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Car companies solicit consumer information on such human factors as whether a seat is comfortable or whether a set of controls is easy to use. However, designer interaction with consumers is superior to survey data; the data may tell the designer why a feature on last year's model was given a low rating, but data will not explain how that feature needs to be changed in order to receive a higher rating. | india1_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Getting consumer input for design modifications can contribute to successful product design.",
"Car companies traditionally conduct extensive postmarket surveys.",
"Designers aim to create features that will appeal to specific market niches.",
"A car will have unappealing features if consumers are not consulted during its design stage.",
"Consumer input affects external rather than internal design components of cars."
]
| 0 | The reasoning above conforms most closely to which one of the following propositions? |
During the nineteenth century, the French academy of art was a major financial sponsor of painting and sculpture in France; sponsorship by private individuals had decreased dramatically by this time. Because the academy discouraged innovation in the arts, there was little innovation in nineteenth century French sculpture. Yet nineteenth century French painting showed a remarkable degree of innovation. | india1_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"In France in the nineteenth century, the French academy gave more of its financial support to painting than it did to sculpture.",
"The French academy in the nineteenth century financially supported a greater number of sculptors than painters, but individual painters received more support, on average, than individual sculptors.",
"Because stone was so much more expensive than paint and canvas, far more unsponsored paintings were produced than were unsponsored sculptures in France during the nineteenth century.",
"Very few of the artists in France in the nineteenth century who produced sculptures also produced paintings.",
"Although the academy was the primary sponsor of sculpture and painting, the total amount of financial support that French sculptors and painters received from sponsors declined during the nineteenth century."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the difference between the amount of innovation in French painting and the amount of innovation in French sculpture during the nineteenth century? |
Situation: Someone living in a cold climate buys a winter coat that is stylish but not warm in order to appear sophisticated. Analysis: People are sometimes willing to sacrifice sensual comfort or pleasure for the sake of appearances. | india1_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"A person buys an automobile to commute to work even though public transportation is quick and reliable.",
"A parent buys a car seat for a young child because it is more colorful and more comfortable for the child than the other car seats on the market, though no safer.",
"A couple buys a particular wine even though their favorite wine is less expensive and better tasting because they think it will impress their dinner guests.",
"A person sets her thermostat at a low temperature during the winter because she is concerned about the environmental damage caused by using fossil fuels to heat her home.",
"An acrobat convinces the circus that employs him to purchase an expensive outfit for him so that he can wear it during his act to impress the audience."
]
| 2 | The analysis provided for the situation above is most appropriate for which one of the following situations? |
After replacing his old gas water heater with a new, pilotless, gas water heater that is rated as highly efficient, Jimmy's gas bills increased. | india1_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"The new water heater uses a smaller percentage of the gas used by Jimmy's household than did the old one.",
"Shortly after the new water heater was installed, Jimmy's uncle came to live with him, doubling the size of the household.",
"After having done his laundry at a laundromat, Jimmy bought and started using a gas dryer when he replaced his water heater.",
"Jimmy's utility company raised the rates for gas consumption following installation of the new water heater.",
"Unusually cold weather following installation of the new water heater resulted in heavy gas usage."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the increase mentioned above EXCEPT: |
Carolyn: The artist Marc Quinn has displayed, behind a glass plate, biologically replicated fragments of Sir John Sulston's DNA, calling it a "conceptual portrait" of Sulston. But to be a portrait, something must bear a recognizable resemblance to its subject. Arnold: I disagree. Quinn's conceptual portrait is a maximally realistic portrait, for it holds actual instructions according to which Sulston was created. | india1_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"should be considered to be art",
"should be considered to be Quinn's work",
"bears a recognizable resemblance to Sulston",
"contains instructions according to which Sulston was created",
"is actually a portrait of Sulston"
]
| 4 | The dialogue provides most support for the claim that Carolyn and Arnold disagree over whether the object described by Quinn as a conceptual portrait of Sir John Sulston |
Many corporations have begun decorating their halls with motivational posters in hopes of boosting their employees' motivation to work productively. However, almost all employees at these corporations are already motivated to work productively. So these corporations' use of motivational posters is unlikely to achieve its intended purpose. | india1_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"fails to consider whether corporations that do not currently use motivational posters would increase their employees' motivation to work productively if they began using the posters",
"takes for granted that, with respect to their employees' motivation to work productively, corporations that decorate their halls with motivational posters are representative of corporations in general",
"fails to consider that even if motivational posters do not have one particular beneficial effect for corporations, they may have similar effects that are equally beneficial",
"does not adequately address the possibility that employee productivity is strongly affected by factors other than employees' motivation to work productively",
"fails to consider that even if employees are already motivated to work productively,motivational posters may increase that motivation"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Atrens: An early entomologist observed ants carrying particles to neighboring ant colonies and inferred that the ants were bringing food to their neighbors. Further research, however, revealed that the ants were emptying their own colony's dumping site. Thus, the early entomologist was wrong. | india1_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"Ant societies do not interact in all the same ways that human societies interact.",
"There is only weak evidence for the view that ants have the capacity to make use of objects as gifts.",
"Ant dumping sites do not contain particles that could be used as food.",
"The ants to whom the particles were brought never carried the particles into their own colonies.",
"The entomologist cited retracted his conclusion when it was determined that the particles the ants carried came from their dumping site."
]
| 2 | Atrens's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Jablonski, who owns a car dealership, has donated cars to driver education programs at area schools for over five years. She found the statistics on car accidents to be disturbing, and she wanted to do something to encourage better driving in young drivers. Some members of the community have shown their support for this action by purchasing cars from Jablonski's dealership. | india1_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"The only way to reduce traffic accidents is through driver education programs.",
"Altruistic actions sometimes have positive consequences for those who perform them.",
"Young drivers are the group most likely to benefit from driver education programs.",
"It is usually in one's best interest to perform actions that benefit others.",
"An action must have broad community support if it is to be successful."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the passage? |
Antonio: One can live a life of moderation by never deviating from the middle course. But then one loses the joy of spontaneity and misses the opportunities that come to those who are occasionally willing to take great chances, or to go too far. Marla: But one who, in the interests of moderation, never risks going too far is actually failing to live a life of moderation: one must be moderate even in one's moderation. | india1_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"whether it is desirable for people occasionally to take great chances in life",
"what a life of moderation requires of a person",
"whether it is possible for a person to embrace other virtues along with moderation",
"how often a person ought to deviate from the middle course in life",
"whether it is desirable for people to be moderately spontaneous"
]
| 1 | Antonio and Marla disagree over |
Advertisement: Fabric-Soft leaves clothes soft and fluffy, and its fresh scent is a delight. We conducted a test using over 100 consumers to prove Fabric-Soft is best. Each consumer was given one towel washed with Fabric-Soft and one towel washed without it. Ninety-nine percent of the consumers preferred the Fabric-Soft towel. So Fabric-Soft is the most effective fabric softener available. | india1_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"any of the consumers tested are allergic to fabric softeners",
"Fabric-Soft is more or less harmful to the environment than other fabric softeners",
"Fabric-Soft is much cheaper or more expensive than other fabric softeners",
"the consumers tested find the benefits of using fabric softeners worth the expense",
"the consumers tested had the opportunity to evaluate fabric softeners other than Fabric-Soft"
]
| 4 | The advertisement's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider whether |
Naturalist: The recent claims that the Tasmanian tiger is not extinct are false. The Tasmanian tiger's natural habitat was taken over by sheep farming decades ago, resulting in the animal's systematic elimination from the area. Since then naturalists working in the region have discovered no hard evidence of its survival, such as carcasses or tracks. In spite of alleged sightings of the animal, the Tasmanian tiger no longer exists. | india1_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Sheep farming drove the last Tasmanian tigers to starvation by chasing them from their natural habitat.",
"Some scavengers in Tasmania are capable of destroying tiger carcasses without a trace.",
"Every naturalist working in the Tasmanian tiger's natural habitat has looked systematically for evidence of the tiger's survival.",
"The Tasmanian tiger did not move and adapt to a different region in response to the loss of habitat.",
"Those who have reported sightings of the Tasmanian tiger are not experienced naturalists."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the naturalist's argument depends? |
Advertisers have learned that people are more easily encouraged to develop positive attitudes about things toward which they originally have neutral or even negative attitudes if those things are linked, with pictorial help rather than exclusively through prose, to things about which they already have positive attitudes. Therefore, advertisers are likely to ____. | india1_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"use little if any written prose in their advertisements",
"try to encourage people to develop positive attitudes about products that can be better represented pictorially than in prose",
"place their advertisements on television rather than in magazines",
"highlight the desirable features of the advertised product by contrasting them pictorially with undesirable features of a competing product",
"create advertisements containing pictures of things most members of the target audience like"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Feathers recently taken from seabirds stuffed and preserved in the 1880s have been found to contain only half as much mercury as feathers recently taken from living birds of the same species. Since mercury that accumulates in a seabird's feathers as the feathers grow is derived from fish eaten by the bird, these results indicate that mercury levels in saltwater fish are higher now than they were 100 years ago. | india1_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"the proportion of a seabird's diet consisting of fish was not as high, on average, in the 1880s as it is today",
"the amount of mercury in a saltwater fish depends on the amount of pollution in the ocean habitat of the fish",
"mercury derived from fish is essential for the normal growth of a seabird's feathers",
"the stuffed seabirds whose feathers were tested for mercury were not fully grown",
"the process used to preserve birds in the 1880s did not substantially decrease the amount of mercury in the birds' feathers"
]
| 4 | The argument depends on assuming that |
Novel X and Novel Y are both semiautobiographical novels and contain many very similar themes and situations, which might lead one to suspect plagiarism on the part of one of the authors. However, it is more likely that the similarity of themes and situations in the two novels is merely coincidental, since both authors are from very similar backgrounds and have led similar lives. | india1_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"Novel X and Novel Y are both semiautobiographical novels, and the two novels contain many very similar themes and situations.",
"The fact that Novel X and Novel Y are both semiautobiographical novels and contain many very similar themes and situations might lead one to suspect plagiarism on the part of one of the authors.",
"The author of Novel X and the author of Novel Y are from very similar backgrounds and have led very similar lives.",
"It is less likely that one of the authors of Novel X or Novel Y is guilty of plagiarism than that the similarity of themes and situations in the two novels is merely coincidental.",
"If the authors of Novel X and Novel Y are from very similar backgrounds and have led similar lives, suspicions that either of the authors plagiarized are very likely to be unwarranted."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument? |
Therapist: Cognitive psychotherapy focuses on changing a patient's conscious beliefs. Thus, cognitive psychotherapy is likely to be more effective at helping patients overcome psychological problems than are forms of psychotherapy that focus on changing unconscious beliefs and desires, since only conscious beliefs are under the patient's direct conscious control. | india1_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"Psychological problems are frequently caused by unconscious beliefs that could be changed with the aid of psychotherapy.",
"It is difficult for any form of psychotherapy to be effective without focusing on mental states that are under the patient's direct conscious control.",
"Cognitive psychotherapy is the only form of psychotherapy that focuses primarily on changing the patient's conscious beliefs.",
"No form of psychotherapy that focuses on changing the patient's unconscious beliefs and desires can be effective unless it also helps change beliefs that are under the patient's direct conscious control.",
"All of a patient's conscious beliefs are under the patient's conscious control, but other psychological states cannot be controlled effectively without the aid of psychotherapy."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the therapist's argument? |
Commentator: In academic scholarship, sources are always cited, and methodology and theoretical assumptions are set out, so as to allow critical study, replication, and expansion of scholarship. In open-source software, the code in which the program is written can be viewed and modified by individual users for their purposes without getting permission from the producer or paying a fee. In contrast, the code of proprietary software is kept secret, and modifications can be made only by the producer, for a fee. This shows that open-source software better matches the values embodied in academic scholarship, and since scholarship is central to the mission of universities, universities should use only open-source software. | india1_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"Whatever software tools are most advanced and can achieve the goals of academic scholarship are the ones that should alone be used in universities.",
"Universities should use the type of software technology that is least expensive, as long as that type of software technology is adequate for the purposes of academic scholarship.",
"Universities should choose the type of software technology that best matches the values embodied in the activities that are central to the mission of universities.",
"The form of software technology that best matches the values embodied in the activities that are central to the mission of universities is the form of software technology that is most efficient for universities to use.",
"A university should not pursue any activity that would block the achievement of the goals of academic scholarship at that university."
]
| 2 | The commentator's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
A consumer magazine surveyed people who had sought a psychologist's help with a personal problem. Of those responding who had received treatment for 6 months or less, 20 percent claimed that treatment "made things a lot better." Of those responding who had received longer treatment, 36 percent claimed that treatment "made things a lot better." Therefore, psychological treatment lasting more than 6 months is more effective than shorter-term treatment. | india1_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"Of the respondents who had received treatment for longer than 6 months, 10 percent said that treatment made things worse.",
"Patients who had received treatment for longer than 6 months were more likely to respond to the survey than were those who had received treatment for a shorter time.",
"Patients who feel they are doing well in treatment tend to remain in treatment, while those who are doing poorly tend to quit earlier.",
"Patients who were dissatisfied with their treatment were more likely to feel a need to express their feelings about it and thus to return the survey.",
"Many psychologists encourage their patients to receive treatment for longer than 6 months."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Philosopher: Nations are not literally persons; they have no thoughts or feelings, and, literally speaking, they perform no actions. Thus they have no moral rights or responsibilities. But no nation can survive unless many of its citizens attribute such rights and responsibilities to it, for nothing else could prompt people to make the sacrifices national citizenship demands. Obviously, then, a nation ____. | india1_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"cannot continue to exist unless something other than the false belief that the nation has moral rights motivates its citizens to make sacrifices",
"cannot survive unless many of its citizens have some beliefs that are literally false",
"can never be a target of moral praise or blame",
"is not worth the sacrifices that its citizens make on its behalf",
"should always be thought of in metaphorical rather than literal terms"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most logically completes the philosopher's argument? |
When exercising the muscles in one's back, it is important, in order to maintain a healthy back, to exercise the muscles on opposite sides of the spine equally. After all, balanced muscle development is needed to maintain a healthy back, since the muscles on opposite sides of the spine must pull equally in opposing directions to keep the back in proper alignment and protect the spine. | india1_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"Muscles on opposite sides of the spine that are equally well developed will be enough to keep the back in proper alignment.",
"Exercising the muscles on opposite sides of the spine unequally tends to lead to unbalanced muscle development.",
"Provided that one exercises the muscles on opposite sides of the spine equally, one will have a generally healthy back.",
"If the muscles on opposite sides of the spine are exercised unequally, one's back will be irreparably damaged.",
"One should exercise daily to ensure that the muscles on opposite sides of the spine keep the back in proper alignment."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Editorialist: In all cultures, it is almost universally accepted that one has a moral duty to prevent members of one's family from being harmed. Thus, few would deny that if a person is known by the person's parents to be falsely accused of a crime, it would be morally right for the parents to hide the accused from the police. Hence, it is also likely to be widely accepted that it is sometimes morally right to obstruct the police in their work. | india1_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"utilizes a single type of example for the purpose of justifying a broad generalization",
"fails to consider the possibility that other moral principles would be widely recognized as overriding any obligation to protect a family member from harm",
"presumes, without providing justification, that allowing the police to arrest an innocent person assists rather than obstructs justice",
"takes for granted that there is no moral obligation to obey the law",
"takes for granted that the parents mentioned in the example are not mistaken about their child's innocence"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the editorialist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Editor: Many candidates say that if elected they will reduce governmental intrusion into voters' lives. But voters actually elect politicians who instead promise that the government will provide assistance to solve their most pressing problems. Governmental assistance, however, costs money, and money can come only from taxes, which can be considered a form of governmental intrusion. Thus, governmental intrusion into the lives of voters will rarely be substantially reduced over time in a democracy. | india1_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"Politicians who win their elections usually keep their campaign promises.",
"Politicians never promise what they really intend to do once in office.",
"The most common problems people have are financial problems.",
"Governmental intrusion into the lives of voters is no more burdensome in nondemocratic countries than it is in democracies.",
"Politicians who promise to do what they actually believe ought to be done are rarely elected."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the editor's argument? |
We should accept the proposal to demolish the old train station, because the local historical society, which vehemently opposes this, is dominated by people who have no commitment to long-term economic well-being. Preserving old buildings creates an impediment to new development, which is critical to economic health. | india1_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"Our country should attempt to safeguard works of art that it deems to possess national cultural significance. These works might not be recognized as such by all taxpayers, or even all critics. Nevertheless, our country ought to expend whatever money is needed to procure all such works as they become available.",
"Documents of importance to local heritage should be properly preserved and archived for the sake of future generations. For, if even one of these documents is damaged or lost, the integrity of the historical record as a whole will be damaged.",
"You should have your hair cut no more than once a month. After all, beauticians suggest that their customers have their hair cut twice a month, and they do this as a way of generating more business for themselves.",
"The committee should endorse the plan to postpone construction of the new expressway. Many residents of the neighborhoods that would be affected are fervently opposed to that construction, and the committee is obligated to avoid alienating those residents.",
"One should not borrow even small amounts of money unless it is absolutely necessary. Once one borrows a few dollars, the interest starts to accumulate. The longer one takes to repay, the more one ends up owing, and eventually a small debt has become a large one."
]
| 2 | The flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following arguments? |
Ethicist: On average, animals raised on grain must be fed sixteen pounds of grain to produce one pound of meat. A pound of meat is more nutritious for humans than a pound of grain, but sixteen pounds of grain could feed many more people than could a pound of meat. With grain yields leveling off, large areas of farmland going out of production each year, and the population rapidly expanding, we must accept the fact that consumption of meat will soon be morally unacceptable. | india1_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"Even though it has been established that a vegetarian diet can be healthy, many people prefer to eat meat and are willing to pay for it.",
"Often, cattle or sheep can be raised to maturity on grass from pastureland that is unsuitable for any other kind of farming.",
"If a grain diet is supplemented with protein derived from non-animal sources, it can have nutritional value equivalent to that of a diet containing meat.",
"Although prime farmland near metropolitan areas is being lost rapidly to suburban development, we could reverse this trend by choosing to live in areas that are already urban.",
"Nutritionists agree that a diet composed solely of grain products is not adequate for human health."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the ethicist's argument? |
If the price it pays for coffee beans continues to increase, the Coffee Shoppe will have to increase its prices. In that case, either the Coffee Shoppe will begin selling noncoffee products or its coffee sales will decrease. But selling noncoffee products will decrease the Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability. Moreover, the Coffee Shoppe can avoid a decrease in overall profitability only if its coffee sales do not decrease. | india1_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"If the Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability decreases, the price it pays for coffee beans will have continued to increase.",
"If the Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability decreases, either it will have begun selling noncoffee products or its coffee sales will have decreased.",
"The Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability will decrease if the price it pays for coffee beans continues to increase.",
"The price it pays for coffee beans cannot decrease without the Coffee Shoppe's overall profitability also decreasing.",
"Either the price it pays for coffee beans will continue to increase or the Coffee Shoppe's coffee sales will increase."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements follows logically from the statements above? |
Political candidates' speeches are loaded with promises and with expressions of good intention, but one must not forget that the politicians' purpose in giving these speeches is to get themselves elected. Clearly, then, these speeches are selfishly motivated and the promises made in them are unreliable. | india1_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"The argument presumes, without providing justification, that if a person's promise is not selfishly motivated then that promise is reliable.",
"The argument presumes, without providing justification, that promises made for selfish reasons are never kept.",
"The argument confuses the effect of an action with its cause.",
"The argument overlooks the fact that a promise need not be unreliable just because the person who made it had an ulterior motive for doing so.",
"The argument overlooks the fact that a candidate who makes promises for selfish reasons may nonetheless be worthy of the office for which he or she is running."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument above? |
Sociologist: Romantics who claim that people are not born evil but may be made evil by the imperfect institutions that they form cannot be right, for they misunderstand the causal relationship between people and their institutions. After all, institutions are merely collections of people. | india1_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"People acting together in institutions can do more good or evil than can people acting individually.",
"Institutions formed by people are inevitably imperfect.",
"People should not be overly optimistic in their view of individual human beings.",
"A society's institutions are the surest gauge of that society's values.",
"The whole does not determine the properties of the things that compose it."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the sociologist's argument? |
Some anthropologists argue that the human species could not have survived prehistoric times if the species had not evolved the ability to cope with diverse natural environments. However, there is considerable evidence that Australopithecus afarensis, a prehistoric species related to early humans, also thrived in a diverse array of environments, but became extinct. Hence, the anthropologists' claim is false. | india1_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"confuses a condition's being required for a given result to occur in one case with the condition's being sufficient for such a result to occur in a similar case",
"takes for granted that if one species had a characteristic that happened to enable it to survive certain conditions, at least one related extinct species must have had the same characteristic",
"generalizes, from the fact that one species with a certain characteristic survived certain conditions, that all related species with the same characteristic must have survived exactly the same conditions",
"fails to consider the possibility that Australopithecus afarensis had one or more characteristics that lessened its chances of surviving prehistoric times",
"fails to consider the possibility that, even if a condition caused a result to occur in one case, it was not necessary to cause the result to occur in a similar case"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Economist: Every business strives to increase its productivity, for this increases profits for the owners and the likelihood that the business will survive. But not all efforts to increase productivity are beneficial to the business as a whole. Often, attempts to increase productivity decrease the number of employees, which clearly harms the dismissed employees as well as the sense of security of the retained employees. | india2_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"If an action taken to secure the survival of a business fails to enhance the welfare of the business's employees, that action cannot be good for the business as a whole.",
"Some measures taken by a business to increase productivity fail to be beneficial to the business as a whole.",
"Only if the employees of a business are also its owners will the interests of the employees and owners coincide, enabling measures that will be beneficial to the business as a whole.",
"There is no business that does not make efforts to increase its productivity.",
"Decreasing the number of employees in a business undermines the sense of security of retained employees."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the economist's argument? |
All Labrador retrievers bark a great deal. All Saint Bernards bark infrequently. Each of Rani's dogs is a cross between a Labrador retriever and a Saint Bernard. Therefore, Rani's dogs are moderate barkers. | india2_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"All students who study diligently make good grades. But some students who do not study diligently also make good grades. Jyoti studies somewhat diligently. Therefore, Jyoti makes somewhat good grades.",
"All type A chemicals are extremely toxic to human beings. All type B chemicals are nontoxic to human beings. This household cleaner is a mixture of a type A chemical and a type B chemical. Therefore, this household cleaner is moderately toxic.",
"All students at Hansa School live in Hari Nagar. All students at Eashan School live in Vijay Nagar. Members of the Prakash family attend both Hansa and Eashan. Therefore, some members of the Prakash family live in Hari Nagar and some live in Vijay Nagar.",
"All transcriptionists know shorthand. All engineers know calculus. Bala has worked both as a transcriptionist and as an engineer. Therefore, Bala knows both shorthand and calculus.",
"All of Karuna's dresses are very well made. All of Chitra's dresses are very badly made. Half of the dresses in this closet are very well made, and half of them are very badly made. Therefore, half of the dresses in this closet are Karuna's and half of them are Chitra's."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following uses flawed reasoning that most closely resembles the flawed reasoning used in the argument above? |
A century in certain ways is like a life, and as the end of a century approaches, people behave toward that century much as someone who is nearing the end of life does toward that life. So just as people in their last years spend much time looking back on the events of their life, people at a century's end ____. | india2_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"reminisce about their own lives",
"fear that their own lives are about to end",
"focus on what the next century will bring",
"become very interested in the history of the century just ending",
"reflect on how certain unfortunate events of the century could have been avoided"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Consumer: The latest Chintan Report suggests that Omkar prepackaged meals are virtually devoid of nutritional value. But the Chintan Report is commissioned by Dilip Foods, Omkar's largest corporate rival, and early drafts of the report are submitted for approval to Dilip Foods' public relations department. Because of the obvious bias of this report, it is clear that Omkar's prepackaged meals really are nutritious. | india2_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"treats evidence that there is an apparent bias as evidence that the Chintan Report's claims are false",
"draws a conclusion based solely on an unrepresentative sample of Omkar's products",
"fails to take into account the possibility that Omkar has just as much motivation to create negative publicity for Dilip as Dilip has to create negative publicity for Omkar",
"fails to provide evidence that Dilip Foods' prepackaged meals are not more nutritious than Omkar's are",
"presumes, without providing justification, that Dilip Foods' public relations department would not approve a draft of a report that was hostile to Dilip Foods' products"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the consumer's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Scientist: Earth's average annual temperature has increased by about 0.5 degrees Celsius over the last century. This warming is primarily the result of the buildup of minor gases in the atmosphere, blocking the outward flow of heat from the planet. | india2_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"Only some of the minor gases whose presence in the atmosphere allegedly resulted in the phenomenon described by the scientist were produced by industrial pollution.",
"Most of the warming occurred before 1940, while most of the buildup of minor gases in the atmosphere occurred after 1940.",
"Over the last century, Earth received slightly more solar radiation in certain years than it did in others.",
"Volcanic dust and other particles in the atmosphere reflect much of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can reach Earth's surface.",
"The accumulation of minor gases in the atmosphere has been greater over the last century than at any other time in Earth's history."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would count as evidence against the scientist's explanation of Earth's warming? |
An undergraduate degree is necessary for appointment to the executive board. Further, no one with a felony conviction can be appointed to the board. Thus, Manu, an accountant with both a bachelor's and a master's degree, cannot be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator, since he has a felony conviction. | india2_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"Anyone with a master's degree and without a felony conviction is eligible for appointment to the executive board.",
"Only candidates eligible for appointment to the executive board can be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"An undergraduate degree is not necessary for acceptance for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"If Manu did not have a felony conviction, he would be accepted for the position of Executive Administrator.",
"The felony charge on which Manu was convicted is relevant to the duties of the position of Executive Administrator."
]
| 1 | The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Ethicist: The most advanced kind of moral motivation is based solely on abstract principles. This form of motivation is in contrast with calculated self-interest or the desire to adhere to societal norms and conventions. | india2_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"Bobby contributed money to a local charity during a charity drive at work because he worried that not doing so would make him look stingy.",
"Walter contributed money to a local charity during a charity drive at work because he believed that doing so would improve his employer's opinion of him.",
"Deepa's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Deepa did not report this practice to the authorities, out of fear that her employers would retaliate against her.",
"Jayashree's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Jayashree reported this practice to the authorities out of a belief that protecting the environment is always more important than monetary profit.",
"Lalitha's employers engaged in an illegal but profitable practice that caused serious damage to the environment. Lalitha reported this practice to the authorities only because several colleagues had been pressuring her to do so."
]
| 3 | The actions of which one of the following individuals exhibit the most advanced kind of moral motivation, as described by the ethicist? |
Proponents of the electric car maintain that when the technical problems associated with its battery design are solved, such cars will be widely used and, because they are emission-free, will result in an abatement of the environmental degradation caused by auto emissions. But unless we dam more rivers, the electricity to charge these batteries will come from nuclear or coal-fired power plants. Each of these three power sources produces considerable environmental damage. Thus, the electric car ____. | india2_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"will have worse environmental consequences than its proponents may believe",
"will probably remain less popular than other types of cars",
"requires that purely technical problems be solved before it can succeed",
"will increase the total level of emissions rather than reduce it",
"will not produce a net reduction in environmental degradation"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Although video game sales have increased steadily over the past 3 years, we can expect a reversal of this trend in the very near future. Historically, over three quarters of video games sold have been purchased by people from 13 to 16 years of age, and the number of people in this age group is expected to decline steadily over the next 10 years. | india2_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"Most people 17 years old or older have never purchased a video game.",
"Video game rentals have declined over the past 3 years.",
"New technology will undoubtedly make entirely new entertainment options available over the next 10 years.",
"The number of different types of video games available is unlikely to decrease in the near future.",
"Most of the people who have purchased video games over the past 3 years are over the age of 16."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument? |
Double-blind techniques should be used whenever possible in scientific experiments. They help prevent the misinterpretations that often arise due to expectations and opinions that scientists already hold, and clearly scientists should be extremely diligent in trying to avoid such misinterpretations. | india2_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"Scientists' objectivity may be impeded by interpreting experimental evidence on the basis of expectations and opinions that they already hold.",
"It is advisable for scientists to use double-blind techniques in as high a proportion of their experiments as they can.",
"Scientists sometimes neglect to adequately consider the risk of misinterpreting evidence on the basis of prior expectations and opinions.",
"Whenever possible, scientists should refrain from interpreting evidence on the basis of previously formed expectations and convictions.",
"Double-blind experimental techniques are often an effective way of ensuring scientific objectivity."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
It is now a common complaint that the electronic media have corroded the intellectual skills required and fostered by the literary media. But several centuries ago the complaint was that certain intellectual skills, such as the powerful memory and extemporaneous eloquence that were intrinsic to oral culture, were being destroyed by the spread of literacy. So, what awaits us is probably a mere alteration of the human mind rather than its devolution. | india2_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"evidence supporting the claim that the intellectual skills fostered by the literary media are being destroyed by the electronic media",
"an illustration of the general hypothesis being advanced that intellectual abilities are inseparable from the means by which people communicate",
"an example of a cultural change that did not necessarily have a detrimental effect on the human mind overall",
"evidence that the claim that the intellectual skills required and fostered by the literary media are being lost is unwarranted",
"possible evidence, mentioned and then dismissed, that might be cited by supporters of the hypothesis being criticized"
]
| 2 | The reference to the complaint of several centuries ago that powerful memory and extemporaneous eloquence were being destroyed plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Suppose I have promised to keep a confidence and someone asks me a question that I cannot answer truthfully without thereby breaking the promise. Obviously, I cannot both keep and break the same promise. Therefore, one cannot be obliged both to answer all questions truthfully and to keep all promises. | india2_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"It is claimed that we have the unencumbered right to say whatever we want. It is also claimed that we have the obligation to be civil to others. But civility requires that we not always say what we want. So, it cannot be true both that we have the unencumbered right to say whatever we want and that we have the duty to be civil.",
"Some politicians could attain popularity with voters only by making extravagant promises; this, however, would deceive the people. So, since the only way for some politicians to be popular is to deceive, and any politician needs to be popular, it follows that some politicians must deceive.",
"If we put a lot of effort into making this report look good, the client might think we did so because we believed our proposal would not stand on its own merits. On the other hand, if we do not try to make the report look good, the client might think we are not serious about her business. So, whatever we do, we risk her criticism.",
"If creditors have legitimate claims against a business and the business has the resources to pay those debts, then the business is obliged to pay them. Also, if a business has obligations to pay debts, then a court will force it to pay them. But the courts did not force this business to pay its debts, so either the creditors did not have legitimate claims or the business did not have sufficient resources.",
"If we extend our business hours, we will either have to hire new employees or have existing employees work overtime. But both new employees and additional overtime would dramatically increase our labor costs. We cannot afford to increase labor costs, so we will have to keep our business hours as they stand."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
Standard aluminum soft-drink cans do not vary in the amount of aluminum that they contain. Fifty percent of the aluminum contained in a certain group (M) of standard aluminum soft-drink cans was recycled from another group (L) of used, standard aluminum softdrink cans. Since all the cans in L were recycled into cans in M and since the amount of material other than aluminum in an aluminum can is negligible, it follows that M contains twice as many cans as L. | india2_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"The aluminum in the cans of M cannot be recycled further.",
"Recycled aluminum is of poorer quality than unrecycled aluminum.",
"All of the aluminum in an aluminum can is recovered when the can is recycled.",
"None of the soft-drink cans in group L had been made from recycled aluminum.",
"Aluminum soft-drink cans are more easily recycled than are soft-drink cans made from other materials."
]
| 3 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
A cup of raw milk, after being heated in a microwave oven to 50 degrees Celsius, contains half its initial concentration of a particular enzyme, lysozyme. If, however, the milk reaches that temperature through exposure to a conventional heat source of 50 degrees Celsius, it will contain nearly all of its initial concentration of the enzyme. Therefore, what destroys the enzyme is not heat but microwaves, which generate heat. | india2_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"Heating raw milk in a microwave oven to a temperature of 100 degrees Celsius destroys nearly all of the lysozyme initially present in that milk.",
"Enzymes in raw milk that are destroyed through excessive heating can be replaced by adding enzymes that have been extracted from other sources.",
"A liquid exposed to a conventional heat source of exactly 50 degrees Celsius will reach that temperature more slowly than it would if it were exposed to a conventional heat source hotter than 50 degrees Celsius.",
"Milk that has been heated in a microwave oven does not taste noticeably different from milk that has been briefly heated by exposure to a conventional heat source.",
"Heating any liquid by microwave creates small zones within it that are much hotter than the overall temperature that the liquid will ultimately reach."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
A new government policy has been developed to avoid many serious cases of influenza. This goal will be accomplished by the annual vaccination of high-risk individuals: everyone 65 and older as well as anyone with a chronic disease that might cause them to experience complications from the influenza virus. Each year's vaccination will protect only against the strain of the influenza virus deemed most likely to be prevalent that year, so every year it will be necessary for all high-risk individuals to receive a vaccine for a different strain of the virus. | india2_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"The number of individuals in the high-risk group for influenza will not significantly change from year to year.",
"The likelihood that a serious influenza epidemic will occur varies from year to year.",
"No vaccine for the influenza virus protects against more than one strain of that virus.",
"Each year the strain of influenza virus deemed most likely to be prevalent will be one that had not previously been deemed most likely to be prevalent.",
"Each year's vaccine will have fewer side effects than the vaccine of the previous year since the technology for making vaccines will constantly improve."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption that would allow the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
Tarun: Researchers at a local university claim that 61 percent of the information transferred during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals. But this claim, like all such mathematically precise claims, is suspect, because claims of such exactitude could never be established by science. Shilpa: While precision is unobtainable in many areas of life, it is commonplace in others. Many scientific disciplines obtain extremely precise results, which should not be doubted merely because of their precision. | india2_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"Research might reveal that 61 percent of the information taken in during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals.",
"It is possible to determine whether 61 percent of the information taken in during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals.",
"The study of verbal and nonverbal communication is an area where one cannot expect great precision in one's research results.",
"Some sciences can yield mathematically precise results that are not inherently suspect.",
"If inherently suspect claims are usually false, then the majority of claims made by scientists are false as well."
]
| 3 | The statements above provide the most support for holding that Shilpa would disagree with Tarun about which one of the following statements? |
Hospital executive: At a recent conference on nonprofit management, several computer experts maintained that the most significant threat faced by large institutions such as universities and hospitals is unauthorized access to confidential data. In light of this testimony, we should make the protection of our clients' confidentiality our highest priority. | india2_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"The argument confuses the causes of a problem with the appropriate solutions to that problem.",
"The argument relies on the testimony of experts whose expertise is not shown to be sufficiently broad to support their general claim.",
"The argument assumes that a correlation between two phenomena is evidence that one is the cause of the other.",
"The argument draws a general conclusion about a group based on data about an unrepresentative sample of that group.",
"The argument infers that a property belonging to large institutions belongs to all institutions."
]
| 1 | The hospital executive's argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following objections? |
Modern science is built on the process of posing hypotheses and testing them against observations—in essence, attempting to show that the hypotheses are incorrect. Nothing brings more recognition than overthrowing conventional wisdom. It is accordingly unsurprising that some scientists are skeptical of the widely accepted predictions of global warming. What is instead remarkable is that with hundreds of researchers striving to make breakthroughs in climatology, very few find evidence that global warming is unlikely. | india2_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"Most scientists who are reluctant to accept the global warming hypothesis are not acting in accordance with the accepted standards of scientific debate.",
"Most researchers in climatology have substantial motive to find evidence that would discredit the global warming hypothesis.",
"There is evidence that conclusively shows that the global warming hypothesis is true.",
"Scientists who are skeptical about global warming have not offered any alternative hypotheses to explain climatological data.",
"Research in global warming is primarily driven by a desire for recognition in the scientific community."
]
| 3 | The information above provides the most support for which one of the following statements? |
Historian: The Land Party achieved its only national victory in Banestria in 1935. It received most of its support that year in rural and semirural areas, where the bulk of Banestria's population lived at the time. The economic woes of the years surrounding that election hit agricultural and small business interests the hardest, and the Land Party specifically targeted those groups in 1935. I conclude that the success of the Land Party that year was due to the combination of the Land Party's specifically addressing the concerns of these groups and the depth of the economic problems people in these groups were facing. | india2_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"In preceding elections the Land Party made no attempt to address the interests of economically distressed urban groups.",
"Voters are more likely to vote for a political party that focuses on their problems.",
"The Land Party had most of its successes when there was economic distress in the agricultural sector.",
"No other major party in Banestria specifically addressed the issues of people who lived in semirural areas in 1935.",
"The greater the degree of economic distress someone is in, the more likely that person is to vote."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the historian's argument EXCEPT: |
Geetha: Munaf claims that the Aasa Nagar Neighbors Association overwhelmingly opposes the new water system, citing this as evidence of citywide opposition. The association did pass a resolution opposing the new water system, but only 25 of 350 members voted, with 10 in favor of the system. Furthermore, the 15 opposing votes represent far less than 1 percent of Aasa Nagar's population. One should not assume that so few votes represent the view of the majority of Aasa Nagar's residents. | india2_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"questioning a conclusion based on the results of a vote, on the grounds that people with certain views are more likely to vote",
"questioning a claim supported by statistical data by arguing that statistical data can be manipulated to support whatever view the interpreter wants to support",
"attempting to refute an argument by showing that, contrary to what has been claimed, the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion",
"criticizing a view on the grounds that the view is based on evidence that is in principle impossible to disconfirm",
"attempting to cast doubt on a conclusion by claiming that the statistical sample on which the conclusion is based is too small to be dependable"
]
| 4 | Of the following, which one most accurately describes Geetha's strategy of argumentation? |
Driver: My friends say I will one day have an accident because I drive my sports car recklessly. But I have done some research, and apparently minivans and larger sedans have very low accident rates compared to sports cars. So trading my sports car in for a minivan would lower my risk of having an accident. | india2_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"infers a cause from a mere correlation",
"relies on a sample that is too narrow",
"misinterprets evidence that a result is likely as evidence that the result is certain",
"mistakes a condition sufficient for bringing about a result for a condition necessary for doing so",
"relies on a source that is probably not well-informed"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the driver's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Editorialist: News media rarely cover local politics thoroughly, and local political business is usually conducted secretively. These factors each tend to isolate local politicians from their electorates. This has the effect of reducing the chance that any particular act of resident participation will elicit a positive official response, which in turn discourages resident participation in local politics. | india2_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"Particular acts of resident participation would be likely to elicit a positive response from local politicians if those politicians were less isolated from their electorate.",
"Local political business should be conducted less secretively because this would avoid discouraging resident participation in local politics.",
"The most important factor influencing a resident's decision as to whether to participate in local politics is the chance that the participation will elicit a positive official response.",
"More-frequent thorough coverage of local politics would reduce at least one source of discouragement from resident participation in local politics.",
"If resident participation in local politics were not discouraged, this would cause local politicians to be less isolated from their electorate."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the editorialist's statements? |
Philosopher: An action is morally right if it would be reasonably expected to increase the aggregate well-being of the people affected by it. An action is morally wrong if and only if it would be reasonably expected to reduce the aggregate wellbeing of the people affected by it. Thus, actions that would be reasonably expected to leave unchanged the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them are also right. | india2_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"Only wrong actions would be reasonably expected to reduce the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them.",
"No action is both right and wrong.",
"Any action that is not morally wrong is morally right.",
"There are actions that would be reasonably expected to leave unchanged the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them.",
"Only right actions have good consequences."
]
| 2 | The philosopher's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Car companies solicit consumer information on such human factors as whether a seat is comfortable or whether a set of controls is easy to use. However, designer interaction with consumers is superior to survey data; the data may tell the designer why a feature on last year's model was given a low rating, but data will not explain how that feature needs to be changed in order to receive a higher rating. | india2_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Getting consumer input for design modifications can contribute to successful product design.",
"Car companies traditionally conduct extensive postmarket surveys.",
"Designers aim to create features that will appeal to specific market niches.",
"A car will have unappealing features if consumers are not consulted during its design stage.",
"Consumer input affects external rather than internal design components of cars."
]
| 0 | The reasoning above conforms most closely to which one of the following propositions? |
During the nineteenth century, the French academy of art was a major financial sponsor of painting and sculpture in France; sponsorship by private individuals had decreased dramatically by this time. Because the academy discouraged innovation in the arts, there was little innovation in nineteenth century French sculpture. Yet nineteenth century French painting showed a remarkable degree of innovation. | india2_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"In France in the nineteenth century, the French academy gave more of its financial support to painting than it did to sculpture.",
"The French academy in the nineteenth century financially supported a greater number of sculptors than painters, but individual painters received more support, on average, than individual sculptors.",
"Because stone was so much more expensive than paint and canvas, far more unsponsored paintings were produced than were unsponsored sculptures in France during the nineteenth century.",
"Very few of the artists in France in the nineteenth century who produced sculptures also produced paintings.",
"Although the academy was the primary sponsor of sculpture and painting, the total amount of financial support that French sculptors and painters received from sponsors declined during the nineteenth century."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the difference between the amount of innovation in French painting and the amount of innovation in French sculpture during the nineteenth century? |
Why should the disappearance of beetles, plants, or birds concern us? First, a species, the irreplaceable product of millions of years of development, is of intrinsic value. Another, perhaps more compelling, reason to conserve biological diversity is pure self-interest. Like every species, ours is intimately dependent on others for its well-being. Time after time, creatures, even those once thought useless or harmful, are found to play crucial roles in natural systems. Predators driven to extinction no longer keep populations of potential pests in check; earthworms or termites killed by pesticides no longer aerate soils; mangroves cut for firewood no longer protect coastlines from the erosive force of the sea. | india3_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"it is only selfish people who wish to conserve biological diversity",
"whether species to which people pay little attention become extinct is not of great importance except to scientists",
"there are no species in nature that are, properly considered, harmful to people",
"species of plant and animal life should be preserved because they are valuable both in themselves and for the well-being of people",
"to protect coastlines from erosion by the sea, it is necessary to plant mangroves or other such species along the coasts"
]
| 3 | The above argument as a whole seeks to establish that |
Davisville's mayor: The Davisville Airport is actually located in the city of Millersburg. Millersburg officials have argued that it is illegal for restaurants in the Davisville Airport to serve alcoholic beverages because Millersburg has outlawed alcoholic beverages. But they are mistaken. Since the City of Davisville owns the Davisville Airport, and it is legal for restaurants to serve alcoholic beverages in Davisville, it is legal for them to do so in the Davisville Airport. | india3_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"Ownership takes precedence over any other factor in determining which city's laws apply in a facility owned by one city but located in another.",
"If one city owns a facility located in another city and a dispute about legal jurisdiction arises, then the city that owns the facility should offer to sell it to the other city.",
"If one city owns a facility located in another city, government officials of both cities should settle through negotiation which city's laws apply in that facility.",
"A facility located outside of a city is not subject to the laws of that city even if the facility is owned by the city.",
"If one city owns a facility located in another city, the residents of both cities should determine which city's laws apply in that facility."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the Davisville mayor's argument? |
The pigment that gives fresh blueberries their deep purplish-blue color is found in the berry's skin—not in its flesh, which is pale green. Therefore, since the smaller the berry, the more skin there is in relation to the rest of the berry, it follows that a pie filling made from a pound or two of fresh, whole blueberries ____. | india3_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"should be made of the freshest berries available",
"will taste the same whether the berries used are large or small",
"will taste good only if made of high-quality berries",
"will be darker if small berries rather than large ones are used",
"will be more flavorful if large berries rather than small ones are used"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Ecologist: Smallpox, one of the worst diseases ever to afflict humans, has in some outbreaks killed as much as 50 percent of local populations. The last known surviving cultures of variola—the smallpox virus—are confined to two high-security laboratories. Some scientists are anxious to destroy the remaining variola cultures, to which humans are susceptible. Research on the cultures, however, may someday lead to important benefits for humans, and so the cultures should not be destroyed. | india3_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"Smallpox has killed millions of humans over the centuries, and when it reaches the stage of an epidemic it is extremely difficult to eradicate.",
"It is more likely that the virus, if left available to researchers, will lead to an important medical breakthrough than that the virus will be accidentally released from the laboratory.",
"Variola is a rare type of virus in that it can only be transmitted from one human to another, yet does not affect rats, monkeys, or insects.",
"It is becoming increasingly important to prevent any nation from acquiring the means to wage biological warfare.",
"It is likely that the virus, if released, will develop a resistance to vaccines previously used to control it."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would do most to strengthen the ecologist's argument? |
Miguel has four family members who plan to come to his graduation on Sunday afternoon, but it is likely that only three of them will be allowed to attend. Normally graduation is held in the football stadium, where there is no limit on the number of family members who can attend. However, the ceremony is relocated to the gymnasium if it rains, and each graduate receives just three admission tickets for use by family members. | india3_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"Miguel's graduating class is much larger than usual.",
"Miguel has lost one of the admission tickets to be used if the ceremony is held in the gymnasium.",
"The weather service has indicated that there is a very high likelihood of rain on Sunday afternoon.",
"Miguel has several friends who have fewer than three family members coming to graduation.",
"Miguel has a fifth family member who is unable to come to his graduation."
]
| 2 | The conclusion of the argument is most strongly supported if which one of the following is assumed? |
Elephants are often observed licking clay from mud holes. There is ample evidence that other animals ingest clay because it neutralizes toxins in their diets. Since elephants eat many plants that contain toxic compounds, their licking of clay is probably triggered by toxins too. | india3_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"Some of the clay that elephants lick contains minerals that are nutritionally essential for any animal.",
"Elephants typically drink water immediately before or after they lick clay.",
"Older elephants typically ingest more clay than young elephants do.",
"Elephants do not lick clay at times when their diet consists almost entirely of toxin-free foods.",
"The clay that elephants ingest does not contain any compounds that are toxic to them."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Economist: In our country, the price of cola is regulated by the Cola Commission. Decades ago, when the commission was formed, such regulation was reasonable because there was a monopoly on cola production. Now, however, fierce competition in this market keeps cola prices low. So the Cola Commission should be abolished. | india3_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"the Cola Commission regulates aspects of the cola industry other than cola's price",
"no new competitors have entered the economist's country's cola market in the last several years",
"many dedicated and talented people serve on the Cola Commission",
"ending regulation of cola prices in the economist's country will have no effect on these prices, which are already below the ceilings set by the Cola Commission",
"the Cola Commission was originally set up by economists"
]
| 0 | The economist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider the possibility that |
The aesthetic reaction to a work of art depends on the immediate environment, and true appreciation of art requires that it be presented in an environment that allows for lengthy, solitary deliberation. Hence it is unfortunate that art museums have recently invented the notion of the "art-show event," for which historically important, rarely seen works are collected into a show that is then heavily advertised and brings in huge crowds. | india3_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"People who really love and understand art tend to avoid museum art-show events.",
"The more time one spends and the fewer people that are around, the more one will like a work of art.",
"Most of the people who go to museum art-show events do not know how to appreciate art and fail to realize what they are missing.",
"Art museum directors are forced to put on art-show events in order to raise money.",
"Museum art-show events do not facilitate proper appreciation of art."
]
| 4 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
The average life expectancy of people who drink alcohol heavily is lower than that of people who do not drink heavily, and people who smoke tobacco have lower life expectancies on average than those who refrain from smoking. Yet the average life expectancy of people who both drink heavily and smoke tends to decrease when such people give up drinking. | india3_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"Most heavy drinkers who are also smokers tend to smoke more heavily if they stop drinking.",
"The life expectancy of smokers who stop smoking increases, even if they have smoked for many years.",
"The average life expectancy of relatively light smokers is lower than that of people who have never smoked at all.",
"The life expectancy of smokers who are heavy drinkers usually increases if they give up both smoking and drinking.",
"Most heavy smokers who are not heavy drinkers tend to gain weight if they stop smoking."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most helps to reconcile the discrepancy described above? |
Publishers, like all private businesses, have always been concerned about profitability. But, while it used to be at least possible to get a book published that was unlikely to be popular, and hence unlikely to be a moneymaker, profitability is now the sole criterion. Thus, no matter how much literary merit a book possesses, it will not be published in today's market if it looks like it will not be popular. | india3_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"Books of literary merit cannot be published in today's market.",
"Publishers used to select books for publication based on literary merit.",
"Good books are published now only if they are also likely to be popular.",
"It is harder to get a book published today than it once was.",
"Unpopular books are not likely to make money for the publisher."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following sentences most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
Scientists hypothesized that the end of a certain geological period came about when a cataclysmic meteor impact near the equator caused debris to fly up into the atmosphere, where it was scattered by winds, blocking out the sunlight and abruptly killing off many species. In European rock layers, the fossil record of the boundary layer that marks the end of the period supports this picture of rapid, mass extinction of life. But the boundary layer in the Antarctic is much thicker, so that it appears that the extinction process there lasted a much longer time, contrary to what the hypothesis would have predicted. | india3_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"Although scientists have traditionally used the last appearance of creatures called ammonites to define the boundary layer, they recently found ammonites 20 meters above the previously identified boundary layer in the Antarctic.",
"It was recently discovered that Europe accumulated sediment at a slower rate than did the Antarctic region, so that a layer of sediment of a given thickness represents a longer period of time in Europe than it does in the Antarctic.",
"The controversy over whether the mass extinctions at the end of the geological period resulted from the impact of a meteor began only in 1979.",
"The findings in Europe agree with data about the boundary layer from all other mid-latitude sites.",
"The rock layers in the Antarctic were examined many years after the rock layers in Europe."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, resolves the apparent discrepancy noted above? |
Heern: I object to the mayor's proposal that taxicabs pick up and drop off passengers only at designated stops. This proposal aims to reduce traffic jams and accidents, but if the mayor herself were affected by such a law, she would oppose it. Thus the proposal is without merit. | india3_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"infers, from the claim that a proposal will not achieve one of its aims, that the proposal is entirely without merit",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the proposed law would not be the most effective way to reduce traffic jams and accidents",
"takes for granted that the frequency and location of designated stops would inconvenience most taxicab users",
"takes for granted that other people would share the mayor's dissatisfaction with the proposed law",
"focuses on the mayor's preferences instead of addressing the merits of the proposal"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in Heern's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Recent studies indicate that people who spend significant time browsing the World Wide Web do so at the expense of time spent in face-to-face interaction with other people. This has led some to fear that social isolation will greatly increase because of the popularity of browsing the Web. But, since browsing the Web is just one of many popular solitary activities, and any time spent on a solitary activity is time spent not interacting face-to-face with other people, such fears are unwarranted. | india3_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"It is the overall conclusion of the argument.",
"It is the claim that the argument attempts to undermine.",
"It is a concession that is made to those who might otherwise disagree with the conclusion of the argument.",
"It is presented as evidence that independently supports the conclusion of the argument.",
"It is a premise that, together with another premise, is meant to support the conclusion of the argument."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the view that social isolation will greatly increase because of the popularity of browsing the Web? |
Animals generally avoid foods that are harmful to them and favor those that benefit them. Thus it is surprising that gypsy moth caterpillars prefer to eat leaves that contain high concentrations of certain naturally occurring toxins called alkaloids, even though caterpillars grow faster on alkaloid-free diets. | india3_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"In the alkaloid-containing plants on which gypsy moth caterpillars feed, the toxins are found only in the leaves.",
"Caterpillars whose growth is inhibited by the consumption of alkaloids are more vulnerable to attack by predators.",
"The alkaloid-containing plants on which gypsy moth caterpillars feed increase their production of toxins when their leaves are injured.",
"Alkaloids that have been eaten by caterpillars are poisonous to parasitic wasp larvae that feed on caterpillars' internal tissues.",
"Only gypsy moth caterpillars, not adult gypsy moths, feed on the leaves of alkaloid containing plants."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy? |
Commentator: The quality of health care is declining. Medical schools have been graduating fewer people than are needed to replace retiring physicians. Furthermore, on average, a physician now spends only 15 minutes with a patient on the patient's first visit. | india3_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"The average length of all patient-physician visits is 20 minutes.",
"More and more people are seeking physicians, thus increasing the number of patients that physicians treat.",
"Most patients do not like to spend an inordinate amount of time in physicians' offices.",
"Five years ago, the average first patient-physician visit lasted 10 minutes.",
"Most patients visiting a physician are suffering from ailments that are not life threatening."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the commentator's argument? |
Nadia: Directors of films that depict historical figures and events have a responsibility to represent those figures and events in a manner that is as faithful as possible to the facts. Otherwise, directors are likely to produce biased or misleading presentations of such events that will be accepted by audiences as historical fact. Ariel: But even a historical film is and should be the expression of its director's artistic sensibility. Rather than constrain directors, what must be done is to educate film audiences to see film as art rather than as history, thereby ensuring that historical films are not accepted uncritically as historical fact. | india3_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"whether the people who make up film audiences are likely to believe that what they see in films is an accurate depiction of historical figures and events",
"whether film directors have an obligation to represent historical figures and events in a manner that is as faithful as possible to the facts",
"whether it is possible for films that depict historical figures and events to be vehicles for a director's artistic sensibility",
"whether directors of films that depict historical figures or events tend to misrepresent those figures and events",
"whether it is possible to make a film that depicts historical figures and events"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is the point at issue between Nadia and Ariel? |
Nadia: Directors of films that depict historical figures and events have a responsibility to represent those figures and events in a manner that is as faithful as possible to the facts. Otherwise, directors are likely to produce biased or misleading presentations of such events that will be accepted by audiences as historical fact. Ariel: But even a historical film is and should be the expression of its director's artistic sensibility. Rather than constrain directors, what must be done is to educate film audiences to see film as art rather than as history, thereby ensuring that historical films are not accepted uncritically as historical fact. | india3_1-LR1_16_17 | [
"Some films that depict historical figures and events do so in a manner that is faithful to the facts.",
"A director's artistic sensibility necessarily results in distortion of historical figures and events in film.",
"It is less objectionable to alter how a film audience might interpret a historical film than it is to interfere with the expression of a film director's artistic sensibility.",
"Directors make historical films with the intention of influencing audiences' understanding of the particular figures and events depicted in the films.",
"Films that offer biased or misleading presentations of history are more appealing to audiences than are films that offer strictly factual presentations of history."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption made by Ariel's argument? |
Politician: There should be a mandatory prison sentence for everyone convicted of a violent crime. Some people object to such a policy on the grounds that it overlooks differences among individual cases that, if taken into consideration by judges and juries, could result in less prison overcrowding. But we can dismiss this objection since these critics would take a different view if they had themselves been victims of violent crime. | india3_1-LR1_17_18 | [
"fails to clearly distinguish violent crime from nonviolent crime",
"takes for granted that one's view is unjustified if one would, under different circumstances, take a different view",
"takes for granted that prison overcrowding is caused mainly by a policy of mandatory prison sentences",
"attempts to establish a factual generalization using anecdotal evidence",
"takes for granted that, without mandatory prison sentences, judges and juries would always give sentences that are too lenient"
]
| 1 | The politician's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
The folk medicine of many different cultures has extolled the use of garlic both to prevent and to cure many diseases. Modern medical research is absorbing some of these beliefs. Recent studies indicate that many of the more than 50 sulphur compounds that can be produced from garlic (depending upon whether it is boiled, fried in oil, or dried) have medicinal utility. Some of these compounds lower blood cholesterol, others reduce platelet clumping, while still others shrink some kinds of tumors. Other plants and herbs recommended by traditional medicine may also prove valuable for medicine generally. | india3_1-LR1_18_19 | [
"The belief that garlic is an effective way to prevent or cure some diseases is not limited to a small number of closely related cultures.",
"The cures of modern medicine are not always different from those of folk medicine.",
"It can be medically beneficial to reduce platelet clumping or to lower blood cholesterol.",
"Garlic that is neither boiled, fried in oil, nor dried has no medicinal value.",
"Research on some traditional medications has yet to be conducted by modern medical researchers."
]
| 3 | Each of the following statements is supported by the information above EXCEPT: |
Journalism professor: Since the number of reportable facts confronting any journalist is extraordinarily large, every journalist must employ a principle of selection. However, any such principle of selection is bound to be subjective, for it involves value judgments. Therefore, the view that there is any degree of objectivity in journalistic reporting is a myth. This means that, for example, no newspaper article is more objective than any other. | india3_1-LR1_19_20 | [
"draws a conclusion regarding what is right or wrong entirely on the basis of evidence regarding matters of fact",
"concludes that a practice completely lacks a quality on the basis of evidence for its lacking the pure form of that quality",
"fails to justify its presumption that judgments about fact and judgments about value are indistinguishable",
"fails to distinguish between the methods employed by individual members of a particular profession and the methods endorsed by the profession as a whole",
"attempts to justify a claim about a particular trait on the basis of irrelevant attributes of a profession"
]
| 1 | The journalism professor's argument is flawed because it |
Albumin, one element of blood plasma, is an effective substitute for plasma in treating or preventing shock, the collapse of blood vessels due to a drop in the liquid volume of the bloodstream. Injected into the bloodstream, albumin absorbs enough liquid from surrounding tissues to keep the blood vessels open. It has an advantage over plasma because it can be made available for emergencies while taking up a fraction of the shipping and storage space of plasma. | india3_1-LR1_20_21 | [
"The use of nonmetallic composites rather than solid metals can increase the cost of aircraft but enables them to be built stronger.",
"A newspaper can increase advertising revenue without increasing its bulk or weight if it is printed in a smaller format.",
"Hardbound books can be a better choice than paperbacks despite their extra bulk if the books need to be more durable than paperbacks.",
"Dehydrated foods have much the same food value as ordinary foods and are more convenient for hikers because they are lighter and take up less space in backpacks.",
"An advantage that compact discs have over vinyl records is that they are also used for storing information for computers, so advances in computer disc technology will probably apply to compact discs used for music."
]
| 3 | Of the following, which one best illustrates the principle illustrated by the stated advantage of using albumin as a substitute for plasma? |
A customer returning defective merchandise should be given an immediate refund if the merchandise was defective when purchased and was not on sale; if the customer is returning merchandise that is not defective or was damaged by customer negligence or customer abuse, the customer should be referred to the manager. | india3_1-LR1_21_22 | [
"A customer purchased a lawn mower, which became inoperative after the customer used it only five times. Even though the lawn mower was not on sale when purchased, the customer should be referred to the manager.",
"A customer purchased twelve bags of cement at the regular price, to build a walkway. The walkway was completed with only ten bags and the customer wishes to return the two remaining bags. The customer should be given an immediate refund.",
"A customer purchased a VCR that was on sale. Even though the VCR failed to rewind videocassettes upon the customer's arrival home, the customer should be directed to the manager.",
"A customer purchased a set of wrought-iron patio furniture at the regular price. The welding on two of the chairs was faulty, causing both to collapse during their first use. The customer should be given an immediate refund.",
"A customer purchased a microwave oven that stopped working after the customer accidentally dropped it. The oven was not on sale and was not damaged by abuse, so the customer should be given an immediate refund."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following judgments conforms most closely to the principle stated above? |
Jamal: It's incorrect to maintain that current data suggest a weakness in the economy. Stocks are paying higher dividends than ever and corporations' profits are very high. Yet you criticize corporations on the basis of wage data, which are the only data showing a decline. Jennifer: You're right that only wage data show a decline, but those data are important because they show a shift of income from companies' workers to their shareholders. The statistics you cite mean little to the expanding numbers of workers finding it increasingly difficult to make a living. | india3_1-LR1_22_23 | [
"Statistical information tends to reflect the biases of its compilers.",
"Income should not be redistributed from workers to shareholders.",
"The decline in wages is a worrisome economic trend.",
"The current priorities of many corporations are misplaced.",
"Corporations are currently making considerable profits."
]
| 4 | Jamal's and Jennifer's statements provide the most support for holding that they agree about the truth of which one of the following? |
Because the recycling of glass is not typically cost-effective, there is a shortage of glass recycling facilities and glass recycling is not an obligation we all bear. So some people ought not to recycle glass. | india3_1-LR1_23_24 | [
"It is false that you should break your promise, so you do not have an obligation to break your promise.",
"Because operating museums is so expensive, the government can no longer afford to support them. So private foundations that can afford to do so have an obligation to provide the financial support that the government previously provided.",
"Anyone who rides a bicycle at night ought not to ride on a highway. So we ought not to bike on the highway during our trip today.",
"Some convention participants do not have to register on the first day of the convention since their flights were delayed past midnight. So some participants should not register on the first day of the convention.",
"Only if everyone ought to contribute should I contribute. But some people ought not to contribute, so I do not have to contribute either."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following arguments contains a flaw in reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Peterson, the current world record holder in the women's 100-meter backstroke, has ranked first in the world for seven years. Her performance in recent competitions was disappointing, but during training she unofficially beat her official world record time. So she can be expected to set a new world record in the 100-meter backstroke during the upcoming world competition. | india3_1-LR1_24_25 | [
"Peterson is widely expected to win the 100-meter backstroke in the next world competition.",
"Peterson had the flu during a recent competition.",
"Peterson has also set world records in several other swimming events.",
"Peterson is the only active world-class swimmer in the world to have set a world record in the 100-meter backstroke.",
"Peterson has in each of the past seven years swum faster during world competitions than during training for those competitions."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
There were several early attempts to forge a reconciliation between Shintoism and Buddhism based on mutual respect among their adherents. The evidence for this includes extant sculptures depicting Shinto gods wearing Buddhist vestments. | india3_1-LR1_25_26 | [
"Most sculptures contemporaneous with the sculptures mentioned were intended to have religious significance.",
"No sculptures that have not survived depicted Shinto gods wearing Buddhist vestments.",
"Early attempts at reconciling Shintoism with Buddhism were successful.",
"Shintoism did not originate as a sect of Buddhism.",
"The depiction of Shinto gods wearing Buddhist vestments was not intended to represent the triumph of Shintoism over Buddhism."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Legal activist: The opportunities for presenting flawed science in the courtroom are numerous, and, over time, such flawed testimony in trials can influence procedural requirements for entire professions. For example, so-called expert witnesses in medical malpractice suits have testified that the use of electronic fetal monitors would have prevented certain delivery-room complications, even though their views were not corroborated by medical science. Yet, as a result of the decisions based on such testimony, the use of electronic fetal monitors during delivery has become the professional norm. | india3_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"Medical personnel should not be allowed to give legal testimony on topics in which they are not experts.",
"Scientists who are engaged in good science should not allow so-called experts to give deceptive courtroom testimony.",
"The scientific testimony at many trials is not as reliable as juries are led to believe.",
"Bad science presented in the courtroom is responsible for overuse of electronic fetal monitors during child delivery.",
"Unreliable scientific testimony given in trials can have marked effects on the procedures used by the experts in certain fields."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the legal activist's argument? |
The continents of South America and Africa were once joined together as one landmass. Evidence for this claim can be found in the fact that fossils of mesosaurs, extinct reptiles, have been unearthed in both western Africa and eastern South America. | india3_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"The fossils of mesosaurs are the only ones unearthed in both western Africa and eastern South America.",
"The fossils of mesosaurs found in western Africa are of the same geologic period as those unearthed in eastern South America.",
"Mesosaurs would not have become extinct if they had not inhabited both western Africa and eastern South America.",
"The fossils of mesosaurs were found very near the west African and east South American coasts.",
"Mesosaurs in Africa migrated from Europe and mesosaurs in South America migrated from Asia."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Dr. López: As anthropologists, we are committed to learning about cultures without intervening in the lives of the people in those cultures. For this reason, we should observe people passively by means of on-site video and sound recordings, rather than conducting interviews with those people. Dr. Tseung: Whereas your aim is admirable, your method is completely misguided. After all, the mere presence of video cameras and recording devices invariably constitutes an intervention into the lives of the people being filmed or recorded. | india3_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"whether the aim of most anthropologists is to learn about cultures without intervening in the lives of the people being studied",
"whether it is less troublesome for anthropologists to conduct interviews than it is for them to make on-site video and sound recordings",
"whether it is possible to observe people passively by means of on-site video and sound recordings without intervening in the lives of those people",
"whether video and sound recording devices would be more intrusive in cultures in which those devices are relatively uncommon than they are in cultures in which they are relatively common",
"whether interviews conducted by anthropologists with people from a particular culture are an effective means of learning about that culture"
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is a point at issue between Dr. López and Dr. Tseung? |
Dr. López: As anthropologists, we are committed to learning about cultures without intervening in the lives of the people in those cultures. For this reason, we should observe people passively by means of on-site video and sound recordings, rather than conducting interviews with those people. Dr. Tseung: Whereas your aim is admirable, your method is completely misguided. After all, the mere presence of video cameras and recording devices invariably constitutes an intervention into the lives of the people being filmed or recorded. | india3_3-LR2_3_4 | [
"It concurs with Dr. López's conclusion while offering different evidence in support of that conclusion.",
"It charges that the proposed method, though it would succeed in some cases, would make it impossible to reach the goal in some other way in case the method failed.",
"It offers new evidence that supports Dr. López's conclusion better than does the evidence used by Dr. López.",
"It discredits Dr. López's motivations rather than addressing Dr. López's argument.",
"It questions the truth of an assumption on which Dr. López's argument is based."
]
| 4 | Dr. Tseung's response to Dr. López uses which one of the following argumentative strategies? |
To succeed in a particular career, a person must have both talent and tenacity. Hans did not succeed in his career. Therefore, he must not have had both talent and tenacity. | india3_3-LR2_4_5 | [
"If a person does not have both strong muscles and efficient oxygen transfer, that person cannot run far. Therefore, if Erica can run far, either she has strong muscles or else she has efficient oxygen transfer.",
"To make good coffee, you need clear water and fresh coffee beans. Whoever made this bad coffee must not have used both clear water and fresh coffee beans.",
"Some plants grow fast when given fertilizer or a lot of light. Therefore, this fast-growing plant received either fertilizer or a lot of light.",
"To become healthy, adult dogs need both food and love. This adult dog received food but no love. Therefore, it must be unhealthy.",
"It does not always snow when it is cold and cloudy. Therefore, it need not be either cold or cloudy for it to snow."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following contains the same logical flaw as that in the passage above? |
Occultist: If there are ghosts, then they are supernatural beings. But science studies only natural phenomena. Therefore, there can be no scientific basis for criticizing the evidence that leads people to believe in ghosts. | india3_3-LR2_5_6 | [
"the evidence that leads people to believe in ghosts cannot consist of natural phenomena",
"people who believe in ghosts do so on the basis of evidence",
"there are no methods for ascertaining the truth or falsity of any belief about the supernatural",
"other supernatural beings are not responsible for the evidence that leads people to believe in ghosts",
"the denial of the existence of ghosts is motivated by an irrational desire to deny that there are any supernatural events"
]
| 0 | The occultist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it takes for granted that |
Politician: The level of violence in the United States is higher than that in every other industrialized country. Some people attribute this entirely to a lenient judicial system, but this cannot be right, for the judicial systems in many other industrialized countries are just as lenient. | india3_3-LR2_6_7 | [
"providing an alternative explanation",
"arguing that the purported fact it is intended to explain is actually untrue",
"presenting evidence that contradicts an assumption that the explanation relies on",
"submitting evidence that the United States does not have a lenient judicial system",
"showing that the explanation relies on a misguided notion of the purpose of judicial systems"
]
| 2 | The politician's argument attempts to undermine the explanation by |
The habit many students on today's campuses have of scribbling in their textbooks is inexcusable. It is harmful to books, aesthetically displeasing, and distracting to readers who buy the textbooks used. | india3_3-LR2_7_8 | [
"The number of students selling their textbooks when their courses are over is smaller today than it was a few years ago.",
"Most students who buy used textbooks say they are aesthetically indifferent to the scribbling and sometimes find it helpful.",
"Many recent surveys show that books in public libraries are abused more than textbooks.",
"In most areas, scribbling in textbooks is not illegal.",
"Many students do not scribble in their textbooks."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Journalist: The advice of social scientists is frequently overlooked by politicians making social policy. Because it is not unreasonable to discount scientific assertions backed by weak evidence, politicians should not generally be criticized for ignoring social science, for social scientists, unlike physical scientists, seldom agree on the claims made even within their own specialty. | india3_3-LR2_8_9 | [
"Only policy that is based on scientific findings is credible.",
"When creating policy, politicians' decisions should be determined by relevant scientific findings, except when the evidence for those findings is weak.",
"Politicians should follow the advice of experts on issues about which those experts agree among themselves.",
"The failure of scientists to agree that a claim within their specialty is true can indicate that the evidence for the claim is not strong.",
"Most politicians believe that some assertions of the social sciences are backed by weak evidence."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the journalist's argument? |
In fifth-century B.C. Athenian courts, prosecutors scolded juries far more often for lenience than for harshness. We may conclude that Athenians considered themselves overly inclined to allow people to escape the punishment they deserved in the name of misguided mercy. | india3_3-LR2_9_10 | [
"the opinions of the Athenian prosecutors did not represent popular opinion",
"the Athenian prosecutors considered themselves too harsh",
"although Athenians considered themselves too lenient, they might not actually have been too lenient",
"the people of a culture are not the best judges of the culture",
"the mercy the Athenians showed was not always misguided"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument above is flawed because it fails to consider the possibility that |
Genetic analyses show that all varieties of domestic dogs are descendants of the wolf, and studies show that wolves have brains nearly twice the size of those of dogs of comparable size and that wolves are correspondingly more intelligent. But given that there are about 38 thousand wolves in North America, while there are over 50 million domestic dogs, it is obvious that dogs have been amply compensated, from an evolutionary standpoint, for the losses produced by their association with humanity. | india3_3-LR2_10_11 | [
"Domestication of animals by humans tends to decrease the native intelligence of those animals.",
"Evolutionary success is not always attained by the group or species whose members are most fit.",
"Evolutionary success of a species is determined by genetic rather than environmental factors.",
"It need not be the case that an organism's chances of survival will be enhanced by its having a larger brain and a higher intelligence.",
"Evolutionary success of a species should be measured by the number of individuals in that species rather than by the abilities of those individuals."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Investigators of the fire at the Shelburne factory have determined that the traces of gasoline on the property resulted from a leaking truck and were not, as they previously thought, the work of an arsonist. The investigators had originally maintained that the fire could have resulted from arson, faulty wiring, or an explosion of factory equipment. However, in light of all the evidence collected so far, they are currently exploring only the faulty-wiring theory. | india3_3-LR2_11_12 | [
"The traces of gasoline on the property constitute the only indication of arson that the investigators have found.",
"The gasoline leaking from the truck did not help to cause the truck to explode.",
"The investigators have physical evidence that the wiring in the Shelburne factory was faulty.",
"The investigators believe that the fire was not caused by an explosion of factory equipment.",
"The investigators have until now seriously explored only the possibility that the fire resulted from arson."
]
| 3 | The statements above provide the most support for which one of the following inferences? |
Even a slight change in the timing of this traffic light would cause a traffic backup. On the one hand, if the timing were slower, traffic would back up waiting for the light to turn green. On the other hand, if the timing were faster, traffic would back up because too few cars would get through each green light. Therefore, this traffic light was timed to keep traffic from backing up. | india3_3-LR2_12_13 | [
"According to the law of supply and demand, even a slight change in the price of a product will affect profits. For instance, if the price goes up, fewer products will be sold; if the price goes down, a company will make less money on each item. Therefore, a company's profits will be affected by the law of supply and demand.",
"Even a slight change in this spaghetti sauce recipe will result in an unhealthful sauce. On the one hand, if too many tomatoes are used, the sauce will be too acidic; on the other hand, if too few tomatoes are used, the sauce will not have enough vitamin C. Therefore, this recipe is designed to produce healthful spaghetti sauce.",
"Even a slight increase in the speed limit will result in more traffic fatalities. If people drive faster, they will be involved in more accidents; if drivers are in more accidents, they are more likely to be killed. Therefore, current speed limits are designed to minimize driving fatalities.",
"Objects in nature show the same complexity as many objects created by humans. If a natural object shows the same complexity as an object created by humans, then it was also the result of design. Therefore, objects in nature are the result of design rather than chance.",
"Even a slight change in this diet will result in unhealthy eating. On the one hand, eating larger portions will cause weight gain; on the other hand, eating smaller portions will not provide sufficient nutrients. Therefore, the patient ought to follow this diet exactly."
]
| 1 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Democratic governments are unlikely to take a morally principled stand on controversial issues, because there are almost always groups of people with differing principles who strongly resist any policy that consistently adheres to any particular moral principle. Thus, the compromises that opposition groups force on democratic governments make policies about controversial issues morally arbitrary. | india3_3-LR2_13_14 | [
"democratic governments are no more arbitrary than most people, who often fail to adhere strictly to their professed moral principles",
"democratic governments benefit citizens more by failing to take a stand on controversial issues than by adhering strictly to moral principles",
"democratic governments appeal to moral principles in effecting compromises between those with opposing moral principles",
"any form of government is more efficient when it is not overly restricted by moral principles",
"other forms of government are no more likely to take a stand on controversial moral issues than are democratic governments"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider the possibility that |
When a certain gland becomes cancerous in humans, it produces high levels of a particular protein. A blood test can determine the level of this protein well before a cancer of the gland could be detected by other means. Some doctors recommend that aggressive anticancer treatment should be begun as early as possible for anyone who is tested and is found to have high levels of the protein. | india3_3-LR2_14_15 | [
"Enlargement of the gland, a common condition infrequently associated with cancer, results in high levels of the protein.",
"The blood test for the protein has been in use for some time to monitor the condition of patients who have been diagnosed as having cancer of the gland.",
"So far, no patients whose protein levels were found to be normal have subsequently developed cancer of the gland.",
"Of those patients who have taken the test, very few under the age of 40 had high levels of the protein in their blood.",
"Before the blood test became available, about one third of all cases of cancer of the gland were detected in early stages."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the doctors' recommendation? |
Essayist: Some linguists claim that competent speakers of a language have explicit knowledge of the rules of grammar for that language. However, linguistic ability is not the possession and utilization of a body of knowledge, or rules of grammar, but is more similar to a skill like riding a bicycle. Just as the typical cyclist does not need to know physics, neither does the language user need to know grammar rules. | india3_3-LR2_15_16 | [
"Not everyone follows the same set of rules in acquiring a skill.",
"No set of rules can exhaustively describe the behavior of someone who is engaged in a complex activity.",
"The level of knowledge of the rules governing an activity differs widely among participants in that activity.",
"There is a difference between knowing a set of rules and behaving in accordance with a set of rules.",
"Studying a description of a particular skill is of no help in acquiring that skill."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses a principle underlying the essayist's argument? |
Economist: Ordinarily, when energy efficiency improves, less energy is used to satisfy the same needs. So presumably, if a country improves its energy efficiency, then ordinarily its energy consumption should decrease. Yet empirical data show that as a country's energy efficiency increases, energy consumption there either rises or stays the same. | india3_3-LR2_16_17 | [
"When countries increase their energy efficiency, more energy-efficient appliances are bought than appliances that are not energy efficient.",
"Increases in energy efficiency in a country are typically accompanied by the introduction of new energy-consuming products.",
"When countries increase their energy efficiency, they usually sell their surplus of energy to other countries.",
"Different countries use different standards for calculating energy efficiency.",
"Causes other than increased energy efficiency can account for decreased energy consumption."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the conflict between the economist's presumption and the empirical data? |
A survey has shown that public perceptions of comparative risks differ radically from the assessments of risk-management experts. For example, living near a nuclear power plant was judged a much greater risk by the survey respondents than it was by the experts. On the other hand, exposure to X-rays was judged a significantly lower risk by the survey respondents than it was by the experts. Psychologists have found that people tend to be more worried about risks they consider involuntary than about risks they consider voluntary. Thus the survey results were probably caused by the respondents' tendency to consider involuntary risks to be greater than they actually are. | india3_3-LR2_17_18 | [
"It is not the case that involuntary risks are usually greater than voluntary risks.",
"People never consider risks that they are greatly worried about to be lower than they actually are.",
"Even risk-management experts sometimes consider involuntary risks to be greater than they actually are.",
"Not all of the survey respondents considered living near a nuclear power plant to be a voluntary risk.",
"The survey's respondents did not include people living near nuclear power plants."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Essayist: Many social critics have claimed that modern society has become so heavily regulated by corporate and government bureaucracies that individuals lead lives over which they feel they have nearly no control. That such a perceived loss of freedom is a complete myth, however, should be obvious from the fact that people who live in modern society voluntarily become members of clubs, political movements, and other small groups that place additional restrictions on their decisions. | india3_3-LR2_18_19 | [
"Only people who think their lives are controlled by large, impersonal bureaucracies are willing to accept additional restrictions on their decisions.",
"Many people who live in societies that are not heavily regulated by corporate and government bureaucracies voluntarily become members of groups that place restrictions on their decisions.",
"Only people who do not feel highly restricted are willing to assume further restrictions on their decisions.",
"People do not feel highly restricted unless they are willing to assume further restrictions on their decisions.",
"People living in societies dominated by large institutions tend to desire participation in smaller, more intimate groups of people."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the essayist's argument? |
Critic: It has been argued that the real value of a product is not equal to the price people are willing to pay for it, on the grounds that this price often exceeds the cost of the labor required to create it, and the excess goes to the investor as an unjustifiably acquired profit. But since the existence of the product is as dependent on the investor's initial capital outlay as on the laborer's toil, this argument is fallacious. | india3_3-LR2_19_20 | [
"An investor's profit is not justified in those cases in which the existence of the product does not depend on the investor's initial capital outlay.",
"The real value of a product is not completely determined by the cost of the labor needed to bring the product into existence.",
"People who make the initial investment required to create a product have a right to a greater percentage of the receipts from its sale than do those whose contributions occur later.",
"If people are willing to pay a given price for a product, then its real value is not greater than this price.",
"Everyone whose activity contributes to the creation of a product deserves an equal share of the proceeds from its sale."
]
| 1 | The critic's argument requires assuming which one of the following? |
Alexia: Our ignorance about the lives of so many novelists is unfortunate. How much deeper and more complete our appreciation of their works would be if we knew more about the personal wellsprings of their thought and art! Malik: I disagree. Because we know virtually nothing of their personal lives, we can resist the temptation to reduce consideration of their works to biography and psychoanalysis, and instead engage each work on its own artistic terms. | india3_3-LR2_20_21 | [
"understanding a novelist's work is of little or no value in understanding that novelist's life",
"understanding the personal wellsprings of the work of certain novelists is impossible without knowledge of their lives",
"a psychoanalytic approach provides an inadequate method of understanding a novelist's life",
"a novelist's work is not influenced by the details of his or her personal life",
"knowledge about a novelist's personal life can interfere with the appropriate understanding of that novelist's work"
]
| 4 | The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that Alexia and Malik disagree over whether |
Reconstructing ships so that they have a double hull can protect them from serious damage in the roughly 20 percent of shipping accidents that unavoidably result from severe weather conditions. Avoidable human error, however, causes about 80 percent of shipping accidents. It would therefore be far more cost-effective to reduce damage to ships by retraining sailors than by reconstructing ships. | india3_3-LR2_21_22 | [
"Damage from accidents can be reduced more cost-effectively by reducing the likelihood of accidents than by mitigating their effects.",
"One should always try to reduce the severity of the damage caused by each individual accident rather than try to minimize the number of accidents.",
"Reconstructing ships would provide protection from damage in accidents caused by human error.",
"The least expensive course of action in the long term is the one that minimizes the total cost of damage from accidents.",
"The most appropriate course of action is the one that most significantly reduces the severity of damage caused by accidents."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
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