The body of an animal with a deficient organ is often able to compensate for that deficiency when other organs perform the task the deficient one normally performs.",
"One car model produced by an automobile manufacturer has a life expectancy that is so much longer than its other models that its great popularity requires the manufacturer to stop producing some of the other models.",
"Athletes occasionally overdevelop some parts of their bodies to such a great extent that other parts of their bodies are more prone to injury as a result.",
"Automotive engineers find that it is not cost-effective to manufacture a given automobile part of such high quality that it outlasts all other parts of the automobile, as doing so would not raise the overall quality of the automobile."
]
| 4 | Of the following, which one illustrates a principle that is most similar to the principle illustrated by the passage? |
Commentator: If a political administration is both economically successful and successful at protecting individual liberties, then it is an overall success. Even an administration that fails to care for the environment may succeed overall if it protects individual liberties. So far, the present administration has not cared for the environment but has successfully protected individual liberties. | 201010_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"The present administration is economically successful.",
"The present administration is not an overall success.",
"If the present administration is economically successful, then it is an overall success.",
"If the present administration had been economically successful, it would have cared for the environment.",
"If the present administration succeeds at environmental protection, then it will be an overall success."
]
| 2 | If all of the statements above are true, then which one of the following must be true? |
The legislature is considering a proposed bill that would prohibit fishing in Eagle Bay. Despite widespread concern over the economic effect this ban would have on the local fishing industry, the bill should be enacted. The bay has one of the highest water pollution levels in the nation, and a recent study of the bay's fish found that 80 percent of them contained toxin levels that exceed governmental safety standards. Continuing to permit fishing in Eagle Bay could thus have grave effects on public health. | 201010_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"the toxic contamination of fish in Eagle Bay has had grave economic effects on the local fishing industry",
"the moral principle that an action must be judged on the basis of its foreseeable effects is usually correct",
"the opponents of the ban have failed to weigh properly its foreseeable negative effects against its positive ones",
"failure to enact the ban would carry with it unacceptable risks for the public welfare",
"the ban would reduce the level of toxins in the fish in Eagle Bay"
]
| 3 | The argument proceeds by presenting evidence that |
Vandenburg: This art museum is not adhering to its purpose. Its founders intended it to devote as much attention to contemporary art as to the art of earlier periods, but its collection of contemporary art is far smaller than its other collections. Simpson: The relatively small size of the museum's contemporary art collection is appropriate. It's an art museum, not an ethnographic museum designed to collect every style of every period. Its contemporary art collection is small because its curators believe that there is little high-quality contemporary art. | 201010_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"An art museum should collect only works that its curators consider to be of high artistic quality.",
"An art museum should not collect any works that violate the purpose defined by the museum's founders.",
"An art museum's purpose need not be to collect every style of every period.",
"An ethnographic museum's purpose should be defined according to its curators' beliefs.",
"The intentions of an art museum's curators should not determine what is collected by that museum."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in Simpson's response to Vandenburg? |
Over the last five years, every new major alternative-energy initiative that initially was promised government funding has since seen that funding severely curtailed. In no such case has the government come even close to providing the level of funds initially earmarked for these projects. Since large corporations have made it a point to discourage alternative-energy projects, it is likely that the corporations' actions influenced the government's funding decisions. | 201010_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"For the past two decades, most alternative-energy initiatives have received little or no government funding.",
"The funding initially earmarked for a government project is always subject to change, given the mechanisms by which the political process operates.",
"The only research projects whose government funding has been severely curtailed are those that large corporations have made it a point to discourage.",
"Some projects encouraged by large corporations have seen their funding severely curtailed over the last five years.",
"All large corporations have made it a point to discourage some forms of research."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the reasoning above? |
Talbert: Chess is beneficial for school-age children. It is enjoyable, encourages foresight and logical thinking, and discourages carelessness, inattention, and impulsiveness. In short, it promotes mental maturity. Sklar: My objection to teaching chess to children is that it diverts mental activity from something with societal value, such as science, into something that has no societal value. | 201010_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"chess promotes mental maturity",
"many activities promote mental maturity just as well as chess does",
"chess is socially valuable and science is not",
"children should be taught to play chess",
"children who neither play chess nor study science are mentally immature"
]
| 3 | Talbert's and Sklar's statements provide the strongest support for holding that they disagree with each other over whether |
Marcia: Not all vegetarian diets lead to nutritional deficiencies. Research shows that vegetarians can obtain a full complement of proteins and minerals from nonanimal foods. Theodora: You are wrong in claiming that vegetarianism cannot lead to nutritional deficiencies. If most people became vegetarians, some of those losing jobs due to the collapse of many meat-based industries would fall into poverty and hence be unable to afford a nutritionally adequate diet. | 201010_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"is directed toward disproving a claim that Marcia did not make",
"ignores the results of the research cited by Marcia",
"takes for granted that no meat-based industries will collapse unless most people become vegetarians",
"uses the word \"diet\" in a nontechnical sense whereas Marcia's argument uses this term in a medical sense",
"takes for granted that people losing jobs in meat-based industries would become vegetarians"
]
| 0 | Theodora's reply to Marcia's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that her reply |
Musicologist: Classification of a musical instrument depends on the mechanical action through which it produces music. So the piano is properly called a percussion instrument, not a stringed instrument. Even though the vibration of the piano's strings is what makes its sound, the strings are caused to vibrate by the impact of hammers. | 201010_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"Musical instruments should be classified according to the mechanical actions through which they produce sound.",
"Musical instruments should not be classified based on the way musicians interact with them.",
"Some people classify the piano as a stringed instrument because of the way the piano produces sound.",
"The piano should be classified as a stringed instrument rather than as a percussion instrument.",
"It is correct to classify the piano as a percussion instrument rather than as a stringed instrument."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the musicologist's argument? |
In a vast ocean region, phosphorus levels have doubled in the past few decades due to agricultural runoff pouring out of a large river nearby. The phosphorus stimulates the growth of plankton near the ocean surface. Decaying plankton fall to the ocean floor, where bacteria devour them, consuming oxygen in the process. Due to the resulting oxygen depletion, few fish can survive in this region. | 201010_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"The agricultural runoff pouring out of the river contributes to the growth of plankton near the ocean surface.",
"Before phosphorus levels doubled in the ocean region, most fish were able to survive in that region.",
"If agricultural runoff ceased pouring out of the river, there would be no bacteria on the ocean floor devouring decaying plankton.",
"The quantity of agricultural runoff pouring out of the river has doubled in the past few decades.",
"The amount of oxygen in a body of water is in general inversely proportional to the level of phosphorus in that body of water."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information above? |
Psychologists observing a shopping mall parking lot found that, on average, drivers spent 39 seconds leaving a parking space when another car was quietly waiting to enter it, 51 seconds if the driver of the waiting car honked impatiently, but only 32 seconds leaving a space when no one was waiting. This suggests that drivers feel possessive of their parking spaces even when leaving them, and that this possessiveness increases in reaction to indications that another driver wants the space. | 201010_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"The more pressure most drivers feel because others are waiting for them to perform maneuvers with their cars, the less quickly they are able to perform them.",
"The amount of time drivers spend entering a parking space is not noticeably affected by whether other drivers are waiting for them to do so, nor by whether those other drivers are honking impatiently.",
"It is considerably more difficult and time-consuming for a driver to maneuver a car out of a parking space if another car waiting to enter that space is nearby.",
"Parking spaces in shopping mall parking lots are unrepresentative of parking spaces in general with respect to the likelihood that other cars will be waiting to enter them.",
"Almost any driver leaving a parking space will feel angry at another driver who honks impatiently, and this anger will influence the amount of time spent leaving the space."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the reasoning? |
Shark teeth are among the most common vertebrate fossils; yet fossilized shark skeletons are much less common—indeed, comparatively rare among fossilized vertebrate skeletons. | 201010_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"Unlike the bony skeletons of other vertebrates, shark skeletons are composed of cartilage, and teeth and bone are much more likely to fossilize than cartilage is.",
"The rare fossilized skeletons of sharks that are found are often found in areas other than those in which fossils of shark teeth are plentiful.",
"Fossils of sharks' teeth are quite difficult to distinguish from fossils of other kinds of teeth.",
"Some species of sharks alive today grow and lose many sets of teeth during their lifetimes.",
"The physical and chemical processes involved in the fossilization of sharks' teeth are as common as those involved in the fossilization of shark skeletons."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox described above? |
Critic: Photographers, by deciding which subjects to depict and how to depict them, express their own worldviews in their photographs, however realistically those photographs may represent reality. Thus, photographs are interpretations of reality. | 201010_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"Even representing a subject realistically can involve interpreting that subject.",
"To express a worldview is to interpret reality.",
"All visual art expresses the artist's worldview.",
"Any interpretation of reality involves the expression of a worldview.",
"Nonrealistic photographs, like realistic photographs, express the worldviews of the photographers who take them."
]
| 1 | The argument's conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
Geologists recently discovered marks that closely resemble worm tracks in a piece of sandstone. These marks were made more than half a billion years earlier than the earliest known traces of multicellular animal life. Therefore, the marks are probably the traces of geological processes rather than of worms. | 201010_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"It is sometimes difficult to estimate the precise age of a piece of sandstone.",
"Geological processes left a substantial variety of marks in sandstone more than half a billion years before the earliest known multicellular animal life existed.",
"There were some early life forms other than worms that are known to have left marks that are hard to distinguish from those found in the piece of sandstone.",
"At the place where the sandstone was found, the only geological processes that are likely to mark sandstone in ways that resemble worm tracks could not have occurred at the time the marks were made.",
"Most scientists knowledgeable about early animal life believe that worms are likely to have been among the earliest forms of multicellular animal life on Earth, but evidence of their earliest existence is scarce because they are composed solely of soft tissue."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Often a type of organ or body structure is the only physically feasible means of accomplishing a given task, so it should be unsurprising if, like eyes or wings, that type of organ or body structure evolves at different times in a number of completely unrelated species. After all, whatever the difference of heritage and habitat, as organisms animals have fundamentally similar needs and so ____. | 201010_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"will often live in the same environment as other species quite different from themselves",
"will in many instances evolve similar adaptations enabling them to satisfy these needs",
"will develop adaptations allowing them to satisfy these needs",
"will resemble other species having different biological needs",
"will all develop eyes or wings as adaptations"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most logically completes the last sentence of the passage? |
Engineer: Thermophotovoltaic generators are devices that convert heat into electricity. The process of manufacturing steel produces huge amounts of heat that currently go to waste. So if steel-manufacturing plants could feed the heat they produce into thermophotovoltaic generators, they would greatly reduce their electric bills, thereby saving money. | 201010_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"There is no other means of utilizing the heat produced by the steel-manufacturing process that would be more cost effective than installing thermophotovoltaic generators.",
"Using current technology, it would be possible for steel-manufacturing plants to feed the heat they produce into thermophotovoltaic generators in such a way that those generators could convert at least some of that heat into electricity.",
"The amount steel-manufacturing plants would save on their electric bills by feeding heat into thermophotovoltaic generators would be sufficient to cover the cost of purchasing and installing those generators.",
"At least some steel-manufacturing plants rely on electricity as their primary source of energy in the steel-manufacturing process.",
"There are at least some steel-manufacturing plants that could greatly reduce their electricity bills only if they used some method of converting wasted heat or other energy from the steel-manufacturing process into electricity."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the engineer's argument depends? |
Herbalist: While standard antibiotics typically have just one active ingredient, herbal antibacterial remedies typically contain several. Thus, such herbal remedies are more likely to retain their effectiveness against new, resistant strains of bacteria than are standard antibiotics. For a strain of bacteria, the difficulty of developing resistance to an herbal antibacterial remedy is like a cook's difficulty in trying to prepare a single meal that will please all of several dozen guests, a task far more difficult than preparing one meal that will please a single guest. | 201010_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"a single guest",
"several dozen guests",
"the pleasure experienced by a single guest",
"a cook",
"the ingredients available to a cook"
]
| 0 | In the analogy drawn in the argument above, which one of the following corresponds to a standard antibiotic? |
To find out how barn owls learn how to determine the direction from which sounds originate, scientists put distorting lenses over the eyes of young barn owls before the owls first opened their eyes. The owls with these lenses behaved as if objects making sounds were farther to the right than they actually were. Once the owls matured, the lenses were removed, yet the owls continued to act as if they misjudged the location of the source of sounds. The scientists consequently hypothesized that once a barn owl has developed an auditory scheme for estimating the point from which sounds originate, it ceases to use vision to locate sounds. | 201010_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"It fails to consider whether the owls' vision was permanently impaired by their having worn the lenses while immature.",
"It assumes that the sense of sight is equally good in all owls.",
"It attributes human reasoning processes to a nonhuman organism.",
"It neglects to consider how similar distorting lenses might affect the behavior of other bird species.",
"It uses as evidence experimental results that were irrelevant to the conclusion."
]
| 0 | The scientists' reasoning is vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? |
As often now as in the past, newspaper journalists use direct or indirect quotation to report unsupported or false claims made by newsmakers. However, journalists are becoming less likely to openly challenge the veracity of such claims within their articles. | 201010_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"Newspaper publishers have found that many readers will cancel a subscription simply because a view they take for granted has been disputed by the publication.",
"The areas of knowledge on which journalists report are growing in specialization and diversity, while journalists themselves are not becoming more broadly knowledgeable.",
"Persons supporting controversial views more and more frequently choose to speak only to reporters who seem sympathetic to their views.",
"A basic principle of journalism holds that debate over controversial issues draws the attention of the public.",
"Journalists who challenge the veracity of claims are often criticized for failing their professional obligation to be objective."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, helps to explain the trend in journalism described above EXCEPT: |
When people show signs of having a heart attack an electrocardiograph (EKG) is often used to diagnose their condition. In a study, a computer program for EKG diagnosis of heart attacks was pitted against a very experienced, highly skilled cardiologist. The program correctly diagnosed a significantly higher proportion of the cases that were later confirmed to be heart attacks than did the cardiologist. Interpreting EKG data, therefore, should be left to computer programs. | 201010_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"Experts agreed that the cardiologist made few obvious mistakes in reading and interpreting the EKG data.",
"The practice of medicine is as much an art as a science, and computer programs are not easily adapted to making subjective judgments.",
"The cardiologist correctly diagnosed a significantly higher proportion of the cases in which no heart attack occurred than did the computer program.",
"In a considerable percentage of cases, EKG data alone are insufficient to enable either computer programs or cardiologists to make accurate diagnoses.",
"The cardiologist in the study was unrepresentative of cardiologists in general with respect to skill and experience."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
A government study indicates that raising speed limits to reflect the actual average speeds of traffic on level, straight stretches of high-speed roadways reduces the accident rate. Since the actual average speed for level, straight stretches of high-speed roadways tends to be 120 kilometers per hour (75 miles per hour), that should be set as a uniform national speed limit for level, straight stretches of all such roadways. | 201010_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"Uniform national speed limits should apply only to high-speed roadways.",
"Traffic laws applying to high-speed roadways should apply uniformly across the nation.",
"A uniform national speed limit for high-speed roadways should be set only if all such roadways have roughly equal average speeds of traffic.",
"Long-standing laws that are widely violated are probably not good laws.",
"Any measure that reduces the rate of traffic accidents should be implemented."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Psychiatrist: In treating first-year students at this university, I have noticed that those reporting the highest levels of spending on recreation score at about the same level on standard screening instruments for anxiety and depression as those reporting the lowest levels of spending on recreation. This suggests that the first-year students with high levels of spending on recreation could reduce that spending without increasing their anxiety or depression. | 201010_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"At other universities, first-year students reporting the highest levels of spending on recreation also show the same degree of anxiety and depression as do those reporting the lowest levels of such spending.",
"Screening of first-year students at the university who report moderate levels of spending on recreation reveals that those students are less anxious and depressed than both those with the highest and those with the lowest levels of spending on recreation.",
"Among adults between the ages of 40 and 60, increased levels of spending on recreation are strongly correlated with decreased levels of anxiety and depression.",
"The screening instruments used by the psychiatrist are extremely accurate in revealing levels of anxiety and depression among university students.",
"Several of the psychiatrist's patients who are first-year students at the university have reduced their spending on recreation from very high levels to very low levels without increasing their anxiety or depression."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the psychiatrist's argument EXCEPT: |
Every brick house on River Street has a front yard. Most of the houses on River Street that have front yards also have two stories. So most of the brick houses on River Street have two stories. | 201010_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that most politicians have run for office, since all legislators are politicians and most legislators have run for office.",
"By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that most public servants are legislators, since most legislators have run for office and most politicians who have run for office are public servants.",
"By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that not every public servant has run for office, since every legislator is a public servant but some public servants are not legislators.",
"By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that most legislators have never run for office, since most public servants have never run for office and all legislators are public servants.",
"By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that most legislators are not public servants, since most public servants have not run for office and most legislators have run for office."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most appropriate as an analogy demonstrating that the reasoning in the argument above is flawed? |
Historian: It is unlikely that someone would see history as the working out of moral themes unless he or she held clear and unambiguous moral beliefs. However, one's inclination to morally judge human behavior decreases as one's knowledge of history increases. Consequently, the more history a person knows, the less likely that person is to view history as the working out of moral themes. | 201010_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Historical events that fail to elicit moral disapproval are generally not considered to exemplify a moral theme.",
"The less inclined one is to morally judge human behavior, the less likely it is that one holds clear and unambiguous moral beliefs.",
"Only those who do not understand human history attribute moral significance to historical events.",
"The more clear and unambiguous one's moral beliefs, the more likely one is to view history as the working out of moral themes.",
"People tend to be less objective regarding a subject about which they possess extensive knowledge than regarding a subject about which they do not possess extensive knowledge."
]
| 1 | The conclusion of the argument is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
A recent poll revealed that most students at our university prefer that the university, which is searching for a new president, hire someone who has extensive experience as a university president. However, in the very same poll, the person most students chose from among a list of leading candidates as the one they would most like to see hired was someone who has never served as a university president. | 201010_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"Because several of the candidates listed in the poll had extensive experience as university presidents, not all of the candidates could be differentiated on this basis alone.",
"Most of the candidates listed in the poll had extensive experience as university presidents.",
"Students taking the poll had fewer candidates to choose from than were currently being considered for the position.",
"Most of the students taking the poll did not know whether any of the leading candidates listed in the poll had ever served as a university president.",
"Often a person can be well suited to a position even though they have relatively little experience in such a position."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to account for the apparent discrepancy in the students' preferences? |
Among Trinidadian guppies, males with large spots are more attractive to females than are males with small spots, who consequently are presented with less frequent mating opportunities. Yet guppies with small spots are more likely to avoid detection by predators, so in waters where predators are abundant only guppies with small spots live to maturity. | 201010_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"A trait that helps attract mates is sometimes more dangerous to one sex than to another.",
"Those organisms that are most attractive to the opposite sex have the greatest number of offspring.",
"Those organisms that survive the longest have the greatest number of offspring.",
"Whether a trait is harmful to the organisms of a species can depend on which sex possesses it.",
"A trait that is helpful to procreation can also hinder it in certain environments."
]
| 4 | The situation described above most closely conforms to which one of the following generalizations? |
Programmer: We computer programmers at Mytheco are demanding raises to make our average salary comparable with that of the technical writers here who receive, on average, 20 percent more in salary and benefits than we do. This pay difference is unfair and intolerable. Mytheco executive: But many of the technical writers have worked for Mytheco longer than have many of the programmers. Since salary and benefits at Mytheco are directly tied to seniority, the 20 percent pay difference you mention is perfectly acceptable. | 201010_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"whether any of the technical writers at Mytheco once worked as programmers at the company",
"how the average seniority of programmers compares with the average seniority of technical writers",
"whether the sorts of benefits an employee of Mytheco receives are tied to the salary of that employee",
"whether the Mytheco executive was at one time a technical writer employed by Mytheco",
"how the Mytheco executive's salary compares with that of the programmers"
]
| 1 | Evaluating the adequacy of the Mytheco executive's response requires a clarification of which one of the following? |
Cable TV stations have advantages that enable them to attract many more advertisers than broadcast networks attract. For example, cable stations are able to target particular audiences with 24-hour news, sports, or movies, whereas broadcast networks must offer a variety of programming. Cable can also offer lower advertising rates than any broadcast network can, because it is subsidized by viewers through subscriber fees. Additionally, many cable stations have expanded worldwide with multinational programming. | 201010_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Some broadcast networks can be viewed in several countries.",
"Broadcast networks do not rely on subscriber fees from viewers.",
"Low costs are often an important factor for advertisers in selecting a station or network on which to run a TV ad.",
"Some advertisers prefer to have the opportunity to address a worldwide audience.",
"The audiences that some advertisers prefer to target watch 24-hour news stations."
]
| 0 | The statements above, if true, provide support for each of the following EXCEPT: |
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