context
stringlengths 79
829
| id_string
stringlengths 16
18
| answers
listlengths 5
5
| label
int64 0
4
| question
stringlengths 23
302
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
In polluted industrial English cities during the Industrial Revolution, two plant diseases—black spot, which infects roses, and tar spot, which infects sycamore trees— disappeared. It is likely that air pollution eradicated these diseases. | 201010_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"Scientists theorize that some plants can develop a resistance to air pollution.",
"Certain measures help prevent infection by black spot and tar spot, but once infection occurs, it is very difficult to eliminate.",
"For many plant species, scientists have not determined the effects of air pollution.",
"Black spot and tar spot returned when the air in the cities became less polluted.",
"Black spot and tar spot were the only plant diseases that disappeared in any English cities during the Industrial Revolution."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the reasoning above? |
Many scholars are puzzled about who created the seventeenth-century abridgment of Shakespeare's Hamlet contained in the First Quarto. Two facts about the work shed light on this question. First, the person who undertook the abridgment clearly did not possess a copy of Hamlet. Second, the abridgment contains a very accurate rendering of the speeches of one of the characters, but a slipshod handling of all the other parts. | 201010_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"The abridgment was prepared by Shakespeare.",
"The abridgment was created to make Hamlet easier to produce on stage.",
"The abridgment was produced by an actor who had played a role in Hamlet.",
"The abridgement was prepared by a spectator of a performance of Hamlet.",
"The abridgment was produced by an actor who was trying to improve the play."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements is most supported by the information above? |
Musicologist: Many critics complain of the disproportion between text and music in Handel's da capo arias. These texts are generally quite short and often repeated well beyond what is needed for literal understanding. Yet such criticism is refuted by noting that repetition serves a vital function: it frees the audience to focus on the music itself, which can speak to audiences whatever their language. | 201010_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"Handel's da capo arias contain a disproportionate amount of music.",
"Handel's da capo arias are superior to most in their accessibility to diverse audiences.",
"At least one frequent criticism of Handel's da capo arias is undeserved.",
"At least some of Handel's da capo arias contain unnecessary repetitions.",
"Most criticism of Handel's da capo arias is unwarranted."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following sentences best expresses the main point of the musicologist's reasoning? |
Baxe Interiors, one of the largest interior design companies in existence, currently has a near monopoly in the corporate market. Several small design companies have won prestigious awards for their corporate work, while Baxe has won none. Nonetheless, the corporate managers who solicit design proposals will only contract with companies they believe are unlikely to go bankrupt, and they believe that only very large companies are unlikely to go bankrupt. | 201010_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"There are other very large design companies besides Baxe, but they produce designs that are inferior to Baxe's.",
"Baxe does not have a near monopoly in the market of any category of interior design other than corporate interiors.",
"For the most part, designs that are produced by small companies are superior to the designs produced by Baxe.",
"At least some of the corporate managers who solicit design proposals are unaware that there are designs that are much better than those produced by Baxe.",
"The existence of interior designs that are superior to those produced by Baxe does not currently threaten its near monopoly in the corporate market."
]
| 4 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
The giant Chicxulub crater in Mexico provides indisputable evidence that a huge asteroid, about six miles across, struck Earth around the time many of the last dinosaur species were becoming extinct. But this catastrophe was probably not responsible for most of these extinctions. Any major asteroid strike kills many organisms in or near the region of the impact, but there is little evidence that such a strike could have a worldwide effect. Indeed, some craters even larger than the Chicxulub crater were made during times in Earth's history when there were no known extinctions. | 201010_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"The vast majority of dinosaur species are known to have gone extinct well before the time of the asteroid impact that produced the Chicxulub crater.",
"The size of a crater caused by an asteroid striking Earth generally depends on both the size of that asteroid and the force of its impact.",
"Fossils have been discovered of a number of dinosaurs that clearly died as a result of the asteroid impact that produced the Chicxulub crater.",
"There is no evidence that any other asteroid of equal size struck Earth at the same time as the asteroid that produced the Chicxulub crater.",
"During the period immediately before the asteroid that produced the Chicxulub crater struck, most of the world's dinosaurs lived in or near the region of the asteroid's impending impact."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument? |
In a sample containing 1,000 peanuts from lot A and 1,000 peanuts from lot B, 50 of the peanuts from lot A were found to be infected with Aspergillus. Two hundred of the peanuts from lot B were found to be infected with Aspergillus. Therefore, infection with Aspergillus is more widespread in lot B than in lot A. | 201010_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"Every one of these varied machine parts is of uniformly high quality. Therefore, the machine that we assemble from them will be of equally high quality.",
"If a plant is carelessly treated, it is likely to develop blight. If a plant develops blight, it is likely to die. Therefore, if a plant is carelessly treated, it is likely to die.",
"In the past 1,000 experiments, whenever an experimental fungicide was applied to coffee plants infected with coffee rust, the infection disappeared. The coffee rust never disappeared before the fungicide was applied. Therefore, in these experiments, application of the fungicide caused the disappearance of coffee rust.",
"Three thousand registered voters—1,500 members of the Liberal party and 1,500 members of the Conservative party—were asked which mayoral candidate they favored. Four hundred of the Liberals and 300 of the Conservatives favored Pollack. Therefore, Pollack has more support among Liberals than among Conservatives.",
"All of my livestock are registered with the regional authority. None of the livestock registered with the regional authority are free-range livestock. Therefore, none of my livestock are free-range livestock."
]
| 3 | The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the reasoning in the argument above? |
Economist: If the belief were to become widespread that losing one's job is not a sign of personal shortcomings but instead an effect of impersonal social forces (which is surely correct), there would be growth in the societal demand for more government control of the economy to protect individuals from these forces, just as the government now protects them from military invasion. Such extensive government control of the economy would lead to an economic disaster, however. | 201010_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"Increased knowledge of the causes of job loss could lead to economic disaster.",
"An individual's belief in his or her own abilities is the only reliable protection against impersonal social forces.",
"Governments should never interfere with economic forces.",
"Societal demand for government control of the economy is growing.",
"In general, people should feel no more responsible for economic disasters than for military invasions."
]
| 0 | The economist's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
A development company has proposed building an airport near the city of Dalton. If the majority of Dalton's residents favor the proposal, the airport will be built. However, it is unlikely that a majority of Dalton's residents would favor the proposal, for most of them believe that the airport would create noise problems. Thus, it is unlikely that the airport will be built. | 201010_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"treats a sufficient condition for the airport's being built as a necessary condition",
"concludes that something must be true, because most people believe it to be true",
"concludes, on the basis that a certain event is unlikely to occur, that the event will not occur",
"fails to consider whether people living near Dalton would favor building the airport",
"overlooks the possibility that a new airport could benefit the local economy"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument |
After the rush-hour speed limit on the British M25 motorway was lowered from 70 miles per hour (115 kilometers per hour) to 50 miles per hour (80 kilometers per hour), rush-hour travel times decreased by approximately 15 percent. | 201010_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"After the decrease in the rush-hour speed limit, the average speed on the M25 was significantly lower during rush hours than at other times of the day.",
"Travel times during periods other than rush hours were essentially unchanged after the rush-hour speed limit was lowered.",
"Before the rush-hour speed limit was lowered, rush-hour accidents that caused lengthy delays were common, and most of these accidents were caused by high-speed driving.",
"Enforcement of speed limits on the M25 was quite rigorous both before and after the rush-hour speed limit was lowered.",
"The number of people who drive on the M25 during rush hours did not increase after the rush-hour speed limit was lowered."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the decrease in travel times described above? |
An art critic, by ridiculing an artwork, can undermine the pleasure one takes in it; conversely, by lavishing praise upon an artwork, an art critic can render the experience of viewing the artwork more pleasurable. So an artwork's artistic merit can depend not only on the person who creates it but also on those who critically evaluate it. | 201010_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"The merit of an artistic work is determined by the amount of pleasure it elicits.",
"Most people lack the confidence necessary for making their own evaluations of art.",
"Art critics understand what gives an artwork artistic merit better than artists do.",
"Most people seek out critical reviews of particular artworks before viewing those works.",
"The pleasure people take in something is typically influenced by what they think others feel about it."
]
| 0 | The conclusion can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
The number of automobile thefts has declined steadily during the past five years, and it is more likely now than it was five years ago that someone who steals a car will be convicted of the crime. | 201010_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"Although there are fewer car thieves now than there were five years ago, the proportion of thieves who tend to abandon cars before their owners notice that they have been stolen has also decreased.",
"Car alarms are more common than they were five years ago, but their propensity to be triggered in the absence of any criminal activity has resulted in people generally ignoring them when they are triggered.",
"An upsurge in home burglaries over the last five years has required police departments to divert limited resources to investigation of these cases.",
"Because of the increasingly lucrative market for stolen automobile parts, many stolen cars are quickly disassembled and the parts are sold to various buyers across the country.",
"There are more adolescent car thieves now than there were five years ago, and the sentences given to young criminals tend to be far more lenient than those given to adult criminals."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the facts cited above? |
Legislator: My staff conducted a poll in which my constituents were asked whether they favor high taxes. More than 97 percent answered "no." Clearly,then, my constituents would support the bill I recently introduced, which reduces the corporate income tax. | 201010_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"fails to establish that the opinions of the legislator's constituents are representative of the opinions of the country's population as a whole",
"fails to consider whether the legislator's constituents consider the current corporate income tax a high tax",
"confuses an absence of evidence that the legislator's constituents oppose a bill with the existence of evidence that the legislator's constituents support that bill",
"draws a conclusion that merely restates a claim presented in support of that conclusion",
"treats a result that proves that the public supports a bill as a result that is merely consistent with public support for that bill"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the legislator's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Many nursing homes have prohibitions against having pets, and these should be lifted. The presence of an animal companion can yield health benefits by reducing a person's stress. A pet can also make one's time at a home more rewarding, which will be important to more people as the average life span of our population increases. | 201010_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"As the average life span increases, it will be important to more people that life in nursing homes be rewarding.",
"Residents of nursing homes should enjoy the same rewarding aspects of life as anyone else.",
"The policy that many nursing homes have should be changed so that residents are allowed to have pets.",
"Having a pet can reduce one's stress and thereby make one a healthier person.",
"The benefits older people derive from having pets need to be recognized, especially as the average life span increases."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument above? |
Near many cities, contamination of lakes and rivers from pollutants in rainwater runoff exceeds that from industrial discharge. As the runoff washes over buildings and pavements, it picks up oil and other pollutants. Thus, water itself is among the biggest water polluters. | 201010_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"It is a conclusion for which the claim that water itself should be considered a polluter is offered as support.",
"It is cited as evidence that pollution from rainwater runoff is a more serious problem than pollution from industrial discharge.",
"It is a generalization based on the observation that rainwater runoff picks up oil and other pollutants as it washes over buildings and pavements.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that water itself is among the biggest water polluters.",
"It is stated to provide an example of a typical kind of city pollution."
]
| 3 | The statement that contamination of lakes and rivers from pollutants in rainwater runoff exceeds that from industrial discharge plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Wong: Although all countries are better off as democracies, a transitional autocratic stage is sometimes required before a country can become democratic. Tate: The freedom and autonomy that democracy provides are of genuine value, but the simple material needs of people are more important. Some countries can better meet these needs as autocracies than as democracies. | 201010_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"There are some countries that are better off as autocracies than as democracies.",
"Nothing is more important to a country than the freedom and autonomy of the individuals who live in that country.",
"In some cases, a country cannot become a democracy.",
"The freedom and autonomy that democracy provides are of genuine value.",
"All democracies succeed in meeting the simple material needs of people."
]
| 0 | Wong's and Tate's statements provide the most support for the claim that they disagree over the truth of which one of the following? |
Principle: When none of the fully qualified candidates for a new position at Arvue Corporation currently works for that company, it should hire the candidate who would be most productive in that position. Application: Arvue should not hire Krall for the new position, because Delacruz is a candidate and is fully qualified. | 201010_4-LR2_19_19 | [
"All of the candidates are fully qualified for the new position, but none already works for Arvue.",
"Of all the candidates who do not already work for Arvue, Delacruz would be the most productive in the new position.",
"Krall works for Arvue, but Delacruz is the candidate who would be most productive in the new position.",
"Several candidates currently work for Arvue, but Krall and Delacruz do not.",
"None of the candidates already works for Arvue, and Delacruz is the candidate who would be most productive in the new position."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, justifies the above application of the principle? |
Many important types of medicine have been developed from substances discovered in plants that grow only in tropical rain forests. There are thousands of plant species in these rain forests that have not yet been studied by scientists, and it is very likely that many such plants also contain substances of medicinal value. Thus, if the tropical rain forests are not preserved, important types of medicine will never be developed. | 201010_4-LR2_20_20 | [
"There are substances of medicinal value contained in tropical rain forest plants not yet studied by scientists that differ from those substances already discovered in tropical rain forest plants.",
"Most of the tropical rain forest plants that contain substances of medicinal value can also be found growing in other types of environment.",
"The majority of plant species that are unique to tropical rain forests and that have been studied by scientists have been discovered to contain substances of medicinal value.",
"Any substance of medicinal value contained in plant species indigenous to tropical rain forests will eventually be discovered if those species are studied by scientists.",
"The tropical rain forests should be preserved to make it possible for important medicines to be developed from plant species that have not yet been studied by scientists."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
In modern deep-diving marine mammals, such as whales, the outer shell of the bones is porous. This has the effect of making the bones light enough so that it is easy for the animals to swim back to the surface after a deep dive. The outer shell of the bones was also porous in the ichthyosaur, an extinct prehistoric marine reptile. We can conclude from this that ichthyosaurs were deep divers. | 201010_4-LR2_21_21 | [
"Some deep-diving marine species must surface after dives but do not have bones with porous outer shells.",
"In most modern marine reptile species, the outer shell of the bones is not porous.",
"In most modern and prehistoric marine reptile species that are not deep divers, the outer shell of the bones is porous.",
"In addition to the porous outer shells of their bones, whales have at least some characteristics suited to deep diving for which there is no clear evidence whether these were shared by ichthyosaurs.",
"There is evidence that the bones of ichthyosaurs would have been light enough to allow surfacing even if the outer shells were not porous."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Librarian: Some argue that the preservation grant we received should be used to restore our original copy of our town's charter, since if the charter is not restored, it will soon deteriorate beyond repair. But this document, although sentimentally important, has no scholarly value. Copies are readily available. Since we are a research library and not a museum, the money would be better spent preserving documents that have significant scholarly value. | 201010_4-LR2_22_22 | [
"It is a claim that the librarian's argument attempts to show to be false.",
"It is the conclusion of the argument that the librarian's argument rejects.",
"It is a premise in an argument whose conclusion is rejected by the librarian's argument.",
"It is a premise used to support the librarian's main conclusion.",
"It is a claim whose truth is required by the librarian's argument."
]
| 2 | The claim that the town's charter, if not restored, will soon deteriorate beyond repair plays which one of the following roles in the librarian's argument? |
Columnist: Although much has been learned, we are still largely ignorant of the intricate interrelationships among species of living organisms. We should, therefore, try to preserve the maximum number of species if we have an interest in preserving any, since allowing species toward which we are indifferent to perish might undermine the viability of other species. | 201010_4-LR2_23_23 | [
"It is strongly in our interest to preserve certain plant and animal species.",
"We should not take any action until all relevant scientific facts have been established and taken into account.",
"We should not allow the number of species to diminish any further than is necessary for the flourishing of present and future human populations.",
"We should not allow a change to occur unless we are assured that that change will not jeopardize anything that is important to us.",
"We should always undertake the course of action that is likely to have the best consequences in the immediate future."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the columnist's argument? |
One is likely to feel comfortable approaching a stranger if the stranger is of one's approximate age. Therefore, long-term friends are probably of the same approximate age as each other since most long-term friendships begin because someone felt comfortable approaching a stranger. | 201010_4-LR2_24_24 | [
"presumes, without warrant, that one is likely to feel uncomfortable approaching a person only if that person is a stranger",
"infers that a characteristic is present in a situation from the fact that that characteristic is present in most similar situations",
"overlooks the possibility that one is less likely to feel comfortable approaching someone who is one's approximate age if that person is a stranger than if that person is not a stranger",
"presumes, without warrant, that one never approaches a stranger unless one feels comfortable doing so",
"fails to address whether one is likely to feel comfortable approaching a stranger who is not one's approximate age"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it |
There can be no individual freedom without the rule of law, for there is no individual freedom without social integrity, and pursuing the good life is not possible without social integrity. | 201010_4-LR2_25_25 | [
"There can be no rule of law without social integrity.",
"There can be no social integrity without the rule of law.",
"One cannot pursue the good life without the rule of law.",
"Social integrity is possible only if individual freedom prevails.",
"There can be no rule of law without individual freedom."
]
| 1 | The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Economist: Countries with an uneducated population are destined to be weak economically and politically, whereas those with an educated population have governments that display a serious financial commitment to public education. So any nation with a government that has made such a commitment will avoid economic and political weakness. | 201010_4-LR2_26_26 | [
"Animal species with a very narrow diet will have more difficulty surviving if the climate suddenly changes, but a species with a broader diet will not; for changes in the climate can remove the traditional food supply.",
"People incapable of empathy are not good candidates for public office, but those who do have the capacity for empathy are able to manipulate others easily; hence, people who can manipulate others are good candidates for public office.",
"People who cannot give orders are those who do not understand the personalities of the people to whom they give orders. Thus, those who can give orders are those who understand the personalities of the people to whom they give orders.",
"Poets who create poetry of high quality are those who have studied traditional poetry, because poets who have not studied traditional poetry are the poets most likely to create something shockingly inventive, and poetry that is shockingly inventive is rarely fine poetry.",
"People who dislike exercise are unlikely to lose weight without sharply curtailing their food intake; but since those who dislike activity generally tend to avoid it, people who like to eat but dislike exercise will probably fail to lose weight."
]
| 1 | The pattern of flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the economist's argument? |
In a recent study, a group of young children were taught the word "stairs" while walking up and down a flight of stairs. Later that day, when the children were shown a video of a person climbing a ladder, they all called the ladder stairs. | 201012_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"When young children repeatedly hear a word without seeing the object denoted by the word, they sometimes apply the word to objects not denoted by the word.",
"Young children best learn words when they are shown how the object denoted by the word is used.",
"The earlier in life a child encounters and uses an object, the easier it is for that child to learn how not to misuse the word denoting that object.",
"Young children who learn a word by observing how the object denoted by that word is used sometimes apply that word to a different object that is similarly used.",
"Young children best learn the names of objects when the objects are present at the time the children learn the words and when no other objects are simultaneously present."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles is best illustrated by the study described above? |
Among people who live to the age of 100 or more, a large proportion have led "unhealthy" lives: smoking, consuming alcohol, eating fatty foods, and getting little exercise. Since such behavior often leads to shortened life spans, it is likely that exceptionally long-lived people are genetically disposed to having long lives. | 201012_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"There is some evidence that consuming a moderate amount of alcohol can counteract the effects of eating fatty foods.",
"Some of the exceptionally long-lived people who do not smoke or drink do eat fatty foods and get little exercise.",
"Some of the exceptionally long-lived people who exercise regularly and avoid fatty foods do smoke or consume alcohol.",
"Some people who do not live to the age of 100 also lead unhealthy lives.",
"Nearly all people who live to 100 or more have siblings who are also long-lived."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Medications with an unpleasant taste are generally produced only in tablet, capsule, or soft-gel form. The active ingredient in medication M is a waxy substance that cannot tolerate the heat used to manufacture tablets because it has a low melting point. So, since the company developing M does not have soft-gel manufacturing technology and manufactures all its medications itself, M will most likely be produced in capsule form. | 201012_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"Medication M can be produced in liquid form.",
"Medication M has an unpleasant taste.",
"No medication is produced in both capsule and soft-gel form.",
"Most medications with a low melting point are produced in soft-gel form.",
"Medications in capsule form taste less unpleasant than those in tablet or soft-gel form."
]
| 1 | The conclusion is most strongly supported by the reasoning in the argument if which one of the following is assumed? |
Carol Morris wants to own a majority of the shares of the city's largest newspaper, The Daily. The only obstacle to Morris's amassing a majority of these shares is that Azedcorp, which currently owns a majority, has steadfastly refused to sell. Industry analysts nevertheless predict that Morris will soon be the majority owner of The Daily. | 201012_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Azedcorp does not own shares of any newspaper other than The Daily.",
"Morris has recently offered Azedcorp much more for its shares of The Daily than Azedcorp paid for them.",
"No one other than Morris has expressed any interest in purchasing a majority of The Daily's shares.",
"Morris already owns more shares of The Daily than anyone except Azedcorp.",
"Azedcorp is financially so weak that bankruptcy will probably soon force the sale of its newspaper holdings."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the industry analysts' prediction? |
Area resident: Childhood lead poisoning has declined steadily since the 1970s, when leaded gasoline was phased out and lead paint was banned. But recent statistics indicate that 25 percent of this area's homes still contain lead paint that poses significant health hazards. Therefore, if we eliminate the lead paint in those homes, childhood lead poisoning in the area will finally be eradicated. | 201012_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"relies on statistical claims that are likely to be unreliable",
"relies on an assumption that is tantamount to assuming that the conclusion is true",
"fails to consider that there may be other significant sources of lead in the area's environment",
"takes for granted that lead paint in homes can be eliminated economically",
"takes for granted that children reside in all of the homes in the area that contain lead paint"
]
| 2 | The area resident's argument is flawed in that it |
Although some nutritional facts about soft drinks are listed on their labels, exact caffeine content is not. Listing exact caffeine content would make it easier to limit, but not eliminate, one's caffeine intake. If it became easier for people to limit, but not eliminate, their caffeine intake, many people would do so, which would improve their health. | 201012_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"The health of at least some people would improve if exact caffeine content were listed on soft-drink labels.",
"Many people will be unable to limit their caffeine intake if exact caffeine content is not listed on soft-drink labels.",
"Many people will find it difficult to eliminate their caffeine intake if they have to guess exactly how much caffeine is in their soft drinks.",
"People who wish to eliminate, rather than simply limit, their caffeine intake would benefit if exact caffeine content were listed on soft-drink labels.",
"The health of at least some people would worsen if everyone knew exactly how much caffeine was in their soft drinks."
]
| 0 | If all the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true? |
When the famous art collector Vidmar died, a public auction of her collection, the largest privately owned, was held. "I can't possibly afford any of those works because hers is among the most valuable collections ever assembled by a single person," declared art lover MacNeil. | 201012_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"Each word in the book is in French. So the whole book is in French.",
"The city council voted unanimously to adopt the plan. So councilperson Martinez voted to adopt the plan.",
"This paragraph is long. So the sentences that comprise it are long.",
"The members of the company are old. So the company itself is old.",
"The atoms comprising this molecule are elements. So the molecule itself is an element."
]
| 2 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most closely parallel to that in MacNeil's argument? |
A leading critic of space exploration contends that it would be wrong, given current technology, to send a group of explorers to Mars, since the explorers would be unlikely to survive the trip. But that exaggerates the risk. There would be a well-engineered backup system at every stage of the long and complicated journey. A fatal catastrophe is quite unlikely at any given stage if such a backup system is in place. | 201012_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"infers that something is true of a whole merely from the fact that it is true of each of the parts",
"infers that something cannot occur merely from the fact that it is unlikely to occur",
"draws a conclusion about what must be the case based on evidence about what is probably the case",
"infers that something will work merely because it could work",
"rejects a view merely on the grounds that an inadequate argument has been made for it"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument |
A retrospective study is a scientific study that tries to determine the causes of subjects' present characteristics by looking for significant connections between the present characteristics of subjects and what happened to those subjects in the past, before the study began. Because retrospective studies of human subjects must use the subjects' reports about their own pasts, however, such studies cannot reliably determine the causes of human subjects' present characteristics. | 201012_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"Whether or not a study of human subjects can reliably determine the causes of those subjects' present characteristics may depend at least in part on the extent to which that study uses inaccurate reports about the subjects' pasts.",
"A retrospective study cannot reliably determine the causes of human subjects' present characteristics unless there exist correlations between the present characteristics of the subjects and what happened to those subjects in the past.",
"In studies of human subjects that attempt to find connections between subjects' present characteristics and what happened to those subjects in the past, the subjects' reports about their own pasts are highly susceptible to inaccuracy.",
"If a study of human subjects uses only accurate reports about the subjects' pasts, then that study can reliably determine the causes of those subjects' present characteristics.",
"Every scientific study in which researchers look for significant connections between the present characteristics of subjects and what happened to those subjects in the past must use the subjects' reports about their own pasts."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Gigantic passenger planes currently being developed will have enough space to hold shops and lounges in addition to passenger seating. However, the additional space will more likely be used for more passenger seating. The number of passengers flying the air-traffic system is expected to triple within 20 years, and it will be impossible for airports to accommodate enough normal-sized jet planes to carry that many passengers. | 201012_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"Gigantic planes currently being developed will have enough space in them to hold shops and lounges as well as passenger seating.",
"The additional space in the gigantic planes currently being developed is more likely to be filled with passenger seating than with shops and lounges.",
"The number of passengers flying the air-traffic system is expected to triple within 20 years.",
"In 20 years, it will be impossible for airports to accommodate enough normal-sized planes to carry the number of passengers that are expected to be flying then.",
"In 20 years, most airline passengers will be flying in gigantic passenger planes."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately states the conclusion drawn in the argument? |
Scientist: To study the comparative effectiveness of two experimental medications for athlete's foot, a representative sample of people with athlete's foot were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group received only medication M, and the other received only medication N. The only people whose athlete's foot was cured had been given medication M. Reporter: This means, then, that if anyone in the study had athlete's foot that was not cured, that person did not receive medication M. | 201012_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"The reporter concludes from evidence showing only that M can cure athlete's foot that M always cures athlete's foot.",
"The reporter illicitly draws a conclusion about the population as a whole on the basis of a study conducted only on a sample of the population.",
"The reporter presumes, without providing justification, that medications M and N are available to people who have athlete's foot but did not participate in the study.",
"The reporter fails to allow for the possibility that athlete's foot may be cured even if neither of the two medications studied is taken.",
"The reporter presumes, without providing justification, that there is no sizeable subgroup of people whose athlete's foot will be cured only if they do not take medication M."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the reporter's error in reasoning? |
Paleontologist: Plesiosauromorphs were gigantic, long-necked marine reptiles that ruled the oceans during the age of the dinosaurs. Most experts believe that plesiosauromorphs lurked and quickly ambushed their prey. However, plesiosauromorphs probably hunted by chasing their prey over long distances. Plesiosauromorph fins were quite long and thin, like the wings of birds specialized for long-distance flight. | 201012_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"Birds and reptiles share many physical features because they descend from common evolutionary ancestors.",
"During the age of dinosaurs, plesiosauromorphs were the only marine reptiles that had long, thin fins.",
"A gigantic marine animal would not be able to find enough food to meet the caloric requirements dictated by its body size if it did not hunt by chasing prey over long distances.",
"Most marine animals that chase prey over long distances are specialized for long-distance swimming.",
"The shape of a marine animal's fin affects the way the animal swims in the same way as the shape of a bird's wing affects the way the bird flies."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the paleontologist's argument depends? |
Buying elaborate screensavers—programs that put moving images on a computer monitor to prevent damage—can cost a company far more in employee time than it saves in electricity and monitor protection. Employees cannot resist spending time playing with screensavers that flash interesting graphics across their screens. | 201012_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"A school that chooses textbooks based on student preference may not get the most economical package.",
"An energy-efficient insulation system may cost more up front but will ultimately save money over the life of the house.",
"The time that it takes to have a pizza delivered may be longer than it takes to cook a complete dinner.",
"A complicated hotel security system may cost more in customer goodwill than it saves in losses by theft.",
"An electronic keyboard may be cheaper to buy than a piano but more expensive to repair."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle illustrated above? |
Music professor: Because rap musicians can work alone in a recording studio, they need not accommodate supporting musicians' wishes. Further, learning to rap is not as formal a process as learning an instrument. Thus, rap is an extremely individualistic and nontraditional musical form. Music critic: But rap appeals to tradition by using bits of older songs. Besides, the themes and styles of rap have developed into a tradition. And successful rap musicians do not perform purely idiosyncratically but conform their work to the preferences of the public. | 201012_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"challenges it by offering evidence against one of the stated premises on which its conclusion concerning rap music is based",
"challenges its conclusion concerning rap music by offering certain additional observations that the music professor does not take into account in his argument",
"challenges the grounds on which the music professor generalizes from the particular context of rap music to the broader context of musical tradition and individuality",
"challenges it by offering an alternative explanation of phenomena that the music professor cites as evidence for his thesis about rap music",
"challenges each of a group of claims about tradition and individuality in music that the music professor gives as evidence in his argument"
]
| 1 | The music critic's response to the music professor's argument |
Speaker: Like many contemporary critics, Smith argues that the true meaning of an author's statements can be understood only through insight into the author's social circumstances. But this same line of analysis can be applied to Smith's own words. Thus, if she is right we should be able, at least in part, to discern from Smith's social circumstances the "true meaning" of Smith's statements. This, in turn, suggests that Smith herself is not aware of the true meaning of her own words. | 201012_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"Insight into the intended meaning of an author's work is not as important as insight into its true meaning.",
"Smith lacks insight into her own social circumstances.",
"There is just one meaning that Smith intends her work to have.",
"Smith's theory about the relation of social circumstances to the understanding of meaning lacks insight.",
"The intended meaning of an author's work is not always good evidence of its true meaning."
]
| 1 | The speaker's main conclusion logically follows if which one of the following is assumed? |
Tissue biopsies taken on patients who have undergone throat surgery show that those who snored frequently were significantly more likely to have serious abnormalities in their throat muscles than those who snored rarely or not at all. This shows that snoring can damage the throat of the snorer. | 201012_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"The study relied on the subjects' self-reporting to determine whether or not they snored frequently.",
"The patients' throat surgery was not undertaken to treat abnormalities in their throat muscles.",
"All of the test subjects were of similar age and weight and in similar states of health.",
"People who have undergone throat surgery are no more likely to snore than people who have not undergone throat surgery.",
"The abnormalities in the throat muscles discovered in the study do not cause snoring."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
One should never sacrifice one's health in order to acquire money, for without health, happiness is not obtainable. | 201012_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"Money should be acquired only if its acquisition will not make happiness unobtainable.",
"In order to be happy one must have either money or health.",
"Health should be valued only as a precondition for happiness.",
"Being wealthy is, under certain conditions, conducive to unhappiness.",
"Health is more conducive to happiness than wealth is."
]
| 0 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Vanessa: All computer code must be written by a pair of programmers working at a single workstation. This is needed to prevent programmers from writing idiosyncratic code that can be understood only by the original programmer. Jo: Most programming projects are kept afloat by the best programmers on the team, who are typically at least 100 times more productive than the worst. Since they generally work best when they work alone, the most productive programmers must be allowed to work by themselves. | 201012_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"Olga and Kensuke are both programmers of roughly average productivity who feel that they are more productive when working alone. They have been assigned to work together at a single workstation.",
"John is experienced but is not among the most productive programmers on the team. He has been assigned to mentor Tyrone, a new programmer who is not yet very productive. They are to work together at a single workstation.",
"Although not among the most productive programmers on the team, Chris is more productive than Jennifer. They have been assigned to work together at a single workstation.",
"Yolanda is the most productive programmer on the team. She has been assigned to work with Mike, who is also very productive. They are to work together at the same workstation.",
"Kevin and Amy both have a reputation for writing idiosyncratic code; neither is unusually productive. They have been assigned to work together at the same workstation."
]
| 3 | Each of the following assignments of computer programmers is consistent both with the principle expressed by Vanessa and with the principle expressed by Jo EXCEPT: |
In West Calverton, most pet stores sell exotic birds, and most of those that sell exotic birds also sell tropical fish. However, any pet store there that sells tropical fish but not exotic birds does sell gerbils; and no independently owned pet stores in West Calverton sell gerbils. | 201012_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"Most pet stores in West Calverton that are not independently owned do not sell exotic birds.",
"No pet stores in West Calverton that sell tropical fish and exotic birds sell gerbils.",
"Some pet stores in West Calverton that sell gerbils also sell exotic birds.",
"No independently owned pet store in West Calverton sells tropical fish but not exotic birds.",
"Any independently owned pet store in West Calverton that does not sell tropical fish sells exotic birds."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true? |
Astronomer: Earlier estimates of the distances of certain stars from Earth would mean that these stars are about 1 billion years older than the universe itself, an impossible scenario. My estimates of the distances indicate that these stars are much farther away than previously thought. And the farther away the stars are, the greater their intrinsic brightness must be, given their appearance to us on Earth. So the new estimates of these stars' distances from Earth help resolve the earlier conflict between the ages of these stars and the age of the universe. | 201012_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"The stars are the oldest objects yet discovered in the universe.",
"The younger the universe is, the more bright stars it is likely to have.",
"The brighter a star is, the younger it is.",
"How bright celestial objects appear to be depends on how far away from the observer they are.",
"New telescopes allow astronomers to see a greater number of distant stars."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why the astronomer's estimates of the stars' distances from Earth help resolve the earlier conflict between the ages of these stars and the age of the universe? |
Most large nurseries sell raspberry plants primarily to commercial raspberry growers and sell only plants that are guaranteed to be disease-free. However, the shipment of raspberry plants that Johnson received from Wally's Plants carried a virus that commonly afflicts raspberries. | 201012_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"If Johnson is a commercial raspberry grower and Wally's Plants is not a large nursery, then the shipment of raspberry plants that Johnson received was probably guaranteed to be disease-free.",
"Johnson is probably not a commercial raspberry grower if the shipment of raspberry plants that Johnson received from Wally's Plants was not entirely as it was guaranteed to be.",
"If Johnson is not a commercial raspberry grower, then Wally's Plants is probably not a large nursery.",
"Wally's Plants is probably not a large, well-run nursery if it sells its raspberry plants primarily to commercial raspberry growers.",
"If Wally's Plants is a large nursery, then the raspberry plants that Johnson received in the shipment were probably not entirely as they were guaranteed to be."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Drug company manager: Our newest product is just not selling. One way to save it would be a new marketing campaign. This would not guarantee success, but it is one chance to save the product, so we should try it. | 201012_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"The drug company has invested heavily in its newest product, and losses due to this product would be harmful to the company's profits.",
"Many new products fail whether or not they are supported by marketing campaigns.",
"The drug company should not undertake a new marketing campaign for its newest product if the campaign has no chance to succeed.",
"Undertaking a new marketing campaign would endanger the drug company's overall position by necessitating cutbacks in existing marketing campaigns.",
"Consumer demand for the drug company's other products has been strong in the time since the company's newest product was introduced."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the manager's argument? |
Consumer advocate: TMD, a pesticide used on peaches, shows no effects on human health when it is ingested in the amount present in the per capita peach consumption in this country. But while 80 percent of the population eat no peaches, others, including small children, consume much more than the national average, and thus ingest disproportionately large amounts of TMD. So even though the use of TMD on peaches poses minimal risk to most of the population, it has not been shown to be an acceptable practice. | 201012_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"The possibility that more data about a pesticide's health effects might reveal previously unknown risks at low doses warrants caution in assessing that pesticide's overall risks.",
"The consequences of using a pesticide are unlikely to be acceptable when a majority of the population is likely to ingest it.",
"Use of a pesticide is acceptable only if it is used for its intended purpose and the pesticide has been shown not to harm any portion of the population.",
"Society has a special obligation to protect small children from pesticides unless average doses received by the population are low and have not been shown to be harmful to children's health.",
"Measures taken to protect the population from a harm sometimes turn out to be the cause of a more serious harm to certain segments of the population."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the consumer advocate's argumentation? |
Legal commentator: The goal of a recently enacted law that bans smoking in workplaces is to protect employees from secondhand smoke. But the law is written in such a way that it cannot be interpreted as ever prohibiting people from smoking in their own homes. | 201012_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"The law will be interpreted in a way that is inconsistent with the intentions of the legislators who supported it.",
"Supporters of the law believe that it will have a significant impact on the health of many workers.",
"The law offers no protection from secondhand smoke for people outside of their workplaces.",
"Most people believe that smokers have a fundamental right to smoke in their own homes.",
"The law will protect domestic workers such as housecleaners from secondhand smoke in their workplaces."
]
| 4 | The statements above, if true, provide a basis for rejecting which one of the following claims? |
University president: Our pool of applicants has been shrinking over the past few years. One possible explanation of this unwelcome phenomenon is that we charge too little for tuition and fees. Prospective students and their parents conclude that the quality of education they would receive at this institution is not as high as that offered by institutions with higher tuition. So, if we want to increase the size of our applicant pool, we need to raise our tuition and fees. | 201012_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"the proposed explanation for the decline in applications applies in this case",
"the quality of a university education is dependent on the amount of tuition charged by the university",
"an increase in tuition and fees at the university would guarantee a larger applicant pool",
"there is no additional explanation for the university's shrinking applicant pool",
"the amount charged by the university for tuition has not increased in recent years"
]
| 0 | The university president's argument requires the assumption that |
Editorial: It has been suggested that private, for-profit companies should be hired to supply clean drinking water to areas of the world where it is unavailable now. But water should not be supplied by private companies. After all, clean water is essential for human health, and the purpose of a private company is to produce profit, not to promote health. | 201012_2-LR1_26_26 | [
"A private company should not be allowed to supply a commodity that is essential to human health unless that commodity is also supplied by a government agency.",
"If something is essential for human health and private companies are unwilling or unable to supply it, then it should be supplied by a government agency.",
"Drinking water should never be supplied by an organization that is not able to consistently supply clean, safe water.",
"The mere fact that something actually promotes human health is not sufficient to show that its purpose is to promote health.",
"If something is necessary for human health, then it should be provided by an organization whose primary purpose is the promotion of health."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the reasoning in the editorial? |
Marine biologist: Scientists have long wondered why the fish that live around coral reefs exhibit such brilliant colors. One suggestion is that coral reefs are colorful and, therefore, that colorful fish are camouflaged by them. Many animal species, after all, use camouflage to avoid predators. However, as regards the populations around reefs, this suggestion is mistaken. A reef stripped of its fish is quite monochromatic. Most corals, it turns out, are relatively dull browns and greens. | 201012_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"One hypothesis about why fish living near coral reefs exhibit such bright colors is that the fish are camouflaged by their bright colors.",
"The fact that many species use camouflage to avoid predators is one reason to believe that brightly colored fish living near reefs do too.",
"The suggestion that the fish living around coral reefs exhibit bright colors because they are camouflaged by the reefs is mistaken.",
"A reef stripped of its fish is relatively monochromatic.",
"It turns out that the corals in a coral reef are mostly dull hues of brown and green."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the marine biologist's argument? |
To discover what percentage of teenagers believe in telekinesis—the psychic ability to move objects without physically touching them—a recent survey asked a representative sample of teenagers whether they agreed with the following statement: "A person's thoughts can influence the movement of physical objects." But because this statement is particularly ambiguous and is amenable to a naturalistic, uncontroversial interpretation, the survey's responses are also ambiguous. | 201012_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"Uncontroversial statements are useless in surveys.",
"Every statement is amenable to several interpretations.",
"Responses to surveys are always unambiguous if the survey's questions are well phrased.",
"Responses people give to poorly phrased questions are likely to be ambiguous.",
"Statements about psychic phenomena can always be given naturalistic interpretations."
]
| 3 | The reasoning above conforms most closely to which one of the following general propositions? |
A recent study of perfect pitch—the ability to identify the pitch of an isolated musical note—found that a high percentage of people who have perfect pitch are related to someone else who has it. Among those without perfect pitch, the percentage was much lower. This shows that having perfect pitch is a consequence of genetic factors. | 201012_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"People who have relatives with perfect pitch generally receive no more musical training than do others.",
"All of the researchers conducting the study had perfect pitch.",
"People with perfect pitch are more likely than others to choose music as a career.",
"People with perfect pitch are more likely than others to make sure that their children receive musical training.",
"People who have some training in music are more likely to have perfect pitch than those with no such training."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Paleontologists recently excavated two corresponding sets of dinosaur tracks, one left by a large grazing dinosaur and the other by a smaller predatory dinosaur. The two sets of tracks make abrupt turns repeatedly in tandem, suggesting that the predator was following the grazing dinosaur and had matched its stride. Modern predatory mammals, such as lions, usually match the stride of prey they are chasing immediately before they strike those prey. This suggests that the predatory dinosaur was chasing the grazing dinosaur and attacked immediately afterwards. | 201012_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"It helps establish the scientific importance of the argument's overall conclusion, but is not offered as evidence for that conclusion.",
"It is a hypothesis that is rejected in favor of the hypothesis stated in the argument's overall conclusion.",
"It provides the basis for an analogy used in support of the argument's overall conclusion.",
"It is presented to counteract a possible objection to the argument's overall conclusion.",
"It is the overall conclusion of the argument."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that the predatory dinosaur was following the grazing dinosaur and had matched its stride? |
Researchers announced recently that over the past 25 years the incidence of skin cancer caused by exposure to harmful rays from the sun has continued to grow in spite of the increasingly widespread use of sunscreens. This shows that using sunscreen is unlikely to reduce a person's risk of developing such skin cancer. | 201012_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Most people who purchase a sunscreen product will not purchase the most expensive brand available.",
"Skin cancer generally develops among the very old as a result of sunburns experienced when very young.",
"The development of sunscreens by pharmaceutical companies was based upon research conducted by dermatologists.",
"People who know that they are especially susceptible to skin cancer are generally disinclined to spend a large amount of time in the sun.",
"Those who use sunscreens most regularly are people who believe themselves to be most susceptible to skin cancer."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
University administrator: Any proposal for a new department will not be funded if there are fewer than 50 people per year available for hire in that field and the proposed department would duplicate more than 25 percent of the material covered in one of our existing departments. The proposed Area Studies Department will duplicate more than 25 percent of the material covered in our existing Anthropology Department. However, we will fund the new department. | 201012_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"The field of Area Studies has at least 50 people per year available for hire.",
"The proposed Area Studies Department would not duplicate more than 25 percent of the material covered in any existing department other than Anthropology.",
"If the proposed Area Studies Department did not duplicate more than 25 percent of the material covered in Anthropology, then the new department would not be funded.",
"The Anthropology Department duplicates more than 25 percent of the material covered in the proposed Area Studies Department.",
"The field of Area Studies has fewer than 50 people per year available for hire."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following statements follows logically from the university administrator's statements? |
Researcher: Over the course of three decades, we kept records of the average beak size of two populations of the same species of bird, one wild population, the other captive. During this period, the average beak size of the captive birds did not change, while the average beak size of the wild birds decreased significantly. | 201012_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"The small-beaked wild birds were easier to capture and measure than the large-beaked wild birds.",
"The large-beaked wild birds were easier to capture and measure than the small-beaked wild birds.",
"Changes in the wild birds' food supply during the study period favored the survival of small-beaked birds over large-beaked birds.",
"The average body size of the captive birds remained the same over the study period.",
"The researcher measured the beaks of some of the wild birds on more than one occasion."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the researcher's findings? |
Storytelling appears to be a universal aspect of both past and present cultures. Comparative study of traditional narratives from widely separated epochs and diverse cultures reveals common themes such as creation, tribal origin, mystical beings and quasi-historical figures, and common story types such as fables and tales in which animals assume human personalities. | 201012_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"Storytellers routinely borrow themes from other cultures.",
"Storytellers have long understood that the narrative is a universal aspect of human culture.",
"Certain human concerns and interests arise in all of the world's cultures.",
"Storytelling was no less important in ancient cultures than it is in modern cultures.",
"The best way to understand a culture is to understand what motivates its storytellers."
]
| 2 | The evidence cited above from the study of traditional narratives most supports which one of the following statements? |
If a mother's first child is born before its due date, it is likely that her second child will be also. Jackie's second child was not born before its due date, so it is likely that Jackie's first child was not born before its due date either. | 201012_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"Artisans who finish their projects before the craft fair will probably go to the craft fair. Ben will not finish his project before the fair. So he probably will not go to the craft fair.",
"All responsible pet owners are likely to be good with children. So anyone who is good with children is probably a responsible pet owner.",
"If a movie is a box-office hit, it is likely that its sequel will be also. Hawkman II, the sequel to Hawkman I, was not a box-office hit, so Hawkman I was probably not a box-office hit.",
"If a business is likely to fail, people will not invest in it. Pallid Starr is likely to fail, therefore no one is likely to invest in it.",
"Tai will go sailing only if the weather is nice. The weather will be nice, thus Tai will probably go sailing."
]
| 2 | The questionable reasoning in the argument above is most similar in its reasoning to which one of the following? |
Science journalist: Europa, a moon of Jupiter, is covered with ice. Data recently transmitted by a spacecraft strongly suggest that there are oceans of liquid water deep under the ice. Life as we know it could evolve only in the presence of liquid water. Hence, it is likely that at least primitive life has evolved on Europa. | 201012_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"takes for granted that if a condition would be necessary for the evolution of life as we know it, then such life could not have evolved anywhere that this condition does not hold",
"fails to address adequately the possibility that there are conditions necessary for the evolution of life in addition to the presence of liquid water",
"takes for granted that life is likely to be present on Europa if, but only if, life evolved on Europa",
"overlooks the possibility that there could be unfamiliar forms of life that have evolved without the presence of liquid water",
"takes for granted that no conditions on Europa other than the supposed presence of liquid water could have accounted for the data transmitted by the spacecraft"
]
| 1 | The science journalist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
A bacterial species will inevitably develop greater resistance within a few years to any antibiotics used against it, unless those antibiotics eliminate that species completely. However, no single antibiotic now on the market is powerful enough to eliminate bacterial species X completely. | 201012_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"It is unlikely that any antibiotic can be developed that will completely eliminate bacterial species X.",
"If any antibiotic now on the market is used against bacterial species X, that species will develop greater resistance to it within a few years.",
"The only way of completely eliminating bacterial species X is by a combination of two or more antibiotics now on the market.",
"Bacterial species X will inevitably become more virulent in the course of time.",
"Bacterial species X is more resistant to at least some antibiotics that have been used against it than it was before those antibiotics were used against it."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above? |
Political scientist: It is not uncommon for a politician to criticize his or her political opponents by claiming that their exposition of their ideas is muddled and incomprehensible. Such criticism, however, is never sincere. Political agendas promoted in a manner that cannot be understood by large numbers of people will not be realized for, as every politician knows, political mobilization requires commonality of purpose. | 201012_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"People who promote political agendas in an incomprehensible manner should be regarded as insincere.",
"Sincere critics of the proponents of a political agenda should not focus their criticisms on the manner in which that agenda is promoted.",
"The ineffectiveness of a confusingly promoted political agenda is a reason for refraining from, rather than engaging in, criticism of those who are promoting it.",
"A politician criticizing his or her political opponents for presenting their political agendas in an incomprehensible manner is being insincere.",
"To mobilize large numbers of people in support of a political agenda, that political agenda must be presented in such a way that it cannot be misunderstood."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is the most accurate rendering of the political scientist's main conclusion? |
Many symptoms of mental illnesses are affected by organic factors such as a deficiency in a compound in the brain. What is surprising, however, is the tremendous variation among different countries in the incidence of these symptoms in people with mental illnesses. This variation establishes that the organic factors that affect symptoms of mental illnesses are not distributed evenly around the globe. | 201012_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"does not say how many different mental illnesses are being discussed",
"neglects the possibility that nutritional factors that contribute to deficiencies in compounds in the brain vary from culture to culture",
"fails to consider the possibility that cultural factors significantly affect how mental illnesses manifest themselves in symptoms",
"presumes, without providing justification, that any change in brain chemistry manifests itself as a change in mental condition",
"presumes, without providing justification, that mental phenomena are only manifestations of physical phenomena"
]
| 2 | The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Politician: It has been proposed that the national parks in our country be managed by private companies rather than the government. A similar privatization of the telecommunications industry has benefited consumers by allowing competition among a variety of telephone companies to improve service and force down prices. Therefore, the privatization of the national parks would probably benefit park visitors as well. | 201012_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"It would not be politically expedient to privatize the national parks even if doing so would, in the long run, improve service and reduce the fees charged to visitors.",
"The privatization of the telecommunications industry has been problematic in that it has led to significantly increased unemployment and economic instability in that industry.",
"The vast majority of people visiting the national parks are unaware of proposals to privatize the management of those parks.",
"Privatizing the national parks would benefit a much smaller number of consumers to a much smaller extent than did the privatization of the telecommunications industry.",
"The privatization of the national parks would produce much less competition between different companies than did the privatization of the telecommunications industry."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the politician's argument? |
Jewel collectors, fearing that their eyes will be deceived by a counterfeit, will not buy a diamond unless the dealer guarantees that it is genuine. But why should a counterfeit give any less aesthetic pleasure when the naked eye cannot distinguish it from a real diamond? Both jewels should be deemed of equal value. | 201012_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"Jewel collectors should collect only those jewels that provide the most aesthetic pleasure.",
"The value of a jewel should depend at least partly on market demand.",
"It should not be assumed that everyone who likes diamonds receives the same degree of aesthetic pleasure from them.",
"The value of a jewel should derive solely from the aesthetic pleasure it provides.",
"Jewel collectors should not buy counterfeit jewels unless they are unable to distinguish counterfeit jewels from real ones."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument above? |
All etching tools are either pin-tipped or bladed. While some bladed etching tools are used for engraving, some are not. On the other hand, all pin-tipped etching tools are used for engraving. Thus, there are more etching tools that are used for engraving than there are etching tools that are not used for engraving. | 201012_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"All tools used for engraving are etching tools as well.",
"There are as many pin-tipped etching tools as there are bladed etching tools.",
"No etching tool is both pin-tipped and bladed.",
"The majority of bladed etching tools are not used for engraving.",
"All etching tools that are not used for engraving are bladed."
]
| 1 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
A 24-year study of 1,500 adults showed that those subjects with a high intake of foods rich in beta-carotene were much less likely to die from cancer or heart disease than were those with a low intake of such foods. On the other hand, taking beta-carotene supplements for 12 years had no positive or negative effect on the health of subjects in a separate study of 20,000 adults. | 201012_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"The human body processes the beta-carotene present in foods much more efficiently than it does beta-carotene supplements.",
"Beta-carotene must be taken for longer than 12 years to have any cancer-preventive effects.",
"Foods rich in beta-carotene also tend to contain other nutrients that assist in the human body's absorption of beta-carotene.",
"In the 12-year study, half of the subjects were given beta-carotene supplements and half were given a placebo.",
"In the 24-year study, the percentage of the subjects who had a high intake of beta-carotene-rich foods who smoked cigarettes was much smaller than the percentage of the subjects with a low intake of beta-carotene-rich foods who smoked."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent discrepancy between the results of the two studies EXCEPT: |
If there are sentient beings on planets outside our solar system, we will not be able to determine this anytime in the near future unless some of these beings are at least as intelligent as humans. We will not be able to send spacecraft to planets outside our solar system anytime in the near future, and any sentient being on another planet capable of communicating with us anytime in the near future would have to be at least as intelligent as we are. | 201012_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"There are no sentient beings on planets in our solar system other than those on Earth.",
"Any beings that are at least as intelligent as humans would want to communicate with sentient beings outside their own solar systems.",
"If there is a sentient being on another planet that is as intelligent as humans are, we will not be able to send spacecraft to the being's planet anytime in the near future.",
"If a sentient being on another planet cannot communicate with us, then the only way to detect its existence is by sending a spacecraft to its planet.",
"Any sentient beings on planets outside our solar system that are at least as intelligent as humans would be capable of communicating with us."
]
| 3 | The argument's conclusion can be properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? |
Doctor: Medical researchers recently examined a large group of individuals who said that they had never experienced serious back pain. Half of the members of the group turned out to have bulging or slipped disks in their spines, conditions often blamed for serious back pain. Since these individuals with bulging or slipped disks evidently felt no pain from them, these conditions could not lead to serious back pain in people who do experience such pain. | 201012_4-LR2_19_19 | [
"A factor that need not be present in order for a certain effect to arise may nonetheless be sufficient to produce that effect.",
"A factor that is not in itself sufficient to produce a certain effect may nonetheless be partly responsible for that effect in some instances.",
"An effect that occurs in the absence of a particular phenomenon might not occur when that phenomenon is present.",
"A characteristic found in half of a given sample of the population might not occur in half of the entire population.",
"A factor that does not bring about a certain effect may nonetheless be more likely to be present when the effect occurs than when the effect does not occur."
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the doctor's argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it fails to consider which one of the following possibilities? |
Many workers who handled substance T in factories became seriously ill years later. We now know T caused at least some of their illnesses. Earlier ignorance of this connection does not absolve T's manufacturer of all responsibility. For had it investigated the safety of T before allowing workers to be exposed to it, many of their illnesses would have been prevented. | 201012_4-LR2_20_20 | [
"Employees who are harmed by substances they handle on the job should be compensated for medical costs they incur as a result.",
"Manufacturers should be held responsible only for the preventable consequences of their actions.",
"Manufacturers have an obligation to inform workers of health risks of which they are aware.",
"Whether or not an action's consequences were preventable is irrelevant to whether a manufacturer should be held responsible for those consequences.",
"Manufacturers should be held responsible for the consequences of any of their actions that harm innocent people if those consequences were preventable."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the conclusion above? |
It is virtually certain that the government contract for building the new highway will be awarded to either Phoenix Contracting or Cartwright Company. I have just learned that the government has decided not to award the contract to Cartwright Company. It is therefore almost inevitable that Phoenix Contracting will be awarded the contract. | 201012_4-LR2_21_21 | [
"concluding that it is extremely likely that an event will occur by ruling out the only probable alternative",
"inferring, from a claim that one of two possible events will occur, that the other event will not occur",
"refuting a claim that a particular event is inevitable by establishing the possibility of an alternative event",
"predicting a future event on the basis of an established pattern of past events",
"inferring a claim about the probability of a particular event from a general statistical statement"
]
| 0 | The argument proceeds by |
Researchers have found that children in large families— particularly the younger siblings—generally have fewer allergies than children in small families do. They hypothesize that exposure to germs during infancy makes people less likely to develop allergies. | 201012_4-LR2_22_22 | [
"In countries where the average number of children per family has decreased over the last century, the incidence of allergies has increased.",
"Children in small families generally eat more kinds of very allergenic foods than children in large families do.",
"Some allergies are life threatening, while many diseases caused by germs produce only temporary discomfort.",
"Children whose parents have allergies have an above-average likelihood of developing allergies themselves.",
"Children from small families who entered day care before age one were less likely to develop allergies than children from small families who entered day care later."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most supports the researchers' hypothesis? |
Film preservation requires transferring old movies from their original material—unstable, deteriorating nitrate film—to stable acetate film. But this is a time-consuming, expensive process, and there is no way to transfer all currently deteriorating nitrate films to acetate before they disintegrate. So some films from the earliest years of Hollywood will not be preserved. | 201012_4-LR2_23_23 | [
"No new technology for transferring old movies from nitrate film to acetate film will ever be developed.",
"Transferring films from nitrate to acetate is not the least expensive way of preserving them.",
"Not many films from the earliest years of Hollywood have already been transferred to acetate.",
"Some films from the earliest years of Hollywood currently exist solely in their original material.",
"The least popular films from the earliest years of Hollywood are the ones most likely to be lost."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
In a recent study of arthritis, researchers tried but failed to find any correlation between pain intensity and any of those features of the weather—humidity, temperature swings, barometric pressure—usually cited by arthritis sufferers as the cause of their increased pain. Those arthritis sufferers in the study who were convinced of the existence of such a correlation gave widely varying accounts of the time delay between the occurrence of what they believed to be the relevant feature of the weather and the increased intensity of the pain. Thus, this study ____. | 201012_4-LR2_24_24 | [
"indicates that the weather affects some arthritis sufferers more quickly than it does other arthritis sufferers",
"indicates that arthritis sufferers' beliefs about the causes of the pain they feel may affect their assessment of the intensity of that pain",
"suggests that arthritis sufferers are imagining the correlation they assert to exist",
"suggests that some people are more susceptible to weather-induced arthritis pain than are others",
"suggests that the scientific investigation of possible links between weather and arthritis pain is impossible"
]
| 2 | Of the following, which one most logically completes the argument? |
Cities with healthy economies typically have plenty of job openings. Cities with high-technology businesses also tend to have healthy economies, so those in search of jobs should move to a city with high-technology businesses. | 201012_4-LR2_25_25 | [
"Older antiques are usually the most valuable. Antique dealers generally authenticate the age of the antiques they sell, so those collectors who want the most valuable antiques should purchase their antiques from antique dealers.",
"Antique dealers who authenticate the age of the antiques they sell typically have plenty of antiques for sale. Since the most valuable antiques are those that have had their ages authenticated, antique collectors in search of valuable antiques should purchase their antiques from antique dealers.",
"Antiques that have had their ages authenticated tend to be valuable. Since antique dealers generally carry antiques that have had their ages authenticated, those collectors who want antiques that are valuable should purchase their antiques from antique dealers.",
"Many antique collectors know that antique dealers can authenticate the age of the antiques they sell. Since antiques that have had their ages authenticated are always the most valuable, most antique collectors who want antiques that are valuable tend to purchase their antiques from antique dealers.",
"Many antiques increase in value once they have had their ages authenticated by antique dealers. Since antique dealers tend to have plenty of valuable antiques, antique collectors who prefer to purchase the most valuable antiques should purchase antiques from antique dealers."
]
| 2 | The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the reasoning in the argument above? |
Sociologist: A recent study of 5,000 individuals found, on the basis of a physical exam, that more than 25 percent of people older than 65 were malnourished, though only 12 percent of the people in this age group fell below government poverty standards. In contrast, a greater percentage of the people 65 or younger fell below poverty standards than were found in the study to be malnourished. | 201012_4-LR2_26_26 | [
"Doctors are less likely to correctly diagnose and treat malnutrition in their patients who are over 65 than in their younger patients.",
"People over 65 are more likely to take medications that increase their need for certain nutrients than are people 65 or younger.",
"People over 65 are more likely to suffer from loss of appetite due to medication than are people 65 or younger.",
"People 65 or younger are no more likely to fall below government poverty standards than are people over 65.",
"People 65 or younger are less likely to have medical conditions that interfere with their digestion than are people over 65."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, helps to explain the findings of the study cited by the sociologist EXCEPT: |
Several years ago, most of one country's large banks failed and were taken over by a government agency. The agency is now selling these banks, aiming to strengthen the banking system in the process. But the banking system will not be strengthened if the former owners of these banks buy them back. So the agency is unlikely to achieve its goal, since . | 201312_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"the agency may be unable to sell some of the banks",
"a single company could buy more than one of the banks",
"the country's overall economy is not much stronger than it was when the large banks failed",
"the banks sold by the agency will be financially weaker than the country's other banks for some time",
"all of the bidders for the banks are their former owners"
]
| 4 | The conclusion of the argument is properly drawn if which one of the following completes the passage? |
Accountant: The newspaper industry habitually cites the rising cost of newsprint to explain falling profits. But when corrected for inflation, the cost of newsprint is no more than it was ten years ago. Far from being victims of high costs, newspapers have been benefiting from cheap newsprint for decades. The real threats to their profitability are falling circulation and falling advertising. | 201312_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"reinterpreting a popular analogy in order to use that analogy to support an alternative conclusion",
"using economic data to raise doubts about the current effectiveness of a historically accepted approach",
"criticizing a newly developed method by demonstrating that a conventional method shows better results",
"challenging an explanation that has been given for a phenomenon in order to introduce a different explanation",
"calling into question a justification for a practice by showing how the same justification can be used to support a clearly undesirable practice"
]
| 3 | The accountant's argument proceeds by |
Peter: Recent evidence suggests that moderate alcohol consumption has certain beneficial effects on health. In particular, alcohol creates an inhospitable environment in the human body for certain bacteria that can cause illness. Thus, alcohol consumption is, on balance, beneficial. | 201312_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"It takes for granted that people choose to consume alcohol because they believe it is beneficial to their health.",
"It draws a comparison based on popular belief rather than on scientific opinion.",
"It fails to consider methods of achieving the same beneficial effects that do not involve alcohol.",
"It draws a conclusion about alcohol consumption in general from a premise about moderate alcohol consumption.",
"It fails to consider that alcohol may have no effect on many bacteria that cause illness in human beings"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses a flaw in the reasoning in Peter's argument? |
Consultant: Children taught using innovative new educational methods learn to think more creatively than children taught using rote methods such as drills, but they are less adept at memorizing large amounts of information. Most jobs at Grodex Corporation require the ability to think creatively but do not require a strong ability to memorize. So Grodex should probably conduct its employee-training seminars using the innovative methods, because . | 201312_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"most of the employees at Grodex began in high school to learn the creative thinking skills that they later used on the job",
"corporations that conduct training seminars for employees using innovative educational methods are generally more successful than are corporations that do not conduct training seminars",
"less than half of the employees at Grodex regularly attend the company's training seminars",
"the effects of teaching methods in the education of adults are generally very similar to the effects of those methods in the education of children",
"knowing how to think creatively helps people to compensate for deficiencies in memorization skills"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most logically completes the consultant's argument? |
Essayist: If Earth's population continues to grow geometrically, then in a few centuries there will be ten people for every square meter (approximately one person per square foot) of Earth's surface. Some people have claimed that this will probably not be a problem, since humans will have learned by then how to colonize other planets. This would, however, be a temporary solution at best: if the population continues to double every 30 years, and if in the year 2500 half of Earth's population emigrated to Mars, then by the year 2530 Earth would be just as crowded as it had been before the emigration. | 201312_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"If Earth's population continues to grow geometrically, then in a few centuries the population density of Earth's surface will be ten people per square meter.",
"Due to the continuing geometric growth of Earth's population, the problem of overpopulation of Earth will probably persist.",
"If Earth's population continues to double every 30 years, and if at some point half of the population of Earth emigrated elsewhere, then after 30 years Earth would be just as crowded as it had been before the emigration.",
"The population of Earth's surface will probably continue to grow geometrically even if temporary solutions to population growth, such as colonizing other planets, are adopted.",
"Learning how to colonize other planets would, at best, be a temporary solution to the overcrowding of Earth."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the essayist's argument? |
A recent taste test reveals that most people like low-fat chocolate ice cream as much as its full-fat counterpart. Previous tests with vanilla ice cream found that people tended to dislike low-fat versions, complaining of a harsher taste. Chemists point out that chocolate is a very complex flavor, requiring around 500 distinct chemical compounds to produce it. Hence, this complexity probably masks any difference in taste due to the lack of fat. | 201312_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"Most people prefer full-fat chocolate ice cream to full-fat vanilla ice cream.",
"The subjects of the previous tests were not informed of the difference in fat content.",
"The more distinct compounds required to produce a flavor, the better people like it.",
"Vanilla is known to be a significantly less complex flavor than chocolate.",
"Most people are aware of the chemical complexities of different flavors."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Ethicist: Robert Gillette has argued that because a thorough knowledge of genetics would enable us to cure the over 3,000 inherited disorders that affect humanity, deciphering the human genetic code will certainly benefit humanity despite its enormous cost. Gillette's argument is not persuasive, however, because he fails to consider that such knowledge might ultimately harm human beings more than it would benefit them. | 201312_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"Gillette's argument wrongly assumes that deciphering the genetic code will lead to cures for genetic disorders.",
"Deciphering the genetic code might ultimately harm human beings more than benefit them.",
"Because of its possible negative consequences, genetic research should not be conducted.",
"Gillette's claim that a thorough knowledge of genetics would enable us to cure over 3,000 disorders is overstated.",
"Gillette's argument is unconvincing because it ignores certain possible consequences of genetic research."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the ethicist's argument? |
Many uses have been claimed for hypnosis, from combating drug addiction to overcoming common phobias. A recent experimental study helps illuminate the supposed connection between hypnosis and increased power of recall. A number of subjects listened to a long, unfamiliar piece of instrumental music. Under subsequent hypnosis, half the subjects were asked to recall salient passages from the musical piece and half were asked to describe scenes from "the film they had just viewed," despite their not having just seen a film. The study found that the subjects in the second group were equally confident and detailed in their movie recollections as the subjects in the first group were in their music recollections. | 201312_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"Many of the claims made on behalf of hypnosis are overstated.",
"Hypnosis cannot significantly increase a person's power of recall.",
"Recalling events under hypnosis inevitably results in false memories.",
"What people recall under hypnosis depends to at least some extent on suggestion.",
"Visual memory is enhanced more by hypnosis than is auditory memory."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following statements is most supported by the information above? |
Records from 1850 to 1900 show that in a certain region, babies' birth weights each year varied with the success of the previous year's crops: the more successful the crops, the higher the birth weights. This indicates that the health of a newborn depends to a large extent on the amount of food available to the mother during her pregnancy. | 201312_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"inferring from a claimed correlation between two phenomena that two other phenomena are causally connected to one another",
"inferring from the claim that two phenomena have fluctuated together that one of those phenomena must be the sole cause of the other",
"inferring from records concerning a past correlation between two phenomena that that correlation still exists",
"inferring from records concerning two phenomena the existence of a common cause of the phenomena and then presenting a hypothesis about that common cause",
"inferring the existence of one causal connection from that of another and then providing an explanation for the existence of the two causal connections"
]
| 0 | The argument proceeds by |
Vincent: No scientific discipline can study something that cannot be measured, and since happiness is an entirely subjective experience, it cannot be measured. Yolanda: Just as optometry relies on patients' reports of what they see, happiness research relies on subjects' reports of how they feel. Surely optometry is a scientific discipline. | 201312_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"Happiness is an entirely subjective experience.",
"Optometry is a scientific discipline.",
"A scientific discipline can rely on subjective reports.",
"Happiness research is as much a scientific discipline as optometry is.",
"Experiences that cannot be measured are entirely subjective experiences."
]
| 2 | Vincent's and Yolanda's statements provide the most support for concluding that they disagree over which one of the following? |
Although large cities are generally more polluted than the countryside, increasing urbanization may actually reduce the total amount of pollution generated nationwide. Residents of large cities usually rely more on mass transportation and live in smaller, more energy-efficient dwellings than do people in rural areas. Thus, a given number of people will produce less pollution if concentrated in a large city than if dispersed among many small towns. | 201312_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"It is used to support the conclusion that people should live in large cities.",
"It is a statement offered to call into question the claim that large cities are generally more polluted than the countryside.",
"It is a statement serving merely to introduce the topic to be addressed in the argument and plays no logical role.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that large cities are generally more polluted than the countryside.",
"It is a claim that the rest of the argument is designed to establish."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that increasing urbanization may actually reduce the total amount of pollution generated nationwide? |
Climatologist: Over the coming century, winter temperatures are likely to increase in the Rocky Mountains due to global warming. This will cause a greater proportion of precipitation to fall as rain instead of snow. Therefore, the mountain snowpack will probably melt more rapidly and earlier in the season, leading to greater spring flooding and less storable water to meet summer demands. | 201312_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"Global warming will probably cause a substantial increase in the average amount of annual precipitation in the Rocky Mountains over the coming century.",
"In other mountainous regions after relatively mild winters, the melting of snowpacks has led to greater spring flooding and less storable water, on average, than in those mountainous regions after colder winters.",
"On average, in areas of the Rocky Mountains in which winters are relatively mild, there is less storable water to meet summer demands than there is in areas of the Rocky Mountains that experience colder winters.",
"On average, in the regions of the world with the mildest winters, there is more spring flooding and less storable water than in regions of the world with much colder winters.",
"The larger a mountain snowpack is, the greater the amount of spring flooding it is likely to be responsible for producing."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the climatologist's argument? |
Animal feed should not include genetically modified plants. A study found that laboratory rats fed genetically modified potatoes for 30 days tended to develop intestinal deformities and a weakened immune system, whereas rats fed a normal diet of foods that were not genetically modified did not develop these problems. | 201312_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"Potatoes are not normally a part of the diet of laboratory rats.",
"The rats tended to eat more of the genetically modified potatoes at the beginning of the 30 days than they did toward the end of the 30 days.",
"Intestinal deformities at birth are not uncommon among rats bred in laboratory conditions.",
"Genetically modified potatoes have the same nutritional value to rats as do potatoes that are not genetically modified.",
"The researchers conducting the study were unable to explain how the genetic modifications of the potatoes would have caused the intestinal deformities or a weakened immune system in the rats."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Some philosophers explain visual perception by suggesting that when we visually perceive an object, a mental image of that object forms in our mind. However, this hypothesis cannot be correct, since it would require an inner self visually perceiving the newly formed mental image; this would in turn require that the inner self have a mental image of that mental image, and so on. But such an infinite regress is absurd. | 201312_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"According to some linguists, many of the world's languages can be traced back to a common source known as Indo-European. However, Indo-European cannot be the earliest language, for if it were, then there would be no language from which it was derived. But this is highly unlikely, given the overwhelming evidence that humans spoke long before the advent of Indo-European.",
"The claim that any scientific theory is adequate as long as it agrees with all the empirical data cannot be correct. For there are an infinite number of theories all of which account equally well for the empirical data, and they cannot all be true at the same time.",
"Some historians claim that no theory is ever genuinely new; no matter how clever a theory is, there is always a precedent theory that contains its gist. But if this were true, then every theory would have a precedent theory containing its gist, and this precedent theory would also have a precedent theory, and so on, without end. Since this is clearly impossible, the historians' claim must be false.",
"Some engineers define a structure's foundation as that part of the structure that supports the rest of the structure. This definition is unfortunate, however, because it evokes the suggestion that the foundation itself does not have any support, which, of course, is absurd.",
"Some people claim that the first library was the library of Alexandria, which for many centuries contained the largest collection of books in the world. However, Alexandri's collection was itself put together from smaller collections, small libraries in themselves. It follows that the library of Alexandria was not the first in the world."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above? |
Greatly exceeding the recommended daily intake of vitamins A and D is dangerous, for they can be toxic at high levels. For some vitamin-fortified foods, each serving, as defined by the manufacturer, has 100 percent of the recommended daily intake of these vitamins. But many people overestimate what counts as a standard serving of vitamin-fortified foods such as cereal, consuming two to three times what the manufacturers define as standard servings. | 201312_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"Few people who consume vitamin-fortified foods are aware of the recommended daily intake of vitamins A and D.",
"Some people who consume vitamin-fortified foods exceed the recommended daily intake of vitamins A and D.",
"Some people mistakenly believe it is healthy to consume more than the recommended daily intake of vitamins A and D.",
"Most people who eat vitamin-fortified foods should not take any vitamin supplements.",
"Manufacturers are unaware that many people consume vitamin-fortified foods in amounts greater than the standard serving sizes."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
At the end of 1997 several nations stated that their oil reserves had not changed since the end of 1996. But oil reserves gradually drop as old oil fields are drained and rise suddenly as new oil fields are discovered. Therefore, oil reserves are unlikely to remain unchanged from one year to the next. So most of the nations stating that their oil reserves were unchanged are probably incorrect. | 201312_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"For any nation with oil reserves, it is more likely that the nation was mistaken in its statements about changes in its oil reserves than that the nation's oil reserves remained unchanged.",
"It is likely that in 1997, in most of the nations that stated that their oil reserves were unchanged, old oil fields were drained or new oil fields were discovered, or both.",
"During the course of 1997, the oil reserves of at least one nation not only gradually dropped but also rose suddenly.",
"If a nation incorrectly stated at the end of 1997 that its oil reserves had not changed since the end of 1996, then during 1997 that nation drained its old oil fields and discovered new ones.",
"If a nation's oil reserves change from one year to the next, then that nation is obligated to report the change correctly."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption the argument requires? |
If a motor is sound-insulated, then it is quiet enough to use in home appliances. If a motor is quiet enough to use in home appliances, then it can be used in institutional settings. None of the motors manufactured by EM Industries are quiet enough to use in home appliances. | 201312_1-LR1_17_17 | [
"If a motor can be used in institutional settings, then it is sound-insulated.",
"None of the motors manufactured by EM Industries are sound-insulated.",
"At least some of the motors manufactured by EM Industries can be used in institutional settings.",
"If a motor is quiet enough to use in home appliances, then it is sound-insulated.",
"None of the motors manufactured by EM Industries can be used in institutional settings."
]
| 1 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true? |
Mayor: A huge protest against plans to build a chemical plant in this town was held yesterday. The protesters claim that the factory could cause health problems. But this worry can be dismissed. Most of the protesters were there only because they were paid to show up by property developers who are concerned that the factory would lower the value of nearby land that they own. | 201312_1-LR1_18_18 | [
"The argument mischaracterizes an opposing view and then attacks this mischaracterized view.",
"The argument attempts to persuade by inducing fear of the consequences of rejecting its conclusion.",
"The argument rejects a claim simply because of the motivation that some people have for making it.",
"The argument generalizes on the basis of a few unrepresentative cases.",
"The argument mistakes a claim that a result is possible for a claim that the result is inevitable."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses a flaw in reasoning in the mayor's argument? |
One should not intentionally misrepresent another person's beliefs unless one's purpose in doing so is to act in the interest of that other person. | 201312_1-LR1_19_19 | [
"Ann told someone that Bruce thought the Apollo missions to the moon were elaborate hoaxes, even though she knew he did not think this; she did so merely to make him look ridiculous.",
"Claude told someone that Thelma believed in extraterrestrial beings, even though he knew she believed no such thing; he did so solely to keep this other person from bothering her.",
"In Maria's absence John had told people that Maria believed that university education should be free of charge. He knew that Maria would not want him telling people this, but he wanted these people to think highly of Maria.",
"Harvey told Josephine that he thought Josephine would someday be famous. Harvey did not really think that Josephine would ever be famous, but he said she would because he thought she would like him as a result.",
"Wanda told people that George thought Egypt is in Asia. Wanda herself knew that Egypt is in Africa, but she told people that George thought it was in Asia because she wanted people to know that George knew little about geography."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following actions most clearly violates the principle stated? |
Adjusted for inflation, the income earned from wool sales by a certain family of Australian sheep farmers grew substantially during the period from 1840 to I860. This is because the price for wool sold on the international market was higher than the price paid on domestic markets and the percentage and amount of its wool that this family sold internationally increased dramatically during that period. But even though the family generated more income from selling their wool, they failed to enjoy a commensurate increase in prosperity. | 201312_1-LR1_20_20 | [
"At the end of the 1800s, prices in general in Australia rose more rapidly than did the wholesale price of wool sold domestically.",
"The prices of wool sold to domestic markets by Australian sheep farmers decreased dramatically during the period in question.",
"The international and domestic prices for mutton, sheepskins, and certain other products produced by all Australian sheep farmers fell sharply during the period in question.",
"Competition in wool sales increased during the period in question, leaving Australian wool producers in a less favorable position than previously.",
"Among Australian sheep farmers, the percentage who made their living exclusively from international wool sales increased significantly during the period in question."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following would, if true, help most to resolve the apparent paradox described above? |
Lawyer: If you take something that you have good reason to think is someone else's property, that is stealing, and stealing is wrong. However, Meyers had no good reason to think that the compost in the public garden was anyone else's property, so it was not wrong for Meyers to take it. | 201312_1-LR1_21_21 | [
"confuses a factual claim with a moral judgment",
"takes for granted that Meyers would not have taken the compost if he had good reason to believe that it was someone else's property",
"takes a condition that by itself is enough to make an action wrong to also be necessary in order for the action to be wrong",
"fails to consider the possibility that the compost was Meyers' property",
"concludes that something is certainly someone else's property when there is merely good, but not conclusive, reason to think that it is someone else's property"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the lawyer's argument is flawed in that the argument |
From time to time there is a public outcry against predatory pricing—where a company deliberately sells its products at prices low enough to drive its competitors out of business. But this practice clearly should be acceptable, because even after its competitors go out of business, the mere threat of renewed competition will prevent the company from raising its prices to unreasonable levels. | 201312_1-LR1_22_22 | [
"Any company that is successful will inevitably induce competitors to enter the market.",
"It is unlikely that several competing companies will engage in predatory pricing simultaneously.",
"Only the largest and wealthiest companies can engage in predatory pricing for a sustained period of time.",
"It is only competition or the threat of competition that keeps companies from raising prices.",
"Any pricing practice that does not result in unreasonable prices should be acceptable."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
If the prosecutor wanted to charge Frank with embezzlement, then Frank would already have been indicted. But Frank has not been indicted. So clearly Frank is not an embezzler. | 201312_1-LR1_23_23 | [
"If Rosita knew that her 9:00 appointment would cancel, she would not come in to work until 10:00. She did not come in until 10:00. So she must have known her 9:00 appointment would cancel.",
"If Barry had won the lottery, he would stay home to celebrate. But Barry did not win the lottery, so he will be in to work today.",
"If Makoto believed that he left the oven on, he would rush home. But Makoto is still at work. So obviously he did not leave the oven on.",
"If Tamara believed she was getting a promotion, she would come in to work early. She did come in early. So apparently she is getting a promotion.",
"If Lucy believed she was going to be fired, she would not come in to work today. She is going to be fired, so clearly she will not be coming in today."
]
| 2 | The flawed pattern of reasoning exhibited by which one of the following is most similar to that exhibited by the argument above? |
Pediatrician: Swollen tonsils give rise to breathing problems during sleep, and the surgical removal of children's swollen tonsils has been shown to alleviate sleep disturbances. So removing children's tonsils before swelling even occurs will ensure that the children do not experience any breathing problems during sleep. | 201312_1-LR1_24_24 | [
"relies on an inappropriate appeal to authority",
"relies on an assumption that is tantamount to assuming that the conclusion is true",
"infers from the fact that an action has a certain effect that the action is intended to produce that effect",
"fails to consider the possibility that there may be other medical reasons for surgically removing a child's tonsils",
"fails to consider the possibility that some breathing problems during sleep may be caused by something other than swollen tonsils"
]
| 4 | The pediatrician's argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it |
It is unethical for government officials to use their knowledge of impending policies to financially benefit themselves if that knowledge is not available to the general public. | 201312_1-LR1_25_25 | [
"A company whose former manager is now an official with the Department of Natural Resources was one of several bidders for an extremely lucrative contract with the department; the names of the bidders were not disclosed to the public.",
"A retired high-ranking military officer now owns a company that contracts with the Department of Defense. He uses his contacts with department officials to help his company obtain contracts.",
"After a tax reform law was enacted, an official with the government's revenue agency obtained a 20 percent reduction in personal income tax by setting up tax shelters that were allowed by the new law.",
"A Finance Department official, one of the few people who knew of a plan to tax luxury cars, bought a luxury car just before the plan was announced to the public in order to avoid paying the tax.",
"An official with a government agency that regulates securities sold her stock in Acme just after she announced to the public that her agency was investigating Acme for improper accounting."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following actions would be unethical according to the principle stated above? |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.