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Advertisement: GreenBank gives all of its customers unlimited free automatic teller machine (ATM) use. TekBank charges 25 cents for each ATM transaction. So, clearly, it costs more to bank at TekBank than at GreenBank | 201312_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"bases a recommendation solely on economic factors without considering whether other factors are more important",
"presents claims that are irrelevant to the issue under discussion in order to divert attention away from that issue",
"draws a conclusion about the overall cost of a service solely on the basis of a claim about the cost of one component of that service",
"concludes that a component of a service must have a property that the service as a whole possesses",
"concludes that a claim must be false because of the mere absence of evidence in its favor"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the advertisement's argument is misleading in that the argument |
Klein: The fact that the amount of matter that we have found in our galaxy is only one-tenth of what Einstein's theory predicts gives us good reason for abandoning his view. Brown: Given the great successes of Einstein's theory, it would be better to conclude that most of the matter in our galaxy has not yet been found. | 201312_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"Scientists have found only one-tenth of the matter that Einstein's theory predicts.",
"Einstein's theory has achieved many successes.",
"It is possible to determine the amount of matter in our galaxy without relying on Einstein's theory.",
"The failure to find all of the matter predicted by Einstein's theory should lead us to abandon it.",
"Scientists are able to accurately judge the amount of matter that has been found in our galaxy."
]
| 3 | On the basis of their statements, Klein and Brown are committed to disagreeing over the truth of which one of the following statements? |
When chimpanzees become angry at other chimpanzees, they often engage in what primatologists call "threat gestures" : grunting, spitting, or making abrupt, upsweeping arm movements. Chimpanzees also sometimes attack other chimpanzees out of anger. However, when they do attack, they almost never take time to make threat gestures first. And, conversely, threat gestures are rarely followed by physical attacks. | 201312_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Chimpanzees engage in threat gestures when they are angry in order to preserve or enhance social status.",
"Making threat gestures helps chimpanzees vent aggressive feelings and thereby avoid physical aggression.",
"Threat gestures and physical attacks are not the only means by which chimpanzees display aggression.",
"Chimpanzees often respond to other chimpanzees' threat gestures with threat gestures of their own.",
"The chimpanzees that most often make threat gestures are the ones that least often initiate physical attacks."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the information about how often threat gestures are accompanied by physical attacks? |
The Magno-Blanket is probably able to relieve arthritic pain in older dogs. A hospital study of people suffering from severe joint pain found that 76 percent of those who were treated with magnets reported reduced pain after just 3 weeks. Dogs and humans have similar physiologies and the Magno-Blanket brings magnets into the same proximity to the dog's joints as they were to patients' joints in the hospital study. | 201312_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"The Magno-Blanket is likely to be effective on cats and other pets as well if it is effective at reducing joint pain in arthritic dogs.",
"Magnets have been shown to be capable of intensifying the transmission of messages from people's nerve cells to their brains.",
"There are currently fewer means of safely alleviating arthritic pain in dogs than in humans.",
"The patients in the hospital study suffering from severe joint pain who, after being treated with magnets, did not report reduced pain tended not to be those suffering from the most severe pain.",
"Most of the patients in the hospital study suffering from severe joint pain who received a placebo rather than treatment with magnets did not report reduced pain."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Some people believe that advertising is socially pernicious—it changes consumers' preferences, thereby manipulating people into wanting things they would not otherwise want. However, classes in music and art appreciation change people's preferences for various forms of art and music, and there is nothing wrong with these classes. Therefore, ____ | 201312_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"consumers would still want most of the things they want even if they were not advertised",
"the social perniciousness of advertising is not limited to its effect on people's preferences",
"the fact that advertising changes consumers' preferences does not establish that it is bad",
"if advertising changes consumers' preferences, it generally does so in a positive way",
"it is not completely accurate to say that advertising changes people's preferences"
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Many high school students interested in journalism think of journalism careers as involving glamorous international news gathering. But most journalists cover primarily local news, and the overwhelming majority of reporters work for local newspapers. Thus, high school career counselors should tell students who are interested in journalism what life is like for a typical reporter, that is, a reporter for a local newspaper. | 201312_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"High school students who have misconceptions about a career should not be encouraged to pursue that career.",
"One should not encourage people to seek unattainable goals if one wishes to maximize those people's chances to lead happy lives.",
"Students who are choosing a career should be encouraged to try to reach the top levels of that career.",
"A career counselor should try to disabuse students of any unrealistic conceptions they may have about the likely consequences of choosing a particular career.",
"Career counselors are not doing their job properly if they encourage people to make career choices that are initially appealing but that those people will later regret."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles would, if valid, most help to justify the reasoning above? |
More pedestrian injuries occur at crosswalks marked by both striping on the roadway and flashing lights than occur at crosswalks not so marked. Obviously these so-called safety features are a waste of taxpayer money. | 201312_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"fails to consider that crosswalks marked by both striping and flashing lights are marked in this way precisely because they are the most dangerous ones",
"takes for granted that safety features that fail to reduce the number of injuries are a waste of taxpayer money",
"presumes that there are less expensive features that will reduce the number of pedestrian injuries just as effectively as striping and flashing lights",
"takes for granted that crosswalks with both striping and flashing lights have no other safety features",
"fails to consider that, in accidents involving pedestrians and cars, the injuries to pedestrians are nearly always more serious than the injuries to occupants of cars"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism because the argument |
John of Worcester, an English monk, recorded the sighting, on December 8, 1128, of two unusually large sunspots. Five days later a brilliant aurora borealis (northern lights) was observed in southern Korea. Sunspot activity is typically followed by the appearance of an aurora borealis, after a span of time that averages five days. Thus, the Korean sighting helps to confirm John of Worcester's sighting. | 201312_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"An aurora borealis can sometimes occur even when there has been no significant sunspot activity in the previous week.",
"Chinese sources recorded the sighting of sunspots more than 1000 years before John of Worcester did.",
"Only heavy sunspot activity could have resulted in an aurora borealis viewable at a latitude as low as that of Korea.",
"Because it is impossible to view sunspots with the naked eye under typical daylight conditions, the sighting recorded by John of Worcester would have taken place under unusual weather conditions such as fog or thin clouds.",
"John of Worcester's account included a drawing of the sunspots, which could be the earliest illustration of sunspot activity."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Anyone believing that no individual can have an effect on society's future will as a result feel too helpless to act to change society for the better. Thus, anyone who wants to improve society should reject the belief that its future will be determined entirely by vast historical forces that individuals are powerless to change. | 201312_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Anyone who believes that individuals can have an effect on society's future should act to change society for the better.",
"No one who rejects the belief that society's future will be determined by vast historical forces should believe that individuals cannot have an effect on it.",
"Anyone who feels too helpless to act to change society for the better should reject the belief that its future will be determined by vast historical forces that individuals are powerless to change.",
"No one who wants to improve society should accept any belief that makes him or her feel too helpless to act to change society for the better.",
"Each individual should act to improve society if individuals in general feel powerless in the face of vast historical forces."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the argument? |
Company president: Whenever you subcontract the manufacturing of a product, you lose some control over the quality of that product. We do subcontract some manufacturing, but only with companies that maintain complete control over the quality of the products they supply. | 201312_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"When the president's company subcontracts manufacturing of a product, it does not allow the subcontractor to further subcontract manufacturing of that product.",
"Companies that subcontract the manufacturing of products are often disappointed in the quality of those products.",
"The company president insists on having as much control as possible over the quality of the company's products.",
"When consumers know that a product has been manufactured by a subcontractor, they are generally dubious about the product's quality.",
"When a company manufactures some products in-house and subcontracts the manufacturing of others, the products made in-house will be of uniformly better quality."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the company president's statements? |
Secondary school students achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles and they devote significant effort to their studies. Thus, if such broad mastery is not achieved by the students in a particular secondary school, those students are not being taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles. | 201312_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"As long as secondary school students are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles, they will devote significant effort to their studies.",
"Even if secondary school students are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles, they will not achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they do not devote significant effort to their studies.",
"Secondary school students do not achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they are not taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles.",
"Teaching secondary school students with methods appropriate to their learning styles does not always result in broad mastery of the curriculum by those students.",
"Secondary school students who devote significant effort to their studies do not always achieve broad mastery of the curriculum."
]
| 0 | The conclusion can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
Consumer advocate: Even if one can of fruit or vegetables weighs more than another, the heavier can does not necessarily contain more food. Canned fruits and vegetables are typically packed in water, which can make up more than half the total weight of the can's contents. And nothing stops unscrupulous canning companies from including more water per can than others include. | 201312_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"The heavier of two cans of fruit or vegetables does not necessarily contain more food than the lighter of the two cans contains.",
"The weight of the water in a can of fruit or vegetables can be more than half the total weight of the can's contents.",
"Nothing stops unscrupulous canning companies from including more water per can than others include.",
"Some canning companies include less food in cans of a given weight than others include.",
"The heavier of two cans of fruits or vegetables may include more water than the lighter of the two cans contains."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the consumer advocate's argument? |
Several three-year-olds who had learned to count to ten were trying to learn their telephone numbers. Although each child was familiar with the names of all the digits, no child could remember his or her phone number. Their teacher then taught each child a song whose lyrics contained his or her phone number. By the end of the day the children could remember their telephone numbers. | 201312_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"There are some things that children cannot learn without the aid of songs.",
"Familiarity with a concept is not always sufficient for knowing the words used to express it.",
"Mnemonic devices such as songs are better than any other method for memorizing numbers.",
"Children can learn to count without understanding the meaning of numbers.",
"Songs are useful in helping children remember the order in which familiar words occur."
]
| 4 | The situation described above best illustrates which one of the following propositions? |
Some theorists argue that literary critics should strive to be value-neutral in their literary criticism. These theorists maintain that by exposing the meaning of literary works without evaluating them, critics will enable readers to make their own judgments about the works' merits. But literary criticism cannot be completely value-neutral. Thus, some theorists are mistaken about what is an appropriate goal for literary criticism. | 201312_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"Any critic who is able to help readers make their own judgments about literary works' merits should strive to produce value-neutral criticism.",
"If it is impossible to produce completely value-neutral literary criticism, then critics should not even try to be value-neutral.",
"Critics are more likely to provide criticisms of the works they like than to provide criticisms of the works they dislike.",
"The less readers understand the meaning of a literary work, the less capable they will be of evaluating that work's merits.",
"Critics who try to avoid rendering value judgments about the works they consider tend to influence readers' judgments less than other critics do."
]
| 1 | The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Amoebas, like human beings, generally withdraw from stimuli that cause them physical damage. Humans do this because such stimuli cause them pain. Thus all microscopic organisms must also be capable of feeling pain. | 201312_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"Poets, like people under hypnosis, frequently use language in odd, incomprehensible ways. People under hypnosis do this because their inhibitions are lower than those of most people. Thus all artists must have lower inhibitions than most people have.",
"Like nonprofit organizations, corporations usually provide some free public services. Nonprofit organizations do this solely because of their members' desire to make the world a better place. Thus this is probably also the main motive of most corporations.",
"Most professional athletes practice regularly for the same reason. Professional boxers spend several hours a day practicing in order to excel in competition. Thus professional skaters probably also practice in order to excel in competition.",
"Predatory birds, like many predatory animals, are generally solitary hunters. Some predatory mammals hunt alone because there is not enough food to support a pack of them in one area. Thus hawks, which are predatory birds, probably hunt alone.",
"Hiking trails in British Columbia, like those in New Mexico, are concentrated in mountainous regions. In New Mexico this is partly because low-lying areas are too hot and arid for comfortable hiking. Thus hikers must also feel less comfortable hiking in low-lying areas of British Columbia."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above? |
Zoologist: In the Lake Champlain area, as the North American snowshoe hare population grows, so do the populations of its predators. As predator numbers increase, the hares seek food in more heavily forested areas, which contain less food, and so the hare population declines. Predator populations thus decline, the hare population starts to increase, and the cycle begins again. Yet these facts alone cannot explain why populations of snowshoe hares everywhere behave simultaneously in this cyclical way. Since the hare population cycle is well correlated with the regular cycle of sunspot activity, that activity is probably a causal factor as well. | 201312_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"Reproduction in predator populations increases when sunspot activity indirectly affects hormonal processes associated with reproduction.",
"Local weather patterns that can affect species' population changes can occur both in the presence of sunspot activity and in its absence.",
"Brighter light during sunspot activity subtly but significantly improves the ability of predators to detect and capture hares.",
"The variation from cycle to cycle in the magnitude of the highs and lows in snowshoe hare populations is highly correlated with variations from cycle to cycle in the intensity of highs and lows in sunspot activity.",
"Sunspot activity is correlated with increases and decreases in the nutritional value of vegetation eaten by the hares."
]
| 1 | Each of the following, if true, supports the zoologist's reasoning EXCEPT: |
Science teacher: In any nation, a flourishing national scientific community is essential to a successful economy. For such a community to flourish requires that many young people become excited enough about science that they resolve to become professional scientists. Good communication between scientists and the public is necessary to spark that excitement. | 201312_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"If scientists communicate with the public, many young people will become excited enough about science to resolve to become professional scientists.",
"The extent to which a national scientific community flourishes depends principally on the number of young people who become excited enough about science to resolve to become professional scientists.",
"No nation can have a successful economy unless at some point scientists have communicated well with the public.",
"It is essential to any nation's economy that most of the young people in that nation who are excited about science become professional scientists.",
"An essential component of success in any scientific endeavor is good communication between the scientists involved in that endeavor and the public."
]
| 2 | The science teacher's statements provide the most support for which one of the following? |
A recent magazine article argued that most companies that do not already own videoconferencing equipment would be wasting their money if they purchased it. However, this is clearly not true. In a recent survey of businesses that have purchased such equipment, most of the respondents stated that the videoconferencing equipment was well worth its cost. | 201312_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"concludes that something is worth its cost merely on the grounds that many businesses have purchased it",
"takes a condition sufficient to justify purchasing costly equipment to be necessary in order for the cost of the purchase to be justified",
"rejects a position merely on the grounds that an inadequate argument has been given for it",
"relies on a sample that it is reasonable to suppose is unrepresentative of the group about which it draws its conclusion",
"confuses the cost of an item with its value to the purchaser"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument |
Auditor: XYZ, a construction company, purchased 20 new trucks 3 years ago, and there is no record of any of those trucks being sold last year. Records indicate, however, that XYZ sold off all of its diesel-powered trucks last year. We can thus conclude that none of the 20 trucks purchased 3 years ago were diesel powered. | 201312_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"All of the trucks that XYZ sold last year were diesel powered.",
"XYZ did not purchase any used trucks 3 years ago.",
"XYZ did not purchase any new trucks since it purchased the 20 trucks 3 years ago.",
"None of the 20 trucks was sold before last year.",
"XYZ no longer owns any trucks that it purchased more than 3 years ago."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the auditor'#s reasoning? |
Taylor: From observing close friends and relatives, it is clear to me that telepathy is indeed possible between people with close psychic ties. The amazing frequency with which a good friend or family member knows what one is thinking or feeling cannot be dismissed as mere coincidence. | 201312_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"is based on too small a sample to yield a reliable conclusion",
"fails to address a highly plausible alternative explanation for all instances of the observed phenomenon",
"relies crucially on an illegitimate appeal to emotion",
"presumes, without providing justification, that one can never know what a stranger is thinking or feeling",
"appeals to a premise one would accept only if one already accepted the truth of the conclusion"
]
| 1 | Taylor's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Prolonged exposure to sulfur fumes permanently damages one's sense of smell. In one important study, 100 workers from sulfur-emitting factories and a control group of 100 workers from other occupations were asked to identify a variety of chemically reproduced scents, including those of foods, spices, and flowers. On average, the factory workers successfully identified 10 percent of the scents compared to 50 percent for the control group. | 201312_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"The chemicals used in the study closely but not perfectly reproduced the corresponding natural scents.",
"The subjects in the study were tested in the environments where they usually work.",
"Most members of the control group had participated in several earlier studies that involved the identification of scents.",
"Every sulfur-emitting factory with workers participating in the study also emits other noxious fumes.",
"Because of the factories' locations, the factory workers were less likely than those in the control group to have been exposed to many of the scents used in the study."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: |
Principle: Anyone who has more than one overdue book out on loan from the library at the same time must be fined if some of the overdue books are not children's books and that person has previously been fined for overdue books. Application: Since three of the books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library are overdue, Kessler must be fined. | 201312_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"Some of the books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library are not children's books, and Kessler was fined last year for returning a children's book late.",
"One of the overdue books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library is a novel for adults, and Kessler was fined last year for returning this book late.",
"None of the books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library is a children's book and in previous years Kessler has returned various books late.",
"Kessler was fined by the library several times in the past for overdue books, but none of the overdue books for which Kessler was fined were children's books.",
"Kessler has never before been fined for overdue books, but the three overdue books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library are months overdue."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, justifies the above application of the principle? |
Medical school professor: Most malpractice suits arise out of patients' perceptions that their doctors are acting negligently or carelessly. Many doctors now regard medicine as a science rather than an art, and are less compassionate as a result. Harried doctors sometimes treat patients rudely, discourage them from asking questions, or patronize them. Lawsuits could be avoided if doctors learned to listen better to patients. Unfortunately, certain economic incentives encourage doctors to treat patients rudely. | 201312_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"Economic incentives to treat patients rudely are the main cause of doctors being sued for malpractice.",
"The economic incentives in the health care system encourage doctors to regard medicine as a science rather than as an art.",
"Malpractice suits brought against doctors are, for the most part, unjustified.",
"The scientific outlook in medicine should be replaced by an entirely different approach to medicine.",
"Doctors foster, by their actions, the perception that they do not really care about their patients."
]
| 4 | The medical school professor's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
If the concrete is poured while the ground is wet, it will not form a solid foundation. If the concrete does not form a solid foundation, it will either settle unevenly or crack. So if the concrete settles evenly, either it was poured while the ground was dry or it will crack. | 201312_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"The film will not be properly exposed if the camera is not working properly. If the film is not properly exposed, then the photograph will be either blurred or dark. So if the photograph is not blurred, either the camera is working properly or the photograph will be dark.",
"If the camera is working properly, the photograph will not be blurred. The photograph will be blurred if the film is either not properly exposed or not properly developed. So if the camera is working properly, the film will be both properly exposed and properly developed.",
"The photograph will either be blurred or dark if the camera is not working properly. This photograph is not blurred, so if the photograph is not dark, the camera is working properly.",
"If the camera is working properly, the film will be properly exposed. If either the film is properly exposed or corrections are made during the developing process, the photograph will not be dark. So if the camera is working properly, the photograph will not be dark.",
"The camera will work properly only if the film is properly exposed. But the film cannot be properly exposed if there is either not enough or too much light. So the camera will not work properly if there is either too much or not enough light."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments is most closely parallel in its reasoning to the reasoning in the argument above? |
New evidence indicates that recent property development bordering a national park has not adversely affected the park's wildlife. On the contrary, a comparison of the most recent survey of the park's wildlife with one conducted just prior to the development shows that the amount of wildlife has in fact increased over the intervening decade. Moreover, the park's resources can support its current wildlife populations without strain. | 201312_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"While both surveys found the same species of animals in the park, the more recent survey found greater numbers of animals belonging to each species.",
"The more recent survey was taken in the summer, when the diversity of wildlife in the park is at its greatest.",
"Migration of wildlife into the park from the adjacent developing areas has increased animal populations to levels beyond those that the resources of the park could have supported a decade ago.",
"The most recent techniques for surveying wildlife are better at locating difficult-to-find animals than were older techniques.",
"The more recent survey not only involved counting the animals found in the park but, unlike the earlier survey, also provided an inventory of the plant life found within the park."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
As advances in medical research and technology have improved the ability of the medical profession to diagnose and treat a wide variety of illnesses and injuries, life spans have increased and overall health has improved. Yet, over the past few decades there has been a steady and significant increase in the rate of serious infections. | 201312_3-LR2_26_26 | [
"It remains true that doctors sometimes prescribe ineffective medications due to misdiagnosis.",
"Life spans have increased precisely because overall health has improved.",
"The vast majority of serious infections are now curable, although many require hospitalization.",
"As a population increases in size, there is a directly proportional increase in the number of serious infections.",
"Modern treatments for many otherwise fatal illnesses increase the patient's susceptibility to infection."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
Treat training consists of rewarding dogs with edible treats whenever they respond appropriately to commands. Most dogs will quickly learn what they need to do to receive a treat, so this appears to be an effective training method. However, most dogs who have been treat-trained will not obey commands unless they are shown a treat. Since you cannot always have treats on hand, you should instead use praise and verbal correction to train your dog. | 201406_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"The more quickly a dog learns to respond to a stimulus, the more likely it is that the owner will continue to use that stimulus.",
"The more often a dog is given a stimulus, the more likely it is that the dog will obey its owner's command even when the owner does not provide that stimulus.",
"A dog should be trained by the method that results in a high obedience rate in at least some circumstances.",
"A dog should be trained to respond to a stimulus that its owner can supply in all situations.",
"A dog should not be trained by a method that has not proven to be effective for any other dogs."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Archaeologist: For 2,000 years the ancient Sumerians depended on irrigation to sustain the agriculture that fed their civilization. But eventually irrigation built up in the soil toxic levels of the salts and other impurities left behind when water evaporates. When its soil became unable to support agriculture, Sumerian civilization collapsed. A similar fate is thus likely to befall modern civilizations that continue to rely heavily on irrigation for agriculture. | 201406_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"Most modern civilizations could not feed themselves through agriculture without relying heavily on irrigation.",
"Factors unrelated to the use of irrigation would probably have caused Sumerian civilization to collapse sooner or later.",
"Many modern farmers use irrigation techniques that avoid the buildup of salts and other toxic impurities in the soil.",
"Many modern civilizations do not rely to any significant extent on irrigation for agriculture.",
"The soil of ancient Sumeria already contained some toxic salts and other impurities before the Sumerians started using irrigation for agriculture."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the archaeologist's argument? |
Researcher: Dinosaur fossils come in various forms, including mineralized bones and tracks in dried mud flats. However, mineralized dinosaur bones and dinosaur tracks in dried mud flats are rarely found together. This isn't surprising, because creatures that scavenged dinosaur carcasses most likely frequented mud flats to find food. | 201406_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"Dinosaur tracks are also found in locations other than mud flats.",
"Scavengers commonly drag a carcass away from the site where it was found.",
"Researchers have found more fossil dinosaur tracks than fossil dinosaur bones.",
"Dinosaur fossils other than mineralized bone or tracks in dried mud flats are quite common.",
"It takes longer for bone to mineralize than it takes for tracks to dry in mud flats."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the researcher's argument? |
Electric stovetop burners would cause fewer fires if their highest temperature were limited to 350°C (662°F), which provides more than enough heat for efficient and effective cooking. The lowest temperature at which cooking oil and most common fibers ignite is 387°C, and electric burners on high go well above 700°C. | 201406_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Electric stovetop burners would cause fewer fires if their highest temperature were limited to 350°C.",
"A maximum temperature of 350°C provides more than enough heat for efficient and effective cooking.",
"The lowest ignition temperature for cooking oil and most common fibers is 387°C.",
"Electric burners on high go well above 700°C.",
"Electric stovetop burners cause fires because they go well above 700°C when set on high."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument? |
Jenkins maintains that the movie Firepower was not intended to provoke antisocial behavior, arguing that, on the contrary, it is in the interest of Firepower's director to prevent such behavior. Yet Jenkins's conclusion must be rejected, because the movie has clearly produced antisocial behavior among many of those who have seen it. | 201406_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"rejects an argument on the grounds that it was offered by a person who was biased",
"concludes from a mere correlation between certain phenomena that those phenomena are causally related",
"infers that something is true of a whole solely on the grounds that it is true of a part of the whole",
"overlooks the possibility that people can act in a way that is contrary to their expressed interest",
"concludes from the mere fact that an action had a certain effect that the effect was intended by the person who performed the action"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it |
The word "loophole" is a loaded, partisan word, one that implies wrongdoing and scandal. When "loophole" creeps into news stories, they start to read like editorials. So news reporters should not use the term "loophole" in their stories unless they provide evidence of wrongdoing. | 201406_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"Making use of a loophole never constitutes wrongdoing or scandal.",
"Editorials should meet the same journalistic standards as news stories.",
"News stories need to give evidence to back up any suggestions of misconduct.",
"Editorial writers should be free to use loaded, partisan words.",
"News reporters should not report on wrongdoing and scandal that is not a matter of public interest."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument? |
Expert: Some people claim that, since food production has thus far increased faster than population has, there is no need to be concerned about widespread food shortages. These people fail to recognize that the planet's resources allow for food to be produced at only a few times the current amount, beyond which no increase in production will be possible. Thus, widespread food shortages are inevitable. | 201406_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"The world's food resources, though limited, are renewable.",
"Food resources from the world's oceans will eventually be fully utilized.",
"The world's population has recently remained fairly stable because of falling birth rates.",
"Periodic regional food shortages have occurred at least briefly throughout history.",
"Population will continue to grow at least briefly when food production has reached its maximum level."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the expert's reasoning? |
In the earliest video games, the player typically controlled the movements of a simple icon on the screen. But in newer video games, players often control the movements of detailed human figures-a feature possible because of the greater technical sophistication of these games. It is hard for players to identify with these figures, since the players can see that the figures represent other people. Thus, in this respect the technical sophistication of the newer video games often makes them less compelling to players. | 201406_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"There are no newer, more technically sophisticated video games in which the player controls the movements of a simple icon on the screen.",
"Most early video games in which the player controlled a simple icon on the screen were in other respects less compelling to players than newer video games.",
"The technical sophistication necessary for creating detailed human figures in video games cannot in itself make those video games fully compelling even to players who identify with those figures.",
"When players cannot easily identify with the figure or icon whose movements they control in a video game, they usually find that game less compelling than it otherwise would be.",
"If some aspect of a video game's technical sophistication makes it less compelling to players, then that video game contains a human figure with whom it is difficult for players to identify."
]
| 3 | The conclusion of the argument can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
There are many agricultural regions in North America where the growing season is long enough to allow pumpkin production well into autumn with no risk of frost. Nonetheless, pumpkin production in North America is concentrated in regions with long, cold winters, where the growing season is delayed and pumpkin crops are exposed to risk of damage or destruction by early autumn frosts. | 201406_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"Pumpkins are usually grown to reach maturity in autumn.",
"Pumpkins depend on bees for pollination, and bees are active only in warm weather.",
"More pumpkins are sold to consumers in regions of North America with long growing seasons than to those in regions with short growing seasons.",
"Prolonged cold temperatures kill soil-borne fungus and other sources of disease that would kill or seriously damage pumpkins.",
"Most of the pumpkin seed used by growers in North America is produced in areas where the growing season is long, and plants used for seed production are protected in greenhouses."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
Council chair: The traditional code of parliamentary procedure contains a large number of obscure, unnecessary rules, which cause us to quibble interminably over procedural details and so to appear unworthy of public confidence. Admittedly, the code is entrenched and widely accepted. But success in our endeavors depends on the public's having confidence in our effectiveness. Therefore, it is imperative that we adopt the alternate code, which has been in successful use elsewhere for several years. | 201406_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"The council's use of the problematic rules in the traditional code is intermittent.",
"Those who have adopted the alternate code sometimes attempt to use it to obscure their opponents' understanding of procedures.",
"Revision of the traditional code is underway that will eliminate the problematic rules.",
"It is not always reasonable to adopt a different code in order to maintain the public's confidence.",
"The alternate code contains few provisions that have thus far been criticized as obscure or unnecessary."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the chair's conclusion? |
Businesses frequently use customer surveys in an attempt to improve sales and increase profits. However, a recent study of the effectiveness of these surveys found that among a group of businesses that sold similar products, profits declined in most of the businesses that used surveys during the course of the study but not in most of the businesses that did not use any surveys during the course of the study. | 201406_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"When one business increases its profits, its competitors often report a decline in profits.",
"Some businesses routinely use customer surveys.",
"Most businesses of the kind included in the study generally administer customer surveys only as a response to complaints by customers.",
"Customers who complete surveys do not always respond accurately to all the questions on the survey.",
"Some of the businesses included in the study did not analyze the results of the customer surveys they conducted."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why the profits of businesses that did not use customer surveys did not decline while the profits of those that used surveys did decline? |
Humans' emotional tendencies are essentially unchanged from those of the earliest members of our species. Accordingly, although technology makes possible a wider range of individual and societal choices than in centuries past, humans are generally unable to choose more wisely. | 201406_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"Humans have undergone no significant changes since the origin of the species.",
"Humans who make wise choices are generally in control of their emotions.",
"Human history cannot make humans any wiser unless humans are emotionally disposed to heed the lessons of history.",
"Regardless of the range of choices available to humans, they choose on the basis of their emotions alone.",
"Humans would now be able to make wiser choices than in centuries past only if an essential change had taken place in humans' emotional dispositions."
]
| 4 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Some ornithologists believe that many species of songbirds are threatened by deforestation. Yet they also claim that, despite recent reforestation, matters continue to worsen, since it is fragmentation of forest rather than reduction of forest size that endangers songbird species. The introduction of open spaces and corridors in forests reduces the distance of songbird nests from unforested areas and thus reduces the songbirds' natural shield from predators. | 201406_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"It is used as evidence that various species of songbirds will continue to be threatened with extinction.",
"It is presented as a claim that is rejected by ornithologists who present declining songbird populations as evidence of deforestation.",
"It is presented as a phenomenon that is compatible with the ornithologists' claim that the threat to songbirds continues to worsen.",
"It is used as evidence that songbirds' predators will continue to have a habitat and so will continue to pose a threat to songbirds.",
"It is presented as evidence for the claim that songbirds' predators are threatened by extinction unless they have open spaces and corridors that give them access to their prey."
]
| 2 | The claim that there has recently been reforestation plays which one of the following roles in the ornithologists' argument? |
Researchers recently studied the relationship between diet and mood, using a diverse sample of 1,000 adults. It was found that those who ate the most chocolate were the most likely to feel depressed. Therefore, by reducing excessive chocolate consumption, adults can almost certainly improve their mood. | 201406_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"It improperly infers from the fact that a substance causally contributes to a condition that a reduction in the consumption of the substance is likely to eliminate that condition.",
"It draws a conclusion about the population as a whole on the basis of a sample that is unlikely to be representative of that population.",
"It draws a conclusion about a causal relationship between two phenomena from evidence that merely suggests that there is a correlation between those phenomena.",
"It confuses a condition that is necessary for establishing the truth of the conclusion with a condition that is sufficient for establishing the truth of the conclusion.",
"Its conclusion is worded too vaguely to evaluate the degree to which the premises support the truth of the conclusion."
]
| 2 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Among the many temptations of the digital age, manipulation of photographs has proved particularly troublesome for science. Recently, a journal of cellular biology began using a software tool to examine the digital images submitted along with articles for publication. It discovered that dozens of authors had submitted digital images that had been manipulated in ways that violated the journal's guidelines. Clearly, scientific fraud is a widespread problem among the authors submitting to that journal. | 201406_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"The scientists who submitted manipulated images were aware that the journal used software to examine digital images for evidence of manipulation.",
"The journal requires that all articles submitted for publication include digital images.",
"Scientific fraud is possible in the field of cellular biology only if the research is documented with digital images.",
"Many of the scientists who submitted articles with manipulated images did so in order to misrepresent the information conveyed by those images.",
"Scientific fraud is a widespread problem only among scientists who submit articles to journals of cellular biology."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
There are already more great artworks in the world than any human being could appreciate in a lifetime, works capable of satisfying virtually any taste imaginable. Thus, contemporary artists, all of whom believe that their works enable many people to feel more aesthetically fulfilled than they otherwise could, are mistaken. | 201406_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"overlooks the possibility that not all contemporary artists believe that their works enable many people to feel more aesthetically fulfilled than they otherwise could",
"presumes, without providing justification, that most human beings are inclined to take the time to appreciate many great artworks",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the value of an artwork depends on the degree to which human beings appreciate it",
"overlooks the possibility that the work of at least one contemporary artist is appreciated by many people whose access to the great majority of other artworks is severely restricted",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the number and variety of great artworks already in the world affects the amount of aesthetic fulfillment derivable from any contemporary artwork"
]
| 3 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
The government health service has said that it definitely will not pay for patients to take the influenza medicine Antinfia until the drug's manufacturer, PharmCo, provides detailed information about Antinfia's cost-effectiveness. PharmCo has responded that obtaining such information would require massive clinical trials. These trials cannot be performed until the drug is in widespread circulation, something that will happen only if the government health service pays for Antinfia. | 201406_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"The government health service never pays for any medicine unless that medicine has been shown to be cost-effective.",
"Antinfia will never be in widespread circulation.",
"If the government health service does not pay for Antinfia, then many patients will pay for Antinfia themselves.",
"The government health service should pay for patients to take Antinfia.",
"Antinfia is not cost-effective."
]
| 1 | If the statements of both the government health service and PharmCo are true, which one of the following is most likely to also be true? |
Journalist: Scientists took blood samples from two large, diverse groups of volunteers. All the volunteers in one group reported that they enjoyed eating vegetables, whereas all those in the other group disliked vegetables. When the blood samples from the group that disliked vegetables were analyzed, it was discovered that all the volunteers in that group had a gene in common, the XRV2G gene. This strongly suggests that a dislike of vegetables is, at least in some cases, genetically determined. | 201406_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"It presumes that all human traits are genetically determined.",
"It overlooks the possibility that the volunteers in one or both of the two groups may not have been representative of the human population as a whole in one or more respects.",
"It overlooks the possibility that even when one phenomenon always produces another phenomenon, the latter phenomenon may often be present when the former is absent.",
"It overlooks the possibility that even if a dislike of vegetables is genetically determined, it may be strongly influenced by genes other than the XRV2G gene.",
"It takes for granted that the volunteers in the group that enjoyed eating vegetables did not also all have the XRV2G gene in common."
]
| 4 | The journalist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Ana: On libertarian principles, I oppose the proposed smoking ban. It is not the government's business to prevent people from doing things that harm only themselves. Pankaj: But keep in mind that the ban would apply only to smoking in public places. People could still smoke all they want in private. | 201406_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"it is the government's business to prevent people from harming themselves",
"government should be restrained by libertarian principles",
"the proposed smoking ban is intended to prevent harm only to smokers themselves",
"the proposed ban would prohibit smoking in public places",
"there are cases in which government should attempt to regulate private behavior"
]
| 2 | The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that Ana and Pankaj disagree over whether |
Agricultural scientist: Wild apples are considerably smaller than cultivated apples found in supermarkets. In one particular region, archaeologists have looked for remains of cultivated apples dating from 5,000 years ago, around the time people first started cultivating fruit. But the only remains of apples that archaeologists have found from this period are from fruits the same size as the wild apples native to the region. So apples were probably not cultivated in this region 5,000 years ago. | 201406_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"fails to consider that even if a plant was not cultivated in a given region at a specific time, it may have been cultivated in nearby regions at that time",
"fails to consider that plants that have been cultivated for only a short time may tend to resemble their wild counterparts much more closely than plants that have been cultivated for a long time",
"takes for granted that all apples are either the size of wild apples or the size of the cultivated apples now found in supermarkets",
"employs a premise that is incompatible with the conclusion it is supposed to justify",
"uses a claim that presupposes the truth of its main conclusion as part of the justification for that conclusion"
]
| 1 | The agricultural scientist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Genuine happiness consists not in pleasurable feelings but instead in one's sense of approval of one's character and projects. Thus the happy life, in fact, tends to be the good life, where the good life is understood not-as it usually is these days—as a life of material well-being but rather as a morally virtuous life. | 201406_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"A morally virtuous life requires the rejection of material well-being.",
"People who approve of their own character and projects tend to lead morally virtuous lives.",
"Approval of one's own character and projects tends not to result in pleasurable feelings.",
"Attaining happiness is the real goal of people who strive for material well-being.",
"Material well-being does not increase one's sense of approval of one's character and projects."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
The return of organic wastes to the soil is a good solution to waste disposal problems only if the wastes are nontoxic and not too much energy is expended in transporting them. In small-scale organic farming, the wastes are nontoxic and not too much energy is expended in transporting them. Hence, returning organic wastes to the soil is a good way for small-scale organic farms to solve their waste disposal problems. | 201406_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"Plants thrive if they get an abundance of moisture, light, and nutrients. In greenhouses, plants get an optimal combination of all three, which is why commercially produced plants are so healthy when you first buy them.",
"When every country has equal access to markets, which will be the case 20 years from now, globalization of markets will provide a way for each country to optimize its use of resources. So, globalization of markets will show the desired results 20 years from now.",
"To be viable, a business idea must be clear, cost-effective, practical, and responsive to a market demand. Your idea for a website information service has all these properties, so it is viable.",
"Those competitors-and only those-who meet all of the following criteria are eligible for the award: they must be under 19 years of age, be in secondary school, and have played the sport for at least the two years immediately preceding the competition. You meet all the criteria, so you are eligible.",
"A meal is nutritious only if it includes both carbohydrates and protein. Almost 80 percent of the calories in what I ate for lunch were from fat, so what I ate for lunch was not nutritious."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above? |
Scientist: Some colonies of bacteria produce antibiotic molecules called phenazines, which they use to fend off other bacteria. We hypothesize that phenazines also serve as molecular pipelines that give interior bacteria access to essential nutrients in the environment surrounding the colony. | 201406_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"Bacteria colonies that do not produce phenazines form wrinkled surfaces, thus increasing the number of bacteria that are in direct contact with the surrounding environment.",
"The rate at which a bacteria colony produces phenazines is determined by the number of foreign bacteria in the environment immediately surrounding the colony.",
"When bacteria colonies that do not produce phenazines are buried in nutrient-rich soil, they grow as quickly as colonies that do produce phenazines.",
"Bacteria colonies that produce phenazines are better able to fend off other bacteria than are bacteria colonies that do not produce phenazines.",
"Within bacteria colonies that produce phenazines, interior bacteria are more likely to die than are bacteria along the edges."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the scientist's hypothesis? |
Library preservationist: Due to the continual physical deterioration of the medieval manuscripts in our library's collection, we have decided to restore most of our medieval manuscripts that are of widely acknowledged cultural significance, though this means that some medieval manuscripts whose authenticity is suspect will be restored. However, only manuscripts whose safety can be ensured during the restoration process will be restored, and manuscripts that are not frequently consulted by researchers will not be restored. | 201406_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Some of the medieval manuscripts whose authenticity is suspect are frequently consulted by researchers.",
"All of the medieval manuscripts widely acknowledged to be of cultural significance are manuscripts whose safety can be ensured during the restoration process.",
"All of the medieval manuscripts whose safety can be ensured during the restoration process are frequently consulted by researchers.",
"The medieval manuscripts most susceptible to deterioration are those most frequently consulted by researchers.",
"None of the medieval manuscripts that are rarely consulted by researchers is widely acknowledged to be of cultural significance."
]
| 0 | If all of the library preservationist's statements are true, which one of the following must be true of the medieval manuscripts in the library's collection? |
Direct-mail advertising usually consists of advertisements for products to be purchased from the home, so the perception that it is bad for the environment is misguided. Because of direct-mail advertising, millions of people buy products by phone or online—products whose purchase would otherwise require the use of a car, thus adding pollutants to the air. | 201406_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"Although the primary intent of most direct-mail advertisers is to convince people to buy products from their homes, direct mail can also lead to increased sales in stores by customers who prefer to see a product prior to purchasing it.",
"Most of the products purchased in response to direct-mail advertisements would be purchased even without the direct-mail advertisements.",
"A person who receives and reads a direct-mail advertisement is more likely to purchase the product advertised than is a person who reads an advertisement for a product in a magazine that they subscribe to.",
"Usually, a company that sends out direct-mail advertisements has good reason to think that the person to whom the advertisement is sent would be more interested in the product than would the average person.",
"Products purchased as the result of direct-mail advertising comprise an increasingly large portion of the consumer products purchased each year."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument? |
The older a country is, the more likely it is to be ruled by a monarch. Thus, since most countries are not ruled by monarchs, if a country is particularly new it is probably not ruled by a monarch. | 201406_2-LR1_26_26 | [
"Most novels are not made into movies. However, the more popular a novel is, the more likely it is to be made into a movie. Thus, if a movie is quite unpopular, it was probably not based on a novel.",
"Most novels are not made into movies. However, the more popular a movie is, the more likely it is that the movie was based on a novel. Thus, if a novel is particularly popular, it will probably be made into a movie.",
"Most novels are not made into movies. Moreover, if a novel is particularly unpopular, it will probably not be made into a movie. Thus, the more popular a novel is, the more likely it is to be made into a movie.",
"Most novels are not made into movies. However, the more popular a novel is, the more likely it is to be made into a movie. Thus, if a novel is quite unpopular, it will probably not be made into a movie.",
"Most novels are not made into movies. Moreover, the more complex a novel's plot, the less likely the novel is to be made into a movie. Thus, if a novel has a particularly simple plot, it will probably be made into a movie."
]
| 3 | The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments? |
Dentist: I recommend brushing one's teeth after every meal to remove sugars that facilitate the growth of certain bacteria; these bacteria produce acid that dissolves minerals in tooth enamel, resulting in cavities. And when brushing is not practical, I recommend chewing gum—even gum that contains sugar—to prevent the formation of cavities. | 201406_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"A piece of chewing gum that contains sugar contains far less sugar than does the average meal.",
"Tooth decay can be stopped and reversed if it is caught before a cavity develops.",
"Chewing gum stimulates the production of saliva, which reduces acidity in the mouth and helps remineralize tooth enamel.",
"Sugars can be on teeth for as long as 24 hours before the teeth-damaging bacteria whose growth they facilitate begin to proliferate.",
"Chewing gum exercises and relaxes the jaw muscles and so contributes to the overall health of the oral tract."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most help to reconcile the dentist's apparently paradoxical recommendations? |
When the ancient fossils of a primitive land mammal were unearthed in New Zealand, they provided the first concrete evidence that the island country had once had indigenous land mammals. Until that discovery, New Zealand had no known native land mammals. The discovery thus falsifies the theory that New Zealand's rich and varied native bird population owes its existence to the lack of competition from mammals. | 201406_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"The unearthed land mammal is only one of several ancient land mammals that were indigenous to New Zealand.",
"The recently discovered land mammal became extinct long before the native bird population was established.",
"The site at which the primitive land mammal was unearthed also contains the fossils of primitive reptile and insect species.",
"Countries with rich and varied native land mammal populations do not have rich and varied native bird populations.",
"Some other island countries that are believed to have no native land mammals in fact had indigenous land mammals at one time."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Restaurant owner: The newspaper reporter who panned my restaurant acknowledges having no special expertise about food and its preparation. His previous job was as a political reporter. He is a good writer, but he is not a true restaurant critic. A newspaper would never call someone a drama critic who had no special training in theater. | 201406_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"The newspaper reporter who panned the restaurant acknowledges having no special expertise about food and its preparation.",
"The previous job of the newspaper reporter who panned the restaurant was as a political reporter.",
"The newspaper reporter who panned the restaurant is a good writer.",
"The newspaper reporter who panned the restaurant is not a true restaurant critic.",
"A newspaper would never call someone a drama critic who had no special training in theater."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the restaurant owner's argument? |
It has been hypothesized that our solar system was formed from a cloud of gas and dust produced by a supernova—an especially powerful explosion of a star. Supernovas produce the isotope iron-60, so if this hypothesis were correct, then iron-60 would have been present in the early history of the solar system. But researchers have found no iron-60 in meteorites that formed early in the solar system's history, thereby disproving the hypothesis. | 201406_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"If a meteorite is formed early in the solar system's history, it contains chemical elements that are unlikely to be found in gas and dust produced by a supernova.",
"Other solar systems are not formed from clouds of gas and dust produced by supernovas.",
"Supernovas do not produce significant quantities of any form of iron other than iron-60.",
"Researchers have found iron-60 in meteorites that were formed relatively late in the solar system's history.",
"If there had been iron-60 present in the early history of the solar system, it would be found in meteorites formed early in the solar system's history."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Safety expert: Tuna is often treated with carbon monoxide so that it will not turn brown as it ages. Treating tuna with carbon monoxide does not make it harmful in any way. Nonetheless, there is a danger that such treatment will result in more people getting sick from eating tuna. | 201406_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"Workers in fish processing plants can be sickened by exposure to carbon monoxide if the appropriate safety procedures are not followed at those plants.",
"Over the last several years, tuna consumption has increased in most parts of the world.",
"Tuna that is treated with carbon monoxide provides no visible indication when it has spoiled to the point that it can cause food poisoning.",
"Treating tuna with carbon monoxide is the only way to keep it from turning brown as it ages.",
"Most consumers strongly prefer tuna that is not brown because they believe that brown tuna is not fresh."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the safety expert's statements? |
Astrophysicist: Gamma ray bursts (GRBs)-explosions of powerful radiation from deep space-have traditionally been classified as either "short" or "long," terms that reflect the explosion's relative duration. However, an unusual GRB has been sighted. Its duration was long, but in every other respect it had the properties of a short GRB. Clearly, the descriptive labels "short" and "long" have now outlived their usefulness. | 201406_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"No other GRBs with unusual properties have been sighted.",
"The classification of GRBs can sometimes be made on the basis of duration alone.",
"Properties other than duration are more important than duration in the proper classification of the unusual GRB.",
"GRBs cannot be classified according to the different types of cosmic events that create them.",
"Descriptive labels are easily replaced with nondescriptive labels such as \"type I\" and \"type\""
]
| 2 | The conclusion of the astrophysicist's argument is most strongly supported if which one of the following is assumed? |
In one study, hospital patients' immune systems grew stronger when the patients viewed comic videos. This indicates that laughter can aid recovery from illness. But much greater gains in immune system strength occurred in the patients whose tendency to laugh was greater to begin with. So hospital patients with a greater tendency to laugh are helped more in their recovery from illness even when they laugh a little than other patients are helped when they laugh a greater amount. | 201406_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"overlooks the possibility that the patients whose tendency to laugh was greater to begin with laughed more at the comic videos than did the other patients",
"fails to address adequately the possibility that the patients whose tendency to laugh was greatest to begin with already had stronger immune systems than the other patients",
"presumes, without providing justification, that hospital patients have immune systems representative of those of the entire population",
"takes for granted that the gains in immune system strength did not themselves influence the patients' tendency to laugh",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the patients whose tendency to laugh was greatest to begin with recovered from their illnesses more rapidly than the other patients"
]
| 0 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
A study of guppy fish shows that a male guppy will alter its courting patterns in response to feedback from a female guppy. Males with more orange on one side than the other were free to vary which side they showed to a female. Females were drawn to those males with more orange showing, and males tended to show the females their more orange side when courting. | 201406_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"When a model of a female guppy was substituted for the female guppy, male guppies still courted, but were not more likely to show their side with more orange.",
"In many other species females show a preference for symmetry of coloring rather than quantity of coloring.",
"No studies have been done on whether male guppies with more orange coloring father more offspring than those with less orange coloring.",
"Female guppies have little if any orange coloring on their sides.",
"The male and female guppies were kept in separate tanks so they could see each other but not otherwise directly interact."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the argument? |
Politician: Some proponents of unilateral nuclear arms reduction argue that it would encourage other countries to reduce their own nuclear arsenals, eventually leading to an international agreement on nuclear arms reduction. Our acting on the basis of this argument would be dangerous, because the argument ignores the countries presently on the verge of civil wars. These countries, many of which have nuclear capability, cannot be relied upon to conform to any international military policy. | 201406_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Countries that are on the verge of civil wars are unlikely to agree to reduce either their nuclear arms or their conventional weapons.",
"Unilateral nuclear arms reduction by the politician's country would encourage all countries to reduce their nuclear arsenals.",
"Many countries cannot be relied upon to disclose the extent of their nuclear capability.",
"It is unlikely that an international agreement on nuclear disarmament will ever be achieved.",
"It is risky for the politician's country to unilaterally reduce nuclear arms in hopes of achieving an international agreement on arms reduction."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the politician's argument? |
Advertisement: Auto accidents are the most common cause of whiplash injury, a kind of injury that is caused by a sudden sharp motion of the neck. However, many other types of accidents can produce a sudden sharp motion of the neck and thereby result in whiplash injury. A sudden sharp motion of the neck can be caused by a fall, a bump on the head, or even by being shoved from behind. That is why you should insist on receiving Lakeside Injury Clinic's complete course of treatment for whiplash after any accident that involves a fall or a bump on the head. | 201406_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"Being shoved from behind rarely causes whiplash.",
"Auto accidents often involve falling or being bumped on the head.",
"Nonautomobile accidents other than those involving falls or bumps on the head also occasionally cause whiplash injuries.",
"It is very uncommon for falling or being bumped on the head to result in a sudden sharp motion of the neck.",
"The appropriate treatment for whiplash caused by a fall or a bump on the head is no different from that for whiplash caused by an auto accident."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest basis for criticizing the reasoning in the advertisement? |
A group of citizens opposes developing a nearby abandoned railroad grade into a hiking trail. Its members argue that trail users will likely litter the area with food wrappers and other debris. But this objection is groundless. Most trail users will be dedicated hikers who have great concern for the environment. Consequently, development of the trail should proceed. | 201406_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"bases its conclusion mainly on a claim that an opposing argument is weak",
"illicitly infers that because each member of a set has a certain property that set itself has the property",
"illicitly assumes as one of its premises the contention it purports to show",
"illicitly infers that an attribute of a few users of the proposed trail will characterize a majority of users of the trail",
"attacks the citizens in the group rather than their objection to developing the trail"
]
| 0 | The argument above is flawed in that it |
For years, university administrators, corporations, and government agencies have been predicting an imminent and catastrophic shortage of scientists and engineers. But since there is little noticeable upward pressure on the salaries of scientists and engineers, and unemployment is as high in these fields as any other, these doomsayers are turning out to be wrong. | 201406_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"The proportion of all research in science and engineering being carried out by corporations is larger than it was five years ago.",
"Most students choose fields of study that offer some prospect of financial success.",
"The number of students in university programs in science and engineering has increased significantly in the last five years.",
"Certain specializations in science and engineering have an oversupply of labor and others have shortages.",
"The knowledge and skills acquired during university programs in science and engineering need to be kept current through periodic retraining and professional experience."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following would, if true, most strengthen the argument above? |
Rhonda: As long as the cost is not too great, you should use your time, energy, or money to help others. People who are active participants in charitable causes have richer lives than miserly hermits, however prosperous the hermits may be. Brad: You should ignore the problems of complete strangers and focus your generosity on your immediate relatives and close friends, since these are the people who will remember your sacrifices and return the kindness when you yourself need help. | 201406_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"One should always do what will produce the most benefit for the most people.",
"One should treat others as one expects to be treated by them.",
"One should act in ways that will benefit oneself.",
"One should make sacrifices for others only if they will eventually return the favor.",
"One should always act in a manner that one can reflect on with pride."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify both Rhonda's and Brad's arguments? |
Columnist: Wildlife activists have proposed that the practice of stringing cable TV lines from the same poles that carry electric power lines should be banned because cable TV lines, while electrically neutral themselves, make it easier for animals to climb near electric power lines, risking electrocution. This particular argument for banning the practice fails, however, since some animals are electrocuted by power lines even where cable TV lines are all underground. | 201406_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"It takes a sufficient condition for an argument's being inadequate to be a necessary condition for its being inadequate.",
"It rejects an argument for a proposal merely on the grounds that the proposal would not completely eliminate the problem it is intended to address.",
"It fails to consider the additional advantageous effects that a proposal to address a problem might have.",
"It rejects an argument by criticizing the argument's proponents rather than by criticizing its substance.",
"It rejects a proposal to address a problem merely on the grounds that other proposals to address the problem would also be effective."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the columnist's reasoning? |
The ancient reptile Thrinaxodon, an ancestor of mammals, had skull features suggesting that it had sensory whiskers. If Thrinaxodon had whiskers, it clearly also had hair on other parts of its body, which would have served as insulation that regulated body temperature. Therefore, Thrinaxodon was probably warm-blooded, for such insulation would be of little use to a cold-blooded animal. | 201406_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that insulation regulating body temperature would be of little use to a cold-blooded animal.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the main conclusion drawn in the argument.",
"It is a conclusion for which the claim that Thrinaxodon had skull features suggesting that it had sensory whiskers is offered as support.",
"It is a statement of a hypothesis that the argument attempts to show is false.",
"It is offered as an explanation of the phenomenon described by the argument's main conclusion, but it is not itself used to provide support for that conclusion."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that if Thrinaxodon had whiskers, it clearly also had hair on other parts of its body, which would have served as insulation that regulated body temperature? |
Economist: Currently, many countries rely primarily on taxing income to fund government expenditures. But taxing income does nothing to promote savings and investment. Taxing consumption, on the other hand, would encourage savings. The most important challenge facing these countries is improving their economies, and the only way to accomplish this is to increase their savings rates. Hence, ____. | 201406_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"most governments should stop taxing savings and investment",
"the economies of countries will rapidly improve if their governments adopt tax policies that encourage savings and investment",
"in most countries taxes on consumption alone could raise adequate revenues to fund government expenditures",
"the tax laws of many countries should be revised to focus on taxing consumption rather than income",
"it is detrimental to the economic improvement of any country to continue to tax income"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most logically completes the economist's argument? |
Meade: People who are injured as a result of their risky behaviors not only cause harm to themselves but, because we all have important ties to other people, inevitably impose emotional and financial costs on others. To protect the interests of others, therefore, governments are justified in outlawing behavior that puts one's own health at risk. | 201406_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"Endangering the social ties that one has to other people is itself a harm to oneself.",
"People who have important ties to others have a personal obligation not to put their own health at risk.",
"Governments are not justified in limiting an individual's behavior unless that behavior imposes emotional or financial costs on others.",
"Preventing harm to others is not by itself a sufficient justification for laws that limit personal freedom.",
"People's obligation to avoid harming others outweighs their obligation to avoid harming themselves."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most undermines the reasoning in Meade's argument? |
Sanderson intentionally did not tell his cousin about overhearing someone say that the factory would close, knowing that if he withheld this information, his cousin would assume it would remain open. Clearly this was morally wrong. After all, lying is morally wrong. And making a statement with the intention of misleading someone is lying. True, it was Sanderson's failing to state something that misled his cousin. Yet there is no moral difference between stating and failing to state if they are done with the same intention. | 201406_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"Sanderson believed that his cousin would not want to be informed about the factory closing.",
"No one ever told Sanderson's cousin about the factory closing.",
"Sanderson believed that the factory would in fact be closing.",
"Sanderson would have lied to his cousin if his cousin had asked him whether the factory would be closing.",
"Sanderson had something to gain by his cousin's continuing to believe that the factory would remain open."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
After a judge has made the first ruling on a particular point of law, judges must follow that precedent if the original ruling is not contrary to the basic moral values of society. In the absence of precedent, when judges' own legal views do not contradict any widespread public opinion—and only then—they may abide by their own legal views in deciding a case. | 201406_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"Judge Swoboda is confronted with a legal issue never before decided. Realizing that his own view on the issue contradicts what most people believe, he nonetheless issues a ruling that accords with his own legal views.",
"Judge Valenzuela decides, in the absence of any precedent, whether children as young as twelve can be legally tried as adults. There is overwhelming public support for trying children twelve and older as adults, a practice that violates Judge Valenzuela's personal moral views. So Judge Valenzuela rules, in keeping with his own legal beliefs, against trying twelve-year-olds as adults.",
"Judge Levinsky sets a legal precedent when she rules that the \"starfish exception\" applies to children. In deciding a later case concerning the starfish exception, Judge Wilson adheres to his own legal views rather than Judge Levinsky's ruling, even though he does not believe that Judge Levinsky's ruling opposes the basic moral values of society.",
"Judge Watanabe must decide a case that depends on an issue for which no legal precedent exists. There is no widespread public opinion on the issue, so Judge Watanabe rules against the defendant because that conforms to her own legal view about the issue.",
"Judge Balila rules against the defendant because doing so conforms to her own views about the legal issues involved. However, this ruling is contrary to relevant precedents, all of which conform to the basic moral values of society."
]
| 3 | Of the rulings described below, which one conforms most closely to the principles stated above? |
Neuroscientists subjected volunteers with amusia-difficulty telling different melodies apart and remembering simple tunes-to shifts in pitch comparable to those that occur when someone plays one piano key and then another. The volunteers were unable to discern a difference between the tones. But the volunteers were able to track timed sequences of musical tones and perceive slight changes in timing. | 201406_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"People who are unable to discern pitch compensate by developing a heightened perception of timing.",
"Amusia results more from an inability to discern pitch than from an inability to discern timing.",
"People who are unable to tell pitches apart in isolation are able to do so in the context of a melody by relying upon timing.",
"The ability to tell melodies apart depends on the discernment of pitch alone and not at all on the perception of timing.",
"Whereas perception of timing can apparently be learned, discernment of pitch is most likely innate."
]
| 1 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following hypotheses? |
Literary critic: There is little of social significance in contemporary novels, for readers cannot enter the internal world of the novelist's mind unless they experience that world from the moral perspective of the novel's characters. But in contemporary novels, the transgressions committed by some characters against others are sensationalistic spectacles whose only purpose is to make readers wonder what will happen next, rather than events whose purpose is to be seen as the injustices they are. | 201406_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"An artist who wants to engage the moral sensibilities of his or her audience should not assume that forms of artistic expression that previously served this purpose continue to do so.",
"A novelist who wants to make a reader empathize with a victim of injustice should avoid sensationalistic spectacles whose only purpose is to make readers wonder what will happen next.",
"A work of art is socially important only if it engages the moral sensibilities of its audience.",
"If a novel allows a reader to understand injustice from the point of view of its victims, it will be socially significant.",
"Novels have social significance only to the extent that they allow readers to enter the internal world of the novelist's mind."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the literary critic's argument? |
A recent study revealed that people who follow precisely all the standard recommendations for avoidance of infection by pathogenic microorganisms in meat-based foods are more likely to contract diseases caused by these pathogens than are those who deviate considerably from the standard recommendations. Hence, the standard recommendations for avoidance of infection by these pathogens must be counterproductive. | 201406_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"Pathogenic microorganisms can reproduce in foods that are not meat-based.",
"Many people do follow precisely all the standard recommendations for avoidance of infection by pathogenic microorganisms in meat-based foods.",
"Not all diseases caused by microorganisms have readily recognizable symptoms.",
"Preventing infection by pathogenic microorganisms is simply a matter of following the appropriate set of recommendations.",
"Those most concerned with avoiding pathogenic infections from meat-based foods are those most susceptible to them."
]
| 4 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to take into account which one of the following possibilities? |
No nonfiction book published by Carriage Books has ever earned a profit. Since Carriage Books earned a profit on every book it published last year, it clearly did not publish a nonfiction book last year. | 201406_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"No actor represented by the talent agent Mira Roberts has ever won an important role in a major movie. Since every actor represented by Ms. Roberts had at least one important acting role last year, it is clear that none of those actors worked in a movie last year.",
"No hotel owned by the Bidmore Group specializes in serving business travelers. Since the Cray Springs Hotel is owned by the Bidmore Group, it clearly does not specialize in serving business travelers.",
"Pranwich Corporation has never given a bonus to an employee in its marketing division. Since Pranwich gave bonuses to every one of its systems analysts last year, it is clear that the company employed no systems analysts in its marketing division at that time.",
"James Benson has never done business with the city of Waldville. Since Waldville only maintains business files on individuals that it does business with, it clearly does not have a business file on James Benson.",
"Conway Flooring has never installed hardwood flooring for any customer in Woodridge. Since Conway Flooring has had a lot of customers in Woodridge, the company clearly does not install hardwood flooring."
]
| 2 | The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments? |
All unemployed artists are sympathetic to social justice. And no employed artists are interested in the prospect of great personal fame. | 201406_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"If there are artists interested in the prospect of great personal fame, they are sympathetic to social justice.",
"All artists uninterested in the prospect of great personal fame are sympathetic to social justice.",
"Every unemployed artist is interested in the prospect of great personal fame.",
"If an artist is sympathetic to social justice, that artist is unemployed.",
"All artists are either sympathetic to social justice or are interested in the prospect of great personal fame."
]
| 0 | If the claims made above are true, then which one of the following must be true? |
The police department has two suspects for the burglary that occurred last night, Schaeffer and Forster. Schaeffer has an ironclad alibi, so Forster must be the burglar. | 201406_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"It has been known for some time that the Wrightsburg Zoo might build a new primate house and that it might refurbish its polar bear exhibit. There is now good reason to believe the zoo will build a new primate house. Therefore, the zoo will not refurbish its polar bear exhibit.",
"If Watson, a robbery suspect, had been picked out of a police lineup by the victim, then charging Watson with robbery would have been reasonable. But the victim did not pick Watson out of the lineup. So Watson should not be charged.",
"If Iano Industries does not borrow money so that it can upgrade its factories, it will be unable to compete. While it is undesirable for Iano to take on more debt, being unable to compete would be even worse. So Iano should borrow the money needed to upgrade its factories.",
"Baxim Corporation announced last year that it was considering moving its headquarters to Evansville and that it was also considering moving to Rivertown. But Baxim has now decided not to move to Evansville. Thus, we can be sure that Baxim will move to Rivertown.",
"The only viable candidates in the mayoral race are Slater and Gonzales. Political analysts believe that Slater has little chance of winning. Therefore, it is likely that Gonzales will win the election."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning that is most similar to that exhibited by the argument above? |
Economist: Every business strives to increase its productivity, for this increases profits for the owners and the likelihood that the business will survive. But not all efforts to increase productivity are beneficial to the business as a whole. Often, attempts to increase productivity decrease the number of employees, which clearly harms the dismissed employees as well as the sense of security of the retained employees. | india1_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"If an action taken to secure the survival of a business fails to enhance the welfare of the business's employees, that action cannot be good for the business as a whole.",
"Some measures taken by a business to increase productivity fail to be beneficial to the business as a whole.",
"Only if the employees of a business are also its owners will the interests of the employees and owners coincide, enabling measures that will be beneficial to the business as a whole.",
"There is no business that does not make effortsto increase its productivity.",
"Decreasing the number of employees in a business undermines the sense of security of retained employees."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the economist's argument? |
All Labrador retrievers bark a great deal. All Saint Bernards bark infrequently. Each of Rosa's dogs is a cross between a Labrador retriever and a Saint Bernard. Therefore, Rosa's dogs are moderate barkers. | india1_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"All students who study diligently make good grades. But some students who do not study diligently also make good grades. Jane studies somewhat diligently. Therefore, Jane makes somewhat good grades.",
"All type A chemicals are extremely toxic to human beings. All type B chemicals are nontoxic to human beings. This household cleaner is a mixture of a type A chemical and a type B chemical. Therefore, this household cleaner is moderately toxic.",
"All students at Hanson School live in Green County. All students at Edwards School live in Winn County. Members of the Perry family attend both Hanson and Edwards. Therefore, some members of the Perry family live in Green County and some live in Winn County.",
"All transcriptionists know shorthand. All engineers know calculus. Bob has worked both as a transcriptionist and as an engineer. Therefore, Bob knows both shorthand and calculus.",
"All of Kenisha's dresses are very well made. All of Connie's dresses are very badly made. Half of the dresses in this closet are very well made, and half of them are very badly made. Therefore, half of the dresses in this closet are Kenisha's and half of them are Connie's."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following uses flawed reasoning that most closely resembles the flawed reasoning used in the argument above? |
A century in certain ways is like a life, and as the end of a century approaches, people behave toward that century much as someone who is nearing the end of life does toward that life. So just as people in their last years spend much time looking back on the events of their life, people at a century's end ____. | india1_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"reminisce about their own lives",
"fear that their own lives are about to end",
"focus on what the next century will bring",
"become very interested in the history of the century just ending",
"reflect on how certain unfortunate events of the century could have been avoided"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Consumer: The latest Connorly Report suggests that Ocksenfrey prepackaged meals are virtually devoid of nutritional value. But the Connorly Report is commissioned by Danto Foods, Ocksenfrey's largest corporate rival, and early drafts of the report are submitted for approval to Danto Foods' public relations department. Because of the obvious bias of this report, it is clear that Ocksenfrey's prepackaged meals really are nutritious. | india1_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"treats evidence that there is an apparent bias as evidence that the Connorly Report's claims are false",
"draws a conclusion based solely on an unrepresentative sample of Ocksenfrey's products",
"fails to take into account the possibility that Ocksenfrey has just as much motivation to create negative publicity for Danto as Danto has to create negative publicity for Ocksenfrey",
"fails to provide evidence that Danto Foods' prepackaged meals are not more nutritious than Ocksenfrey's are",
"presumes, without providing justification, that Danto Foods' public relations department would not approve a draft of a report that was hostile to Danto Foods' products"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the consumer's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Scientist: Earth's average annual temperature has increased by about 0.5 degrees Celsius over the last century. This warming is primarily the result of the buildup of minor gases in the atmosphere, blocking the outward flow of heat from the planet. | india1_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"Only some of the minor gases whose presence in the atmosphere allegedly resulted in the phenomenon described by the scientist were produced by industrial pollution.",
"Most of the warming occurred before 1940, while most of the buildup of minor gases in the atmosphere occurred after 1940.",
"Over the last century, Earth received slightly more solar radiation in certain years than it did in others.",
"Volcanic dust and other particles in the atmosphere reflect much of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can reach Earth's surface.",
"The accumulation of minor gases in the atmosphere has been greater over the last century than at any other time in Earth's history."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would count as evidence against the scientist's explanation of Earth's warming? |
An undergraduate degree is necessary for appointment to the executive board. Further, no one with a felony conviction can be appointed to the board. Thus, Murray, an accountant with both a bachelor's and a master's degree, cannot be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator, since he has a felony conviction. | india1_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"Anyone with a master's degree and without a felony conviction is eligible for appointment to the executive board.",
"Only candidates eligible for appointment to the executive board can be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"An undergraduate degree is not necessary for acceptance for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"If Murray did not have a felony conviction, he would be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"The felony charge on which Murray was convicted is relevant to the duties of the position of Executive Administrator."
]
| 1 | The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Ethicist: The most advanced kind of moral motivation is based solely on abstract principles. This form of motivation is in contrast with calculated self-interest or the desire to adhere to societal norms and conventions. | india1_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"Bobby contributed money to a local charity during a charity drive at work because he worried that not doing so would make him look stingy.",
"Wes contributed money to a local charity during a charity drive at work because he believed that doing so would improve his employer's opinion of him.",
"Donna's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Donna did not report this practice to the authorities, out of fear that her employers would retaliate against her.",
"Jadine's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Jadine reported this practice to the authorities out of a belief that protecting the environment is always more important than monetary profit.",
"Leigh's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Leigh reported this practice to the authorities only because several colleagues had been pressuring her to do so."
]
| 3 | The actions of which one of the following individuals exhibit the most advanced kind of moral motivation, as described by the ethicist? |
Proponents of the electric car maintain that when the technical problems associated with its battery design are solved, such cars will be widely used and, because they are emission-free, will result in an abatement of the environmental degradation caused by auto emissions. But unless we dam more rivers, the electricity to charge these batteries will come from nuclear or coal-fired power plants. Each of these three power sources produces considerable environmental damage. Thus, the electric car ____. | india1_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"will have worse environmental consequences than its proponents may believe",
"will probably remain less popular than other types of cars",
"requires that purely technical problems be solved before it can succeed",
"will increase the total level of emissions rather than reduce it",
"will not produce a net reduction in environmental degradation"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Although video game sales have increased steadily over the past 3 years, we can expect a reversal of this trend in the very near future. Historically, over three quarters of video games sold have been purchased by people from 13 to 16 years of age, and the number of people in this age group is expected to decline steadily over the next 10 years. | india1_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"Most people 17 years old or older have never purchased a video game.",
"Video game rentals have declined over the past 3 years.",
"New technology will undoubtedly make entirely new entertainment options available over the next 10 years.",
"The number of different types of video games available is unlikely to decrease in the near future.",
"Most of the people who have purchased video games over the past 3 years are over the age of 16."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument? |
Double-blind techniques should be used whenever possible in scientific experiments. They help prevent the misinterpretations that often arise due to expectations and opinions that scientists already hold, and clearly scientists should be extremely diligent in trying to avoid such misinterpretations. | india1_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"Scientists' objectivity may be impeded by interpreting experimental evidence on the basis of expectations and opinions that they already hold.",
"It is advisable for scientists to use double-blind techniques in as high a proportion of their experiments as they can.",
"Scientists sometimes neglect to adequately consider the risk of misinterpreting evidence on the basis of prior expectations and opinions.",
"Whenever possible, scientists should refrain from interpreting evidence on the basis of previously formed expectations and convictions.",
"Double-blind experimental techniques are often an effective way of ensuring scientific objectivity."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
It is now a common complaint that the electronic media have corroded the intellectual skills required and fostered by the literary media. But several centuries ago the complaint was that certain intellectual skills, such as the powerful memory and extemporaneous eloquence that were intrinsic to oral culture, were being destroyed by the spread of literacy. So, what awaits us is probably a mere alteration of the human mind rather than its devolution. | india1_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"evidence supporting the claim that the intellectual skills fostered by the literary media are being destroyed by the electronic media",
"an illustration of the general hypothesis being advanced that intellectual abilities are inseparable from the means by which people communicate",
"an example of a cultural change that did not necessarily have a detrimental effect on the human mind overall",
"evidence that the claim that the intellectual skills required and fostered by the literary media are being lost is unwarranted",
"possible evidence, mentioned and then dismissed, that might be cited by supporters of the hypothesis being criticized"
]
| 2 | The reference to the complaint of several centuries ago that powerful memory and extemporaneous eloquence were being destroyed plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Suppose I have promised to keep a confidence and someone asks me a question that I cannot answer truthfully without thereby breaking the promise. Obviously, I cannot both keep and break the same promise. Therefore, one cannot be obliged both to answer all questions truthfully and to keep all promises. | india1_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"It is claimed that we have the unencumbered right to say whatever we want. It is also claimed that we have the obligation to be civil to others. But civility requires that we not always say what we want. So, it cannot be true both that we have the unencumbered right to say whatever we want and that we have the duty to be civil.",
"Some politicians could attain popularity with voters only by making extravagant promises; this, however, would deceive the people. So, since the only way for some politicians to be popular is to deceive, and any politician needs to be popular, it follows that some politicians must deceive.",
"If we put a lot of effort into making this report look good, the client might think we did so because we believed our proposal would not stand on its own merits. On the other hand, if we do not try to make the report look good,the client might think we are not serious about her business. So, whatever we do, we risk her criticism.",
"If creditors have legitimate claims against a business and the business has the resources to pay those debts, then the business is obliged to pay them. Also, if a business has obligations to pay debts, then a court will force it to pay them. But the courts did not force this business to pay its debts, so either the creditors did not have legitimate claims or the business did not have sufficient resources.",
"If we extend our business hours, we will either have to hire new employees or have existing employees work overtime. But both new employees and additional overtime would dramatically increase our labor costs. We cannot afford to increase labor costs, so we will have to keep our business hours as they stand."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
amount of aluminum that they contain. Fifty percent of the aluminum contained in a certain group (M) of standard aluminum soft-drink cans was recycled from another group (L) of used, standard aluminum softdrink cans. Since all the cans in L were recycled into cans in M and since the amount of material other than aluminum in an aluminum can is negligible, it follows that M contains twice as many cans as L. | india1_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"The aluminum in the cans of M cannot be recycled further.",
"Recycled aluminum is of poorer quality than unrecycled aluminum.",
"All of the aluminum in an aluminum can is recovered when the can is recycled.",
"None of the soft-drink cans in group L had been made from recycled aluminum.",
"Aluminum soft-drink cans are more easily recycled than are soft-drink cans made from other materials."
]
| 2 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
A cup of raw milk, after being heated in a microwave oven to 50 degrees Celsius, contains half its initial concentration of a particular enzyme, lysozyme. If, however, the milk reaches that temperature through exposure to a conventional heat source of 50 degrees Celsius, it will contain nearly all of its initial concentration of the enzyme. Therefore, what destroys the enzyme is not heat but microwaves, which generate heat. | india1_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"Heating raw milk in a microwave oven to a temperature of 100 degrees Celsius destroys nearly all of the lysozyme initially present in that milk.",
"Enzymes in raw milk that are destroyed through excessive heating can be replaced by adding enzymes that have been extracted from other sources.",
"A liquid exposed to a conventional heat source of exactly 50 degrees Celsius will reach that temperature more slowly than it would if it were exposed to a conventional heat source hotter than 50 degrees Celsius.",
"Milk that has been heated in a microwave oven does not taste noticeably different from milk that has been briefly heated by exposure to a conventional heat source.",
"Heating any liquid by microwave creates small zones within it that are much hotter than the overall temperature that the liquid will ultimately reach."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
A new government policy has been developed to avoid many serious cases of influenza. This goal will be accomplished by the annual vaccination of high-risk individuals: everyone 65 and older as well as anyone with a chronic disease that might cause them to experience complications from the influenza virus. Each year's vaccination will protect only against the strain of the influenza virus deemed most likely to be prevalent that year, so every year it will be necessary for all high-risk individuals to receive a vaccine for a different strain of the virus. | india1_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"The number of individuals in the high-risk group for influenza will not significantly change from year to year.",
"The likelihood that a serious influenza epidemic will occur varies from year to year.",
"No vaccine for the influenza virus protects against more than one strain of that virus.",
"Each year the strain of influenza virus deemed most likely to be prevalent will be one that had not previously been deemed most likely to be prevalent.",
"Each year's vaccine will have fewer side effects than the vaccine of the previous year since the technology for making vaccines will constantly improve."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption that would allow the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
Taylor: Researchers at a local university claim that 61 percent of the information transferred during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals. But this claim, like all such mathematically precise claims, is suspect, because claims of such exactitude could never be established by science. Sandra: While precision is unobtainable in many areas of life, it is commonplace in others. Many scientific disciplines obtain extremely precise results, which should not be doubted merely because of their precision. | india1_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"Research might reveal that 61 percent of the information taken in during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals.",
"It is possible to determine whether 61 percent of the information taken in during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals.",
"The study of verbal and nonverbal communication is an area where one cannot expect great precision in one's research results.",
"Some sciences can yield mathematically precise results that are not inherently suspect.",
"If inherently suspect claims are usually false, then the majority of claims made by scientists are false as well."
]
| 3 | The statements above provide the most support for holding that Sandra would disagree with Taylor about which one of the following statements? |
Hospital executive: At a recent conference on nonprofit management, several computer experts maintained that the most significant threat faced by large institutions such as universities and hospitals is unauthorized access to confidential data. In light of this testimony, we should make the protection of our clients' confidentiality our highest priority. | india1_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"The argument confuses the causes of a problem with the appropriate solutions to that problem.",
"The argument relies on the testimony of experts whose expertise is not shown to be sufficiently broad to support their general claim.",
"The argument assumes that a correlation between two phenomena is evidence that one is the cause of the other.",
"The argument draws a general conclusion about a group based on data about an unrepresentative sample of that group.",
"The argument infers that a property belonging to large institutions belongs to all institutions."
]
| 1 | The hospital executive's argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following objections? |
Modern science is built on the process of posing hypotheses and testing them against observations—in essence, attempting to show that the hypotheses are incorrect. Nothing brings more recognition than overthrowing conventional wisdom. It is accordingly unsurprising that some scientists are skeptical of the widely accepted predictions of global warming. What is instead remarkable is that with hundreds of researchers striving to make breakthroughs in climatology, very few find evidence that global warming is unlikely. | india1_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"Most scientists who are reluctant to accept the global warming hypothesis are not acting in accordance with the accepted standards of scientific debate.",
"Most researchers in climatology have substantial motive to find evidence that would discredit the global warming hypothesis.",
"There is evidence that conclusively shows that the global warming hypothesis is true.",
"Scientists who are skeptical about global warming have not offered any alternative hypotheses to explain climatological data.",
"Research in global warming is primarily driven by a desire for recognition in the scientific community."
]
| 1 | The information above provides the most support for which one of the following statements? |
Historian:The Land Party achieved its only national victory in Banestria in 1935. It received most of its support that year in rural and semirural areas, where the bulk of Banestria's population lived at the time. The economic woes of the years surrounding that election hit agricultural and small business interests the hardest, and the Land Party specifically targeted those groups in 1935. I conclude that the success of the Land Party that year was due to the combination of the Land Party's specifically addressing the concerns of these groups and the depth of the economic problems people in these groups were facing. | india1_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"In preceding elections the Land Party made no attempt to address the interests of economically distressed urban groups.",
"Voters are more likely to vote for a political party that focuses on their problems.",
"The Land Party had most of its successes when there was economic distress in the agricultural sector.",
"No other major party in Banestria specifically addressed the issues of people who lived in semirural areas in 1935.",
"The greater the degree of economic distress someone is in, the more likely that person is to vote."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the historian's argument EXCEPT: |
Gamba: Muñoz claims that the Southwest Hopeville Neighbors Association overwhelmingly opposes the new water system, citing this as evidence of citywide opposition. The association did pass a resolution opposing the new water system, but only 25 of 350 members voted, with 10 in favor of the system. Furthermore, the 15 opposing votes represent far less than 1 percent of Hopeville's population. One should not assume that so few votes represent the view of the majority of Hopeville's residents. | india1_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"questioning a conclusion based on the results of a vote, on the grounds that people with certain views are more likely to vote",
"questioning a claim supported by statistical data by arguing that statistical data can be manipulated to support whatever view the interpreter wants to support",
"attempting to refute an argument by showing that, contrary to what has been claimed, the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion",
"criticizing a view on the grounds that the view is based on evidence that is in principle impossible to disconfirm",
"attempting to cast doubt on a conclusion by claiming that the statistical sample on which the conclusion is based is too small to be dependable"
]
| 4 | Of the following, which one most accurately describes Gamba's strategy of argumentation? |
Driver: My friends say I will one day have an accident because I drive my sports car recklessly. But I have done some research, and apparently minivans and larger sedans have very low accident rates compared to sports cars. So trading my sports car in for a minivan would lower my risk of having an accident. | india1_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"infers a cause from a mere correlation",
"relies on a sample that is too narrow",
"misinterprets evidence that a result is likely as evidence that the result is certain",
"mistakes a condition sufficient for bringing about a result for a condition necessary for doing so",
"relies on a source that is probably not well-informed"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the driver's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Editorialist: News media rarely cover local politics thoroughly, and local political business is usually conducted secretively. These factors each tend to isolate local politicians from their electorates. This has the effect of reducing the chance that any particular act of resident participation will elicit a positive official response, which in turn discourages resident participation in local politics. | india1_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"Particular acts of resident participation would be likely to elicit a positive response from local politicians if those politicians were less isolated from their electorate.",
"Local political business should be conducted less secretively because this would avoid discouraging resident participation in local politics.",
"The most important factor influencing a resident's decision as to whether to participate in local politics is the chance that the participation will elicit a positive official response.",
"More-frequent thorough coverage of local politics would reduce at least one source of discouragement from resident participation in local politics.",
"If resident participation in local politics were not discouraged, this would cause local politicians to be less isolated from their electorate."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the editorialist's statements? |
Philosopher: An action is morally right if it would be reasonably expected to increase the aggregate well-being of the people affected by it. An action is morally wrong if and only if it would be reasonably expected to reduce the aggregate wellbeing of the people affected by it. Thus, actions that would be reasonably expected to leave unchanged the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them are also right. | india1_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"Only wrong actions would be reasonably expected to reduce the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them.",
"No action is both right and wrong.",
"Any action that is not morally wrong is morally right.",
"There are actions that would be reasonably expected to leave unchanged the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them.",
"Only right actions have good consequences."
]
| 2 | The philosopher's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
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