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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80
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Циклічний буфер
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Циклічний буфер або кільцевий буфер — це структура даних, яка має фіксований розмір і використовується так ніби кінець буферу і початок замкнені в кільце, тобто при досягненні кінця буфера знов переміщуються в його початок. Така структура дає можливість здійснювати буферизацію потоків даних.
Застосування
Перевагою використання циклічного буфера є те, що при зчитуванні не потрібно переміщувати дані в буфері, тому що вказівник на поточну позицію переміщується сам. При використанні не кільцевих буферів було б необхідно переміщувати дані, коли його елементи стають непотрібними. Іншими словами кільцевий буфер добре застосовувати для реалізації буферу типу FIFO («перший прийшов — першим пішов»).
Циклічний буфер добре підходить для реалізації черг фіксованого розміру. Але якщо розмір черги є змінним, операція розширення кільцевого буфера є не ефективною, оскільки вимагає здійснення процедури переміщення пам'яті. В таких випадках краще використовувати зв'язаний список.
Такий тип буферу часто зустрічається при роботі з апаратним обладнанням та мікроконтролерами. При роботі з даними мультимедіа, обмежений циклічний буфер часто реалізує задачу постачальника-споживача, наприклад, при роботі зі звуковими картами. Карта зчитує для відтворення звуку дані з буфера з постійною швидкістю, в той час як постачальник (наприклад, аудіо-генератор) може перезаписувати старі дані.
Принцип роботи
В початковому стані буфер є пустим і має деяку визначену наперед довжину. Наприклад, так виглядає буфер для 7-ми елементів:
Допустимо, що в середину буфера в якійсь позиції записано значення 1 (конкретна початкова позиція не має значення для циклічного буферу):
Потім допустимо ми додали ще два елементи зі значеннями 2 і 3 — в позиції після значення 1:
Якщо необхідно видалити елементи з буферу, видалятимуться ті, що були записані раніше. Допустимо, що треба видалити два елементи, в такому випадку, значення 1 і 2 будуть видалені, а в буфері залишиться значення 3:
Якщо буфер містить 7 елементів тоді він є повністю заповненим:
Особливість кільцевого буфера полягає в тому, що коли він заповнений і відбувається новий запис даний, будуть перезаписані вже існуючі найстаріші елементи по колу. В такому випадку, два нових елементи — A і B — додаються і перезаписують значення 3 і 4:
Як альтернатива, ще одним із способів обробити ситуацію з заповненням буфера це запобігання перезапису шляхом повернення статусу помилки чи
генерації винятку. Перезаписувати дані чи ні залишають на розсуд процедури або програмного додатку, які працюють з буфером.
І нарешті, якщо видалити два елементи то видалені будуть не комірки зі значеннями 3 і 4, а 5 і 6 оскільки A і B перезаписали значення
3 і 4 і буфер матиме наступний вміст:
Примітки
Джерела
CircularBuffer, Portland Pattern Repository
Boost: Templated Circular Buffer Container
http://www.dspguide.com/ch28/2.htm
Передавання даних
Структури даних
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28731861
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chornomorets%20Stadium
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Chornomorets Stadium
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Chornomorets Stadium
The Chornomorets Stadium is a football stadium built in 2011 in Odesa, Ukraine. The stadium has a capacity of 34,164 and is the home of FC Chornomorets Odesa. The inaugural match, between FC Chornomorets Odesa and FC Karpaty Lviv, was played on 19 November 2011, and ended with a 2–2 draw. The first goal was scored by Vitaliy Balashov in the 46th minute from a penalty.
The stadium was constructed on the site of the old Soviet multi-use Central Stadium of the Black Sea Shipping Company (ChMP), which was demolished in 2009.
The venue was considered to be one of the stadiums of UEFA Euro 2012 but failed to be nominated as such.
There is an ongoing renovation of the stadium. The completion date is still unknown.
Former stadium
The former ChMP stadium was built on the same site in 1935, and it was originally named as Stanislav Kosior Stadium after the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Ukrainian SSR, Stanislav Kosior. After Stanislav Kosior was repressed in the 1930s, the name was changed to Shevchenko Park Stadium.
After World War II, the stadium was passed to the ownership of the republican Ministry of Food and received name as the Central Stadium Kharchovyk. At the end of the 1950s, it was renamed as Avanhard Stadium after the Ukrainian Sport Society of industrial workers. In 1959, the stadium was renamed to the Central Stadium of the Black Sea Shipping Company or alternatively Central Stadium Chornomorets.
ChMP could hold 34,362 people. It hosted the Ukrainian Super Cup from 2004 until 2007. At the end of 2008, it was closed and, in 2009, it was demolished.
New stadium
Financial crisis
The stadium was a part of a defunct Imexbank assets. On May 26, 2020, the Deposit Guarantee Fund of Ukraine sold at auction the Chornomorets Stadium to the American company "Allrise Capital Inc.", for ₴193.8 million ($7.24 million). Allrise Capital's main owner is Russian expat in America Vladimir Yevseyev.
In August 2020, the Shevchenko District Court of Kiev arrested the stadium complex and handed over to the Agency in search and management of assets (Ukrainian). The pretrial investigation began based on a statement of public organization "Olimpik" that owns the football club with the same name. About ten days later it was announced that the same court decided to cancel arrest of the stadium.
In February 2023, the facade of the Chornomorets stadium was de-Russified.
Gallery
See also
Black Sea Shipping Company, former owner of the stadium
References
External links
Chornomorets Stadium official homepage
Webcam Chornomorets Stadium
Video presentation of the Chernomorets Odesa Stadium
Stadiony.net - Prokopenko Arena (Stadion Czornomorca)
Football venues in Ukraine
Buildings and structures in Odesa
FC Chornomorets Odesa
Sport in Odesa
Sports venues in Odesa Oblast
Avanhard (sports society)
Sports venues completed in 2011
2011 establishments in Ukraine
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1903815
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD
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Брингрен
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Брингрен — село в Сполученому Королівстві Великої Британії та Північної Ірландії, розташоване на заході острова Англсі, в однойменному графстві Острів Англсі, у князівстві Уельс.
Галерея
Примітки
Села Уельсу
Анґлсі
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2894623
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F
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Боровня
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Боровня — село в Польщі, у гміні Цьмелюв Островецького повіту Свентокшиського воєводства.
Населення — (2011).
У 1975-1998 роках село належало до Тарнобжезького воєводства.
Демографія
Демографічна структура на день 31 березня 2011 року:
Примітки
.
Села Островецького повіту
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2521092
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stafford%20Rangers%20F.C.
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Stafford Rangers F.C.
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Stafford Rangers F.C.
Stafford Rangers Football Club is a semi-professional English football team from Stafford which plays in the Northern Premier League Premier Division.
The team wear black and white stripes with black shorts. Stafford Rangers' rivals include Tamworth, Hednesford Town, Burton Albion, and Telford United.
History
Early history
Despite extensive research, no one has been able to prove conclusively when Stafford Rangers was actually formed, as early minute books were destroyed during the First World War. Rangers' formation year is recognised as 1876 because of articles in the local Advertiser newspaper, but an alternative theory on Rangers' formation date, printed in the Sentinel newspaper during 1891, suggests that the club was founded by a Bible class in 1877.
Rangers' early matches were cup games and friendlies, with the club reaching the FA Cup First Round in both 1884–85 and 1885–86. The club then had spells in the Shropshire League, Birmingham League and North Staffordshire League up to the turn of the century, and moved to their present Marston Road home in 1896. In 1900–01 Stafford rejoined the Birmingham League and in 1904–05 had an FA Cup run to the last Qualifying Round bowing out in a replay at Second Division Blackpool. They were demoted to the Birmingham Combination in 1912 but won the championship at the first attempt (1912–13) and then finished runners-up in two of the next four seasons either side of the First World War. Rangers won the Birmingham League title in 1926–27, twice finished runners-up (1928–29 and 1929–30) and were twice third in five memorable seasons. During this period a total of 542 league goals were scored with striker Eddie Cameron regularly scoring goals. Due to financial troubles the team spent the mid to late 1930s struggling to avoid re-election and in one game were so short of players that the club secretary R.P. Brown had to play and actually scored a goal. During April 1935 a successful appeal for £100 to pay creditors enabled the club to survive. When war broke out in 1939, Rangers participated in an emergency Birmingham League during the 1939–40 season, finishing as runners-up, and then disbanded.
Post-war
After the Second World War the club reformed and played in the Birmingham Combination for six seasons, achieving a highest position of 6th in 1950–51. With a view to progress, Rangers joined the Cheshire County Football League in 1952 and finished 3rd in the 1954–55 season. However, Rangers' spell in the Cheshire Football League was generally one of struggle and during the early sixties financial difficulties again threatened the club's existence. There were, however, some positive results, including the seven goals scored by Les Box in an 11–0 FA Cup victory over Dudley Town during September 1957.
In 1965, the appointment of Colin Hutchinson as manager started an improvement. Rangers won the 1967–68 Cheshire League Cup and following season finished as Cheshire League runners-up to earn a place in the Northern Premier League.
The seventies were the most successful era in the club's history. With Roy Chapman as manager, the club recorded a Northern Premier League Championship, FA Trophy and Staffordshire Senior Cup treble in season 1971–72, with Ray Williams scoring a club record of 48 goals in a single season. However, they did not apply for election to the Football League, and have never since finished high enough to enter the Football League.
Three seasons later Rangers progressed to the FA Cup Fourth round defeating Stockport County, Halifax Town and Rotherham United on the way to a defeat against Peterborough United in front of a crowd of 31,160 at Stoke City's Victoria Ground. The home Third Round tie with Rotherham attracted a record of 8,536 people to Marston Road. After Chapman had departed to manage League club Stockport County, under his successor, Colin Meldrum, in 1975-76 Rangers came close to repeating the treble success of 1971–72. They were again at Wembley Stadium for their second FA Trophy Final but they lost to Scarborough 3–2 after extra time, finished as runners up in the Northern Premier League by one point and lost the Staffs Senior Cup final to Stoke City. At the end of that season Rangers competed in the Anglo Italian tournament against Serie C outfits Udinese and Monza who have since reached Serie A, winning a stormy game 3–2 against the former at Marston Road and gaining a creditable 1–1 draw away at Monza, the eventual winners. Meldrum was sacked before the return fixtures in Italy and Rangers finished mid-table in 1976–77 before Roy Chapman returned as manager and success continued with a second FA Trophy Final win in 1979, this time against Kettering Town and qualification for the new Alliance Premier League.
Rangers thus became founder members of the Alliance Premier League but this coincided with the club finishing low in the league, as various managers found it difficult to follow the success of the seventies. After four seasons Rangers were relegated to the Northern Premier League. This form continued, but with the appointment of Ron Reid as manager during the 1983–84 season as manager the club soon began to rebuild its reputation and won the 1984–85 League title. Back in the Alliance, the Bob Lord Trophy, Jim Thompson Shield and Staffordshire Senior Cup were all won within two seasons. During the late eighties and early nineties, Rangers struggled in the Conference, with six managers in seven seasons following Reid's departure in May 1988. The sale of striker Stan Collymore to Crystal Palace in December 1990 for a substantial six-figure fee stands out in this period. Under the management of Dennis Booth, Rangers enjoyed a tremendous 1992–93 campaign. In the league they finished 6th and reached the FA Cup second round, defeating Lincoln City in a First Round replay at Marston Road.
After Booth departed for Bristol Rovers, Rangers found success difficult to achieve and were relegated from the Conference to the Southern League Premier Division at the end of the 1994–95 season. The slide continued at the start of the 1995–96 campaign and when Kevan Bowen took over in October 1995 Rangers had not gained a point. Bowen made an immediate impact and achieved good results in the second half of the season but the damage had already been done at the start and the club was relegated for the second successive season. With an ambition to take Stafford Rangers back to their former heights in non-league football, the Board appointed Kevin Bond as manager towards the end of 1997. Despite some good performances Rangers ended the season in a mid-table position and Bond moved on to Portsmouth.
Ian Painter succeeded Bond in the 1998 close season and in his first term Rangers finished 5th in the Southern League Midland Division with the distinction of being the equal highest scorers in the pyramid with 92 goals. In 1999–2000, following a slow start, a strengthened side achieved a club record unbeaten run of 23 league games. Rangers were once again equal highest scorers in the pyramid with 107 goals and duly won the Southern League Western Division championship.
21st century
After two seasons in the Premier Division, finishing seventh and ninth respectively, Painter left the club in April 2002. During Painter's final season, Rangers recorded a club-record 15–0 victory over Kidsgrove Athletic in a Staffordshire Senior Cup tie on 20 November 2001.
Phil Robinson, whose playing career took him to several top Football League clubs around the East and West Midlands, joined his hometown club as player-manager in the 2002 close season and immediately set about creating a structure to develop young local talent with the introduction of reserve and youth teams. He retained only a few of Painter's squad which led to increased support on the terraces due to improved results. They finished second in the Southern League Premier Division, reached the FA Cup first round for the first time in a decade and brought the Staffordshire Senior Cup back to Marston Road with a 5–1 victory over Stoke City at Port Vale's Vale Park. Robinson's second season in charge, 2003–04, brought more success with Rangers this time finishing third in the league behind Crawley Town and Weymouth to earn a place amongst the Nationwide Conference North founder members. Rangers reached the Staffordshire Senior Cup Final but lost 1–0 to Kidsgrove Athletic. At the end of the 2004–05 season, silverware returned to Marston Road as the team regained the Senior Cup, defeating Leek Town in the Final at Vale Park. As well as reaching the FA Cup first round, where they lost to Chester City, Rangers finished the inaugural Conference North season in 8th position with the tightest defence in the division, conceding just 44 goals.
Stafford Rangers achieved promotion back to the fifth tier of English football after a play-off win on penalties over Droylsden in May 2006 at rivals Burton Albion's new Pirelli Stadium. This came at the end of a successful 2005–06 league campaign which resulted in a second-place finish.
In the 2006–07 season the club reached the second round of the FA Cup where they lost to Brighton & Hove Albion. A match against Dagenham & Redbridge was featured live on Sky Sports. Goalkeeper Danny Alcock was selected for the England Non-League squad in January 2007 and a month later Cameroonian Guy Madjo was selected by his nation for international duty. The club managed to avoid relegation on the final day of the season, and finished 20th in the Conference.
2007 saw Stafford struggle to compete in an increasingly difficult league with many ex-league and professional sides. Phil Robinson left the club after years in charge and many Stafford fans were unhappy to see him leave. Players Neil Grayson and Kevin Street were placed in temporary charge of the county town club as joint caretaker managers.
On 21 February 2008, Steve Bull was appointed as head coach. Bull was unable to save the club and on 7 April 2008, Rangers were relegated to the Conference North following a 4–0 defeat at home to York City. He left the club on 12 December, being replaced by Chris Brindley, who was assistant manager under Bull. At the end of the 2009 season, Stafford Rangers' future was uncertain as they needed to pay Slick Seating £50,000 by 7 July. The club came up with the idea of selling 250 tickets at £200, that would be repaid in weekly draws, this worked and the club was saved from going into administration.
On 14 April 2010, news was leaked that chairman Jon Downing had resigned from his position, after 17 years on the club's board. In September 2010, Brindley resigned as manager of Stafford Rangers. The following month, the club appointed Tim Flowers as manager, but he resigned as manager on 11 January 2011 after just nine games in charge and his assistant Matt Elliott took over the job. Despite some improved performances Elliott could not prevent relegation to the Northern Premier League for the 2011–12 season. Their fate was not confirmed until the final game of the season, a 3–2 defeat at Stalybridge Celtic. Elliott initially accepted the offer to become manager for the next season but then had a change of heart and resigned. On 31 May 2011 Greg Clowes was appointed manager, but on 8 September 2013, following defeat in all of their opening seven league games, Clowes, Garner and coach Mick Hathaway were relieved of their management duties. The club appointed Andy Mutch as interim manager until Graham Heathcote was announced as manager on 3 January 2014. Following a further relegation, this time to the NPL Division One South, Heathcote felt he could not continue as manager on a limited playing budget, and on 28 May 2014 former Rushall Olympic boss Neil Kitching was appointed as the new manager of Stafford Rangers. At the end of the 2015/16 season, Boro were promoted back to the NPL Premier Division, finishing as champions of the NPL Division 1 South with 95 points.
At the end of the 2017–18 season Neil Kitching and his coaching team parted company with the club by mutual consent after four successful years at the helm. It was announced at the start of the 2018–19 season that former Stafford Rangers player Steve Burr would be taking over and he was appointed the club's new Manager. On 28 December 2018 Steve Burr resigned from his position as Manager following poor results.
On 1 January 2019 Alex Meechan and Andy Fearn stepped up from Assistant Manager and First Team Coach to take charge of the first team as joint managers until the end of the season. After guiding the club away from the drop zone, thus avoiding relegation the Board of Directors gave the managerial duo the job on a permanent basis.
The 2020–21 season saw another managerial change with Jody Banim taking the helm. Matt Hill took the post of Assistant. Andy Fearn, who had been joint manager, joined the Board of Directors as Director of Football. At the end of the year Matt Hill took charge, until he left the club in November 2023, when he was succeeded by his assistant.
The 2023–24 season saw a managerial change as Matt Hill was replaced as manager by Dave Cooke in November 2023. Cooke was unable to turn around his side's fortunes, the club suffering relegation on the penultimate weekend of the season.
Stadium
In the 2006–07 season Rangers had an average attendance of over 1000.
On 14 December 2018 the new Shed End (a covered terrace at the far side of the ground) was completed and opened in a league game against local rivals Hednesford Town, with the Boro winning the game 4–1. The Shed End was a fan led project. Fans are now raising money for a cantilever stand at the Social Club End. Following its completion, the ground will have cover on all sides.
Prior to the 2019–20 season a group of fans renovated two unused rooms at the football ground to create a new Fans Bar. The Fans Bar is open to home and away fans on match days.
During November 2019 the club had the away turnstiles refurbished, this also included new exit gates and new fencing being erected, the club's car park situated at the front of the ground was fully tarmacked, replacing a rubble surface.
As of August 2023, Marston Road has been renamed The Stan Robinson Stadium, due to a new sponsorship deal with the haulage company of the same name. This is due to the loyalty and support Stan Robinson showed over many years
Squad
Notable players
See Stafford Rangers F.C. Players
Notable names
{| class="wikitable"
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|Manager
| Dave Cooke
|-
|Assistant manager
| Dale Belford
|-
|First team coach
| Jimmy O'Neill
|-
Post-war managers
See Stafford Rangers F.C. Managers
Honours
League champions
Northern Premier League Division One South:(1) 2015–16
Birmingham Combination:(1) 1912–13
Birmingham League:(1) 1926–27
Northern Premier League:(2)1971–72, 1984–85
Southern Football League Western Division :(1)1999–2000
League runners-up
Birmingham League 1928–29, 1929–30
Birmingham Wartime League 1939–40
Cheshire County League 1968–69
Northern Premier League 1970–71, 1975–76
Southern League Premier Division 2002–03
Conference North 2005–06
Cup winners
FA Trophy:(2) 1971–72, 1978–79
Staffordshire Senior Cup:(13) 1954–55, 1956–57, 1962–63, 1971–72, 1977–78, 1986–87, 1991–92, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2014–15, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2021–22
Conference League Cup:(1) 1985–86
Northern Premier League Shield :(1) 1985–86
Walsall Senior Cup:(1) 2013–14
Statistics
See also
Stafford Town F.C.
References
External links
s3.zetaboards.com/staffordrangersfans
Stafford Rangers JFC staffordrangersjuniors.moonfruit.com
Football clubs in Staffordshire
Association football clubs established in 1876
National League (English football) clubs
Stafford
Southern Football League clubs
1876 establishments in England
Football clubs in England
Cheshire County League clubs
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297013
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word%20problem%20%28mathematics%20education%29
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Word problem (mathematics education)
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Word problem (mathematics education)
In science education, a word problem is a mathematical exercise (such as in a textbook, worksheet, or exam) where significant background information on the problem is presented in ordinary language rather than in mathematical notation. As most word problems involve a narrative of some sort, they are sometimes referred to as story problems and may vary in the amount of technical language used.
Example
A typical word problem:
Tess paints two boards of a fence every four minutes, but Allie can paint three boards every two minutes. If there are 240 boards total, how many hours will it take them to paint the fence, working together?
Solution process
Word problems such as the above can be examined through five stages:
1. Problem Comprehension
2. Situational Solution Visualization
3. Mathematical Solution Planning
4. Solving for Solution
5. Situational Solution Visualization
The linguistic properties of a word problem need to be addressed first. To begin the solution process, one must first understand what the problem is asking and what type of solution the answer will be. In the problem above, the words "minutes", "total", "hours", and "together" need to be examined.
The next step is to visualize what the solution to this problem might mean. For our stated problem, the solution might be visualized by examining if the total number of hours will be greater or smaller than if it were stated in minutes. Also, it must be determined whether or not the two girls will finish at a faster or slower rate if they are working together.
After this, one must plan a solution method using mathematical terms. One scheme to analyze the mathematical properties is to classify the numerical quantities in the problem into known quantities (values given in the text), wanted quantities (values to be found), and auxiliary quantities (values found as intermediate stages of the problem). This is found in the "Variables" and "Equations" sections above.
Next, the mathematical processes must be applied to the formulated solution process. This is done solely in the mathematical context for now.
Finally, one must again visualize the proposed solution and determine if the solution seems to make sense for the realistic context of the problem. After visualizing if it is reasonable, one can then work to further analyze and draw connections between mathematical concepts and realistic problems.
The importance of these five steps in teacher education is discussed at the end of the following section.
Purpose and skill development
Word problems commonly include mathematical modelling questions, where data and information about a certain system is given and a student is required to develop a model. For example:
Jane had $5.00, then spent $2.00. How much does she have now?
In a cylindrical barrel with radius 2 m, the water is rising at a rate of 3 cm/s. What is the rate of increase of the volume of water?
As the developmental skills of students across grade levels varies, the relevance to students and application of word problems also varies. The first example is accessible to primary school students, and may be used to teach the concept of subtraction. The second example can only be solved using geometric knowledge, specifically that of the formula for the volume of a cylinder with a given radius and height, and requires an understanding of the concept of "rate".
There are numerous skills that can be developed to increase a students' understanding and fluency in solving word problems. The two major stems of these skills are cognitive skills and related academic skills. The cognitive domain consists of skills such as nonverbal reasoning and processing speed. Both of these skills work to strengthen numerous other fields of thought. Other cognitive skills include language comprehension, working memory, and attention. While these are not solely for the purpose of solving word problems, each one of them affects one's ability to solve such mathematical problems. For instance, if the one solving the math word problem has a limited understanding of the language (English, Spanish, etc.) they are more likely to not understand what the problem is even asking. In Example 1 (above), if one does not comprehend the definition of the word "spent," they will misunderstand the entire purpose of the word problem. This alludes to how the cognitive skills lead to the development of the mathematical concepts. Some of the related mathematical skills necessary for solving word problems are mathematical vocabulary and reading comprehension. This can again be connected to the example above. With an understanding of the word "spent" and the concept of subtraction, it can be deduced that this word problem is relating the two. This leads to the conclusion that word problems are beneficial at each level of development, despite the fact that these domains will vary across developmental and academic stages.
The discussion in this section and the previous one urge the examination of how these research findings can affect teacher education. One of the first ways is that when a teacher understands the solution structure of word problems, they are likely to have an increased understanding of their students' comprehension levels. Each of these research studies supported the finding that, in many cases, students do not often struggle with executing the mathematical procedures. Rather, the comprehension gap comes from not having a firm understanding of the connections between the math concepts and the semantics of the realistic problems. As a teacher examines a student's solution process, understanding each of the steps will help them understand how to best accommodate their specific learning needs. Another thing to address is the importance of teaching and promoting multiple solution processes. Procedural fluency is often times taught without an emphasis on conceptual and applicable comprehension. This leaves students with a gap between their mathematical understanding and their realistic problem solving skills. The ways in which teachers can best prepare for and promote this type of learning will not be discussed here.
History and culture
The modern notation that enables mathematical ideas to be expressed symbolically was developed in Europe from the sixteenth century onwards. Prior to this, all mathematical problems and solutions were written out in words; the more complicated the problem, the more laborious and convoluted the verbal explanation.
Examples of word problems can be found dating back to Babylonian times. Apart from a few procedure texts for finding things like square roots, most Old Babylonian problems are couched in a language of measurement of everyday objects and activities. Students had to find lengths of canals dug, weights of stones, lengths of broken reeds, areas of fields, numbers of bricks used in a construction, and so on.
Ancient Egyptian mathematics also has examples of word problems. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus includes a problem that can be translated as:There are seven houses; in each house there are seven cats; each cat kills seven mice; each mouse has eaten seven grains of barley; each grain would have produced seven hekat. What is the sum of all the enumerated things?In more modern times the sometimes confusing and arbitrary nature of word problems has been the subject of satire. Gustave Flaubert wrote this nonsensical problem, now known as the Age of the captain:Since you are now studying geometry and trigonometry, I will give you a problem. A ship sails the ocean. It left Boston with a cargo of cotton. It grosses 200 tons. It is bound for Le Havre. The mainmast is broken, the cabin boy is on deck, there are 12 passengers aboard, the wind is blowing East-North-East, the clock points to a quarter past three in the afternoon. It is the month of May. How old is the captain? Word problems have also been satirised in The Simpsons, when a lengthy word problem ("An express train traveling 60 miles per hour leaves Santa Fe bound for Phoenix, 520 miles away. At the same time, a local train traveling 30 miles an hour carrying 40 passengers leaves Phoenix bound for Santa Fe...") trails off with a schoolboy character instead imagining that he is on the train.
Both the original British and American versions of the game show Winning Lines involve word problems. However, the problems are worded so as to not give away obvious numerical information and thus, allow the contestants to figure out the numerical parts of the questions to come up with the answers.
See also
Cut-the-knot
Unitary method
References
Further reading
L Verschaffel, B Greer, E De Corte (2000) Making Sense of Word Problems, Taylor & Francis
John C. Moyer; Margaret B. Moyer; Larry Sowder; Judith Threadgill-Sowder (1984) Story Problem Formats: Verbal versus Telegraphic Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 15, No. 1. (Jan., 1984), pp. 64–68. JSTOR 748989
Perla Nesher Eva Teubal (1975)Verbal Cues as an Interfering Factor in Verbal Problem Solving Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 6, No. 1. (Mar., 1975), pp. 41–51. JSTOR 3482158
Madis Lepik (1990) Algebraic Word Problems: Role of Linguistic and Structural Variables, Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 21, No. 1. (Feb., 1990), pp. 83–90., JSTOR 3482220
Duncan J Melville (1999) Old Babylonian Mathematics http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/obsummary.html
Egyptian Algebra - Mathematicians of the African Diaspora
Mathematical Quotations - F
Andrew Nestler's Guide to Mathematics and Mathematicians on The Simpsons
Mathematics education
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Справа Василя Стуса (книга)
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Справа Василя Стуса (книга)
Справа Василя Стуса. Збірка документів з архіву колишнього КДБ УРСР — публіцистична книга українського історика, головного редактора порталу «Історична правда», публіциста Вахтанга Кіпіані про кримінальну справу, життя і смерть українського поета-дисидента Василя Стуса. Книгу видало харківське видавництво Vivat в серії Бібліотека «Історичної правди».
Історія створення
Книгу написано на основі матеріалів кримінальної справи Василя Стуса 1980 року, що зберігаються в Галузевому державному архіві СБУ (колишній архів КДБ). Матеріали стали доступними внаслідок ухвалення пакету зініційованих Українським інститутом національної пам'яті декомунізаційних законів. Матеріали кримінальної справи містяться в шести томах. До книги включено основні, найголовніші матеріали кримінальної справи. Документи, які включали до книги, наведено в повному обсязі, без редагування. Робота над книгою тривала 6 місяців, над нею також активно працювала редактор видавництва «Vivat» Галина Сологуб.
За словами автора, Вахтанга Кіпіані, мета книги — змінити «плакатне» ставлення до Василя Стуса і людей, які його оточували. Зокрема, Кіпіані заявляв, що «Кримінальна справа Василя Семеновича Стуса — це хроніка боротьби злочинної комуністичної системи з людиною, повної болю та гідності. Ми бачимо громадянина, правозахисника, творчу особистість, який чудово розуміє наслідки своєї „негнучкості“ перед каральною машиною. І тим не менше він іде до кінця».
Книгу вперше презентовано 26 травня 2019 року під час книжкового ярмарку в Києві «Книжковий Арсенал».
Зміст
У книжці зібрано архівні документи з кримінальної справи Василя Стуса, свідчення очевидців, листи поета з тюрми, спогади його рідних та друзів. Крім власне архівних матеріалів, книжка містить статті укладача та дисидента Василя Овсієнка та інтерв'ю з останнім співкамерником поета, російським політв'язнем Леонідом Бородіним.
Обкладинкою книги є оригінал обкладинки першого тому справи поета в КДБ. Додано лише назву книги та портрет Стуса з цієї ж справи. У книзі є наступні розділи:
Кримінальна справа № 5 — книга життя і смерті Василя Стуса
Матеріали з шести томів справи
Серце, самогубство чи вбивство? Як загинув Василь Стус
Свідок уходу. Останні дні Василя Стуса
Стус і Нобель. Демістифікація міфу
Чи вбивав адвокат Медведчук поета Стуса?
З таборового зошита. Останній відомий текст Василя Стуса
Відзнаки та нагороди
Книга отримала декілька відзнак. Серед них:
Вересень 2019 — персональна відзнака директорки ГО «Форуму видавців» Катерини Шевченко на Форумі видавців у Львові-2019.
Жовтень 2019 — нагорода Черкаського книжкового фестивалю в номінації «Науково-популярна книга для дорослих. Есеїстика, публіцистика, мемуари».
Грудень 2019 — члени Українського ПЕН-клубу включили «Справу Василя Стуса» до переліку найкращих книжок 2019-го, які з'явилися друком у вітчизняних видавництвах, у категорії «Нон-фікшн».
Листопад 2020 — книгу включено до номінантів на здобуття Національної премії України імені Тараса Шевченка 2021 року у категорії «Публіцистика, журналістика».
Жовтень 2021 — книга перемогла в рейтингу тридцяти найзнаковіших книжок часів Незалежності, який оголошував Український інститут книги
Рецензії критиків
Літкритики дуже позитивно оцінили книгу Кіпіані про Стуса.
Наклад
Станом на жовтень 2020 року було продано майже 20 тисяч книг; тоді ж у жовтні 2020 року у зв'язку з високим попитом на книгу видавництво Vivat додрукувало ще 3,5 тисячі примірників. У новому накладі на форзацах книги було розміщено рішення Дарницького райсуду щодо її заборони. Станом на березень 2021 року наклад склав 99 тисяч екземплярів і видавництво заявило, що готове додрукувати новий наклад книги, зважаючи на скасування заборони на її видавання та поширення.
Презентації книги
Автор провів серію презентацій книжки у містах України — Києві, Львові, Івано-Франківську, Одесі, Миколаєві, Дніпрі, Сумах, Червонограді, Коломиї, Житомирі, Чернівцях, Полтаві, Черкасах, Миколаєві (Львівська обл.), Щирці, Луцьку, Острозі, Нетішині, Рівному, Чернігові, Тернополі, Харкові, Ужгороді, Підгайцях, Бережанах, Запоріжжі, у США — Нью-Йорку, Вашингтоні, Стемфорді, Філадельфії, Чикаго та Сан-Дієго, у Канаді — Торонто, Оттаві та Монреалі, в Австрії — Відень.
Спроба заборони книги Медведчуком
Позов
Наприкінці серпня 2019 року адвокат Василя Стуса 1980 року, нині проросійський олігарх Віктор Медведчук подав до суду позов із вимогою заборонити книгу через те, що інформація в ній нібито не відповідає дійсності. Позов подано про захист честі, гідності та ділової репутації Медведчука проти Вахтанга Кіпіані, видавництва «Віват» та ПП «Юнісофт» (друкарня, де було надруковано книгу). Перше, організаційне, засідання суду у цій справі відбулося в Дарницькому суді Києва 2 жовтня 2019 року.
Рішення Дарницького суду
Дарницький районний суд 19 жовтня 2020 року за головуванням судді Марини Заставенко (раніше — суддя Червоногвардійського районного суду міста Макіївка Донецької області) ухвалив рішення, частково задовільнивши позов Віктора Медведчука проти журналіста й історика Вахтанга Кіпіані та видавництва Vivat, визнавши окремі факти стосовно Медведчука неправдивими, цим заборонивши видання і поширення книги та матеріалів, пов'язаних з Медведчуком. Було заборонено розповсюдження також надрукованого тиражу, який містить інформацію про Медведчука, а також супутню інформацію щодо вилучених фрагментів на радіо, телебаченні, мережі Інтернет та інших ЗМІ. У той же день Кіпіані оголосив, що весь тираж книги розкуплено і склади порожні. Видавництво «Vivat» повідомило про намір оскаржити рішення про заборону книги.
Реакція
Пресслужба проросійської партії ОПЗЖ поширила заяву під назвою «Суд заборонив розповсюджувати пасквіль Кіпіані про Стуса із брехливою інформацією щодо Медведчука. Чергова брудна провокація провалилася».
Своє обурення щодо рішення суду висловили громадські діячі, політики та пересічні громадяни. Після рішення Дарницького суду Києва щодо заборони книги, у різних містах України влаштували публічні читання.
Рішення апеляційного суду
19 березня 2021 апеляційний суд Києва скасував рішення суду першої інстанції про заборону публікації та майже у повному обсязі задовольнив скаргу видавництва Vivat та автора книги Вахтанга Кіпіані. Також було скасовано заборону суду першої інстанції на поширення книги та використання імені Медведчука. Видавництво заявило про готовність додрукувати новий наклад книги. На Медведчука було накладено стягнення у розмірі 140 тис. грн як відшкодування витрат видавництва на розгляд справи.
Медведчук не оскаржив у встановлений термін це рішення суду і таким чином воно вважається остаточним і таким, що вступило у законну силу.
Вилучення книги російськими окупантами
На 29 день повномасштабного російського вторгнення в Україну 24 березня 2022 Головне управління розвідки Міністерства оборони України повідомило, що у містах Кремінна, Рубіжне і Городня книжку «Справа Василя Стуса», як і низку іншої української патріотичної літератури, російськими окупантами було вилучено з бібліотек.
Цікаві факти
Ця книжка є одним з експонатів Музею заборонених книжок у Таллінні, Естонія, оскільки її публікація була забороненою в Україні протягом п'яти місяців (від постанови районного суду до її скасування апеляційним судом).
Джерела та примітки
Посилання
Справа Василя Стуса на сайті видавництва Vivat
Справа Василя Стуса на сайті книго-датабази Goodreads
Книги з історії України
Книги 2019
Стус Василь Семенович
Українські книги
2019 в Україні
Українські публіцистичні книги
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BA%20%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F%201990%2C%20%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4
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Кубок Кремля 1990, парний розряд
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Кубок Кремля 1990, парний розряд
Це був перший турнір на Кубок Кремля. У парному розряді перемогу здобули Гендрік Ян Давідс і Паул Гаргейс, які у фіналі перемогли Джона Фітцжералда і Андерса Яррида з рахунком 6-4 7-6.
Сіяні гравці
Сітка
Сітка
Посилання
Draw
1990
Кубок Кремля
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14337608
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Constant%20Factor
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The Constant Factor
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The Constant Factor is a 1980 Polish film directed by Krzysztof Zanussi. It tells the story of a young man struggling to face the death of his mother and harbouring a desire to climb the Himalayas as his father had done.
The film won the Jury Prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival.
Plot
Witold, a graduate of a school for electricians, participates in high-mountain climbing during his military service. One of the mountaineers at the shelter mentions Witold's father, who died during a mountain expedition. Thanks to the business card he received from this mountaineer, Witold, after completing his military service, obtains a job in an exhibition company. Thanks to this, he often works abroad. While doing so, he notices that his boss, Mariusz, is issuing fraudulent visas.
His mother becomes suddenly ill and Witold goes to a provincial town to visit her. In the hospital, he finds her on a bed in the corridor due to the lack of space. He intervenes unsuccessfully and nurse Grażyna tells him that a bribe should have been paid. His terminally ill mother returns home and then dies. Unable to shake off his mother's death, Witold, in an act of defiance, rebels against Mariusz when the latter, on his next business trip, invites him to take part in various minor frauds. For this, he is harassed by his colleagues, who are complicit with his boss. As Witold, together with his military colleague Stefan, is preparing for a planned trip to the Himalayas, his colleagues frame him, and at the customs clearance an undeclared amount of two hundred dollars was found on him.
Witold loses his job, and the only person who stays close to him is Grażyna. Witold then earns his living as a window cleaner for skyscrapers and erecting scaffolding during the renovation of monuments. As an unregistered student, he attends lectures on mathematics at the Polytechnic. Although the professor encourages Witold to undertake regular studies, he is sceptical about the proposal. When one day he is working on scaffolding for a crumbling facade, a small child chasing a ball is hit with falling debris. The film ends with a scream from Witold.
Cast
Tadeusz Bradecki – Witold
Zofia Mrozowska – Witold's Mother
Malgorzata Zajaczkowska – Grazyna
Cezary Morawski – Stefan
Witold Pyrkosz – Mariusz
Ewa Lejczak – Stefan's Wife
Jan Jurewicz – Zenek
Juliusz Machulski – Wladek
Marek Litewka – Wlodzimierz
Jacek Strzemzalski – Mate
Edward Zebrowski – Scientist
References
External links
Polish drama films
1980 films
Films directed by Krzysztof Zanussi
Films scored by Wojciech Kilar
1980s Polish-language films
1980 drama films
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Нове Гридіно
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Нове Гридіно — присілок у Марьовському районі Новгородської області Російської Федерації.
Населення становить 3 особи. Належить до муніципального утворення Марьовське сільське поселення.
Історія
До 1927 року населений пункт перебував у складі Новгородської губернії. У 1927-1944 роках перебував у складі Ленінградської області.
Населення
Примітки
Населені пункти Марьовського району
Присілки Новгородської області
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662281
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany%20women%27s%20national%20football%20team
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Germany women's national football team
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Germany women's national football team
The Germany women's national football team represents Germany in international women's football. The team is governed by the German Football Association (DFB).
The Germany national team is one of the most successful in women's football. They are two-time world champions, having won the 2003 and 2007 tournaments. The team has won eight of the thirteen UEFA European Championships, claiming six consecutive titles between 1995 and 2013. They, along with the Netherlands, are one of the two nations that have won both the women's and men's European tournament. Germany has won Olympic gold in 2016, after three consecutive bronze medals at the Women's Olympic Football Tournament, finishing third in 2000, 2004 and 2008. Birgit Prinz holds the record for most appearances and is the team's all-time leading goalscorer. Prinz has also set international records; she has received the FIFA World Player of the Year award three times and is the joint second overall top goalscorer at the Women's World Cup.
Women's football was long met with skepticism in Germany, and official matches were banned by the DFB until 1970. However, the women's national team has grown in popularity since winning the World Cup in 2003, as it was chosen as Germany's Sports Team of the Year. As of August 2023, Germany is ranked 6th in the FIFA Women's World Rankings.
History
Early history
In 1955, the DFB decided to forbid women's football in all its clubs in West Germany. In its explanation, the DFB cited that "this combative sport is fundamentally foreign to the nature of women" and that "body and soul would inevitably suffer damage". Further, the "display of the body violates etiquette and decency". In spite of this ban, more than 150 unofficial international matches were played in the 1950s and 1960s. On 30 October 1970, the ban on women's football was lifted at the DFB annual convention.
Other football associations had already formed official women's national teams in the 1970s, the DFB long remained uninvolved in women's football. In 1981, DFB official Horst R. Schmidt was invited to send a team to the unofficial women's football world championship. Schmidt accepted the invitation but hid the fact that West Germany had no women's national team at the time. To avoid humiliation, the DFB sent the German club champions Bergisch Gladbach 09, who went on to win the tournament and repeat the same feat three years later in 1984. Seeing a need, the DFB established the women's national team in 1982. DFB president Hermann Neuberger appointed Gero Bisanz, an instructor at the Cologne Sports College, to set up the team.
1982–1994: Difficult beginnings and first European titles
In September 1982, Bisanz organised two scouting training courses from which he selected a squad of 16 players. The team's first international match took place on 10 November 1982 in Koblenz. Following the tradition of the men's team, Switzerland was chosen as West Germany's first opponent. Doris Kresimon scored the first international goal in the 25th minute. In the second half, 18-year-old Silvia Neid contributed two goals to the 5–1 victory; Neid later became the assistant coach in 1996 and the head coach in 2005.
With five draws and one defeat, West Germany failed to qualify for the inaugural 1984 European Championship, finishing third in the qualifying group. In the beginning, Bisanz's primary objective was to close the gap to the Scandinavian countries and Italy – then the strongest teams in Europe. He emphasized training in basic skills and the need for an effective youth programme. Starting in 1985, Bisanz increasingly called-up younger players, but at first had little success with this concept, as West Germany again failed to qualify for the 1987 European Championship finals.
Undefeated and without conceding a goal, the German team qualified for the European Championship for the first time in 1989; the tournament was played on home soil in West Germany. The semi-final against Italy was the first international women's football match shown live on German television. The game was decided by a penalty shootout, in which goalkeeper Marion Isbert saved three penalty kicks and scored the winning penalty herself. On 2 July 1989 in Osnabrück, West Germany played Norway in the final. Before a crowd of 22,000, they beat favourites Norway and won 4–1 with goals from Ursula Lohn, Heidi Mohr and Angelika Fehrmann. This victory marked the team's first international title.
After the German reunification, the East German football association joined the DFB. The East German women's national football team had played only one official international match, losing 3–0 to Czechoslovakia in a friendly match on 9 May 1990. The unified German team defended their title successfully at the 1991 European Championship. After winning all games in the qualifying group, Germany again met Italy in the semi-final, this time winning 3–0. On 14 July 1991, the German team once more faced Norway in the final. The game went to extra time, during which Heidi Mohr and Silvia Neid scored for Germany and secured the 3–1 victory.
In November 1991, Germany participated in the first Women's World Cup in China. Following victories over Nigeria, Taiwan and Italy, the German team reached the quarter-final without conceding a single goal. Silvia Neid scored the first German World Cup goal on 17 November 1991 against Nigeria. Germany won the quarter-final against Denmark 2–1 after extra time, but lost 2–5 in the semi-final to the United States, who went on to win the tournament. Following a 0–4 defeat in the third-place match against Sweden, Germany finished fourth in the tournament.
The German team failed to defend their title at the 1993 European Championship, suffering a semi-final defeat to Italy in a penalty shootout, and later losing 1–3 against Denmark in the third-place playoff. Despite the disappointing result, new talents such as Steffi Jones, Maren Meinert and Silke Rottenberg made their tournament debut and later became key players for the German team.
1995–2002: Olympic and World Cup disappointments
Birgit Prinz scored in a major tournament for the first time in 1995. Germany won its third European Championship during the same year. After winning all qualification matches, scoring 55 goals, the German team defeated England 6–2 over two legs in the semi-final. Germany met Sweden in the final, which was played at the Fritz Walter Stadion in Kaiserslautern, Germany, on 26 March 1995. The Swedish team managed to score early, but Germany came back to win 3–2 with goals from Maren Meinert, Prinz and Bettina Wiegmann.
At the 1995 Women's World Cup in Sweden, the German team lost against the Scandinavian hosts, but still succeeded in winning their group by beating Japan and Brazil. Germany won the quarter-final against England 3–0, and defeated China 1–0 with a late goal by Bettina Wiegmann in the semi-final. On 18 June 1995 in Stockholm, the German team appeared in their first Women's World Cup final. Facing Norway, they lost the match 0–2, but as runners-up achieved their best World Cup result until then.
Women's football was first played as an Olympic sport at the 1996 Summer Olympics. Bettina Wiegmann scored the first Olympic goal in the opening match against Japan, which Germany won 3–2. After losing their second group game against Norway 2–3, and drawing with Brazil 1–1, Germany was eliminated, finishing third in the group with four points from three matches. Head coach Gero Bisanz resigned after the tournament and his assistant since 1983, Tina Theune, took over as the new national coach. Silvia Neid ended her playing career and was appointed the new assistant coach.
The 1997 European Championship was the first test for new coach Theune. Following a defeat against Norway, Germany finished second in the qualifying group and only secured qualification by beating Iceland in a relegation play-off. After drawing with Italy and Norway, a victory over Denmark in the last group game saw the German team go through to the knockout stage. They beat Sweden 1–0 in the semi-final, and on 12 July 1997, claimed their fourth European championship with a 2–0 win over Italy, with goals from Sandra Minnert and Birgit Prinz.
At the 1999 Women's World Cup in the United States, the German team also failed to qualify directly, but managed to beat Ukraine in a qualifying play-off. Germany started their World Cup campaign by drawing with Italy and winning 6–0 over Mexico. In the last group game, Germany drew 3–3 against Brazil; by conceding a last minute equalizer, Germany failed to win the group and subsequently had to face the hosts in the quarter-final. With 54,642 people in attendance, among them U.S. President Bill Clinton, the crowd at the Jack Kent Cooke Stadium was the biggest the German team had ever played in front of. Despite leading twice, they lost 2–3 to the eventual World Cup winners.
Germany competed at the 2000 Summer Olympics, winning all three group games against Australia, Brazil and Sweden. The German team dominated the semi-final against Norway, but lost the game 0–1 after an own goal by Tina Wunderlich in the 80th minute. They beat Brazil 2–0 in the third place match with goals from Birgit Prinz and Renate Lingor, and won the bronze medal. It was the first Olympic medal for the German Football Associations since 1988 when the men's team also won bronze.
In 2001, Germany hosted the European Championship. Following victories over Sweden, Russia and England in the group stage, the German team beat Norway 1–0 in the semi-final courtesy of a diving header by Sandra Smisek. On 7 July 2001 in Ulm, they met Sweden in the final, which was played in heavy rain. The game was scoreless after 90 minutes and went to extra time, where Claudia Müller scored a golden goal and secured the fifth European title for Germany.
2003–present: Two consecutive World Cup titles
At the 2003 Women's World Cup in the United States, Germany was drawn in a group with Canada, Japan and Argentina. After winning all three group games, the German team defeated Russia 7–1 in the quarter-final, which set up another clash with the United States. Germany's Kerstin Garefrekes scored after 15 minutes and goalkeeper Silke Rottenberg made several key saves. In the dying minutes of the semi-final, Maren Meinert and Birgit Prinz sealed the 3–0 win. On 12 October 2003, Germany met Sweden in the World Cup final in Los Angeles. The Scandinavians went ahead before half time, but Maren Meinert equalized shortly after the break. The game went to extra time, where Nia Künzer headed the winning golden goal in the 98th minute to claim Germany's first Women's World Cup title. Birgit Prinz was honoured as the tournament's best player and top goalscorer.
With wins over China and Mexico, the German team finished first in their group at the 2004 Summer Olympics. They beat Nigeria 2–1 in the quarter-final, but suffered a 1–2 semi-final loss to the United States after extra time. In the third place match, Germany defeated Sweden 1–0 with a goal by Renate Lingor, winning the team's second Olympic bronze medal.
The 2005 European Championship was held in England. With wins over Norway, Italy and France in Round 1, the German team advanced to the semi-final, where they defeated Finland 4–1. On 19 June 2005, they met Norway for the third time in the European championship final. Germany won 3–1 with goals from Inka Grings, Renate Lingor and Birgit Prinz and added a sixth European title. Head coach Tina Theune stepped down after the tournament and her assistant Silvia Neid took over as national coach. In 2006, Germany won the annual Algarve Cup for the first time.
As reigning world champion, Germany played the opening game at the 2007 Women's World Cup in China, outclassing Argentina 11–0. After a goalless draw against England and a 2–0 win over Japan, the German team defeated North Korea 3–0 in the quarter-final. They beat Norway by the same result in the semi-final, with goals from Kerstin Stegemann, Martina Müller and a Norwegian own goal. On 30 September 2007, Germany faced Brazil in the World Cup final in Shanghai. Birgit Prinz put Germany in front after half time and goalkeeper Nadine Angerer saved a penalty by Brazilian Marta. Simone Laudehr scored a second goal after 86 minutes, which sealed the German 2–0 victory. Germany was the first team (men's and women's game) to win the World Cup without conceding a goal and the first to successfully defend the Women's World Cup title. With 14 goals, Prinz became the tournament's overall top goalscorer.
In a replay of the 2007 World Cup final, the German team drew 0–0 with Brazil in the opening game at the 2008 Summer Olympics. They then beat both Nigeria and North Korea to advance to the quarter-final, where they defeated Sweden 2–0 after extra time. In the semi-final, Germany again met Brazil. Birgit Prinz scored in the 10th minute, but the German team lost 1–4 after conceding three goals to Brazilian counter-attacks in the second half. They beat Japan 2–0 for the bronze medal, with Fatmire Bajramaj scoring both goals. The third consecutive semi-final loss at the Olympics was seen as a disappointment by both the players and the German press. The team's overall performance and head coach Silvia Neid were harshly criticised in the media.
Germany qualified for the 2009 European Championship in Finland winning all eight games and scoring 34 goals. They beat Norway, France and Iceland in the group stage to advance to the quarter-final, where they won 2–1 against Italy. After trailing Norway at half-time in the semi-final, the German team fought back to a 3–1 victory. On 10 September 2009, they defeated England 6–2 for their seventh European trophy. Birgit Prinz and Inka Grings scored twice, with Melanie Behringer and Kim Kulig also scoring. Grings retained her award as the tournament's top scorer from 2005, while Germany extended their winning streak at the European Championship finals to a 19-match run dating back to 1997.
Germany hosted the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup and won the three games on the group stage, over Canada, France and Nigeria. On the quarterfinals, the team suffered an upset by Japan, who won on overtime with a goal by Karina Maruyama. The defeat broke the Germans' streak of sixteen undefeated games at the World Cup. By failing to finish among the top two UEFA teams, Germany was unable to qualify for the 2012 Summer Olympics.
At the 2013 European Championship in Sweden, the Germans won their sixth straight continental title, with the decisive game being a 1–0 victory over Norway. Goalkeeper Nadine Angerer, who stopped two penalties during the final, was chosen as the tournament's best player. The 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup had Germany again reaching the top four. In the semi-final against the United States, Célia Šašić, who wound up as the tournament's top scorer, missed a penalty, and afterwards goals by Carli Lloyd and Kelley O'Hara lead to an American victory. The third place match saw the Germans lose their first ever match to England after 21 contests, due to a penalty kick by Fara Williams during extra time.
At the 2019 Women's World Cup Germany were in Group B with China PR, South Africa, and Spain. They topped the group with three wins and defeated Nigeria in the Round of 16. Germany was eliminated by Sweden in the quarter-finals, losing to them for the first time in 24 years and conceding their only goals of the tournament and so failed to qualify for the Olympic football tournament of Tokyo 2020.
At the 2022 European Championship, Germany reached the final, where the team lost 1–2 after extra time against the host of the tournament, England. For Germany, the record winners of the competition, this was their ninth appearance in a Euro final and the first in which they were defeated.
Germany entered the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup as one of the title favourites, being second in the FIFA Rankings at the time. Drawn into Group H alongside Morocco, Colombia, and South Korea, they seemed to have a strong start after defeating Morocco 6–0. However, they would lose to Colombia 2–1. After tying with South Korea 1–1 alongside Morocco's 1–0 victory against Colombia, they were eliminated and missed the knockout stage for the first time in their history. This was widely described as one of the biggest upsets in the history of the Women's World Cup.
Team image
Nicknames
The Germany women's national football team has been known or nicknamed as "Die Nationalelf (The National Eleven)".
Kits and crest
The German women's national football team wears white shirts with black shorts and white socks, following the tradition of the German men's team – black and white are the colours of Prussia. The current change kit is all dark green. In the past, Germany also used green shirts with white shorts and green socks as the away kit, as well as a red and black kit, with black shorts and red socks.
The women's national team originally played with the emblem of the German men's team, a variation of the DFB logo with the Federal Eagle of Germany (Bundesadler) and three stars at the top for the men's 1954, 1974 and 1990 World Cup titles. Since their first Women's World Cup win in 2003, the team displays its own World Cup titles; initially with one star, and since 2007, with two stars at the top of the emblem. While being reigning world champions, Germany also displayed the newly created "FIFA Women's World Champions Badge" on their shirts from 2009 until 2011 when they were succeeded by Japan.
In accordance with the rules of the International Olympic Committee, Germany does not wear its official uniform with the logo of the German Football Association while competing at the Summer Olympics. Instead, the DFB badge is replaced by the coat of arms of Germany. Like all DFB squads, the women's national team is supplied by Adidas. The team's main sponsor is the German insurance company Allianz.
Home stadium
The Germany national football team has no national stadium. Like the men, the women's team play their home matches in different stadiums throughout the country. As of June 2011, they have played in 87 different German cities. Most home games have been held in Osnabrück with six matches, followed by Ulm (five games), and Bochum, Kaiserslautern, Koblenz, Lüdenscheid, Rheine, Siegen and Weil am Rhein (three games each). The first home match in former East Germany was played in Aue in May 1991.
In the 1980s and 1990s, home matches were mostly played in smaller towns with no professional football clubs. As the team became more successful, especially after the World Cup win in 2003, the number of spectators rose accordingly.
The record attendance for Germany was 73,680 in the 2011 Women's World Cup opening game against Canada at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin. That game also set a new European record in women's football. Away from home, the team's crowd record was 54,642 in the 1999 Women's World Cup quarter-final against the United States at the Jack Kent Cooke Stadium in Landover.
Acceptance and popularity
For most of the 20th century, women's football was a niche sport in Germany and was frowned upon. The 2003 World Cup title marked the breakthrough for the women's national football team in Germany. The final was watched by 10.48 million viewers on German television (a 33.2 percent market share) and the German team was welcomed home by almost 10,000 fans at Frankfurt's city hall. Later that year, they were honoured as the 2003 German Sports Team of the Year. Nia Künzer's World Cup winning golden goal was voted Germany's 2003 Goal of the Year, the first time the award was won by a female player. Each member of the World Cup squad received a prearranged bonus of 15,000 euros for winning the tournament; four years later the players received 50,000 euros for their successful title defense. Since 2005, almost all of the women's national football team's matches have been shown live on German television. In 2009, one million of the 6.7 million DFB members were female.
The final of the 2007 Women's World Cup was seen by 9.05 million television viewers (a 50.5 percent market share). After the team returned to Germany, they were celebrated by a crowd of 20,000 in Frankfurt. In December 2007, all players of the World Cup squad received the Silberne Lorbeerblatt (Silver Laurel Leaf), the highest state decoration for athletes in Germany. National coach Silvia Neid was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit on ribbon by German president Horst Köhler.
Women's football is one of the fastest growing sports in Germany. Attendance for the women's Bundesliga more than tripled in one year, with an average of 806 in 2022 to an average of 2,723 in 2023.
In 2022 the most watched sporting event on German TV with nearly 18 million people watching was the women's national team final of the Euros against England. The following year the women kept more views than the men's team with 10.37 million television viewers.
Results and fixtures
The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
Legend
2023
2024
Coaching staff
Current technical staff
Manager history
*Key: P–games played, W–games won, D–games drawn; L–games lost, %–win percentage. Statistics as of 4 June 2024.
Horst Hrubesch is the current head coach of the German women's national football team. The coach's official title is DFB-Trainer and he or she is employed by the German Football Association.
Gero Bisanz (1982–1996) was the first coach of the women's national team. He selected his first squad in September 1982. At the same time, he also worked as the chief instructor for DFB coaching training from 1971 to 2000. Bisanz led the German team to three European Championships in 1989, 1991 and 1995. Under Bisanz, Germany also was runner-up at the 1995 Women's World Cup. He resigned after the German team was eliminated in Round 1 at the 1996 Summer Olympics. With his assistant since 1983, Tina Theune, he built a scouting system and was responsible for a new DFB youth programme.
Tina Theune (1996–2005) took over as head coach after the 1996 Summer Olympics. She was the first woman to acquire the highest German football coaching license. Theune was responsible for three European Championship titles in 1997, 2001 and 2005. During her time as head coach, Germany won the bronze medal at the 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics. Her biggest success was the 2003 Women's World Cup title. Theune is the most successful national coach to date. She benefited from an effective youth programme and integrated several Under-19 players into the nation team. Theune stepped down after winning the European Championship in 2005.
Silvia Neid (2005–2016) was the team's assistant coach from 1996 to 2005 and the head coach of the German Under-19 team, winning the 2004 U-19 Women's World Championship. In July 2005, she became the team's head coach and the 2006 Algarve Cup marked her first tournament win. By winning the 2007 Women's World Cup, Neid became the first Germany national team coach of either gender to win the World Cup at the first attempt. At her first Summer Olympics as a coach in 2008, Germany won the bronze medal for a third time. Neid was also responsible for Germany's seventh European Championship in 2009. She coached the Germany national team until 2016 and her assistant was Ulrike Ballweg.
On 30 March 2015, DFB announced that Steffi Jones (2016–2018) would become the new German head coach in 2016.
Horst Hrubesch (2018) took over as the interim head coach from March to November 2018.
Martina Voss-Tecklenburg (2019–2023) then became the new coach in 2019. The contract was voided in November 2023.
Horst Hrubesch (2023–) again took over as the interim head coach in October 2023.
Christian Wück will take over after the 2024 Summer Olympics.
Players
Current squad
The following players were named for the UEFA Women's Euro 2025 qualifying matches against Poland on 31 May and 4 June 2024.
Caps and goals as of 4 June 2024.
Recent call-ups
The following players were named to a squad in the last 12 months.
Notes:
: Preliminary squad / standby
: Player withdrew due to injury
Records
Players in bold are still active, at least at club level.
Birgit Prinz, a former team captain who retired after the 2011 World Cup, holds the record for Germany for appearances, having played 214 times from 1994 to 2011. She is one of 21 German players to have reached 100 caps. Kerstin Stegemann is second, having played 191 times. Bettina Wiegmann, Germany's team captain during the 2003 World Cup win, comes fourth with 154 games. Prinz exceeded Wiegmann's record as the most capped player in November 2006. Prinz also held the record for most appearances by a European player until 15 June 2021, when she was surpassed by Sweden's Caroline Seger.
Wiegmann and Prinz have successively been awarded the title of honorary captain of the German women's national football team.
The title of Germany's highest goalscorer is also held by Prinz. She scored her first goal in July 1994 against Canada and finished her career with 128 goals (averaging 0.60 goals per game). Heidi Mohr, as well as being the second-highest scorer, is also the most prolific with 83 goals coming from 104 games (averaging 0.80 goals per game). Two players share the record for goals scored in one match: Conny Pohlers scored five goals in October 2001 against Portugal, and Inka Grings scored five times in February 2004, again facing Portugal. Silvia Neid, the former Germany national coach, is the sixth highest goalscorer with 48 goals in 111 games.
The largest margin of victory achieved by Germany is 17–0 against Kazakhstan during a European Championship qualifying game in November 2011. The record defeat, a 6–0 loss against the United States, occurred during a friendly match in March 1996.
Former goalkeeper Nadine Angerer has the most appearances for a goalkeeper, with 145 games as goal keeper (89 without conceding a goal) and one game as a substitute as defender.
Silke Rottenberg is second with 126 caps and 68 games without conceding a goal. Bettina Wiegmann holds the record of 14 goals from penalty kicks; Renate Lingor comes in second with 8 goals. Tina Wunderlich scored the team's only own goal in the semi-final of the 2000 Summer Olympics against Norway; it was the game's only goal.
The German team also holds several international records. In 2007, they were the first to win two consecutive Women's World Cup titles and they achieved the then-biggest win in tournament history by beating Argentina 11–0, Germany is also the only team to win the women's World Cup without conceding a goal and the only country to win both World Cups. With 14 goals, Prinz became the overall top goalscorer at the Women's World Cup in 2007, and she and Brazilian Marta are the only women to have received the FIFA World Player of the Year award at least three times.
Competitive record
FIFA Women's World Cup
Germany is one of the most successful nations at the FIFA Women's World Cup, having won the tournament twice and finishing runner-up once. The German team won the World Cup in 2003 and 2007. At the first World Cup in 1991, they finished in fourth place. In 1995, Germany reached the World Cup final, but were defeated by Norway. The team's worst result was a Group stage exit in 2023. Overall, the German team has appeared in three Women's World Cup finals, and is a five-time semi-finalist. They have participated in every Women's World Cup and have a 31–6–10 win–draw–loss record.
*Denotes draws including knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.
**Gold background colour indicates that the tournament was won.
***Red border colour indicates tournament was held on home soil.
Olympic Games
Women's football debuted at the 1996 Summer Olympics and Bettina Wiegmann scored the first Olympic goal in the opening game of the tournament. However, Germany failed to progress to the knockout stage and was eliminated in the group stages. Four years later the German team won the bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics. They again finished third at both the 2004 and the 2008 Summer Olympics.
The German team has qualified for all Women's Olympic Football Tournaments until 2008. However, they failed to qualify for the 2012 tournament as UEFA used the 2011 World Cup for qualification, and Germany ended below France and Sweden. The German team beat Sweden in the Olympics final in Rio in 2016 to obtain their first Olympic gold medal.
UEFA Women's Championship
Germany failed to qualify for the first two UEFA European Championships in 1984 and 1987. Since 1989, the German team has participated in every tournament and is the record European champion with eight titles. Germany has won six consecutive championships from 1995 to 2013 and has an overall 36–6–4 win–draw–loss record.
*Denotes draws including knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.
**Gold background colour indicates that the tournament was won.
***Red border colour indicates tournament was held on home soil.
****Missing flag indicates no host country; tournament was played in two-leg knockout rounds (with the exception of the 1995 final).
UEFA Women's Nations League
Honours
Major competitions
FIFA Women's World Cup
Champions: 2003, 2007
Runners-up: 1995
UEFA Women's Championship
Champions: 1989, 1991, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2013
Runners-up: 2022
Summer Olympic Games
Gold Medal: 2016
Bronze Medal: 2000, 2004, 2008
UEFA Women's Nations League
Third place: 2024
Minor competitions
Algarve Cup
Champions: 2006, 2012, 2014, 2020
Runners-up: 2005, 2010, 2013
Third place: 2015
Women's World Invitational Tournament
Champions: 1981, 1984
Third place: 1987
SheBelieves Cup
Runners-up: 2016, 2017
Four Nations Tournament
Runners-up: 2002
Third place: 2003, 2005, 2007
Mundialito Cup
Runners-up: 1984
Awards
FIFA Women's World Cup Fair Play Trophy
Winners: 1991
FIFA Women's World Cup Most Entertaining Team
Winners: 2003
German Sports Team of the Year
Winners: 2003, 2009
Silbernes Lorbeerblatt
Winners: 1989, 1991, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2013, 2016
Bambi Award
Winners: 2003, 2007
Titles
See also
Sport in Germany
Football in Germany
Women's football in Germany
Germany women's national football team
Germany women's national football team results
List of Germany women's international footballers
Germany women's national youth football team
Germany women's national under-23 football team
Germany women's national under-21 football team
Germany women's national under-20 football team
Germany women's national under-19 football team
Germany women's national under-17 football team
Notes
References
External links
Germany women's national football team – official website at DFB
FIFA profile
FIFA Women's World Cup-winning countries
European women's national association football teams
Recipients of the Silver Laurel Leaf
UEFA Women's Championship-winning countries
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda%20G.%20Alvarado
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Linda G. Alvarado
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Linda G. Alvarado
Linda Alvarado (born 1952) is President and Chief Executive Officer of Alvarado Construction, Inc., a large commercial and industrial general contracting/site management and design/build firm in Denver, Colorado. She is also President of Palo Alto, Inc. (a restaurant company), co-owner of the Colorado Rockies baseball team, and currently a member of the board of 3M.
Early life
Alvarado was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico. She attended Pomona College in Claremont, California where she graduated in 1973 with a bachelor's degree in economics.
She was physically challenged at the age of 5, diagnosed with a hernia. She started the Alvarado company in 1976 with the help of her parents, given a loan of $2,500. The company started off by building concrete sidewalks and moved on to larger projects such as schools, stadiums, and aquariums. When she first opened her business, she was active on serving nonprofit boards, supporting minorities and developing stronger connections with the inner city. At the age of 27, she served on her first corporate board.
Career
Linda Alvarado founded her company, Alvarado Construction, in 1976 and continues to oversee the company as CEO. Considered to be one of the fastest-growing construction companies in the United States, Alvarado Construction has offices in four different states. Alvarado Construction is now one of the largest commercial real estate companies in the west, reporting a revenue of $41 million a year. She also holds director positions on 5 Fortune 1000 companies and sits on the boards of 3M, Pitney Bowes, the Pepsi Bottling group and Qwest Communications International. Alvarado co-owns the major league baseball franchise, the Colorado Rockies. She is both the first Hispanic co-owner of a major league team and the first woman ever involved in a formal bid for ownership of a major league baseball team. Alvarado also owns many restaurant franchises in various states.
Awards and honors
Sara Lee Corp.’s Frontrunner Award (1993),
Revlon Business Woman of the Year (1996),
Designated one of the 100 Most Influential Hispanics in America by Hispanic Business Magazine,
Member of the President's Advisory Commission on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans (1995–2001),
The 1996 U.S. Hispanic Chamber of Commerce Business Woman of the Year distinction, honored by the prestigious Sara Lee Corporation Frontrunner Award,
The 2001 Horatio Alger Award,
Inducted into the Colorado Women's Hall of Fame (2002),
Inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame (2003),
Named to the White House Commission for Hispanic Excellence in Education,
Named Woman of the Year by the Mexican American Foundation,
The National Women's Economic Alliance Director's Choice Award.
Nominated "Most Inspiring American Latino" by the American Latino TV network.
Community involvement
Alvarado supports initiatives to educate Latinos and helps to Latino women create business careers. She is a member of the Greater Denver Chamber of Commerce, the National Network of Hispanic Women, and the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce.
References
External links
Linda Alvarado Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America
Linda G. Alvarado at the National Women's Hall of Fame
1951 births
American women chief executives
Living people
American construction businesspeople
Colorado Rockies owners
Businesspeople from Albuquerque, New Mexico
American women restaurateurs
American restaurateurs
Pomona College alumni
American corporate directors
American women corporate directors
21st-century American businesswomen
21st-century American businesspeople
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4%208%20%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97%20%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%20%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B2
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Період 8 періодичної системи елементів
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Період 8 періодичної системи елементів
Восьмий період періодичної системи охоплює гіпотетичні хімічні елементи, що належать до додаткового восьмого рядка (або періоду) періодичної системи. Усі атоми восьмого періоду періодичної системи мають вісім електронних оболонок. На зовнішній вілентній електронній оболонці восьмого періоду можуть розташовуватись вісім електронів, а у цілому їх буде 50. Так елементи із порядковими номерами від 139 до 153 за Гленном Сіборґом належать до окремої групи цього періоду - суперактиноїдів. Ще однією особливістю цієї групи є вперше заповнення електронами g-орбіталей. Таким чином, восьмий період є лише теоретичним продовженням періодичної системи хімічних елементів.
Систематизовані назви цих елементів передані ІЮПАК до використання. Жоден з цих елементів поки не був синтезований і цілком можливо що жоден з них не має ізотопів з досить стабільними ядрами, щоб синтезувати їх в найближчі роки. Можливо також, що в зв'язку з нестійкістю ядер, тільки перші кілька елементів восьмого періоду фізично можливі.
Якби вдалося виробити достатню кількість цих елементів, щоб вивчити їх хімічні властивості, цілком можливо, що ці елементи повели б себе зовсім інакше, ніж елементи попередніх періодів. Це пов'язано з тим, що їхні електронні конфігурації можуть змінюватися через квантові і релятивістські ефекти. Наприклад, рівні енергії 5g-, 6f- і 7d - орбіталей у них розташовані настільки близько один до одного, що всі вони можуть вступати в обмін електронами між собою. Це повинно привести до великої кількості елементів у групі суперактиноїдів, які матимуть надзвичайно подібні хімічні властивості.
За допомогою розрахунків вчені спробували визначити будову атомів і оцінити найважливіші властивості таких «суперлементів», аж до величезних порядкових номерів (і навіть ). Отримані результати виявилися досить несподіваними. Наприклад, в атомі елемента з передбачається поява 8р-електрона, це після того, як в атомах з і завершилося формування 8s -підоболонки. Поява р-електронів слідом за s-електронами спостерігається тільки в атомах елементів другого і третього періодів. Розрахунки також показують, що у елементів гіпотетичного восьмого періоду заповнення електронних оболонок і подоболонок атомів відбувається в дуже складній і своєрідній послідовності. Тому оцінити властивості відповідних елементів - вельми складна проблема. Здавалося б, що восьмий період повинен містити 50 елементів, але згідно з розрахунками, він повинен завершуватися елементом з , тобто на 4 порядкових номери раніше.
Джерела
A.F. Holleman, E. Wiberg, N. Wiberg: Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie. 101. Auflage. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin. New York 1995, ISBN 3-11-012641-9. Ст. 56—64
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1793102
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%20%D0%B2%20%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97
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Освіта в Болгарії
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Освіта в Болгарії знаходиться під наглядом Міністерства освіти і науки. З 2012 року обов'язкова освіта включає два роки в початковій школі (як правило, починаючи з 5 років). Освіта є обов'язковою до віку 16 років. Освіта в державних школах безкоштовна, крім вищих навчальних закладів, коледжів та університетів. Система вищої освіти Болгарії була повністю реорганізована в середині 1990-х років. У період з 1995 по 2002 рік кількість випускників вищих навчальних закладів зросла з 33 000 до 50 000. У 2002 році в університеті функціонувало близько 42 вищих навчальних закладів, було зараховано 215,7 тис. студентів. У 2003 році близько 4,9% державного бюджету Болгарії було присвячено освіті. Дипломи, видані болгарськими освітніми установами після 1 січня 2007 року (день приєднання Болгарії до Європейського Союзу), визнаються в усіх країнах ЄС.
Болгарська мова є офіційною мовою в дитячих садках і школах. Навчання в школах створює умови для засвоєння літературної болгарської мови. Школярі, для яких болгарська мова не є рідною, мають право вивчати свою національну мову в общинних школах під захистом і під контролем держави.
Історія болгарської освіти
Перші школи Болгарії були відкриті у 8 столітті царем Борисом I і царем Симеоном Великим.Також в цей період в Охриді та Преславі було створено два відомі університети, лише в Охриді навчалося більше 3000 студентів.
Сучасні школи почали відкриватися на початку 19 століття (під час національного відродження) спочатку для хлопців, а пізніше для дівчат. Ці школи забезпечували лише базову освіту, такі як читання, письмо та загальна арифметика. Студенти, які бажали продовжити свою освіту, були змушені навчатися за кордоном. Після того, як Болгарія скасувала турецьке ярмо в 1878 році, вона почала закладати початки своєї освітньої системи. У 1878 році уряд прийняв тимчасовий закон про національні школи. Цей закон стимулював створення шкіл у селах. Однак багато селян не дозволяли своїм дітям відвідувати школу, оскільки вважали, що освіта не має відношення до селянського життя. Крім того, в період 1878 - 1918 рр. були створено декілька університетів. У час Балканських воєн (1912-1913 рр.) та Першої світової війни в Болгарії був порушений навчальний процес. Проте до середини 1920-х років функціонування шкіл було відновлено.
Протягом комуністичної епохи Радянський Союз мав великий вплив на систему освіти в Болгарії. Була введена нова форма навчання. Пріоритет гуманітарних наук був замінений поглибленим технічним навчанням. У 1979 році Живков створив єдину середню політехнічну школу, яка складалася з дванадцяти класів, основна увага приділялася технічним дисциплінам. Після закінчення епохи Живкова Болгарська освітня система була повністю реконструйована. Уряд прагнув деполітизувати систему та враховувати думки інших.
Структура навчальної системи
Дошкільна освіта
Дошкільна освіта охоплює дітей віком від 3 до 6-7 років, які необов'язково відвідували дитячий садок, проте з вимогою, що до початку навчання в школі діти повинні пройти дворічну дошкільну освіту. Ці два роки обов'язкової дошкільної освіти можуть бути присутніми або в дитячому садку, або в підготовчих групах початкових шкіл. У 2007-2008 навчальному році 74.8% дітей у віці 3-6 років були зараховані до дитячих садків.
During the school year 2007/2008, 74.8% of children aged 3–6 years were enrolled in kindergartens.
Початкова освіта
Початкова освіта включає в себе 1-7 класів. Діти зазвичай починають навчання у віці 7 років, але можуть починати з 6 років з дозволу батьків. Свідоцтво про початкову освіту та сертифікат для середньої освіти отримують після успішного завершення 4-го та 7-го класів. Середні школи використовують бал сертифікату, як основний критерій при вступі.
Середня освіта
Середня освіта включає вибіркові загальноосвітні та професійно-технічні школи. Допуск до загальноосвітніх шкіл базується на ,балах з вступних іспитів, як правило, з літератури та математики, а також балів початкової школи. Студенти можуть поступити до середньої школи після успішного завершення 7 або 8 класів. Зазвичай, ті, хто бажає вивчати мови, математику або інформатику, поглиблено ставляться до середньої школи після 7 класу. Студенти, які закінчили середню школу, повинні пройти випускні іспити на болгарській мові.
Вища освіта
Серед різновидів вищих навчальних закладів є університети, коледжі та спеціалізовані вищі школи. Університети, як і в більшості країн світу, мають три етапи: бакалавр, магістр та докторантура. Етап навчання на бакалавраті триває щонайменше чотири роки, а аспірантура триває п'ять років після закінчення середньої освіти або через рік після отримання ступеня бакалавра. Третій етап вищої освіти призводить до отримання ступення доктора наук.
Оцінювання
Система оцінювання базується на балах, де 6 - найвищий, а 2 - найнижчий бал, який може отримати студент, 6 - відмінно, 5 - дуже добре, 4 - добре, 3 - задовільно, 2 - погано.
Грамотність
У 2003 р. Показник грамотності Болгарії оцінювався в 98,6%, причому приблизно однаковий показник для обох статей. Болгарія традиційно мала високі освітні стандарти. У посткомуністичну епоху низький рівень фінансування та низький рівень моралі вчителів завдають шкоди системі навчання, зокрема, у професійній підготовці. Дотримання класичних методів навчання не сприяє розвитку в деяких технічних областях. Поточна система освіти, запроваджена в 1998 році, має 12 класів. У 2003 році один рік дошкільної освіти став обов'язковим, а в 2012 році це було продовжено до двох обов'язкових років дошкільної освіти.
Дивись також
Освіта в Європейському Союзі
:Категорія:Університети Болгарії
Примітки
Джерела
Bulgarian Education
Compulsory Education in Europe
Bulgarian Short Report
early childhood education and care
Bulgaria Grading-System
Kostadinov, P. (2009, June 19). Little or nothing
Library of Congress Country Studies Program
Посилання
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53817313
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert%20Axster
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Herbert Axster
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Herbert Axster (3 November 1899 – 25 May 1991) was a German lawyer connected with Operation Paperclip. Axster served as chief of staff in the German guided missiles program.
Wartime and Postwar Activities
During World War II, Axster served as chief of staff to Walter Dornberger, commander of the Peenemünde Army Research Center. Here, Axster assisted with the development of Germany's V-2 rocket program. Following Nazi Germany's surrender, Axster was sent to the United States in November 1945. In January 1947, he began work for the U.S. Government at Fort Bliss, Texas.
OMGUS Investigation
Following his recruitment into Operation Paperclip, Axster was investigated by the Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) as a possible threat to the United States. The 1948 OMGUS report on Axster included interviews with individuals who had been familiar with Axster during the war. The interviews appeared to describe a sadistic man, said to have used slave labor on his private estate. In addition, the report included mention of Axster's wife, who was an outspoken proponent of the Nazi Party. However, the report concluded by reversing OMGUS's initial position concerning Axster, stating that "[Axster] was not a war criminal and was not an ardent Nazi. The record of Herbert Axster as an individual is reasonably clear and as such, it is believed that he constitutes no more of a security threat than do the other Germans who have come to the U.S. with clear records in entirety." Axster was allowed to continue his work for the U.S. government.
References
20th-century German lawyers
1899 births
1991 deaths
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1911181
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BB
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Метеорологічний поділ
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Метеорологічний поділ — це межа, яка поділяє дві території з різною погодою. Така межа виникає завдяки географічним чи геологічним особливостям, насамперед горам.
Приклади
головний погодний поділ Альп. З північної сторони Альп часто утворюється фен, а на південь від них часті орографічні опади;
Таврські гори, Туреччина;
східні схили Західно-Австралійського плоскогір'я.
Див. також
Кліматичний поділ
Переважаючі вітри
Метеорологія
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1802316
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2014%20OE4%20%28PANSTARRS%29
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C/2014 OE4 (PANSTARRS)
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C/2014 OE4 (PANSTARRS) — одна з гіперболічних комет. Ця комета була відкрита 26 липня 2014 року; вона мала 20.7m на час відкриття.
Посилання
Elements.comet — JPL Solar System Dynamics — NASA
JPL Small-Body Database Browser
Aerith.net
HORIZONS Web-Interface
Гіперболічні комети
Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 2014
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3024374
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyd%20Devereaux
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Boyd Devereaux
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Boyd Devereaux
Boyd Fletcher Devereaux (born April 16, 1978) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player.
Drafted 6th overall in the 1996 NHL Draft by the Edmonton Oilers, Devereaux is best known for forming 1/3 of the "Two Kids and a Goat" line as a member of the Detroit Red Wings, alongside Pavel Datsyuk and Brett Hull, ultimately culminating in the 2002 Stanley Cup championship.
Playing career
Devereaux spent his junior hockey career playing for the Kitchener Rangers of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). He was drafted sixth overall by the Edmonton Oilers in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft and would go on to play 627 career NHL games, scoring 67 goals and 112 assists for 179 points.
In the summer of 2000, Devereaux signed with the Detroit Red Wings, with whom he won the Stanley Cup in 2002. In 2004, he signed with the Phoenix Coyotes, where he played for one season. In October 2006, after failing to make the Red Wings roster on a tryout basis, the Toronto Maple Leafs signed him. He began the season in the American Hockey League with the Toronto Marlies but quickly worked his way back to the NHL. After a season and a half with the Maple Leafs, Devereaux cleared waivers and was sent back to the Marlies for the 2008-09 season.
On February 14, 2009, Devereaux was recalled to play for the Maple Leafs again after he was put on re-entry waivers and no other team opted to claim him. In the final game of the season, against the Ottawa Senators, Devereaux recorded his second career hat trick, scoring all three goals against Brian Elliott.
While competing in the Spengler Cup in Switzerland on 28 December 2009, Devereaux was collecting a loose puck from the offensive zone when he was caught with his head down and checked by HC Davos defenceman Beat Forster. After being helped from the ice, Devereaux noticed tingling sensations in his limbs and was rushed to hospital. X-rays revealed fractured vertebra. After an MRI, it was decided by the medical staff that surgery was not an option, and that the best course of action was to allow the break to attempt to heal on its own. Devereaux's neck was braced and he was allowed home. He eventually contacted the Leafs' medical staff and had surgery for his neck injury.
International play
Devereaux was named to the 1997 World Junior team representing Canada. He scored four goals during the tournament including the game-winning goal during the semifinals where Canada beat Russia 3–2, and the game-winning goal during the team's 2–0 victory in the gold-medal game against the United States. The gold medal was Canada's fifth straight at the tournament.
Personal
Devereaux now resides in Waterloo, Ontario, with his wife and two kids.
Devereaux participated in the 2011 season of Battle of the Blades, a figure skating competition broadcast in Canada on CBC Television. He and his partner finished in third place.
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
International
Awards and honours
References
External links
1978 births
Living people
Battle of the Blades participants
Canadian ice hockey centres
Detroit Red Wings players
Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in the United States
Edmonton Oilers draft picks
Edmonton Oilers players
Franco-Ontarian people
Hamilton Bulldogs (AHL) players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Kitchener Rangers players
HC Lugano players
NHL first-round draft picks
Sportspeople from Huron County, Ontario
Phoenix Coyotes players
Stanley Cup champions
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Toronto Marlies players
Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in Switzerland
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%20%28%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F%29
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Ангели (династія)
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Ангели (династія)
Ангели — династія імператорів Східної Римської імперії (1185–1204), вихідці з великої землевласницької знаті. Прийшли до влади після повалення Андроніка І Комніна.
Ангели проводили політику роздачі проній та привілеїв, збільшили податки, процвиндрювали гроші на бенкети та розваги. Часи правління Ангелів це часи ослаблення держави, загострення внутрішніх проблем та династичної боротьби. Армія ослабла, флот був у жалюгідному стані. Імперія в цілому була в кризі, її кордони стрімко скорочувалися. Ангели давали привілеї Генуї та Пізі, через що вкрай загострилися стосунки з Венецією. Вони відбили напад сицилійських норманів, але зазнали поразок у війнах з сельджуками. За Ангелів сталися ІІІ та IV хрестовий походи. Під час останнього хрестоносці захопили Царгород і скинули імператорів роду Ангелів з престолу. На якийсь час Візантія перестала існувати. В 1204–1318 роках Ангели — династія правителів Емірської держави.
Також представники династії були правителями Фессалії. Останнім відомим володарем був Іван II Дука у 1303—1318 роках.
Імператори
Ісаак II Ангел
Олексій III Ангел
Олексій IV Ангел
Джерела
Візантійські імператори
Династії Візантії
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15889379
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budling
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Budling
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Budling (Lorraine Franconian: Bidléngen) is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est, northeastern France.
Population
See also
Communes of the Moselle department
References
External links
Communes of Moselle (department)
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4633784
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%20%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9
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Клен зеленокорий
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Клен зеленокорий (Acer tegmentosum) — вид квіткових рослин із роду клен (Acer).
Морфологічна характеристика
Це однодомне дерево до 15 метрів у висоту. Кора темно-сіра. Гілочки голі, взимку сизувато-білі. Листки опадні: листкові ніжки 4–7(13) см завдовжки, голі; листова пластинка знизу блідо-зелена і з жовтуватими колючими волосками в пазухах жилок, зверху гола, круглувато-яйцювата, 10–12 × 7–9 см, зазвичай 3- або 5-лопатева, рідко з 2 малими базальними частками; частки яйцеподібні, верхівка загострена. Суцвіття повисле, китицеподібне, 15-квіткове, тонке, голе. Чашолистків 5, довгастих, ≈ 3 × 1.5 мм, верхівка тупа. Пелюсток 5, обернено-яйцеподібні, ≈ 3 × 2 мм. Тичинок 8, голі. Плід жовтувато-коричневий, голий; горішки плоскі чи злегка опуклі; крило з горішком 25–30 × 10–13 мм; крила розправлені тупо чи майже горизонтально. Період цвітіння: квітень; період плодоношення: вересень. 2n = 26.
Поширення й екологія
Ареал: Китай (Хейлунцзян, Ляонін, Цзілінь), Північна й Південна Корея, Російський Далекий Схід. Вид зростає у хвойних і змішаних лісах на висотах від 500 до 1000 метрів.
В Україні вид росте в садах і парках — у Лісостепу і Степу, зрідка. Декоративний чужорідний вид.
Використання
Acer tegmentosum використовувався в медицині в Китаї та Кореї для лікування травматичних кровотеч і захворювань печінки. Кора, листя та серцевина використовуються в традиційній медицині, і було показано, що цей вид має протизапальні та протипухлинні властивості. Цей вид доступний у торгівлі садівниками з різними доступними сортами.
Примітки
Флора Азії
tegmentosum
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4445001
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%94%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0
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Крістіна Баден-Дурлахська
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Крістіна Баден-Дурлахська, (22 квітня 1645 — 21 грудня 1705) — німецька шляхтянка XVII—XVIII століття з династії Церінгенів, донька маркграфа Баден-Дурлаху Фрідріха VI та Крістіни Магдалени Пфальц-Цвайбрюкен-Клеєбурзької, дружина маркграфа Бранденбург-Ансбаху Альбрехта II, а після його смерті — герцога Саксен-Гота-Альтенбургу Фрідріха I.
Біографія
Народилась 22 квітня 1645 року у Вольгасті другою дитиною та старшою донькою в родині Фрідріха Баден-Дурлахського та його першої дружини Крістіни Магдалени Пфальц-Цвайбрюкен-Клеєбурзької. Старший брат помер немовлям до її народження. Згодом сімейство поповнилося шістьома молодшими дітьми, з яких дорослого віку досягли сини Фрідріх і Карл Густав та доньки Катерина Барбара і Йоганна Єлизавета. Їхній дід з батьківського боку, Фрідріх V, в цей час правив Баден-Дурлахом.
У 1654 році дядько Крістіни, Карл X Густав, посів шведський престол, і матір, як і інші його сестри, стала принцесою Швеції. Батько у вересні 1659 року успадкував трон Баден-Дурлаху. Резиденцією родини був замок Карлсбург у Дурлаху.
Крістіна втратила матір у віці 17 років. Батько невдовзі узяв морганатичний шлюб, від якого принцеса мала двох єдинокровних братів, що народилися вже після її одруження.
У віці 20 років вступила в шлюб із 44-річним удовим маркграфом Бранденбург-Ансбаху Альбрехтом II. Весілля відбулося 6 серпня 1665 у Дурлаху. Для нареченого це був третій шлюб. Від другого шлюбу він мав п'ятьох малолітніх дітей і дорослу доньку — від першого. Спільних дітей у подружжя не було. Альбрехт II успішно відновлював країну після Тридцятилітньої війни, проводив вдалу політику, дещо розширив території маркграфства. Втім, із Крістіною він прожив лише два роки і пішов з життя у 1667-му.
Батько Крістіни помер у січні 1677 року. Маркграфство Баден-Дурлах перейшло до її брата Фрідріха.
У віці 36 років вона стала дружиною 35-річного герцога Саксен-Гота-Альтенбургу Фрідріха I. Вінчання пройшло 2 серпня 1681 у Ансбаху. Для нареченого це був другий шлюб. Його перша дружина померла за 7 місяців до цього, залишивши шістьох малолітніх дітей. Спільних нащадків у пари не народилося. Фрідріх поділив землі з братами лише за рік до весілля з Крістіною. Жили вони у замку Фрідріхсверт, хоча офіційно нова будівля була відкрита лише кілька років потому. Втім, основною резиденцією продовжував вважатися замок Фрідріхштайн.
Фрідріх полюбляв зовнішню пишність, особливо французьку моду, носив перуку і витрачав багато коштів на алхімічні досліди. Хоча характеризували як марнотратного правителя, який більше дбав про створення постійної армії та ведення вишуканого способу життя, він продовжував ведення курсу реформ свого батька та розвивав законодавство країни. Його не стало у серпні 1691 року. Наступним герцогом Саксен-Гота-Альтенбургу став неповнолітній пасинок Крістіни — Фрідріх II. Регентом при ньому до грудня 1693 року виступали герцоги Бернхард I Саксен-Мейнінгенський і Генріх Саксен-Ремхільдський.
Крістіна пішла з життя за часів його правління 21 грудня 1705 року в Альтенбурзі. Була похована у князівській крипті місцевої замкової кірхи.
Генеалогія
Примітки
Посилання
Баден-Дурлах
Профіль на Geni.com
Профіль на Genealogics.org
Профіль на Thepeerage.com
Генеалогія Крістіни Баден-Дурлахської
Генеалогія Альбрехта II
Генеалогія Фрідріха I
Померли в Альтенбурзі
Поховані в Альтенбурзі
Церінгени
Гогенцоллерни
Ернестинська лінія Веттінів
Герцогині-консорти Саксен-Гота-Альтенбургу
Бездітні жінки
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62882
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20839
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NGC 839
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NGC 839
Об'єкти NGC
Кит (сузір'я)
Галактики
Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 1785
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781891
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical%20zombie
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Philosophical zombie
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Philosophical zombie
A philosophical zombie (or "p-zombie") is a being in a thought experiment in philosophy of mind that is physically identical to a normal human being but does not have conscious experience.
For example, if a philosophical zombie were poked with a sharp object, it would not feel any pain, but it would react exactly the way any conscious human would. Philosophical zombie arguments are used against forms of physicalism and in defense of the hard problem of consciousness, which is the problem of accounting in physical terms for subjective, intrinsic, first-person, what-it's-like-ness experiences. Proponents of philosophical zombie arguments, such as the philosopher David Chalmers, argue that since a philosophical zombie is by definition physically identical to a conscious person, even its logical possibility refutes physicalism. This is because it establishes the existence of conscious experience as a further fact. Philosopher Daniel Stoljar points out that zombies need not be utterly without subjective states, and that even a subtle psychological difference between two physically identical people, such as how coffee tastes to them, is enough to refute physicalism. Such arguments have been criticized by many philosophers. Some physicalists, such as Daniel Dennett, argue that philosophical zombies are logically incoherent and thus impossible, or that all humans are philosophical zombies; others, such as Christopher Hill, argue that philosophical zombies are coherent but metaphysically impossible.
History
Philosophical zombies are associated with David Chalmers, but it was philosopher Robert Kirk who first used the term "zombie" in this context, in 1974. Before that, Keith Campbell made a similar argument in his 1970 book Body and Mind, using the term "imitation man". Chalmers further developed and popularized the idea in his work.
There has been a lively debate about what the zombie argument shows. Critics who primarily argue that zombies are not conceivable include Daniel Dennett, Nigel J. T. Thomas, David Braddon-Mitchell, and Robert Kirk. Critics who assert mostly that conceivability does not entail possibility include Katalin Balog, Keith Frankish, Christopher Hill, and Stephen Yablo. Critics who question the argument's logical validity include George Bealer.
In his 2019 update to the article on philosophical zombies in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Kirk summed up the current state of the debate:
A 2013 survey of professional philosophers by Bourget and Chalmers found that 36% said p-zombies were conceivable but metaphysically impossible; 23% said they were metaphysically possible; 16% said they were inconceivable; and 25% responded "other". In 2020, the same survey yielded almost identical results: "inconceivable" 16%, conceivable but impossible 37%, "metaphysically possible" 24%, and "other" 23%.
Types of zombies
Though philosophical zombies are widely used in thought experiments, the detailed articulation of the concept is not always the same. P-zombies were introduced primarily to argue against specific types of physicalism such as materialism and behaviorism, according to which mental states exist solely as behavior. Belief, desire, thought, consciousness, and so on, are conceptualized as behavior (whether external behavior or internal behavior) or tendencies towards behaviors. A p-zombie behaviorally indistinguishable from a normal human being but lacking conscious experiences is therefore not logically possible according to the behaviorist, so an appeal to the logical possibility of a p-zombie furnishes an argument that behaviorism is false. Proponents of zombie arguments generally accept that p-zombies are not physically possible, while opponents necessarily deny that they are metaphysically or, in some cases, even logically possible.
The unifying idea of the zombie is that of a human completely lacking conscious experience. It is possible to distinguish various zombie subtypes used in different thought experiments as follows:
A behavioral zombie is behaviorally indistinguishable from a human.
A neurological zombie has a human brain and is generally physiologically indistinguishable from a human.
A soulless zombie lacks a soul.
An imperfect zombie or imp-zombie is like a p-zombie but behaves differently than a human. It is important in the context of the mind-evolution problem.
A zombie universe is identical to our world in all physical ways, except no being in it has qualia.
Zombie arguments
Zombie arguments often support lines of reasoning that aim to show that zombies are metaphysically possible in order to support some form of dualism—in this case the view that the world includes two kinds of substance (or perhaps two kinds of property): the mental and the physical.
In contrast to dualism, in physicalism, material facts determine all other facts. Since any fact other than that of consciousness may be held to be the same for a p-zombie and for a normal conscious human, it follows that physicalism must hold that p-zombies are either not possible or are the same as normal humans.
The zombie argument is a version of general modal arguments against physicalism, such as that of Saul Kripke. Further such arguments were notably advanced in the 1970s by Thomas Nagel (1970; 1974) and Robert Kirk (1974), but the general argument was most famously developed in detail by David Chalmers in The Conscious Mind (1996).
According to Chalmers, one can coherently conceive of an entire zombie world, a world physically indistinguishable from this one but entirely lacking conscious experience. Since such a world is conceivable, Chalmers claims, it is metaphysically possible, which is all the argument requires. Chalmers writes: "Zombies are probably not naturally possible: they probably cannot exist in our world, with its laws of nature." The outline structure of Chalmers's version of the zombie argument is as follows:
According to physicalism, all that exists in our world (including consciousness) is physical.
Thus, if physicalism is true, a metaphysically possible world in which all physical facts are the same as those of the actual world must contain everything that exists in our actual world. In particular, conscious experience must exist in such a possible world.
Chalmers argues that we can conceive of a world physically indistinguishable from our world but in which there is no consciousness (a zombie world). From this (Chalmers argues) it follows that such a world is metaphysically possible.
Therefore, physicalism is false. (The conclusion follows from 2. and 3. by modus tollens.)
The above is a strong formulation of the zombie argument. There are other formulations of zombie-type arguments that follow the same general form. The premises of the general zombie argument are implied by the premises of all the specific zombie arguments.
A general zombie argument is in part motivated by potential disagreements between various anti-physicalist views. For example, an anti-physicalist view can consistently assert that p-zombies are metaphysically impossible but that inverted qualia (such as inverted spectra) or absent qualia (partial zombiehood) are metaphysically possible. Premises regarding inverted qualia or partial zombiehood can replace premises regarding p-zombies to produce variations of the zombie argument.
The metaphysical possibility of a physically indistinguishable world with either inverted qualia or partial zombiehood implies that physical truths do not metaphysically necessitate phenomenal truths.
To formulate the general form of the zombie argument, take the sentence P to be true if and only if the conjunct of all microphysical truths of our world obtain, and take the sentence Q to be true if some phenomenal truth that obtains in the actual world obtains. The general argument goes as follows.
It is conceivable that P is true and Q is not true.
If it is conceivable that P is true and Q is not true then it is metaphysically possible that P is true and Q not true.
If it is metaphysically possible that P is true and Q is not true then physicalism is false.
Therefore, physicalism is false.
Q can be false in a possible world if any of the following obtains: (1) there exists at least one invert relative to the actual world; (2) there is at least one absent quale relative to the actual world; (3) all actually conscious beings are p-zombies (all actual qualia are absent qualia).
Another way to construe the zombie hypothesis is epistemically—as a problem of causal explanation, rather than as a problem of logical or metaphysical possibility. The "explanatory gap"—also called the "hard problem of consciousness"—is the claim that (to date) no one has provided a convincing causal explanation of how and why we are conscious. It is a manifestation of the very same gap that (to date) no one has provided a convincing causal explanation of how and why we are not zombies.
The philosophical zombie argument can also be seen through the counterfeit bill example brought forth by Amy Kind. Kind's example centers around a counterfeit 20-dollar bill made to be exactly like an authentic 20-dollar bill. This is logically possible. Yet the counterfeit bill would not have the same value. Are people really conceiving of zombies when they say they are? When philosophers claim that zombies are conceivable, they invariably underestimate the task of conception, and end up imagining something that violates their own definition.
According to Kind, in her book Philosophy of Mind: The Basics, The Zombie Argument can be put in this standard form from a dualist point of view:
{{blockquote| Zombies, creatures that are microphysically identical to conscious beings but that lack consciousness entirely, are conceivable. If zombies are conceivable then they are possible. Therefore, zombies are possible. If zombies are possible, then consciousness is non-physical. Therefore, consciousness is non-physical.<ref>Kind, A. (2020). Philosophy of Mind: The Basics. Routledge.</ref>}}
Responses
Galen Strawson argues that it is not possible to establish the conceivability of zombies, so the argument, lacking its first premise, can never get going.
Chalmers has argued that zombies are conceivable, saying, "it certainly seems that a coherent situation is described; I can discern no contradiction in the description."
Many physicalist philosophers have argued that this scenario eliminates itself by its description; the basis of a physicalist argument is that the world is defined entirely by physicality; thus, a world that was physically identical would necessarily contain consciousness, as consciousness would necessarily be generated from any set of physical circumstances identical to our own.
The zombie argument claims that one can tell by the power of reason that such a "zombie scenario" is metaphysically possible. Chalmers writes, "From the conceivability of zombies, proponents of the argument infer their metaphysical possibility" and argues that this inference, while not generally legitimate, is legitimate for phenomenal concepts such as consciousness since we must adhere to "Kripke's insight that for phenomenal concepts, there is no gap between reference-fixers and reference (or between primary and secondary intentions)."
That is, for phenomenal concepts, conceivability implies possibility. According to Chalmers, whatever is logically possible is also, in the sense relevant here, metaphysically possible.
Another response is the denial of the idea that qualia and related phenomenal notions of the mind are in the first place coherent concepts. Daniel Dennett and others argue that while consciousness and subjective experience exist in some sense, they are not as the zombie argument proponent claims. The experience of pain, for example, is not something that can be stripped off a person's mental life without bringing about any behavioral or physiological differences. Dennett believes that consciousness is a complex series of functions and ideas. If we all can have these experiences the idea of the p-zombie is meaningless.
Dennett argues that "when philosophers claim that zombies are conceivable, they invariably underestimate the task of conception (or imagination), and end up imagining something that violates their own definition". He coined the term "zimboes"—p-zombies that have second-order beliefs—to argue that the idea of a p-zombie is incoherent; "Zimboes thinkZ they are conscious, thinkZ they have qualia, thinkZ they suffer pains—they are just 'wrong' (according to this lamentable tradition), in ways that neither they nor we could ever discover!".
Michael Lynch agrees with Dennett, arguing that the zombie conceivability argument forces us to either question whether we actually have consciousness or accept that zombies are not possible. If zombies falsely believe they are conscious, how can we be sure we are not zombies? We may believe we are experiencing conscious mental states when in fact we merely hold a false belief. Lynch thinks denying the possibility of zombies is more reasonable than questioning our own consciousness.
Furthermore, when concept of self is deemed to correspond to physical reality alone (reductive physicalism), philosophical zombies are denied by definition. When a distinction is made in one's mind between a hypothetical zombie and oneself (assumed not to be a zombie), the hypothetical zombie, being a subset of the concept of oneself, must entail a deficit in observables (cognitive systems), a "seductive error" contradicting the original definition of a zombie.
Thomas Metzinger dismisses the argument as no longer relevant to the consciousness community, calling it a weak argument that covertly relies on the difficulty in defining "consciousness" and an "ill-defined folk psychological umbrella term".
According to verificationism, for words to have meaning, their use must be open to public verification. Since it is assumed that we can talk about our qualia, the existence of zombies is impossible.
Artificial intelligence researcher Marvin Minsky saw the argument as circular. The proposition of the possibility of something physically identical to a human but without subjective experience assumes that the physical characteristics of humans are not what produces those experiences, which is exactly what the argument claims to prove.
Richard Brown agrees that the zombie argument is circular. To show this, he proposes "", which are creatures nonphysically identical to people in every way and lacking phenomenal consciousness. If existed, they would refute dualism because they would show that consciousness is not nonphysical, i.e., is physical. Paralleling the argument from Chalmers: It is conceivable that exist, so it is possible they exist, so dualism is false. Given the symmetry between the zombie and arguments, we cannot arbitrate the physicalism/dualism question a priori.
Similarly, Gualtiero Piccinini argues that the zombie conceivability argument is circular. Piccinini questions whether the possible worlds where zombies exist are accessible from our world. If physicalism is true in our world, then physicalism is one of the relevant facts about our world for determining whether a possible zombie world is accessible from our world. Therefore, asking whether zombies are metaphysically possible in our world is equivalent to asking whether physicalism is true in our world.
Stephen Yablo's (1998) response is to provide an error theory to account for the intuition that zombies are possible. Notions of what counts as physical and as physically possible change over time so conceptual analysis is not reliable here. Yablo says he is "braced for the information that is going to make zombies inconceivable, even though I have no real idea what form the information is going to take."
The zombie argument is difficult to assess because it brings to light fundamental disagreements about the method and scope of philosophy itself and the nature and abilities of conceptual analysis. Proponents of the zombie argument may think that conceptual analysis is a central part of (if not the only part of) philosophy and that it certainly can do a great deal of philosophical work. But others, such as Dennett, Paul Churchland and W.V.O. Quine, have fundamentally different views. For this reason, discussion of the zombie argument remains vigorous in philosophy.
Some accept modal reasoning in general but deny it in the zombie case. Christopher S. Hill and Brian P. Mclaughlin suggest that the zombie thought experiment combines imagination of a "sympathetic" nature (putting oneself in a phenomenal state) and a "perceptual" nature (imagining becoming aware of something in the outside world). Each type of imagination may work on its own but not work when used at the same time. Hence Chalmers's argument need not go through.
Moreover, while Chalmers defuses criticisms of the view that conceivability can tell us about possibility, he provides no positive defense of the principle. As an analogy, the generalized continuum hypothesis has no known counterexamples, but this does not mean we must accept it. And indeed, the fact that Chalmers concludes we have epiphenomenal mental states that do not cause our physical behavior seems one reason to reject his principle.
Related thought experiments
Frank Jackson's Knowledge argument is based around a hypothetical scientist, Mary, who is forced to view the world through a black-and-white television screen in a black and white room. Mary is a brilliant scientist who knows everything about the neurobiology of vision. Even though she knows everything about color and its perception (e.g. what combination of wavelengths makes the sky seem blue), she has never seen color. If Mary were released from this room and experienced color for the first time, would she learn anything new? Jackson initially believed this supported epiphenomenalism (mental phenomena are the effects, but not the causes, of physical phenomena) but later changed his view to physicalism, suggesting that Mary is simply discovering a new way for her brain to represent qualities that exist in the world.
Swampman is an imaginary character introduced by Donald Davidson. If Davidson goes hiking in a swamp and is struck and killed by a lightning bolt while nearby another lightning bolt spontaneously rearranges a bunch of molecules so that, entirely by coincidence, they take on exactly the same form that Davidson's body had at the moment of his untimely death, then this being, "Swampman", has a brain structurally identical to Davidson's and will thus presumably behave exactly like Davidson. He will return to Davidson's office and write the same essays he would have written, recognize all of his friends and family, and so forth.
John Searle's Chinese room argument deals with the nature of artificial intelligence: it imagines a room in which a conversation is held by means of written Chinese characters that the subject cannot actually read, but is able to manipulate meaningfully using a set of algorithms. Searle holds that a program cannot give a computer a "mind" or "understanding", regardless of how intelligently it may make it behave. Stevan Harnad argues that Searle's critique is really meant to target functionalism and computationalism, and to establish neuroscience as the only correct way to understand the mind.
Physicist Adam Brown has suggested constructing a type of philosophical zombie using counterfactual quantum computation, a technique in which a computer is placed into a superposition of running and not running. If the program being executed is a brain simulation, and if one makes the further assumption that brain simulations are conscious, then the simulation can have the same output as a conscious system, yet not be conscious.
See also
Ethics of uncertain sentience
Map–territory relation
Mind-body problem
Neutral monism
NPC (meme)
No true Scotsman
Problem of other minds
Quantum Night Reverse engineering
Sentience
Ship of Theseus
Solipsism
References
Notes
Bibliography
Bergson, Henri. 1911. 'Life and Consciousness', Conference given at the university of Oxford. Oxford: 1911. (https://archive.org/details/hibbertjournal10londuoft/page/32/mode/2up?view=theater)
Chalmers, David. 1995. "Facing Up to the Problem of Consciousness", Journal of Consciousness Studies, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 200–219. Online PDF
Chalmers, David. 1996. The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hardcover: , paperback:
Chalmers, David. 2003. "Consciousness and its Place in Nature", in the Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Mind, S. Stich and F. Warfield (eds.), Blackwell. Also in Philosophy of Mind: Classical and Contemporary Readings, D. Chalmers (ed.), Oxford, 2002. , Online PDF
Chalmers, David. 2004. "Imagination, Indexicality, and Intensions", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, vol. 68, no. 1. Online text
Chalmers, David. 2010. "the character of consciousness", OUP
Dennett, Daniel. 1995. "The Unimagined Preposterousness of Zombies", Journal of Consciousness Studies, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 322–326. Online abstract
Dennett, Daniel. 1999. "The Zombic Hunch: Extinction of an Intuition?", Royal Institute of Philosophy Millennial Lecture. Online text
Kirk, Robert. 1974. "Sentience and Behaviour", Mind, vol. 83, pp. 43–60.
Kripke, Saul. 1972. "Naming and Necessity", in Semantics of Natural Language, ed. by D. Davidson and G. Harman, Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, pp. 253–355. (Published as a book in 1980, Harvard University Press.)
Nagel, Thomas. 1970. "Armstrong on the Mind", Philosophical Review, vol. 79, pp. 394–403.
Nagel, Thomas. 1974. "What Is it Like to Be a Bat?" Philosophical Review, vol. 83, pp. 435–450.
Thomas, N.J.T. 1998. "Zombie Killer", in S.R. Hameroff, A.W. Kaszniak, & A.C. Scott (eds.), Toward a Science of Consciousness II: The Second Tucson Discussions and Debates (pp. 171–177), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Online
Yablo, Stephen. 2000. "Textbook Kripkeanism and the Open Texture of Concepts", Pacific Philosophical Quarterly'', vol. 81, pp. 98–122. Online text
External links
Online papers on philosophical zombies, by various authors, compiled by David Chalmers.
Field Guide to the Philosophy of Mind
Skepdic entry on p-zombies
A Chaospet comic on the subject of philosophical zombies
On The Conceivability of Zombies Paper argues that Philosophical Zombies are not conceivable
Hypothetical life forms
Internalism and externalism
Philosophical arguments
Physicalism
Qualia
Thought experiments in philosophy of mind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanne%20Moore
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Joanne Moore
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Joanne Moore
Joanne Wallen (born 9 March 1976) is a British born tennis coach and former professional player based in the United States. While competing on tour she was known as Joanne Moore.
Tennis career
Born in the English city of Birmingham, Moore moved to the United States for training as a junior.
Making her WTA Tour debut as a 15 year old at the 1991 Virginia Slims of Philadelphia, she went on to reach a best ranking of 252 in singles and 179 in doubles.
During her career she twice featured in the main draw at Wimbledon, in the women's doubles with Emily Bond in 1995 and mixed doubles partnering Luke Milligan in 1998.
Coaching
Subsequently known as Joanne Wallen, she has worked as a coach for the United States Tennis Association (USTA). She currently works as the Senior Director of the USTA National Campus in Orlando, FL.
Since 2016 she has served as the Director of Adult Individual Play and Wheelchair Tennis.
ITF finals
Singles: 6 (3-3)
Doubles: 20 (11–9)
References
External links
1976 births
Living people
British female tennis players
English female tennis players
Tennis players from the West Midlands (county)
English tennis coaches
British emigrants to the United States
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Прапор Великої Костромки
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Прапор Великої Костромки — один з офіційних символів села Велика Костромка Апостолівського району Дніпропетровської області, затверджений 5 грудня 2003 р. рішенням № 84-13/IV сесії Великокостромської сільської ради.
Прямокутне полотнище з співвідношенням сторін 2:3 розділене по діагоналях на чотири рівновеликі поля — верхнє лазурове, древкове жовте, вільне біле і нижнє зелене. У центрі на білому кругу жовтий Тризуб.
Кольори прапора символізують єдність та мрії (синій); багатство, щедрість, довголіття та силу (жовтий); розвиток, життя, надію та свободу (зелений); чистоту та злагоду (білий).
Див. також
Велика Костромка
Герб Великої Костромки
Посилання
Українська геральдика
Джерела
Геральдика Дніпропетровщини. Офіційні символи територіальних та муніципальних утворень: [Історичні нариси]. — Д.: Арт-Прес, 2012. -192с. ISBN 978-966-348-279-8
Велика Костромка
Велика Костромка
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401644
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin%20von%20Witzleben
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Erwin von Witzleben
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Erwin von Witzleben
Job Wilhelm Georg Erdmann Erwin von Witzleben (4 December 1881 – 8 August 1944) was a German Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) in the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. A leading conspirator in the 20 July plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler, he was designated to become Commander-in-Chief of the Wehrmacht in a post-Nazi regime had the plot succeeded.
Early years
Erwin von Witzleben was born in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland) in the Prussian province of Silesia, the son of Georg von Witzleben (1838–1898), a Hauptmann (captain) in the Prussian Army, and his wife, Therese née Brandenburg. The Witzleben dynasty was an Uradel family of old nobility and many officers, descending from Witzleben in Thuringia.
He completed the Prussian Cadet Corps program at Liegnitz Ritter-Akademie, Prussian Silesia and in Lichterfelde near Berlin, and on 22 June 1901 joined the Grenadier Regiment König Wilhelm I No. 7 in Liegnitz, Silesia (now Legnica, Poland) as a Leutnant (lieutenant). In 1910, he was promoted to Oberleutnant (first lieutenant).
He was married to Else Kleeberg from Chemnitz, Saxony. The couple had a son and a daughter.
First World War
At the beginning of the First World War, Witzleben served as brigade adjutant in the 19th Reserve Infantry Brigade before being promoted to Hauptmann and company chief in the Reserve Infantry Regiment No.6 in October 1914. Later, in the same regiment, he became battalion commander. His unit fought in Verdun, the Champagne region and Flanders, among other places. He was seriously wounded and was awarded the Iron Cross, both first and second classes. Afterwards, he was sent to General Staff training and witnessed the war end as First General Staff Officer of the 121st Division.
Between the wars
In the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, Witzleben was promoted to company commander. In 1923, he found himself on the Fourth Division staff in Dresden as a Major. In 1928, he became battalion commander in Infantry Regiment No. 6 and retained that position as Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) the following year. After being promoted to full Oberst (colonel) in 1931, he took over as commanding officer of the (Prussian) Infantry Regiment No. 8 in Frankfurt on the Oder.
Early in 1933, shortly before Adolf Hitler seized autocratic control of the German state via a paramilitary backed revolution with the passage in the Reichstag of the Enabling Act of 1933, Witzleben was transferred to the post of Infantry Leader VI in Hanover. He was promoted to Generalmajor (major general) on 1 February 1934 and moved to Potsdam as the new commander of the 3rd Infantry Division. He succeeded General Werner von Fritsch as commander of Wehrkreis III (Berlin (HQ), Brandenburg, parts of Neumark). In this position, he was promoted to Generalleutnant (lieutenant general) and in the newly established Wehrmacht forces became commanding general of Army Corps III in Berlin in September 1935. In 1936, he was promoted to a General of the Infantry (General der Infanterie).
As early as 1934, Witzleben indicated opposition against the Nazi regime when he and Manstein, Leeb, and Rundstedt demanded an inquiry into Schleicher's and Bredow's deaths in the Night of the Long Knives. As a result of that and his criticism of Hitler's persecution of Fritsch in the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Witzleben was temporarily forced into early retirement. His "retirement" did not last, however, as Hitler soon needed him in the preparations for the Second World War.
By 1938, Witzleben was a member of the Oster Conspiracy, a group of plotters including Generaloberst (Colonel General) Ludwig Beck, Generals Erich Hoepner and Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, Admiral and Chief of the Abwehr Wilhelm Canaris and Abwehr Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) Hans Oster. The men planned to overthrow Hitler in a military coup d'état and avert another European war, which seemed highly likely during the 1938 Sudeten Crisis, until the Munich Agreement both shocked and demoralized the plotters. Witzleben's unit, which including the key Berlin Defense District, was to have played a decisive role in the planned coup.
In November 1938, Witzleben had been installed as commander-in-chief of Army Group 2 in Frankfurt. He was also involved in Generaloberst Hammerstein-Equord's conspiracy plans of 1939. The latter planned to seize Hitler outright in a kind of frontal assault while the former would shut down the Nazi headquarters, but the plan also fell through.
Second World War
In September 1939, Witzleben, then a Generaloberst (Colonel General), took command of the 1st Army, stationed at the Western Front. When Germany attacked France on 10 May 1940, the First Army was part of Army Group C. On 14 June it broke through the Maginot line, and within three days had forced several French divisions to surrender. For this, Witzleben was decorated with the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross; and on 19 July, he was promoted to Generalfeldmarschall (General Field Marshal) during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony.
On 1 May 1941 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief OB West, succeeding Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt, but only a year later, on 15 March 1942, he took leave from that position for health reasons. Some sources, however, claim that he was again forcibly retired at this time after he had criticized the regime for its invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in Operation Barbarossa.
20 July 1944
In 1944, the conspirators around Stauffenberg saw Witzleben as the key man in their plans. Whereas Generaloberst (Colonel General) Beck was seen as a prospective provisional head of state, and Generaloberst Hoepner was in line to command the inner Ersatzheer ("Replacement Army") forces, Witzleben was to become commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht, becoming the ranking officer of the new regime.
However, on 20 July 1944, the day of Stauffenberg's attempt on Hitler's life at the Wolf's Lair in East Prussia, Witzleben did not arrive at the Bendlerblock in Berlin from the OKH-HQ (Oberkommando des Heeres Headquarters) at Zossen to assume command of the coup forces until 8 p.m., when it was already clear that the coup attempt had failed. He then protested angrily that it had been bungled and left after 45 minutes to return to Zossen, where he reported the situation to General of the Artillery (General der Artillerie) Eduard Wagner and then drove back to his country estate, 30 mi away, where he was arrested the next day by Generalleutnant (Lieutenant General) Viktor Linnarz of the OKH personnel office.
He was then cast out of the Wehrmacht by the so-called Ehrenhof der Wehrmacht ("The Regular Army's Court of Honor"), a conclave of officers set up after the attempted assassination to remove officers from the Wehrmacht who had been involved in the plot, mainly so that they were no longer subject to German military law and could be arraigned to a show trial before the Nazi "People's Court" (Volksgerichtshof).
Trial and death
On 7 August 1944, Witzleben was in the first group of accused conspirators to be brought before the Volksgerichtshof. Ravaged by the conditions of his Gestapo arrest, he surprisingly approached the bench giving the Nazi salute, for which he was rebuked by the presiding judge Roland Freisler.
Witzleben was sentenced to death on the same day. Witzleben gave these closing words in court, addressed to Freisler:
Much of the Volksgerichtshof, including scenes of Witzleben's show trial, was filmed for the German weekly newsreel Die Deutsche Wochenschau; however, Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels decided against releasing the footage, firstly because Freisler's abusive ranting in the courtroom might draw sympathy for the accused, and secondly because the regime wanted to quell public discussion of the event. The material was classified as secret (Geheime Reichssache).
Witzleben was put to death the same day at Plötzensee Prison in Berlin. By Hitler's direct orders, he was hanged with a meat hook and a thin hemp rope, which people who were not from the prison staff called a piano wire, and the execution was filmed. The footage has since been lost.
Decorations
Iron Cross (1914)
2nd Class
1st Class
Wound Badge (1914)
in Black
Knight's Cross of the House Order of Hohenzollern
Knight of Justice of the Order of Saint John
Honour Cross of the World War 1914/1918
Sudetenland Medal
West Wall Medal
Clasp to the Iron Cross (1939)
2nd Class
1st Class
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 24 June 1940 as Generaloberst and commander of 1. Armee
Military Merit Order, 4th class with Swords (Bavaria)
Hanseatic Cross of Hamburg
Cross of Honour 3rd Class with swords and crown (Reuss)
Wound Badge of 1918 in Black
Prussian Service Award Cross
Silesian Eagle, 2nd class
Knight of Honour of the Order of Saint John
Wehrmacht Long Service Award, 1st class with Oak Leaves
German Olympic Decoration, 1st class
Depiction in media
East German actor Otto Dierichs depicted Witzleben in the 1970 Eastern Bloc co-production Liberation.
Joachim Bißmeier portrays Witzleben in the 2004 TV film, Stauffenberg.
English actor David Schofield portrays Witzleben in the 2008 Bryan Singer film Valkyrie.
Notes about personal names
The terms Schenk and Graf in "Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg" began as titles but are now considered additional name elements; following the revolution of 1918, titles of nobility were abolished in Germany. However, members of the families of the former nobility got around the law by making the title a part of the person's legal name. Schenk was a role-title ("Butler" or "Cup bearer"); Graf was the title, meaning "Count".
Likewise, the term Freiherr in "Kurt Freiherr von Hammerstein-Equord" is now also a name element, and not a title. Freiherr was roughly the equivalent of "Baron".
See also
Assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/biografien/WitzlebenErwin/index.html
1881 births
1944 deaths
Military personnel from Wrocław
Military personnel from the Province of Silesia
German Army World War II field marshals
German Army personnel of World War I
Thuringian nobility
Protestants in the German Resistance
Executed military leaders
Prussian Army personnel
Executed members of the 20 July plot
People executed by hanging at Plötzensee Prison
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross
Recipients of the clasp to the Iron Cross, 1st class
Lieutenant generals of the Reichswehr
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Словінський національний парк
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Словінський національний парк — національний парк у північній Польщі, на узбережжі Балтійського моря.
Загальні відомості
Заснований у 1966 році. Розташований у Поморському воєводстві, між містом Леба і селом Рови. Парк має площу 327,44 км², з яких 215,72 км² припадає на сушу і внутрішні води, а 111,71 км² — на прибережні води Балтійського моря.
Словінський парк включає в себе Гарденьсько-Лебську низовину, гряду кінцевої морени, найвищою точкою якої є пагорб Ровокул висотою 115 метрів над рівнем моря і ряд озер: Лебсько (71,4 км²), Гардно (24,69 км²), Довге-Вєлкє (1,56 км²) і Довге-Мале (0,062 км²).
Характерні риси парку — озера, болота, луки, приморський бір, заболочений сосновий ліс і, перш за все, рухомі дюни. Парк є місцем гніздування і зупинки птахів у період міграцій.
У 1977 році ЮНЕСКО включило парк до мережі світових біосферних заповідників за програмою «Людина і біосфера», а в 1995 році парк визнали об'єктом Рамсарської конвенції про водно-болотні угіддя, що мають міжнародне значення.
Флора
У парку є наступні рослинні угрупування: дюнні, болотні, лучні та лісові, з яких 10 % — бори.
Загалом парк має близько 920 видів судинних рослин, 165 — мохів, 500 — водоростей, 250 — лишайників, 424 — грибів, з яких 46 перебувають під захистом. До них належать, зокрема: плаунець заплавний, ліннея, росичка круглолиста, орхідні, осока піщана, молодильник озерний, морошка.
У грибів під захистом: сморчок, порхавка гігантська, листочня кучерява і веселка звичайна, у лишайників — уснея і бріорія.
Фауна
У парку мешкає 260 видів птахів, з яких 170 тут гніздяться і виводять потомство. На узбережжі спостерігається побережник ісландський, а також турухтан, мартин сріблястий, кульон великий, коловодник звичайний, галагаз звичайний, баранець звичайний, сіра гуска, попелюх, журавель сірий. Проте, у лісі можна побачити такі види птахів, як беркут, скопа, підорлик малий, лунь, шуліка рудий. Зустрічаються також сови — у тому числі пугач звичайний і сич волохатий.
У парку також живуть рідкісні метелики, жуки й колемболи, ропухові і жаб'ячі. Всього представлени 490 видів комах, у тому числі жуки Carabus (15 видів), вусач дубовий малий і жук-відлюдник.
З 10-ти видів земноводних тут зустрічаються: ропуха звичайна і ропуха очеретяна, жаба трав'яна, жаба гостроморда, ставкова жаба, жаба їстівна, жаба озерна, часничниця звичайна, тритон гребінчастий, тритон звичайний; з 5-ти видів плазунів: ящірка прудка, ящірка живородна; з тюленевих: фоцена звичайна і тев'як. Поодинокі таки рідкісні види в Європі, як бобер європейський, видра, лисиця звичайна, борсук європейський, заєць сірий, сарна європейська, олень благородний.
Галерея
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт Словінського національного парку (pl/en)
The Annotated Ramsar List: Poland
Biosphere Reserve Information — Poland, SLOWINSKI
Література
Географічний енциклопедичний словник. — М. : Советская энциклопедия, 1989. — С. 585—586.
Поморське воєводство
Національні парки Польщі
Природоохоронні об'єкти, засновані 1966
Засновані в Польщі 1966
Засновані в Польщі 1967
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Солов'їна вулиця
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Солов'їна вулиця — назва вулиць у деяких населених пунктах України. У цьому списку перелічені лише деякі з них.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Берислав.
Вулиця Солов'їна — вулиця в с. Білобожниця.
Вулиця Солов'їна — вулиця в с. Білогородка.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Богодухів.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Бориспіль.
Вулиця Солов'їна — вулиця у смт. Брюховичі.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Буча.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Васильків.
Вулиця Солов'їна — вулиця в с. Велике Вербче.
Вулиця Солов'їна — вулиця в с. Верхній Токмак.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Вилкове.
Вулиця Солов'їна — вулиця у м. Винники.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Вознесенськ.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Вороніж.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Вороновиця.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Гайворон.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Гірське.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Диканька.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Дніпро.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Довжанськ.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Донецьк.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Дружба.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Золочів.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Ічня.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Київ.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Козелець.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Козин.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Костопіль.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Кривий Ріг.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Ладижин.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Лозова.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Львів.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Марганець.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Маріуполь.
Вулиця Солов'їна — вулиця в с. Моташівка.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Мукачево.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Нова Водолага.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Нововоронцовка.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Обухів.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Покровськ.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Ржищів.
Вулиця Солов'їна — вулиця у м. Рівне.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Рогань.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Родинське.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Ставище.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Томашпіль.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Ужгород.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Фастів.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Хмельницький.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Цумань.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Чернівці.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в місті Чернігів.
Солов'їна вулиця — вулиця в смт Шабельківка.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20history%20of%20Bhutan
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Military history of Bhutan
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Military history of Bhutan
The military history of Bhutan begins with the Battle of Five Lamas in 1634, marking Bhutan's emergence as a nation under the secular and religious leadership of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal. Before Bhutan emerged as a separate nation, it remained on the periphery of Tibetan military and political influence. The region that became Bhutan was host to several battles and waves of refugees from turmoil in Tibet. After its founding, Bhutan was invaded numerous times by outside forces, namely Tibetans, Mongols, and the British. Bhutan meanwhile invaded its traditional tributaries in Sikkim, Cooch Behar, and the Duars.
Bhutan effectively ceased all international military hostilities in 1865 under the Treaty of Sinchula after its defeat by the British Empire. Under the terms of the subsequent Treaty of Punakha in 1910, Bhutan effectively became a British protectorate. Bhutan has maintained this status with India under Bhutan–India relations since 1949 and has modernly engaged only in limited domestic operations against Indian separatist groups.
Ancient history
The earliest military history of Bhutan generally related to that of Tibet. Between the 9th century and Bhutan's emergence as a nation in the early 17th century, Bhutanese territory hosted Tibetan military settlement, waves of refugees from religious and political strife in Tibet, and some conflict between Tibetan and Indian people.
In 824, Tibetan King Tritsun Desten (r. 816–836), also called Raelpachen and grandson of Trisong Detsen, went to war with an Indian ruler in Bhutan, driving him out. Tibetan troops who remained in Bhutan were called Milog, meaning "those that will not return." The region they settle were referred to as Tshochhen Gyed. Its eight parts or divisions were Wang, Be, Med, Kawang, Chang, Thi, Thim, and Lar. In 836, Tritsun Desten was murdered by agents of his brother Langdharma. Tibetans sought refuge in Bhutan from ensuing political and religious upheaval during the reign of Langdharma (836–842). After Langdharma's assassination in 842, Tibetans continued to flee to western Bhutan, the Ngalop homeland. The centuries that followed, known as the Era of Fragmentation, were characterized by their lack of political cohesion. During much of this period, the dominant Bhutanese polity was the Kingdom of Bumthang.
In the late 9th century, ethnic Tibetan forces expelled Indian princes from parts of modern Bhutan. Tibetans in this period and location developed the roots of Ngalop culture.
By the 11th century, Tibetan-Mongol forces occupied the whole of Bhutan. More waves of Tibetans sought refuge in Bhutan from religious persecution. Charismatic lamas became the de facto leaders of regions in western Bhutan. In the 1360s, another wave Tibetan Gelugpa monks fled to Bhutan.
Early history
The military history of Bhutan as a nation begins with warfare between founder Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, himself a Tibetan refugee, and rulers of Tibet. Between 1627 and 1634, a series of wars culminated in the Battle of Five Lamas, the Zhabdrung emerging victorious. Military incursions from Tibet and the Mongol Empire continued through 1714. As Bhutan gained its own measure of regional power in the late 17th century, it invaded neighboring kingdoms in Sikkim, Cooch Behar, and the Duars.
In 1616, Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, facing arrest and following visions in which it is said that the chief guardian deities of Bhutan offered him a home, left Tibet to establish a new base in western Bhutan, founding Cheri Monastery at the head of Thimphu valley. During the Bhutanese period of theocratic rule (1616–1907), there was no regular standing army. The bow and arrow were among the principal means of arming the population during frequent upheavals and invasions. During times of crisis, the government raised militias from among local lords' retinues, all commanded by one dapon ("arrow chief"), a title used through modern times.
Around 1627, the Zhabdrung built Simtokha Dzong at the entrance to Thimphu valley. From this dzong he exerted control over traffic between the powerful Paro valley to the west and Trongsa valley to the east. In 1627, during the first war against Karma Tenkyong of Tibet, Portuguese Jesuit Estêvão Cacella and another priest were the first recorded Europeans to visit Bhutan on their way to Tibet. They met with Ngawang Namgyal, presented him with firearms, gunpowder and a telescope, and offered him their services in the war against Tibet, but the Zhabdrung declined the offer. After a stay of nearly eight months, Cacella wrote a long letter from the Chagri Monastery reporting the travel.
In 1629 and 1631, attempted Tibetan invasions under Karma Tenkyong failed. In 1634, Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal prevailed in the Battle of Five Lamas over the Tibetan and Bhutanese forces allied against him. The Zhabdrung was thus the first to unite Bhutan into a single country. The Zhabdrung established the Drukpa Lineage as the state religion under the dual system of government and codified the system of laws known as the Tsa Yig, based on Buddhist religious law (dharma).
In 1639, another attempted invasion by Karma Tenkyong failed, followed by a joint Mongol-Tibetan force in 1643 under Güshi Khan that sought to destroy Nyingmapa refugees who had fled to Bhutan, Sikkim, and Nepal. The Mongols had seized control of religious and civil power in Tibet in the 1630s and established Gelugpa as the state religion. Bhutanese rivals of Ngawang Namgyal encouraged the Mongol intrusion, but the Mongol force was easily defeated in the humid lowlands of southern Bhutan. In 1647, another attempted Tibetan invasion failed.
In 1680 and 1700, Bhutan invaded Sikkim. In 1714, Tibetan forces, aided by the Mongols, again invaded Bhutan but failed to gain control.
Many Bhutanese slaves during this period originated from Sikkim and the Assam Duars, objects of repeated raids by Bhutan over the centuries. A large number of these slaves were pressed into military service, and some went on to fill high posts in the Bhutanese armed forces.
Treaty of Sinchula
In the 18th century, Bhutan established its control over Cooch Behar and the Duars. As the presence of the British Empire grew in the region through the 19th century, these territories, as well as Bhutan's neighbor Sikkim, came under British control.
In 1730, Cooch Behar first requested Bhutanese assistance in repelling Mughal Empire encroachments, establishing a dependent relationship with Bhutan. In 1770, Bhutan again invaded Sikkim, supported by troops from Cooch Behar.
In 1772, during a succession dispute in Cooch Behar, the Druk Desi's nominee for the throne was opposed by a rival who invited British troops; in effect, Cooch Behar became a dependency of the British East India Company. Between 1772–3, British expeditionary forces drove Bhutanese garrisons out of Cooch Behar, until that time a Bhutanese dependency. The Druk Desi petitioned Lhasa unsuccessfully for assistance.
On 25 April 1774, the Druk Desi signed a Treaty of Peace with the British East India Company. Under the treaty, Bhutan returned to its pre-1730 boundaries and allows the British to harvest timber in Bhutan. In 1784, British government turned over to Bhutan the Bengal Duars territory, where boundaries had been poorly defined. As in its other foreign territories, Bhutan left administration of the Bengal Duars territory to local officials and collected its revenues.
In 1838, after a prior failed attempt, the British mission to Thimphu offered Bhutan a treaty providing for the extradition of Bhutanese officials responsible for incursions into Assam, free and unrestricted commerce between India and Bhutan, and settlement of Bhutan's debt to the British. In an attempt to protect its independence, Bhutan rejected the British offer. In 1841, the British annexed the Bhutanese controlled Assam Duars, paying a compensation of 10,000 rupees a year to Bhutan. The following year, Bhutan ceded control of the troublesome Bengal Duars to Britain.
In 1862, Bhutanese forces raided Sikkim and Cooch Behar. The British responded by withholding all compensation payments and demanding release of all captives and return of stolen property. These demands went unheeded by the Druk Desi, as he was alleged to be unaware of frontier officials' raids. In 1864, Britain sent a peace mission to Bhutan in the wake of a recent civil war, during a period when two rival claimants to the office of Druk Desi competed for power. Though the British attempted to deal with both Druk Desis, the peace mission was rejected by Bhutan.
In November 1864, Britain declared war on Bhutan over control of its traditional dependencies. The Bhutan War lasted five months, resulting in Bhutan's defeat and loss of Assam Duars and Bengal Duars, as well as the eighty-three-square-kilometer territory of Dewangiri in southeastern Bhutan, to the British. In return, Bhutan was awarded an annual subsidy of 50,000 rupees under the Treaty of Sinchula, signed 11 November 1865.
Monarchy and Treaty of Punakha
In the 1870s and 1880s, renewed conflict among regional rivals — primarily the pro-British penlop of Trongsa and the anti-British, pro-Tibetan penlop of Paro — resulted in the ascendancy of Trongsa Penlop Ugyen Wangchuck. By 1885, he had put down unrest across Bhutan, consolidated power, and cultivated closer ties with British India. Between 1903–4, Ugyen Wangchuck volunteered to accompany a British mission to Lhasa as a mediator in the British expedition to Tibet and subsequent Anglo-Tibetan Convention. In return, he was knighted and thereafter continued to accrue greater power in Bhutan.
On 8 January 1910, the Treaty of Punakha amended two articles of the 1865 Treaty of Sinchula: the British agreed to double the annual stipend to 100,000 rupees and "to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan." In turn, Bhutan agreed "to be guided by the advice of the British Government in regard to its external relations."
In 1943, the Kingdom of Bhutan began to raise its first organized an army at Trongsa, recruiting 30 Kheng troops from Mongar. During the late 1940s, the second King of Bhutan, Jigme Wangchuck, began sending recruits for training by the Indian Army in Shillong. The army recruited a further 240 men from Bumthang, Kurtoe, Mongar, and Trashigang. After basic training, the number of enlisted men came to 120 soldiers, including 20 instructors. From early on, the Bhutanese army operated security checkpoints in the southern region of the kingdom.
In 1947, as the British Empire left India, direct ties to the British ended, and Bhutan remained relatively isolated from international affairs, until 1949. That year, India and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, providing that India would not interfere in Bhutan's internal affairs, but that Bhutan would be guided by India in its foreign policy. This was the first international agreement that unambiguously recognized Bhutan's independence and sovereignty. The same year, India ceded to Bhutan some territories lost to the British in the 1865 Treaty of Sinchula.
Modern history
The modern Bhutanese armed forces comprise the Royal Bhutan Army (RBA), Royal Bodyguards (RBG), militia, and the Royal Bhutan Police. As Bhutan is a landlocked country, it has no navy. Nor does Bhutan have an air force, although the Royal Bhutan Army maintains a very small air armament possessing no combat capabilities, used solely for transport. The Royal Bodyguards are a branch of the RBA responsible for the security of the King of Bhutan, the Royal Family, and other VIPs.
Under defense agreements in place since 1949, India is responsible for military training, arms supplies and the air defense of Bhutan. This agreement was affirmed and updated in February 2007 with a new treaty of friendship.
Bhutan's most recent military engagements targeted Indian separatist groups operating inside Bhutan. During Operation All Clear in December 2003, Bhutanese armed forces cooperated with the Indian military in flushing out Indian militants.
Royal Bhutan Army
The Royal Bhutan Army was formed in the 1950s in response to the Chinese takeover and subsequent People's Liberation Army actions in Tibet and under intense pressure by India. In 1958, the royal government introduced a conscription system and plans for a standing army of 2,500 soldiers. The Indian government had also repeatedly urged and pressured Bhutan to end its neutrality or isolationist policy and accept Indian economic and military assistance. This was because India considered Bhutan its most vulnerable sector in its strategic defense system in regard to China. When Bhutan accepted the Indian offer, the Indian Army became responsible for the training and equipping of the RBA.
The RBA established its first domestic training center at Bumthang. Around 1951, it was relocated to Lingkana and Tashichho Dzong. In 1959, another training center was established at Tencholing, which also served as the RBA general headquarters. In 1963, the Army Headquarters was moved to Dradimakhang, Thimphu. During the 1960s, the RBA established four wings, numbered as Wing 1 (Gunitsawa), Wing 2 (Changju), Wing 3 (Laya & Lingzhi), and Wing 4 (Trashigang).
By 1968, the RBA consisted of 4,850 soldiers, with a recruiting goal of 600 additional soldiers a year. By 1990, the RBA was a force of 6,000 soldiers. In June 2007, the RBA stood at 9,021 active-duty personnel. By 2008, this number was reduced to 8,000 active-duty personnel, in line with an initiative introduced in 2005 by the Royal Government of Bhutan to reduce the strength of the RBA while increasing militia training of the Bhutanese population. In 2021, the first cohort of women were admitted to the Army.
The Indian Army maintains a training mission in Bhutan, known as the Indian Military Training Team (IMTRAT), responsible for the military training of RBA and RBG personnel. RBA and RBG officers are sent for training at the National Defence Academy (NDA) in Pune, and Indian Military Academy (IMA) in Dehradun. Project DANTAK of the Border Roads Organisation, a sub-division of the Indian Army Corps of Engineers, has been operating in Bhutan since May 1961. Since then, Project DANTAK has been responsible for the construction and maintenance of over 1,500 km of roads and bridges, Paro Airport and a disused airfield at Yangphula, heliports, and other infrastructure. While these serve India's strategic defence needs, it is also an obvious economic benefit for the people of Bhutan.
Combat operations
The Kingdom of Bhutan has engaged solely in domestic combat operations against Indian separatist groups during the winter of 2003–2004. Secessionist militant groups active in India, having established bases in southern Bhutan, defied an ultimatum to leave the kingdom. With the support of the Indian Armed Forces, the Royal Bhutan Army engaged militant camps and eliminated them all in Operation All Clear.
During the early 1990s, Indian separatist groups, namely the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA), National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB), and Kamtapur Liberation Organization (KLO), had begun to clandestinely set up camps in Bhutan's dense southern jungles. These camps were used to train cadres, store equipment, and launch attacks on targets in India. The Bhutanese government became aware of their presence in 1996 and from 1997, the issue was regularly discussed in the National Assembly. The Government of India began exerting diplomatic pressure on the Royal Government to remove the militant presence and offered conducting joint military operations against the militants. The Royal Government preferring a peaceful solution, declined the offer and instead initiated dialogue with the militant groups in 1998.
By December 2003, negotiations failed to produce any agreement and the Royal Government unable to tolerate their presence any longer issued a 48-hour ultimatum on 13 December. On 15 December the RBA commenced military operations, dubbed Operation All Clear, against the militant groups. A combined RBA and RBG force of 6,000, operating out of 20 camps established during the six years of negotiations, attacked an estimated 3,000 militants spread across 30 militant camps. By 27 December 2003, all 30 militant camps had been captured. Additionally, the RBA seized "more than 500 AK 47/56 assault rifles and 328 other assorted weapons including rocket launchers and mortars, along with more than 100,000 rounds of ammunition. An anti-aircraft gun was also found at the site of the GHQ of the ULFA."
By 3 January 2004, all 30 militant camps (ULFA-14, NDFB-11, KLO-5) with an additional 35 observation posts, were destroyed and the militants dislodged. A total of 485 ULFA, NDFB, and KLO militants were killed, while those captured along with seized weapons and ammunition were handed over to the Government of India. Captured non-combatants were handed over to Assamese civil authorities. The RBA suffered 11 soldiers KIA, and 35 WIA.
Royal Bhutan Police
The Royal Bhutan Police is responsible for maintaining law and order and prevention of crime in Bhutan. It was formed on 1 September 1965 with 555 personnel reassigned from the Royal Bhutan Army. It was then called the "Bhutan Frontier Guards." Its independent statutory basis was first codified with the Royal Bhutan Police Act of 1980. This framework was repealed and replaced in its entirety by the Royal Bhutan Police Act of 2009. Since 2009, the mandate of the Royal Bhutan Police has grown to include managing prisons, facilitating youth development and rehabilitation, and disaster management.
See also
History of Bhutan
Military of Bhutan
Foreign relations of Bhutan
References
History of Bhutan
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Володарі хаосу
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Володарі хаосу
«Володарі хаосу» — біографічний трилер режисера Юнаса Окерлунда, присвячений трагічним подіям навколо норвезької блек-метал сцени початку 1990-х років. Фільм заснований на однойменній книзі Майкла Мойнігена та Дідріка Седерлінда. Головні ролі виконали Рорі Калкін, Еморі Коен, Скай Феррейра, Джек Кілмер. Світова прем'єра стрічки відбулась на кінофестивалі «Санденс» 23 січня 2018 року.
Сюжет
Гітарист Ейстейн Ошет на початку 1980-х збирає блек-метал гурт «Mayhem» в який, окрім нього, входили бас-гітарист Некробутчер, барабанщик Мангейм і вокаліст Маніак. Невдовзі Маніак і Мангейм покидають гурт, замість них до «Mayhem» приєднуються Геллгаммер і Дед, які на виступах завдавали собі каліцтва та кидали свинячі голови. На одному зі своїх виступів гурт знайомиться зі своїм шанувальником Варґом Вікернесом.
Дед, у якого була депресія, вчиняє самогубство, розрізавши вени та вистріливши з рушниці. Євронімус, замість того щоб звернутися до поліції, починає фотографувати померлого, а потім збирати залишки черепа, щоб зробити прикрасу. Його дії викликають відразу в Некробутчера й він покидає гурт.
Євронімус відкриває музичну крамницю «Helvete» («Пекло»), яка стає центром для місцевих блек-металістів, зокрема Burzum, Fenriz, Faust, Emperor. Ця спілка отримує назву «Чорне коло». Між Євронімусом та Варгом виникає сутичка, Вікернес спалює місцеву церкву з метою справити враження на інших членів «Чорного кола». Невдовзі Євронімус підпалює церкву разом з Варгом і Фаустом.
Під час запису дебютного альбому «Mayhemу» «De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas» між Варгом та Євронімусом виникає суперечка щодо лідерства в гурті.
У Норвегії починається хвиля підпалу церков, Фауст жорстоко вбиває гея, після чого поліція пов'язує ці події з блек-метал сценою. Починаються обшуки, крамницю «Helvete» зачиняють. Варг стає головним підозрюваним після його інтерв'ю газеті про підпали та вбивство, але через брак доказів його звільняють.
Євронімус починає погрожувати Варгу. 10 серпня 1993 року між ними виникає суперечка, під час якої Вікернес вбиває суперника. Вбивцю заарештовують за звинуваченнями у вбивстві та підпалу кількох церков.
У ролях
Створення фільму
Виробництво
У травні 2015 року було оголошено, що колишній барабанщик Bathory та кінорежисер Юнас Екерлунд будуть знімати фільм. Зйомки стрічки були заплановані на осінь 2015 року в Норвегії, але з невідомих причин не почалися до 2016 року. Фільм був знятий в Осло, Норвегія, з живими сценами в Будапешті, Угорщина. Одночасно зняли відеокліп для гурту «Metallica» на пісню «ManUNkind» в якому були залучені актори фільму.
Знімальна група
Кінорежисер — Юнас Окерлунд
Сценарист — Юнас Окерлунд, Денніс Магнуссон
Кінопродюсер — Квесі Діксон, Денні Габаі, Джим Чарнекі, Ерік Гордон, Джек Арбутнотт
Композитор — Sigur Rós
Кінооператор — Пар М. Екберг
Кіномонтаж — Рікард Крантц
Художник-постановник — Емма Фейрлі
Артдиректор — Чаба Лоді
Художник-декоратор — Золтан Франк
Художник-костюмер — Сюзі Коултард
Підбір акторів — Даніель Габбард
Сприйняття
Критика
Фільм отримав змішані відгуки. На сайті Rotten Tomatoes оцінка стрічки становить 74 % на основі 62 відгуків від критиків (середня оцінка 6,6/10) і 58 % від глядачів із середньою оцінкою 3,1/5 (460 голосів). Фільму зарахований «свіжий помідор» від кінокритиків та «розсипаний попкорн» від глядачів, Internet Movie Database — 6,5/10 (6 316 голосів), Metacritic — 48/100 (17 відгуків критиків) і 4,9/10 (14 відгуків від глядачів).
Номінації та нагороди
Примітки
Посилання
Фільми Великої Британії 2019
Біографічні фільми Великої Британії
Фільми про музикантів
Фільми-трилери Великої Британії
Фільми-драми Великої Британії
Біографічні фільми Швеції
Фільми-трилери Швеції
Фільми-драми Швеції
Фільми, дія яких відбувається в Норвегії
Фільми, засновані на реальних подіях
Фільми англійською мовою
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhemchuzhnaya
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Zhemchuzhnaya
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Zhemchuzhnaya is a rural locality (a railway station) in Kandalakshsky District of Murmansk Oblast, Russia, located beyond the Arctic Circle. Population: 2 (2010 Census).
References
Notes
Sources
Rural localities in Murmansk Oblast
Kandalakshsky District
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landschaftspark%20Duisburg-Nord
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Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord
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Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord
Landschaftspark is a public park located in Duisburg-Meiderich, Germany.
It was designed in 1991 by Latz + Partner (Peter Latz), with the intention that it work to heal and understand the industrial past, rather than trying to reject it. The park closely associates itself with the past use of the site: a coal and steel production plant (abandoned in 1985, leaving the area significantly polluted) and the agricultural land it had been prior to the mid 19th century.
Conception and creation
In 1991, a co-operative-concurrent planning procedure with five international planning teams was held to design the park. Peter Latz’s design was significant, as it attempted to preserve as much of the existing site as possible (Diedrich, 69). Unlike his competitors, Latz recognized the value of the site's current condition (Weilacher, 106). He allowed the polluted soils to remain in place and be remediated through phytoremediation, and sequestered soils with high toxicity in the existing bunkers. He also found new uses for many of the old structures, and turned the former sewage canal into a method of cleansing the site.
Design
The park is divided into different areas, whose borders were carefully developed by looking at existing conditions (such as how the site had been divided by existing roads and railways, what types of plants had begun to grow in each area, etc.). This piecemeal pattern was then woven together by a series of walkways and waterways, which were placed according to the old railway and sewer systems. While each piece retains its character, it also creates a dialogue with the site surrounding it. Within the main complex, Latz emphasized specific programmatic elements: the concrete bunkers create a space for a series of intimate gardens, old gas tanks have become pools for scuba divers, concrete walls are used by rock climbers, and one of the most central places of the factory, the middle of the former steel mill, had been made into a piazza. Each of these spaces uses elements to allow for a specific reading of time.
The site was designed with the idea that a grandfather, who might have worked at the plant, could walk with his grandchildren, explaining what he used to do and what the machinery had been used for. At Landschaftspark, memory was central to the design. Various authors have addressed the ways in which memory can inform the visitor of a site, a concept that became prevalent during Postmodernism.
Importance of memory
Memory has re-emerged as an important aspect of design, and has been addressed by authors such as Sebastien Marot, Frances Yates, Robert Smithson, and Peter Latz himself. For them, memory does not equal preservation but instead has a transient quality. It implies a re-representation or understanding of the past, as memories constantly shift and change as one experiences life. Marot believes that the memory of a site should be used as a design strategy, as it shows depth and a process of connection. Yates’ argument for the importance of memory comes out of her concern that architecture has become too uniform, removing the particularities of a place. These idiosyncrasies have a history with the art of memory which uses the principle of association with places. Smithson's assertion, in his article "A Tour of the Monuments of Passaic," is similar, in that memory recalls the past but in a way that applies it to new things. Finally, Latz claims that interrelations must be made concrete and visible and that the viewer will create their own picture of a place, not the designer (Latz, 94, 96).
These ideas of memory encompass Landschaftspark. A series of pathways at multiple levels connect sites scattered throughout the project, allowing visitors to construct their own experiences. These sites include the bunker gardens, where the fern garden is located. This garden was formed using railroad ties collected from other locations at the site, which might remind someone of the old railway that is now an entrance to the park. It is similar to the way Smithson's essay, "A Tour of the Monuments of Passaic," incorporates elements of the past to aid in giving meaning to things of the present (Marot, 42). By walking through the garden, an individual's memory may be sparked when they see the typical railway ties. This might then reveal new connections, as these railway ties occupy a different space than the long lines with which they are typically associated.
The sewage canal, which was believed to be in the same location as the ‘Old Emscher’ river, could not remain as it existed on the site, and was placed underground (Diedrich, 73). A new canal has taken the place of the sewage canal, but is now flowing with fresh rainwater. Instead of creating a more "naturally" shaped waterway, this new canal, the Emscher River, was kept as straight as the canal before. The canal aids in one's understanding of water processes and changes in time. Markers made by soil mounds (these also break up the culvert form) allow the depth of the water to be read by the visitor to the site. Here the visitor is able to understand on a seasonal basis the process of the site and mark their experience of the park by how high the water was.
Finally, Piazza Metallica also works with ideas of temporality and memory: the landscape architects took 49 steel plates that formerly lined the foundry pits at the site (Diedrich, 70) and installed them to mark a gathering place, intended for events and performances. However, the steel plates are not meant to last; rather, they will gradually erode and decay, portraying the natural processes occurring in the site (Steinglass, 129). In a way, this piazza represents the site as a whole: as the plates decay (like the other steel on the site), a succession of plants will grow between them. Plants will eventually fill the space, with the remains of the rusted steel among them.
Comparing between landscape architects
Peter Latz tried his first important experiences in dealing with derelict industrial sites in 1985, when designing the "Harbour Island", a public park on a destroyed harbour site in Saarbrücken (Weilacher, 82). However, the concept of redesigning an industrial site is used before by different Architects. Rather, several landscape architects have worked with the same mentality and culture such as Alphand's Parc des Buttes Chaumont that were constructed in old quarries they didn't hide the main parts of the site, but they work to enforce it. Richard Haag's Gas Works Park in Seattle was an important predecessor to the Landschaftspark. Rather than removing the gasworks, the design allowed parts of it to stay in place and created a mound where the soil was being remediated, allowing people to understand the process of change. Peter Latz, takes these ideas and pushes them further as he uses materials on the site to show their transient nature as they change and decompose, transforming into something else. Landschaftspark at Duisburg Nord had a clear intention of using the site to develop its program. Within this context, each programmatic element is given a specific identity that illustrates time, while showing change in different ways. Each visitor is allowed to experience the park in their own way and create their own story. Marot explains that as the visitor is able to experience "ambivalent readings of place," their memory will be sparked in new way, giving that place more depth (86). Marot finishes his book, Architecture and the Art of Memory, by insisting, "territories must be deepened" to provide places where memory can be fostered for cultural needs. Latz has worked to do this at Duisburg Nord in many ways (Weilacher, 102) and it has been declared as a highly successful cultural park (Steinglass, 129).
Industrial nature
Industrial brownfield sites (syn. industrial wastelands) form the backbone of urban biodiversity in the central Ruhr Region and are places for experiencing nature and for environmental education. In terms of its size, structural variety and biodiversity, the Duisburg-Nord Landscape Park occupies a prominent position. Its vegetation presents an almost complete spectrum of different development stages (succession stages) on diverse sites. These range from pioneer communities, tall herbaceous perennials and scrub formations to pioneer forests (industrial forest) and together produce an astonishing diversity of species. The Landscape Park is quite rightly considered a local hotspot for biodiversity in the western Ruhr Region. Furthermore, its industrial nature is of high ecological value because it contributes not only to the preservation of many rare and endangered species but also to the conservation of urbanised nature in the Ruhr Region’s conurbations. The Landscape Park contains this enormous species diversity because of its great variety of habitats. Besides the industrial technogenic soils around the former blast furnace site, the sinter plant, the mine and the cokery, it also includes agricultural soils at Ingenhammshof and Emstermannshof. The physiochemical properties of the soils are significantly different and so influence the species composition and plant ecology. The Biological Station has been involved in the collection of scientific data on plant and animal life since 2005, in cooperation with the park administration, are also involved with the formulation of maintenance and development plans (see Keil 2019).
Works cited
Diedrich, Lisa. "No Politics, No Park: The Duisburg-Nord Model." Topos: European Landscape Magazine, no. 26 (1999): 69 – 78.
"Duisburg North Landscape Park." Anthos, 31.3 (1992): 27 – 32.
Marot, Sebastien, and Architectural Association. Sub-Urbanism and the Art of Memory. London: Architectectural Association, 2003.
Latz, Peter. "The Idea of Making Time Visible." Topos 33 (2000): 94 - 99. "Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord."
Leppert, Stephan. "Peter Latz: Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord, Germania." Domus, no. 802 (1998): 32 – 37.
Steinglass, Matt. "The Machine in the Garden." Metropolis 20.2 (2000): 126 – 131, 166 - 167
Yates, Frances A. "Architecture and the Art of Memory." Architectural Design 38 (December 1968): 573 – 578.
Weilacher, Udo (2008): Syntax of Landscape. The Landscape Architecture by Peter Latz and Partners. Basel Berlin Boston: Birkhauser Publisher.
Technische Universität München, Chair for Landscape Architecture and Industrial Landscape LAI (Ed.): Learning from Duisburg Nord. München 2009,
Tate, Alan. "Great City Parks" Spon Press, London, (2001)
Keil, Peter (2019): Industrial nature and species diversity in the Landscape Park Duisburg-Nord. – Electronic Publications of the Biological Station of Western Ruhrgebiet 39 (2019): 1‒6.. Available from: [accessed Dec 01 2020].
See also
List of preserved historic blast furnaces
External links
Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord (Official)
Duisburg
Parks in Germany
Heritage sites in North Rhine-Westphalia
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134883
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo%2C%20South%20Dakota
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Buffalo, South Dakota
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Buffalo, South Dakota
Buffalo is a town in, and the county seat of, Harding County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 346 at the 2020 census.
History
Buffalo was established in 1909. It was named for the large herds of bison (mistakenly called buffalo) that once roamed the area. It is about fifty miles west of Bison, South Dakota.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , all land.
Climate
Buffalo has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk). Like all of the High Plains, this climate features summers with cool to pleasant mornings and typically very warm to hot afternoons, alongside winters that average freezing but are extremely variable due to the conflict between hot Chinook winds and cold Arctic air. Annual precipitation is quite low at around and concentrated in the spring and summer months from April to August. Buffalo lies within USDA hardiness zone 4a, meaning temperatures can drop to as low as .
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 330 people, 168 households, and 86 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 220 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 97.3% White, 0.9% Native American, 0.3% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.5% of the population.
There were 168 households, of which 22.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.7% were married couples living together, 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 48.8% were non-families. 46.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.96 and the average family size was 2.80.
The median age in the town was 43.8 years. 21.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.6% were from 25 to 44; 30.6% were from 45 to 64; and 17.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 52.7% male and 47.3% female.
See also
List of towns in South Dakota
References
External links
Town of Buffalo, SD - Official Website
Harding County School District
Towns in Harding County, South Dakota
Towns in South Dakota
County seats in South Dakota
Populated places established in 1909
1909 establishments in South Dakota
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754493
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal%20%28castle%29
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Montreal (castle)
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Montreal (castle)
Montreal, or Qal'at ash-Shawbak in Arabic, is a castle built by the Crusaders and expanded by the Mamluks, on the eastern side of the Arabah Valley, perched on the side of a rocky, conical mountain, looking out over fruit orchards below. The ruins are located next to the modern town of Shoubak in Jordan.
Name
The Crusaders, who wrote their chronicles in Medieval Latin, Old French and Occitan, mentioned the castle as Castrum Saboach or Scobach, or as Mons Regalis, Mont Real, and Monreal. The second set of variants translate to 'Royal Castle' or 'King's Castle'.
The Arabic name is spelled variously as Shobak, Shawbak, Shaubak, Shubek, etc. The word castle or fortress translates in Arabic to qal'a.
Excavation history
As of 1994, the castle had never yet been fully excavated, but as of 2006 it was being investigated by an Italian archaeological team from the University of Florence.
History
The castle was built in 1115 by Baldwin I of Jerusalem during his expedition to the area when he captured Aqaba on the Red Sea in 1116. Originally called 'Krak de Montreal' or 'Mons Regalis', it was named in honor of the king's own contribution to its construction (Mont Royal). The castle is located on a round hilltop site that is separated from the rest of the plateau of Edom, which along with the Moab formed the core of Oultrejourdain. Despite appearance, the Edom plain was a relatively fertile location, which made the site, along with its strategic importance, highly desirable. The castle was strategically important due to the fact that it also dominated the main passage from Egypt to Syria. This allowed whoever held the castle to tax not only traders, but also those who were on pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina. One of the major disadvantages of the site was the lack of a reliable source of water, an issue that the Crusaders encountered all over the Middle East. This problem was solved by the construction of a tunnel down the hill to two spring-fed cisterns. The tunnel allowed defenders to go and retrieve water without exposing themselves to any attackers.
It remained property of the royal family of the Kingdom of Jerusalem until 1142, when it became part of the Lordship of Oultrejordain. At the same time the center of the Lordship was moved to Kerak, a stronger fortress to the north of Montreal. Along with Kerak, the castle owed sixty knights to the kingdom. The first Lord of Oultrejordain was Philip of Nablus. It was held by Philip de Milly, and then passed to Raynald of Châtillon when he married Stephanie de Milly. Raynald used the castle to attack the rich caravans that had previously been allowed to pass unharmed. He also built ships there, then transported them overland to the Red Sea, planning to attack Mecca itself. This was intolerable to the Ayyubid sultan Saladin (Salah al-Din), who invaded the kingdom in 1187. After capturing Jerusalem, later in the year he besieged Montreal. During the siege the defenders are said to have sold their wives and children for food, and to have gone blind from "lack of salt." Because of the hill Saladin was unable to use siege engines, but after almost two years the castle finally fell to his troops in May 1189, after which the defenders' families were returned to them. After its capture, Saladin awarded it to his brother, al-'Adil, who held it until after his brother's death in 1193. During negotiations between the Crusaders and the Ayyubids in 1218-19, the Ayyubids unwillingness to hand back over the ownership of Montreal and Kerak was a major reason the negotiations broke down. In 1261, the Mamluk Sultan Baybars, stormed the castle bringing it under the control of Egypt.
Structure
Little remains of the original Crusader fortifications. Although it has never been fully excavated, it is known that there was a set of three walls, which partially remain. The most significant remains of the Crusader portions of the Crusader castle is the remains of a curtain wall that ran inside the later Muslim additions and two chapels. The towers and walls are decorated with carved inscriptions dating from 14th century Mameluke renovations, but the inside is in ruins. The pilgrim Thietmar, who saw the castle in 1217 after the Muslim conquest, referred to it as "a most excellent fortress, surrounded by triple walls and as strong as any I have ever seen". The external walls and towers are attributed to the patronage of the Mamluk sultan Lajin.
See also
Wu'ayra Castle (li Vaux Moysi), an outpost of Montreal near Petra
References
"The Crusades" by Hans Mayer
"The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517" by Peter Holt
Notes
Archaeological sites in Jordan
Crusader castles
Castles in Jordan
Mamluk castles
Buildings and structures completed in 1115
Castles and fortifications of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
Tourism in Jordan
12th-century military history
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1797808
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80
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Коринфський ордер
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Коринфський ордер, також Коринтський ордер — один з трьох ордерів давньогрецької або класичної архітектури. Два інших — доричний ордер, який був найбільш раннім, його більш витончений наступник, іонічний ордер. Коли класична архітектура, під час епохи Відродження, отримала друге відродження, ще два ордени були додані до канону, тосканський ордер та композитний ордер.
Характерною особливістю цього ордера є капітель, схожа на дзвін і покрита стилізованим листям аканта. Висота дорівнює 20 модулям, діаметр становить 1/10 частина висоти. Типовий приклад коринфського ордера — висока колона з базою, стовбуром, прорізаним канелюрами. Декорована у два ряди пишним візерунком листків аканта. По кутах капітелі — 4 великі волюти, посередині кожного боку — по 2 малі волюти й квітка. Абак має увігнуті боки, підтримувана чотирма великими та чотирма малими завитками спіральної форми. На відміну від карнизів у доричного і іонічних ордерів, які під нахилом, дахи у коринфського ордера зазвичай плоскі.
Вважається, що коринфський ордер виник у другій половині V ст. до н. е., в архітектурі епохи еллінізму і Стародавнього Риму. Найдавніша капітель, виконана у коринфському ордері, була знайдена на археологічній ділянці в Бассах, і датується 427 роком до н. е.
Найкращими прикладами цього ордеру є пам'ятника Лісікрата та храм Зевса Олімпійського, що в Афінах.
Посилання
Презентація на тему: "Архітектура Класичної Греції"
Коринфський ордер на сайті Національного Києво-Печерського історико-культурного заповідника
Classical Orders of Architecture
Давньогрецька_архітектура
Архітектурні_ордери
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4612769
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D1%96%D1%94%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%28%D0%93%D1%83%D1%80%27%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%29
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Дмитрієвка (Гур'євський округ)
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Дмитрієвка (Гур'євський округ)
Дмитрієвка — село у складі Гур'євського округу Кемеровської області, Росія.
Населення
Населення — 170 осіб (2010; 234 у 2002).
Національний склад (станом на 2002 рік):
росіяни — 93 %
Джерела
Примітки
Населені пункти Гур'євського округу (Кемеровська область)
Села Кемеровської області
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1418539
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%28%D0%B3%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%29
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Дембова-Лонка (гміна)
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Дембова-Лонка (гміна)
Гміна Дембова-Лонка — сільська гміна у північній Польщі. Належить до Вомбжезького повіту Куявсько-Поморського воєводства.
Станом на 31 грудня 2011 у гміні проживало 3244 особи.
Площа
Згідно з даними за 2007 рік площа гміни становила 86.13 км², у тому числі:
орні землі: 85.00%
ліси: 8.00%
Таким чином, площа гміни становить 17.18% площі повіту.
Населення
Станом на 31 грудня 2011:
Сусідні гміни
Гміна Дембова-Лонка межує з такими гмінами: Боброво, Ґолюб-Добжинь, Ковалево-Поморське, Ксьонжкі, Вомбжежно.
Примітки
Дембова-Лонка
Дембова-Лонка
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1042084
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80
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Монтавернер
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Монтавернер (валенс. Montaverner) — муніципалітет в Іспанії, у складі автономної спільноти Валенсія, у провінції Валенсія. Населення — осіб (2010).
Географія
Муніципалітет розташований на відстані близько 320 км на південний схід від Мадрида, 65 км на південь від Валенсії.
Демографія
Галерея зображень
Посилання
Муніципальна рада
Примітки
Муніципалітети провінції Валенсія
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139445
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Lyme%2C%20Wisconsin
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New Lyme, Wisconsin
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New Lyme, Wisconsin
New Lyme is a town in Monroe County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 141 at the 2000 census.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 36.1 square miles (93.4 km2), of which, 35.6 square miles (92.1 km2) of it is land and 0.5 square miles (1.3 km2) of it (1.36%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 141 people, 57 households, and 42 families residing in the town. The population density was 4.0 people per square mile (1.5/km2). There were 80 housing units at an average density of 2.2 per square mile (0.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 100.00% White.
There were 57 households, out of which 24.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.4% were married couples living together, 1.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.3% were non-families. 17.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.74.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 21.3% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 32.6% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 120.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 113.5 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $39,167, and the median income for a family was $39,792. Males had a median income of $20,000 versus $20,208 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,306. There were 9.4% of families and 13.5% of the population living below the poverty line, including 25.9% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.
References
Towns in Monroe County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin
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2959006
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD
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Сефіддарбон
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Сефіддарбон — село в Ірані, у дегестані Північний Амлаш, в Центральному бахші, шагрестані Амлаш остану Ґілян. За даними перепису 2006 року, його населення становило 263 особи, що проживали у складі 80 сімей.
Клімат
Середня річна температура становить 15,11°C, середня максимальна – 28,92°C, а середня мінімальна – 1,09°C. Середня річна кількість опадів – 1131 мм.
Примітки
Населені пункти шагрестану Амлаш
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136509
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp%20Wood%2C%20Texas
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Camp Wood, Texas
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Camp Wood, Texas
Camp Wood is a city in Real County, Texas, United States, in the Texas Hill Country, which is part of the Edwards Plateau. The population was 517 at the 2020 census.
History
The town was established in 1920.
Geography
Camp Wood is located at (29.669084, –100.011641).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 517 people, 262 households, and 179 families residing in the city.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, 822 people, 281 households, and 198 families resided in the city. The population density averaged 1,629.8/mi2 (634.8/km). The 352 housing units averaged 697.9/mi2 (271.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 90.27% White, 0.12% African American, 0.97% Native American, 0.36% Asian, 6.69% from other races, and 1.58% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 39.66% of the population.
Of the 281 households, 34.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.6% were married couples living together, 13.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.2% were not families. About 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.19.
In the city, the population was distributed as 28.2% under the age of 18, 5.2% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 19.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $19,792, and for a family was $21,648. Males had a median income of $17,500 versus $13,182 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,170. About 32.2% of families and 33.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 40.0% of those under age 18 and 36.6% of those age 65 or over.
Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. Camp Wood has a humid subtropical climate, Cfa on climate maps according to the Köppen climate classification system.
Education
The City of Camp Wood is served by the Nueces Canyon Consolidated Independent School District.
See also
List of municipalities in Texas
Notes
References
External links
Community website
HillCountryRider.Com website with photos and info and links for Bikers & Cyclists in the Camp Wood & Hill Country area
http://www.campwoodlibrary.org Camp Wood Public Library. Everyone welcome. Stop by for a visit. Free WI-Fi and Internet.
Cities in Texas
Cities in Real County, Texas
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40073393
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20McBroom
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Michael McBroom
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Michael McBroom (born May 16, 1991) is an American swimmer who specializes in long-distance freestyle events. He is a FINA World Championships silver medalist in the 800-meter freestyle and formerly held the American Record in the 800-meter freestyle.
Swimming career
2012
In 2012, McBroom missed out on making the Olympic Team by placing 7th in the 1500-meter freestyle and 8th in the 400-meter freestyle.
2013
At the 2013 Phillips National Championships, which also served as the selection meet for the 2013 World Aquatics Championships, McBroom placed 4th in the 400-meter freestyle, and 2nd in the 800-meter and 1500-meter freestyle, qualifying for the World Championships.
McBroom broke out onto the international stage after capturing the silver medal in the 800-meter freestyle at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships with a time of 7:43.60, breaking the American Record in the process.
References
External links
Michael McBroom – University of Texas athlete profile at TexasSports.com
1991 births
Living people
American male freestyle swimmers
Texas Longhorns men's swimmers
People from Plymouth, Minnesota
Sportspeople from Hennepin County, Minnesota
Sportspeople from Minnesota
World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming
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2695235
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%86%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%20%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Легкий Іван Дмитрович
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Легкий Іван Дмитрович (2 серпня 1943, с. Заставче — 29 жовтня 1997, м. Івано-Франківськ — хоровий диригент, композитор, педагог.
Біографія
Легкий Іван Дмитрович народився 2 серпня 1943 року у селі Заставче Підгаєцького району Тернопільської області.
У 1970 році закінчив Львівська консерваторію.
У 1960—1970 рр. керував хоровою капелою «Боян» у місті Бережани.
Від 1970 року — диригент-хормейстер.
1982—1989 рр. — художній керівник і головний диригент Гуцульського ансамблю пісні і танцю при Івано-Франківській філармонії.
У 1990—1996 рр. — доцент кафедри співу та диригування Прикарпатського університету (Івано-Франківськ).
Помер 29 жовтня 1997 року в Івано-Франківську.
Доробок
Упорядник репертуарних збірок:
«Верховино — світку ти наш» (1990)
«Колядки і щедрівки» (1992)
«Ходи, сонку, в колисоньку» (1993)
«Церковний рік в піснях» (1994)
Автор музики до віршів:
«Де висока Чорна гора» С. Пушика
«О, Вічносте» О. Слоньовської
«Сина забрала війна» Я. Яроша
лялькової вистави «Комарове молоко» (1991)
Література
Легкий Іван Дмитрович // Енциклопедія сучасної України
Випускники Львівської консерваторії
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4523194
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%28%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F%29
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Серна (значення)
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Серна (значення)
Серна — річка в Україні, в межах Локачинського, Луцького та Рожищенського районів Волинської області.
Серна — гідрологічний заказник місцевого значення в Україні. Розташований у межах Локачинського району Волинської області, біля села Юнівка.
«Серна» — серія російських швидкісних десантних катерів на повітряній каверні. Названі на честь козиці звичайної.
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2248058
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8F%20%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0-%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B9%20%E2%84%96%202
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Жмеринська загальноосвітня школа-ліцей № 2
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Жмеринська загальноосвітня школа-ліцей № 2
Жмеринська Школа Молодих Дотерів № 2 — середня загальноосвітня школа I-III ступенів у місті Жмеринка. Знаходиться у центрі міста за адресою
Історія
Школа була заснована 1920 р. і була приватною та виключно для єврейського населення. Навчального заклад розташовувався у приміщенні гуртожитку ПТУ. 1938 р. розпочалося будівництво нового приміщення по вул. Училищній. У 1940 р., після численних заяв зі сторони батьків учнів, що більше не хотіли навчатися єврейською мовою школа була реорганізована у державну російськомовну. З початком 1944/1945 навчального року школа була переведена у тісне приміщення по вул. Горького. Через переповненість класів (45-47 учнів) з 1948 р. ЗОШ була переведена у будинок по вул. Б. Хмельницького, 36 (нині — стоматологія Гаврилюка). Опісля, до 1960 р. школа працювала у приміщенні за адресою вул. Доватора, 2. У 1960 р. НВК відзначив новосілля у сучасну будівлю. В 1970-х рр. був добудований двоповерховий корпус. 2022 р.
Директори школи
Шкляр ? ? 1920—1929
Ходорківський Лейба Якович 1929—1943
Гладський Йосип Іванович 1943—1963
Баранов Андрій Єфремович 1963—1972
Стеценко Галина Григорівна 1972—1992
Васянович Петро Павлович 1992—2002
Кочура Оксана Володимирівна 2002— наш час
Джерела
Жмеринський НВК "ЗОШ І-ІІІ ст.-ліцей" - Вінницька область. ІСУО
Школа-ліцей м. Жмеринка - Головна
2
Засновані у Вінницькій області 1920
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6555034
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherasco
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Cherasco
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Cherasco is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Cuneo in the Italian region Piedmont, located about southeast of Turin and about northeast of Cuneo. As of 1-1-2017, it had a population of 9096 and an area of .
The municipality of Cherasco contains the frazioni (subdivisions, mainly villages and hamlets) of Bricco de' Faule, Cappellazzo, Meane, Roreto, San Bartolomeo, San Giovanni, Sant'Antonio and Veglia.
Cherasco borders the following municipalities: Bra, Cavallermaggiore, Cervere, La Morra, Marene, Narzole, and Salmour.
The Cherasco Synagogue in the old Jewish ghetto has a notable Baroque Torah ark and bimah.
The Visconti Castle is a medieval one, uilt in the 14th century by Luchino Visconti, Lord of Milan, and partly reconstructed at the beginning of the 20th century.
On 28 April 1796 in Cherasco was signed an armistice between Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia and Napoleon Bonaparte.
Demographic evolution
Twin towns – sister cities
Cherasco is twinned with:
Villars-sur-Var, France (1981)
Möckmühl, Germany (2001)
Piliscsaba, Hungary (2005)
Cefa, Romania (2006)
Aksakovo, Bulgaria (2009)
See also
BRC Racing Team
References
Sources
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21346360
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia
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Salvia
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Salvia is the largest genus of plants in the sage family Lamiaceae, with nearly 1000 species of shrubs, herbaceous perennials, and annuals. Within the Lamiaceae, Salvia is part of the tribe Mentheae within the subfamily Nepetoideae. One of several genera commonly referred to as sage, it includes two widely used herbs, Salvia officinalis (common sage, or just "sage") and Salvia rosmarinus (rosemary, formerly Rosmarinus officinalis).
The genus is distributed throughout the Old World and the Americas (over 900 total species), with three distinct regions of diversity: Central America and South America (approximately 600 species); Central Asia and the Mediterranean (250 species); Eastern Asia (90 species).
Etymology
The name Salvia derives from Latin (sage), from (safe, secure, healthy), an adjective related to (health, well-being, prosperity or salvation), and (to feel healthy, to heal). Pliny the Elder was the first author known to describe a plant called "Salvia" by the Romans, likely describing the type species for the genus Salvia, Salvia officinalis.
The common modern English name sage derives from Middle English , which was borrowed from Old French , from Latin (the source of the botanical name). When used without modifiers, the name "sage" generally refers to Salvia officinalis ("common sage" or "culinary sage"), although it is used with modifiers to refer to any member of the genus. The ornamental species are commonly referred to by their genus name Salvia.
Description
Salvia species include annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous plants, along with woody subshrubs. The stems are typically angled like other members in Lamiaceae. The leaves are typically entire, but sometimes toothed or pinnately divided. The flowering stems bear small bracts, dissimilar to the basal leaves—in some species the bracts are ornamental and showy.
The flowers are produced in racemes or panicles, and generally produce a showy display with flower colors ranging from blue to red, with white and yellow less common. The calyx is normally tubular or bell shaped, without bearded throats, and divided into two parts or lips, the upper lip entire or three-toothed, the lower two-cleft. The corollas are often claw shaped and are two-lipped. The upper lip is usually entire or three-toothed. The lower lip typically has two lobes. The stamens are reduced to two short structures with anthers two-celled, the upper cell fertile, and the lower imperfect. The flower styles are two-cleft. The fruits are smooth ovoid or oblong nutlets and in many species they have a mucilaginous coating.
Many members of Salvia have trichomes (hairs) growing on the leaves, stems and flowers, which help to reduce water loss in some species. Sometimes the hairs are glandular and secrete volatile oils that typically give a distinct aroma to the plant. When the hairs are rubbed or brushed, some of the oil-bearing cells are ruptured, releasing the oil. This often results in the plant being unattractive to grazing animals and some insects.
Staminal lever mechanism
The defining characteristic of the genus Salvia is the unusual pollination mechanism. It is central to any investigation into the systematics, species distribution, or pollination biology of Salvia. It consists of two stamens (instead of the typical four found in other members of the tribe Mentheae) and the two thecae on each stamen are separated by an elongate connective which enables the formation of the lever mechanism. Sprengel (1732) was the first to illustrate and describe the nototribic (dorsal) pollination mechanism in Salvia. When a pollinator probes a male stage flower for nectar, (pushing the posterior anther theca) the lever causes the stamens to move and the pollen to be deposited on the pollinator. When the pollinator withdraws from the flower, the lever returns the stamens to their original position. In older, female stage flowers, the stigma is bent down in a general location that corresponds to where the pollen was deposited on the pollinator's body. The lever of most Salvia species is not specialized for a single pollinator, but is generic and selected to be easily released by many bird and bee pollinators of varying shapes and sizes. The lever arm can be specialized to be different lengths so that the pollen is deposited on different parts of the pollinator's body. For example, if a bee went to one flower and pollen was deposited on the far back of her body, but then it flew to another flower where the stigma was more forward (anterior), pollination could not take place. This can result in reproductive isolation from the parental population and new speciation can occur. It is believed that the lever mechanism is a key factor in the speciation, adaptive radiation, and diversity of this large genus.
Taxonomy
History
George Bentham was first to give a full monographic account of the genus in 1832–1836, and based his classifications on staminal morphology. Bentham's work on classifying the family Labiatae (Labiatarum Genera et Species (1836)) is still the only comprehensive and global organization of the family. While he was clear about the integrity of the overall family, he was less confident about his organization of Salvia, the largest genus in Labiatae (also called Lamiaceae). Based on his own philosophy of classification, he wrote that he "ought to have formed five or six genera" out of Salvia. In the end, he felt that the advantage in placing a relatively uniform grouping in one genus was "more than counterbalanced by the necessity of changing more than two hundred names." At that time there were only 291 known Salvia species.
Subdivision
Bentham eventually organized Salvia into twelve sections (originally fourteen), based on differences in corolla, calyx, and stamens. These were placed into four subgenera that were generally divided into Old World and New World species:
Subgenus Salvia: Old World (Sections: Hymenosphace, Eusphace, Drymosphace)
Subgenus Sclarea: Old World (Sections: Horminum, Aethiposis, Plethiosphace)
Subgenus Calosphace: New World (Section: Calosphace)
Subgenus Leonia: Old and New World (Sections: Echinosphace, Pycnosphace, Heterosphace, Notiosphace, Hemisphace)
His system is still the most widely studied classification of Salvia, even though more than 500 new species have been discovered since his work. Other botanists have since offered modified versions of Bentham's classification system, while botanists in the last hundred years generally do not endorse Bentham's system.
It was long assumed that Salvia'''s unusual pollination and stamen structure had evolved only once, and that therefore Salvia was monophyletic, meaning that all members of the genus evolved from one ancestor. However, the immense diversity in staminal structure, vegetative habit, and floral morphology of the species within Salvia has opened the debate about its infrageneric classifications.
Phylogenetic analyses
Through DNA sequencing, Salvia was shown to not be monophyletic but to consist of three separate clades (Salvia clades I–III) each with different sister groups. They also found that the staminal lever mechanism evolved at least two separate times, through convergent evolution. Walker and Sytsma (2007) clarified this parallel evolution in a later paper combining molecular and morphological data to prove three independent lineages of the Salvia lever mechanism, each corresponding to a clade within the genus. It is surprising to see how similar the staminal lever mechanism structures are between the three lineages, so Salvia proves to be an interesting but excellent example of convergent evolution.
Walker and Sytsma (2007) also addressed the question of whether Salvia is truly polyphyletic or just paraphyletic within the tribe Mentheae. To make Salvia monophyletic would require the inclusion of 15 species from Rosmarinus, Perovskia, Dorystaechas, Meriandra, and Zhumeria genera. The information attained by Walker and Sytsma (2007) supporting the three independent origins of the staminal lever indicate that Salvia is not the case where 15 species (currently not members of the genus) are actually members of Salvia but underwent character reversals—in other words, Salvia is paraphyletic as previously circumscribed. In 2017 Drew et al. recircumscribed Salvia, proposing that the five small embedded genera (Dorystaechas, Meriandra, Perovskia, Rosmarinus, and Zhumeria) be subsumed into a broadly defined Salvia. This approach would require only 15 name changes whereas maintaining the five small genera and renaming various Salvia taxa would require over 700 name changes.
The circumscription of individual species within Salvia has undergone constant revision. Many species are similar to each other, and many species have varieties that have been given different specific names. There have been as many as 2,000 named species and subspecies. Over time, the number has been reduced to less than a thousand. A modern and comprehensive study of Salvia species was done by Gabriel Alziar, in his Catalogue Synonymique des Salvia du Monde (1989) (World Catalog of Salvia Synonyms). He found that the number of distinct species and subspecies could be reduced to less than 700.Clebsch, p. 18.
Selected species and their uses
Many species are used as herbs, as ornamental plants (usually for flower interest), and sometimes for their ornamental and aromatic foliage. Some species, such as Salvia columbariae and Salvia hispanica, are also grown for their seeds. The Plant List has 986 accepted species names. A selection of some well-known species is below.Salvia apiana: white sage; sacred to a number of Native American peoples, and used by some tribes in their ceremoniesSalvia azurea: blue sageSalvia buchananii: Buchanan sage; woody-based stoloniferous perennial, deep pink flowersSalvia cacaliifolia: blue vine sage or Guatemalan sage; pure gentian-blue flowersSalvia candelabrum: candelabrum sage; woody-based perennial, violet flowersSalvia columbariae: wild chia; annual plant with seeds that are sometimes used like those of Salvia hispanicaSalvia dianthera Roth: Bengal sageSalvia divinorum: diviner's sage; sometimes cultivated for hallucinogenic effects; the legality of its use is under review in some US statesSalvia elegans: pineapple sage; widely grown as an ornamental shrub or sub-shrub, with pineapple scented leavesSalvia fruticosa: Greek sage; commonly grown and harvested as an alternative to common sageSalvia fulgens: Cardinal sage, Mexican scarlet sage; small evergreen sub-shrub, red flowersSalvia guaranitica: hummingbird sage, anise-scented sage; tall perennial, deep blue flowersSalvia hispanica: chia; produces edible seeds high in protein and in the omega-3 fatty acid, α-linolenic acid (ALA).Salvia involucrata: roseleaf sage; woody-based perennialSalvia jurisicii: Ovche Pole sage; a rare, compact "feathery" perennial endemic to North Macedonia, violet flowersSalvia leucantha: Mexican bush sage, woolly sage; ornamental evergreen subshrub, white/pink flowersSalvia microphylla: baby sage: small ornamental shrub from Mexico, widely cultivated with many cultivarsSalvia miltiorrhiza: red sage, Danshen; Chinese medicinal herbSalvia nemorosa: woodland sage, Balkan clary; perennial with many ornamental varieties and cultivarsSalvia officinalis: sage, common sage; used widely in cooking, as an ornamental, and in herbal medicineSalvia patens: gentian sage; herbaceous perennial, blue flowersSalvia pratensis: clary: herbaceous perennial, violet flowersSalvia rosmarinus: rosemary; woody shrub, blue flowersSalvia sclarea: clary; grown as an ornamental and to some extent for perfume oilsSalvia spathacea: California hummingbird sage, pitcher sage; ornamental, fruit-scented with rose pink flowersSalvia splendens: scarlet sage; popular tender ornamental bedding or pot plant.Salvia uliginosa: bog sage; herbaceous perennial, blue flowers
Ecology
HerbivorySalvia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the bucculatricid leaf-miner Bucculatrix taeniola which feeds exclusively on the genus and the Coleophora case-bearers C. aegyptiacae, C. salviella (both feed exclusively on Salvia aegyptiaca), C. ornatipennella and C. virgatella (both recorded on Salvia pratensis).
Hybrids
Many interspecific hybrids occur naturally, with a relatively high degree of crossability, but some, Salvia fruticosa × Salvia tomentosa, have been intentional. A natural hybrid, Salvia longispicata × Salvia farinacea has given rise to a series of popular ornamentals such as Salvia 'Indigo Spires' and Salvia 'Balsalmisp'.
AGM cultivars
Numerous garden-worthy cultivars and varieties have been produced, often with mixed or unknown parentage. The following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:Salvia 'Amistad': bushy upright perennial, deep blue/purple flowers Salvia 'Dyson's Joy': small, bushy perennial, bicolor red/pink flowersSalvia 'Hot Lips': bushy evergreen, red/white flowers Salvia 'Jezebel': bushy evergreen perennial, red flowersSalvia 'Nachtvlinder': bushy evergreen perennial, purple flowers Salvia 'Ribambelle': bushy perennial, salmon-pink flowers Salvia 'Royal Bumble': evergreen shrub, red flowersSalvia × jamensis 'Javier': bushy perennial, purple flowers Salvia × jamensis 'Los Lirios': bushy shrub, pink flowers Salvia × jamensis 'Peter Vidgeon': bushy perennial, pale pink flowers Salvia × jamensis 'Raspberry Royale': evergreen subshrub, raspberry pink flowers Salvia × superba 'Rubin': clump-forming perennial, pale pink flowers Salvia × sylvestris 'Blauhügel': herbaceous perennial, violet-blue flowers Salvia × sylvestris 'Mainacht': compact perennial, deep violet flowers Salvia × sylvestris 'Tänzerin': perennial, purple flowers
References
Bibliography
Sage: The Genus Salvia by Spiridon E. Kintzios, CRC Press, 2000. .
The Gardener's Guide to Growing Salvias'' by John Sutton, Timber Press, 1999. .
Garden plants
Herbs
Lamiaceae genera
Medicinal plants
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Subshrubs
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321940
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%20%28%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
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Рожеве (Олександрійський район)
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Рожеве (Олександрійський район)
Рожеве — село в Україні, в Приютівській селищній громаді Олександрійського району Кіровоградської області. Населення становить 66 осіб. Орган місцевого самоврядування — Приютівська селищна рада.
Населення
Згідно з переписом УРСР 1989 року чисельність наявного населення села становила 106 осіб, з яких 55 чоловіків та 51 жінка.
За переписом населення України 2001 року в селі мешкало 66 осіб. 100 % населення вказало своєю рідною мовою українську мову.
Примітки
Посилання
Погода в селі Рожеве
Села Кіровоградської області
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1352623
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%28%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5%29
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Преображенська церква (Глинське)
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Преображенська церква (Глинське)
Преображенська церква — єдиний парафіяльний православний храм у с. Глинське Полтавської області. Зруйнований у 1930-х роках.
Історія
Будівництво та перебудови
Найдавніша дерев'яна церква в с. Глинське Гадяцького полку була збудована наприкінці XVII століття. 1773 року поміщик Іван Тимченко придбав для церкви дзвін вагою 17 пудів 24 фунти.
1781 року церкву розібрали через неможливість реконструювання, а наступного року за дозволом Митрополита Гавриїла зведено нову дерев'яну церкву, 1850 року прибудовано дзвіницю.
1888 року за ініціативою настоятеля храму Гермогена Луб'яного розпочалось будівництво мурованого храму. Саме цей рік вважають початком функціонування храму. У 1896–1900 роках проводилось освячення церкви.
Церковні володіння
У 1902 році церква володіла 1,5 десятинами церковної землі, 7 десятин сінокісної і лісової; землі
ружної 15,25 десятини; був будинок для квартири псаломщика.
З 1861 року при церкві діяла церковнопарафіяльна школа, яку на початку ХХ ст. реорганізували в школу грамоти. 1866 року було створено церковне попечительствво.
Ведення богослужінь
До парафії належало село Глинське та 4 хутори: Старі Млини, Гармашів, Рокитин і Сенів. Станом на 1888 рік у парафії налічувалось 906 чоловіків і 905 жінок (всі козаки). У 1902 році: парафіян 1094 душі чоловічої статі і 1053 жіночої.
Преображенський храм вів богослужіння до початку 1930-х років. Згодом його зруйнували.
Сучасність
У 2008 році відбулась презентація книги Віктора Міщанина «Храми землі нашої: Церква Преображення Господнього у Глинському», в якій описано повну історію храму.
На місці, де колись стояла церква, встановлено хрест та пам'ятний знак. У планах ініціативної групи та віруючої громади відбудувати храм.
Джерела
Церкви Полтавської області
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22795442
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduchess%20Margarethe%20Klementine%20of%20Austria
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Archduchess Margarethe Klementine of Austria
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Archduchess Margarethe Klementine of Austria
Archduchess Margarethe Klementine Maria of Austria (in German: Margarethe Klementine Maria, Erzherzogin von Österreich; in Hungarian: Habsburg–Toscanai Margit Klementina Mária főhercegnő; 6 July 1870, Alcsút, Austria-Hungary– 2 May 1955, Regensburg) was a member of the Hungarian line of the House of Habsburg and an Archduchess of Austria by birth. Through her marriage to Albert, 8th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, Margarethe Klementine was also a member of the House of Thurn and Taxis.
Family
Margarethe Klementine was the third-eldest daughter and child of Archduke Joseph Karl of Austria and his wife Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Through her father Joseph Karl, Margarethe Klementine was a great-granddaughter of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor. Through her mother, she was a great-granddaughter of Louis-Philippe d'Orléans, King of the French.
Margarethe Klementine married Albert, 8th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, younger son of Maximilian Anton Lamoral, Hereditary Prince of Thurn and Taxis and his wife Duchess Helene in Bavaria, on 15 July 1890 in Budapest, Austria-Hungary. Margarethe Klementine and Albert had eight children:
Franz Joseph, 9th Prince of Thurn and Taxis (21 December 1893 – 13 July 1971), married Princess Isabel Maria of Braganza, daughter of Miguel, Duke of Braganza
Prince Joseph Albert of Thurn and Taxis (4 November 1895 – 7 December 1895)
Karl August, 10th Prince of Thurn and Taxis (23 July 1898 – 26 April 1982), married Princess Maria Anna of Braganza, daughter of Miguel, Duke of Braganza
Prince Ludwig Philipp of Thurn and Taxis (2 February 1901 – 22 April 1933), married Princess Elisabeth of Luxembourg, daughter of Grand Duke William IV of Luxembourg
Prince Max Emanuel of Thurn and Taxis (1 March 1902 – 3 October 1994)
Princess Elisabeth Helene of Thurn and Taxis (15 December 1903 – 22 October 1976), married Friedrich Christian, Margrave of Meissen
Prince Raphael Rainer of Thurn and Taxis (30 May 1906 – 8 June 1993), married Princess Margarete of Thurn and Taxis
Prince Philipp Ernst of Thurn and Taxis (7 May 1908 – 23 July 1964), married Princess Eulalia of Thurn and Taxis
Ancestry
References
1870 births
1952 deaths
People from Fejér County
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
Austrian princesses
Princesses of Thurn und Taxis
Dames of Malta
Burials at the Gruftkapelle, St. Emmeram's Abbey
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Мусалай (підрозділ окружного секретаріату)
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Мусалай (підрозділ окружного секретаріату)
Підрозділ окружного секретаріату — підрозділ окружного секретаріату округу Маннар, Північна провінція, Шрі-Ланка. Складається з 20 Грама Ніладхарі.
Джерела
Divisional Secretariats Portal
Підрозділи окружного секретаріату Шрі-Ланки
Адміністративний поділ Шрі-Ланки
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Чижув (Тарновський повіт)
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Чижув (Тарновський повіт)
Чижув — село в Польщі, у гміні Жабно Тарновського повіту Малопольського воєводства.
Населення — (2011).
У 1975-1998 роках село належало до Тарновського воєводства.
Демографія
Демографічна структура станом на 31 березня 2011 року:
Примітки
.
Села Тарновського повіту
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0
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Нагірянська селищна громада
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Нагірянська селищна громада — територіальна громада в Україні, у Чортківському районі Тернопільської области. Адміністративний центр — с-ще Нагірянка.
Площа громади — 181,7 км², населення — осіб (2020).
Утворена 1 грудня 2020 року шляхом об'єднання Заболотівської, Капустинської, Милівецької, Мухавської, Нагірянської, Сосулівської, Староягільницької, Улашківської, Шульганівської, Ягільницької сільських рад Чортківського району.
Населені пункти
У складі громади 1 селище (Нагірянка) і 11 сіл:
Долина
Заболотівка
Капустинці
Милівці
Мухавка
Сосулівка
Стара Ягільниця
Черкавщина
Улашківці
Шульганівка
Ягільниця
Примітки
Громади Чортківського району
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7541952
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sveti%20Filip%20i%20Jakov
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Sveti Filip i Jakov
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Sveti Filip i Jakov is a municipality in Croatia in Zadar County. It has a total population of 4,606, in the following settlements:
Donje Raštane, population 499
Gornje Raštane, population 456
Sikovo, population 374
Sveti Filip i Jakov, population 1667
Sveti Petar na Moru, population 403
Turanj, population 1207
At the time of the 2011 census, 98% of the inhabitants were Croats.
The municipality's Church of Saint Roch is classified by the Croatian government as a tourist locality.
Sveti Filip and Jakov were first mentioned in historical documents in 1387, in the document "sub Rogoua ad sanctus Philipum et Jacobum" and in 1388 as "contrada of Saint Jacob" - positi Rogue iuxtra in contrata sancti lacobi.'' Old center place was built during the 16th and 17th centuries.
References
External links
Official Website
Municipalities of Croatia
Populated places in Zadar County
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Гірнича промисловість Індонезії
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Гірнича промисловість Індонезії — одна з провідних галузей промисловості Індонезії. Наприкінці XX соліття вона мала яскраво виражений експортний характер. Її частка у ВВП країни наприкінці XX ст. — близько 15 %.
Загальна характерисника
З країни в 1990-ті роки практично повністю вивозилися боксити, мідна, нікелева і марганцева руди, а також такі продукти первинної переробки мінеральної сировини: феронікель, золото, нікелевий штейн, металічне олово. На експорт йшло близько 75 % нафти, 50 % природного газу та 40 % нікелевої руди. Основний споживач продукції гірничодобувної промисловості Індонезії — Японія. Гірничодобувна промисловость Індонезії використовує в основному імпортне обладнання, що поставляється з Японії, США і ФРН.
У галузях важкої індустрії, пов'язаних з використанням нерудних корисних копалин і хімічної сировини в 1990-х роках найхарактернішими були три напрями господарської активності: переробка нафти, виробництво мінеральних добрив і цементу. У чорній і кольоровій металургії провідне місце зайняли два великих комплекси — сталеплавильний комбінат в місті Чилегоні і алюмінієвий завод в окрузі Асахані (Північна Суматра). У середині 1990-х років був введений в експлуатацію перший в країні нафтохімічний комплекс, розміщений поблизу Чилегону, і спорудили другий комплекс в Тубані (острів Ява). У 1990-х роках швидко збільшувалося виробництво цементу, що диктувалося зростаючими потребами будівельної галузі.
Гірничо-металургійна промисловість Індонезії на 1998 р. за даними фірми PricewaterhouseCoopers була представлена 12 найбільшими гірничими і гірничо-металургійними та 27 геологорозвідувальними компаніями. У 1998 р. чистий прибуток на середні активи цих компаній становив 7 % (по компаніях Австралії всього 1 %). У гірничій промисловості Індонезії зайнято 30 тис. чоловік, надходження від експорту продукції становлять приблизно 3 млрд доларів на рік і податкові надходження до бюджету понад 500 млн доларів на рік. Готується введення закону про заборону відкритих гірничих робіт на площах лісів, що охороняються. Реалізація цього закону вплине на 41 % діючих контрактів провадження гірничих робіт. Закритими для провадження гірничих робіт виявляться 30 % території країни .
На межі XX-XXI ст. місце гірничодобувної промисловості Індонезії у світовій визначається в першу чергу оловодобувною, нікелевою, золотодобувною і нафтогазовою промисловістю (див. табл.). За виробництвом олов'яного концентрату, видобутком нікелевої руди і природного газу Індонезія входить у число 5 найбільших продуцентів у світі, золота — в число семи (в 1996 р. Індонезія виробила 92,1 т золота, в 1997 р. — 101,4 т), а за видобутком нафти — в число десяти. Основні райони гірничодобувної промисловості Індонезії — острів Суматра і сусідні острови (Бінтан, Банка, Белітунг, Сінкеп), де зосереджено весь видобуток вугілля, олова, бокситів, нафти і газу.
Таблиця. — Динаміка видобутку і переробки мінеральної сировини в Індонезії (тис. т)*.
* [Mining Annual Review 2002]
Окремі галузі
Кобальт і нікель. Найперспективніші для освоєння кобальт-нікелеві родовища Санта-Моніка і Пінто (Пінту). Латерити Санта-Моніки залягають на площі 9.9 км². Виявлені ресурси оцінені в 79.1 млн т руди з сер. вмістом нікелю 1.38 %, кобальту — 0.09 %. На родов. Пінто (на схід від Санта-Моніки) — зони лімонітів потужністю 4-8 м із вмістом нікелю 1-1.5 %, кобальту — 0.11-0.18 %. Перевагою обох об'єктів перед іншими родовищами району є близькість їх до узбережжя (бл. 10 км), де планується будівництво металургійного заводу. Для переділу планують використати технологію HPAL. Видобуток і переробку руд вестимуть компанії Weda Bay Minerals та OM Group Inc. (OMG). Планується виробляти протягом 20 років по 48.5 тис. т нікелю і 4.6 тис. т кобальту в змішаному напівпродукті на рік. Рафінування металів буде здійснюватися на рафінувальному підприємстві OMG в м. Хар'явалта, Норвегія.
Компанії Falconbridge, BHP і Aneka Tambang планують будівництво нового гірничо-металургійного підприємства з видобутку і переробки Ni-Co-руд Gas Island на сході Індонезійського архіпелагу. Ресурси руди що залучається до розробки оцінюються в 240 млн т з середнім вмістом Ni 1,35 і Co 0,08 %, включаючи запаси 12 млн т в окисненій зоні і 93 млн т в силікатній. Проектна продуктивність підприємства становитиме 61 тис. т Ni на рік .
Індонезійська олов'яна індустрія, яка представлена зокрема найбільшою у світі оловодобувною компанією PT Timah, на початку XXI ст. знаходилася в складній фінансовій ситуації внаслідок зниження світових цін на олово, внутрішньої конкуренції в країні з великою кількістю (бл. 6000) дрібних виробників. Експорт олова здійснюється здебільшого до Сінгапура, Таїланду і Малайзії.
Нафта і газ. У 1970-х — на початку 1980-х років нафтовидобуток був найважливішою галуззю промисловості в Індонезії. У період нафтового буму 1974—1982 рр. встановлено режим жорсткого державного управління економікою. З закінченням сплеску світових цін на нафту на початку — середині 1980-х років почався етап відкату від регулювання економіки державою. У 1997 на світовий ринок було поставлено нафти і газу на суму понад 11 млрд дол. — 22 % вартості всього експорту.
За видобутком природного газу на межі XX-XXI ст. Індонезія займає 6-е місце у світі, а за його експортом — 1-е місце.
Вугледобувна галузь Індонезії динамічно розвивається і займає 8-е місце у світі (2001). З 90-х років XX ст. середній ріст видобутку вугілля в країні становив бл. 9 % річних. Динаміка вуглевидобутку включаючи буре вугілля (млн т): 1988 — 4,5; 1989 — 8,6; 1990 — 10; 1994 — 32,3; 1998 — 60; 1999 — 71; 2000 — 72; 2001 — 92; 2003 — до 120 (оцінка). Видобуток ведуть державні і приватні компанії.
Основний продуцент вугілля — державна компанія PT Bukit Asam Co. (PTBA). Застосовуються багатоківшеві колісні екскаватори для безперервного видобутку, а також звичайні вагонетки і екскаватори типу зворотної лопати. Підземний видобуток не отримав значного розвитку. Внутрішнє споживання вугілля до 2005 р складе бл. 25 млн т/рік. За експортом енергетичного вугілля Індонезія займає 3-є місце у світі після Китаю та ПАР (2002). Головні країни та регіони-імпортери: Японія, Індія, Європа, США і Південна Америка. При цьому частка експорту вугілля з Індонезії в країни Азії становить 75 %, а основними імпортерами його серед країн Азії є Японія (в 1999 р. — понад 14 млн т), Тайвань (12 млн т) і Корея (6 млн т) [CoalTrans Int. — 2000. — 15, № 3. — Р. 19-20, 22].
Провідна державна вугледобувна компанія РТ Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam (PT BA) має 2 головних виробничих центри — на півдні і заході Суматри, постачає вугілля на 2 електростанції, ряд цементних заводів, має декілька шахт і брикетних фабрик. Резерви вугілля оцінені в 5,5 млрд т, в тому числі 69 % бурого вугілля і низькоякісного кам'яного. В рамках компанії діють 4 кар'єри і шахта з суббітумінозним вугіллям; загальний обсяг видобутку в 2000 р. становив 12,8 млн т..
Мідь. Індонезія диспонує двома міднодобувними комплексами світового класу — Tembagapura в провінції Папуа (колишня Irian Jaya), оператором якого є PT Freeport Indonesia (PTFI), і комплексом на південному заході острова Сумбава, яким управляє компанія PT Newmont Nusa-Tenggara.
За оцінкою Геологічної служби США в 2000 р. (в дужках дані за 1999 р.) в Індонезії видобуто 740(740) тис. т Cu в руді (3-є місце після Чилі і США), у світі — 13,082(12,6) млн т. За даними International Copper Study Group (ICSG) в Індонезії в найближчі роки стане до ладу мідний рудник Бату-Хіжау та мідеплавильний завод Гресик.
Золото і срібло в Індонезії видобувають г.ч. попутно при переробці Cu-Au-Ag руд. Золоте виробництво в 2001 збільшилося на 31 %, в порівнянні з 2000, переважно в результаті експлуатації особливої золотої багатої руди PTFI в Tembagapura. Тут добули 109 128 кг золота, яке міститься в мідному концентраті. Срібний видобуток також збільшений на 10.9 %, до 348 332 кг. Серед інших виробників золота і срібла виділяється PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara's Batu Hijau, який контролює мідний рудник на о-ві Сумбава (Sumbawa). Тут видобувають 16 т золота і бл. 50 т срібла на рік з мідних концентратів.
Боксит видобувають на копальні Lomesa на о-ві Бінтан (Bintan) в пров. Riau. Оператор — компанія PT Minera Cipta Guna. Родовище Ломеса (Lomesa) буде виснажене в 2003 і для того, щоб підтримати видобуток та експорт бокситів Індонезія планує розробку бокситового родовища Кендаванґан (Kendawangan), яке розташоване на заході пров. Калімантан.
Видобуток залізного піску здійснюють на півдні о-ва Ява. Динаміка видобутку на початку XXI ст. негативна, що викликано застосуванням мідного шлаку, який може використовуватися, як замісник залізного піску у цементному виробництві.
Алмази. Торонтська компанія BM Diamondcorp (80 %) разом з індонезійською добувною компанією Antam (20 %) планує довготривалий (18 років) проект видобутку алмазів в Індонезії. Встановлені запаси алмазів складають понад 700000 кар. Дочірня фірма BM Diamondcorp — Galuh Cempaka, буде добувати алмази як на суші, так і за допомогою драг, зокрема в півд.-східному Калімантані, на острові Борнео [Rapaport TradeWire].
Наукові установи. Підготовка кадрів. Друк
Усі геологорозвідувальні і гірничі роботи в Індонезії проводяться під керівництвом Міністерства гірничодобувної промисловості та енергетики. Науково-дослідний інститут нафти і газу, засн. у 1965 р в Джакарті. Наук. дослідження в області геології і гірничої справи ведуться також в Нац. інституті геології і гірничої справи — філіалі Індонезійського н.-д. інституту. Геол. н.-д. центр в Бандунзі засн. в 1978 р; Інститут гірничої справи в Джакарті — в 1850 р. Геологів і гірничих інженерів готує гірничий університет в Бандунзі, а також периферійні університети. В основному індонезійські геологи і гірничі інженери дістають освіту в університетах США і Нідерландів.
Періодичні видання в галузі геології і гірничої справи: «Berita Berkala Direktorat Geologi» (з 1961 р), «Bulletin of the National Institute of Geology and Mining» (з 1968), «Madjalah lkatan ahli Geologi Indonesia» (з 1962), «Seismological Bulletin» (з 1949), «Pertamina. News of the Indonesian Oil Mining Industry» (з 1962), «Petroleum and Natural Cas industry of Indonesia. Mouthly bulletin» (з 1970), «Stannia» (з 1970).
Див. також
Корисні копалини Індонезії
Історія освоєння мінеральних ресурсів Індонезії
Геологія Індонезії
Гідрогеологія Індонезії
Економіка Індонезії
Примітки
Джерела
Гайко Г. І., Білецький В. С. Історія гірництва: Підручник. — Київ-Алчевськ: Видавничий дім «Києво-Могилянська академія», видавництво «ЛАДО» ДонДТУ, 2013. — 542 с.
Індонезії
Гірнича промисловість Індонезії
Промисловість Індонезії
Індонезія
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Vienen
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Vienen
"Vienen" is the eighteenth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files, and is the 179th episode overall. The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on April 29, 2001, on the Fox Network, and in the United Kingdom on June 7. It was written by staff member Steven Maeda, was directed by Rod Hardy, and forms part of the series' overarching mythology. The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 7.4 and was viewed by 11.8 million viewers. "Vienen" received mixed to positive reviews from critics, many of whom appreciated its hearkening-back to the older mythology of The X-Files.
The season centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson), her new partner John Doggett (Robert Patrick), and Scully's former partner Fox Mulder (David Duchovny), who work on X-Filescases linked to the paranormal. In this episode, Mulder disobeys orders to stay away from the X-Files and finds himself stranded on a quarantined oil platform with Doggett. They soon discover that the crew has been infected with the black oil, an alien virus that Mulder and Scully have encountered many times before. Despite their dislike for each other, Mulder and Doggett team up and escape before the infected crew members are able to capture and kill them.
The episode was a series milestone, and features the last appearance of the alien black oil before the series finale, where it appeared via flashback—a plot device that plays a significant role in the series and in the 1998 X-Files movie. The oil effects were created using chocolate syrup and molasses. Principal filming for "Vienen" was carried out at three locations: an oil platform, an oil refinery, and on a specially-created set. The episode's title is a Spanish word meaning "they come" or "they are coming", and has been interpreted as foreshadowing the show's Super Soldier narrative arc. Elements of the plot have been compared to the ancient Greek religious and mythological figure Orpheus.
Plot
Simon de la Cruz, a worker on an oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico, fatally stabs fellow crew member Ed Dell, the radio operator. He then starts destroying the platform's radio equipment but is confronted by Bo Taylor, whose body then begins to glow.
At FBI headquarters, Special Agent Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) tells Special Agent John Doggett (Robert Patrick) about the murder and explains that ninety percent of de la Cruz's body was covered with apparent radiation burns. Galpex Petroleum, the platform's owner, officially attributes the burns to an explosion, but Mulder suspects the involvement of black oil. Mulder and Doggett meet Galpex's vice-president, Martin Ortega (Miguel Sandoval), who tells them that the company has discovered a large oil reserve in the Gulf of Mexico. Deputy Director Alvin Kersh (James Pickens, Jr.) sends Doggett to the Gulf to investigate, but Mulder is already present when Doggett arrives. The agents meet Taylor, who claims de la Cruz tried to blow up the platform.
Meanwhile, Special Agent Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) finds black oil in de la Cruz's skull during an autopsy—the oil is dead and seems to have been irradiated. She concludes that he may have had some immunity to the black oil because he is an indigenous Mexican national. Doggett and Mulder find proof of black oil and quarantine the platform, but de la Cruz's friend Diego Garza is missing. Ortega threatens to bring back the crew unless the agents can provide proof of an infection. Doggett and Mulder search for Garza who, like de la Cruz, also has Native American heritage. They later discover that somebody has set fire to the communications room. As the agents tackle the fire, Garza attacks Doggett and renders him unconscious. When he awakens, Garza, now mentally unstable, cuts his arm to check for the presence of black oil.
Meanwhile, an annoyed Kersh tells Scully that he is lifting the quarantine of the platform, which she is forced to reluctantly obey. Scully then realizes that de la Cruz is immune to the black oil, and because of it, he suffered from radiation burns instead of infection. After talking to Garza, Doggett leaves to find Mulder but is attacked by Taylor. Mulder arrives and overpowers Taylor, and the agents barricade themselves in the communication room. They attempt to relay a message while the platform's crew attack the door. Scully receives the message and tells them that Kersh has broken the quarantine. Mulder destroys the platform's radio so that the infected crew cannot communicate with the aliens. Suddenly, the crewmen stop their attack and begin to sabotage the platform, forcing Doggett and Mulder to jump off before it is destroyed. They are rescued by the helicopters Kersh has sent to break the quarantine. Later, Mulder informs Doggett that he has been dismissed from the FBI.
Production
Writing and filming
"Vienen" was written by Steven Maeda as a vehicle for Mulder to pass on the X-Files legacy to Doggett. Patrick compared Mulder to a Greek chorus and said that the episode was a "way to have Mulder give Doggett his blessing and pass him The X-Files baton." Maeda complimented the show's producers for deciding to pass the X-Files division over to Doggett, noting that they were "aware of what's going on in the audience's head". The title, "Vienen," is Spanish; it is the third-person plural present indicative form of venir, which means "they come" or "they are coming".
The episode was directed by Rod Hardy, who directed the earlier season eight episodes "Roadrunners" and "Salvage". Hardy was offered the role after an unknown individual working on The X-Files saw his TBS remake of the film High Noon. Of the three season eight episodes that he helmed, Hardy enjoyed directing this episode most due to its adherence to the series' mythology; he later described the episode as "classic X-Files." The eighth season was filmed out of order; "Vienen" was the sixteenth episode produced but the eighteenth aired, largely due to Duchovny's availability. Each episode of The X-Files usually took about eighteen days to film, including seven days for pre-production, nine for main-unit shooting, and two for second-unit filming. "Vienen" was produced in eleven days because the crew worked thirteen- to fourteen-hour shifts.
"Vienen" was shot in three locations: a studio in Los Angeles, a closed-down CENCO oil refinery in Santa Fe Springs, and an offshore oil platform in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Santa Barbara. During the show's previous seasons, location manager Ilt Jones had been required to scout for locations after scripts were submitted. Starting with the eighth season, however, he was allowed to go on several "scouting roadshow[s]" in order to find new and interesting locations that could be written into scripts. Jones, who discovered the oil platform and the refinery during his first scouting trip, later said the oil platform was "his favorite example" of places he was able to find. Because the platform and refinery were scouted in advance, Jones was given six weeks to prepare the shoota "far cry" from the usual two. This added time also saved the series a considerable amount of money. Filming on the oil platform occurred between sunrise and sunset in one day. The film crew used Steadicams for filming on the oil platform because the decks were slick with oil and, according to Hardy, the cameras "sort of fit and blend[ed] in quite well" on the platform.
The series' leading actors were required to film in three separate locations. Anderson's scenes were filmed solely on the show's sets in Los Angeles. Since her character did not accompany Mulder and Doggett, Anderson had no scenes with Patrick and Duchovny, except for the opening sequence that takes place in Kersh's office. Most of Patrick and Duchovny's scenes were filmed on the oil platform and at the refinery, although several key scenes, including the destruction of the oil platform, were filmed on the show's set in Los Angeles. Patrick and Duchovny were flown between the three locations. Others scenes were filmed in the studio. Production designer Corey Kaplan was tasked with recreating the oil platform's control room, mess hall, and some operational sections, which required "a brilliant piece of synergy between all [of the series'] departments" in order to come together. The scene in which the oil platform bursts into flame was created in the studio on the mock-rig set. The set was made of wood, posing a unique challenge for the art department, as they had to make it look as if the fire was melting steel.
Special effects
The scene in which Mulder and Doggett agree to jump from the oil platformwhich was shot in a way that evokes a similar scene in the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kidwas filmed by having Patrick and Duchovny jump in front of a green screen. Separate footage of the rig exploding, created by combining actual shots of the rig with CGI, was then filmed, and the two shots were composited on top of one another.
The episode featured the penultimate appearance of the alien black oil; it would appear for a final time via flashback in the series finale. Visual effects for the black oil were created by combining molasses and chocolate syrup with computer-generated imagery (CGI) imagery. Nine takes were needed for the scene in which the black oil pours out of a worker's eyes, ears, and mouth, as the syrupy mixture would not spill correctly.
Themes
Michelle Bush, in her book Myth-X, noted that the oil platform is named "Galpex-Orpheux", a reference to the ancient Greek religious and mythological figure Orpheus, who was a legendary musician, poet, and prophet. According to the myth, Orpheus's wife Eurydice stepped on a viper, was bitten, and died instantly. Hades, the god of the underworld—after hearing Orpheus' moving music—allowed Orpheus to retrieve his wife's soul with one condition: he must not look at her until the two of them have climbed safely out of the underworld. Orpheus fails, and his wife's soul is returned to the underworld. Bush compared Orpheus's otherworldly singing to the "broadband signal which is the catalyst for the events on the rig". In the episode, Mulder, Doggett, and the two Huecha Indians "wreak havoc" because of their fear, and the "black oil slips back to the underworld".
In regards to the episode's title, Bush argued that while the Spanish word vienen means "they are coming", the episode does not explain who "they" are. She wrote that the verb could refer to either "the aliens" who are planning on colonizing the Earth or to "the humans that are disturbing the black oil". Douglas Kellner, in his book Media Spectacle, writes that, because the episode alludes to the series' "Super Soldiers" story arc (a plot thread that had previously been referenced in the eighth-season episode "This Is Not Happening" and which would be explored heavily near the end of the show's eighth season and throughout its ninth), it is likely that the title refers to the inevitable onslaught of these alien warriors.
Reception
Ratings and release
"Vienen" premiered on American television on April 29, 2001. It received a Nielsen household rating of 7.4, meaning that it was seen by an estimated 7.4% of US households and was viewed by 11.8 million viewers overall. The episode debuted in Ireland and the United Kingdom on June 7 on Sky 1, and was the channel's sixth-most watched program for that week with 0.52 million viewers. On November 4, 2003, the episode was released as part of the eighth-season DVD box set. Vienen was later included on The X-Files Mythology, Volume 4 – Super Soldiers, a DVD collection including episodes involving the alien super soldiers arc.
The episode's casting and plot initially proved controversial when in early 2001, Hispanic activists complained about the often negative portrayal of Latinos on television, particularly in the Law & Order episode "Sunday in the Park with Jorge". In turn, the major broadcasters signed agreements that created a head of diversity at each network. When the episode's title and synopsis were announced, some activists worried that it would further propagate negative stereotypes.
Reviews
Michael Liedtke and George Avalos of the Contra Costa Times were pleased with the episode and wrote, "The latest episode also contained many of the elements of a classic mythology episode. The stakes were huge and the heroes faced the greatest of hazards. The use of the oil rig created a sense of isolation for Mulder and Doggett, and the paranoia levels were sky-high. We still can't figure out why we haven't seen more episodes along the lines of Vienen during the past three seasons." Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity awarded the episode a "B". Tom Kessenich, in his book Examinations, gave Vienen a positive review, and wrote, "after watching 'Vienen', I can honestly say that for once of the few times this season, it felt good to be an X-Files fan again". Kessenich praised the significant development in Mulder and Scully's relationship and the return of the "fourth season version" of the black oil; the 1998 movie had dramatically altered the nature of the substanceinfected hosts gestate aliens inside their bodies rather than merely being taken over.
Emily VanDerWerff from The A.V. Club named the episode one of the "10 must-see episodes" of The X-Files, and wrote that it "abruptly makes the series’ alien-conspiracy storyline relevant again." Her review concludes, "[i]t's a fine example of a show past its glory days, nevertheless finding a way to make itself relevant again." VanDerWerff later awarded the episode an "A−" and praised—in addition to its refreshing take on the alien mythology—the episode's location, noting that the oil rig's "isolation and man-made island status, was definitely the sort of place that would look and feel different from just about every other episode of the show." She also applauded the dynamic between Mulder and Doggett, and wrote that the episode successfully was a way for "David Duchovny and Fox Mulder to pass the torch to Robert Patrick and John Doggett."
Not all reviews were positive. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode two stars out of five and wrote that the installment's return to the black oil mythos seemed "out of date". They also wrote that Mulder and Doggett are "good at running away, which doesn't give either of them much dignity." Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one-and-a-half stars out of four. She wrote, "as action-adventure, 'Veinen' is so-so. Except for the big 'money shot' explosion at the end, it doesn't exploit the possibilities of the physical location." Meghan Deans of Tor.com ultimately concluded that "while 'Vienen' works hard to hit its marks—a classic villain, a battle of dudes—it can’t measure up to all that’s come before it." She surmised that "the transfer [from Mulder to Doggett] is functional, but the transfer is hollow." She did, however, applaud the return of the black oil.
Footnotes
Work cited
External links
"Vienen" at TheXFiles.com
2001 American television episodes
Fictional works set in the Atlantic Ocean
The X-Files season 8 episodes
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC-%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85
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Нізам-шах
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Нізам-шах
Муртаза Нізам-шах III (помер 1636) — останній султан Ахмеднагарського султанату.
Бурхан Нізам-шах II (помер 1595) — султан Ахмеднагарського султанату.
Малік Ахмад Нізам-шах I (помер 1510) — засновник і перший султан Ахмеднагарського султанату.
Бахадур Нізам-шах (1593 — після 1633) — 10-й султан Ахмеднагарського султанату у 1596—1600 роках.
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2914568
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunburned%20rat
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Sunburned rat
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Sunburned rat
The sunburned rat (Rattus adustus) is a species of rat from Enggano Island in Indonesia. It is only known from the holotype and has not been recorded since its description in 1940.
References
Rattus
Rats of Asia
Endemic fauna of Indonesia
Rodents of Indonesia
Mammals described in 1940
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN
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19880
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%20%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9
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Слабник водяний
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Слабник водяний (Myosoton aquaticum (L.) Moench = Malachium aquaticum (L.) Fr. = Stellaria aquatica Scop) — багаторічна гілляста рослина з родини гвоздичних.
Опис
Багаторічна рослина 20–70 см заввишки. Рослини внизу голі, вгорі залозисто запушені. Листки яйцеподібні або довгасто-яйцеподібні. Чашолистки трав'янисті, 4–6 мм завдовжки. Пелюстки глибоко-2-роздільні, білі, в 1.5–2 рази довші за чашолистки.
Поширення
Поширений майже по всій Європі, у помірній Азії, Китаї, півночі Індії, півночі Пакистану; натуралізований у пд. Канаді та США.
В Україні вид зростає на вологих затінених місцях, по лісових струмках, берегах річок, навколо жител як бур'ян.
Галерея
Примітки
Література
водяний
Флора України
Флора Європи
Флора Азії
Рослини, описані 1794
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18626791
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liza%20Nowa
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Liza Nowa
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Liza Nowa is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Poświętne, within Białystok County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland. It lies approximately south-west of Poświętne and south-west of the regional capital Białystok.
References
Liza Nowa
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%20%28%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C%29
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Перевалово (Калінінградська область)
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Перевалово (Калінінградська область)
Перевалово — селище Правдинського району, Калінінградської області Росії. Входить до складу Мозирського сільського поселення.
Населення — 35 осіб (2015 рік).
Населення
Примітки
Селища Калінінградської області
Населені пункти Правдинського району
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19900864
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urzut
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Urzut
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Urzut is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Nadarzyn, within Pruszków County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately south-west of Nadarzyn, south of Pruszków, and south-west of Warsaw.
References
Urzut
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747259
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency%20theory
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Dependency theory
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Dependency theory is the idea that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and exploited states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. A central contention of dependency theory is that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system". This theory was officially developed in the late 1960s following World War II, as scholars searched for the root issue in the lack of development in Latin America.
The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.
Some writers have argued for its continuing relevance as a conceptual orientation to the global division of wealth. Dependency theorists can typically be divided into two categories: liberal reformists and neo-Marxists. Liberal reformists typically advocate for targeted policy interventions, while the neo-Marxists propose a planned economy.
Basics
The premises of dependency theory are that:
Poor nations provide natural resources, cheap labour, a destination for obsolete technology, and markets for developed nations, without which the latter could not have the standard of living they enjoy.
Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means. This influence may be multifaceted, involving economics, media control, politics, banking and finance, education, culture, and sport.
History
Dependency theory originates with two papers published in 1949, one by Hans Singer and one by Raúl Prebisch, in which the authors observe that the terms of trade for underdeveloped countries relative to the developed countries had deteriorated over time: the underdeveloped countries were able to purchase fewer and fewer manufactured goods from the developed countries in exchange for a given quantity of their raw materials exports. This idea is known as the Prebisch–Singer thesis. Prebisch, an Argentine economist at the United Nations Commission for Latin America (UNCLA), went on to conclude that the underdeveloped nations must employ some degree of protectionism in trade if they were to enter a self-sustaining development path. He argued that import-substitution industrialisation (ISI), not a trade-and-export orientation, was the best strategy for underdeveloped countries. The theory was developed from a Marxian perspective by Paul A. Baran in 1957 with the publication of his The Political Economy of Growth. Dependency theory shares many points with earlier, Marxist, theories of imperialism by Rosa Luxemburg and Vladimir Lenin, and has attracted continued interest from Marxists. Some authors identify two main streams in dependency theory: the Latin American Structuralist, typified by the work of Prebisch, Celso Furtado, and Aníbal Pinto at the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC, or, in Spanish, CEPAL); and the American Marxist, developed by Paul A. Baran, Paul Sweezy, and Andre Gunder Frank.
Using the Latin American dependency model, the Guyanese Marxist historian Walter Rodney, in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, described in 1972 an Africa that had been consciously exploited by European imperialists, leading directly to the modern underdevelopment of most of the continent.
The theory was popular in the 1960s and 1970s as a criticism of modernization theory, which was falling increasingly out of favor because of continued widespread poverty in much of the world. At that time the assumptions of liberal theories of development were under attack. It was used to explain the causes of overurbanization, a theory that urbanization rates outpaced industrial growth in several developing countries.
The Latin American Structuralist and the American Marxist schools had significant differences but, according to economist Matias Vernengo, they agreed on some basic points:[B]oth groups would agree that at the core of the dependency relation between center and periphery lays [lies] the inability of the periphery to develop an autonomous and dynamic process of technological innovation. Technology – the Promethean force unleashed by the Industrial Revolution – is at the center of stage. The Center countries controlled the technology and the systems for generating technology. Foreign capital could not solve the problem, since it only led to limited transmission of technology, but not the process of innovation itself. Baran and others frequently spoke of the international division of labour – skilled workers in the center; unskilled in the periphery – when discussing key features of dependency.
Baran placed surplus extraction and capital accumulation at the center of his analysis. Development depends on a population's producing more than it needs for bare subsistence (a surplus). Further, some of that surplus must be used for capital accumulation – the purchase of new means of production – if development is to occur; spending the surplus on things like luxury consumption does not produce development. Baran noted two predominant kinds of economic activity in poor countries. In the older of the two, plantation agriculture, which originated in colonial times, most of the surplus goes to the landowners, who use it to emulate the consumption patterns of wealthy people in the developed world; much of it thus goes to purchase foreign-produced luxury items –automobiles, clothes, etc. – and little is accumulated for investing in development. The more recent kind of economic activity in the periphery is industry—but of a particular kind. It is usually carried out by foreigners, although often in conjunction with local interests. It is often under special tariff protection or other government concessions. The surplus from this production mostly goes to two places: part of it is sent back to the foreign shareholders as profit; the other part is spent on conspicuous consumption in a similar fashion to that of the plantation aristocracy. Again, little is used for development. Baran thought that political revolution was necessary to break this pattern.
In the 1960s, members of the Latin American Structuralist school argued that there is more latitude in the system than the Marxists believed. They argued that it allows for partial development or "dependent development"–development, but still under the control of outside decision makers. They cited the partly successful attempts at industrialisation in Latin America around that time (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico) as evidence for this hypothesis. They were led to the position that dependency is not a relation between commodity exporters and industrialised countries, but between countries with different degrees of industrialisation. In their approach, there is a distinction made between the economic and political spheres: economically, one may be developed or underdeveloped; but even if (somewhat) economically developed, one may be politically autonomous or dependent. More recently, Guillermo O'Donnell has argued that constraints placed on development by neoliberalism were lifted by the military coups in Latin America that came to promote development in authoritarian guise (O'Donnell, 1982).
The importance of multinational corporations and state promotion of technology were emphasised by the Latin American Structuralists.
Fajnzylber has made a distinction between systemic or authentic competitiveness, which is the ability to compete based on higher productivity, and spurious competitiveness, which is based on low wages.
The third-world debt crisis of the 1980s and continued stagnation in Africa and Latin America in the 1990s caused some doubt as to the feasibility or desirability of "dependent development".
The sine qua non of the dependency relationship is not the difference in technological sophistication, as traditional dependency theorists believe, but rather the difference in financial strength between core and peripheral countries–particularly the inability of peripheral countries to borrow in their own currency. He believes that the hegemonic position of the United States is very strong because of the importance of its financial markets and because it controls the international reserve currency – the US dollar. He believes that the end of the Bretton Woods international financial agreements in the early 1970s considerably strengthened the United States' position because it removed some constraints on their financial actions.
"Standard" dependency theory differs from Marxism, in arguing against internationalism and any hope of progress in less developed nations towards industrialization and a liberating revolution. Theotonio dos Santos described a "new dependency", which focused on both the internal and external relations of less-developed countries of the periphery, derived from a Marxian analysis. Former Brazilian President Fernando Henrique Cardoso (in office 1995–2002) wrote extensively on dependency theory while in political exile during the 1960s, arguing that it was an approach to studying the economic disparities between the centre and periphery. Cardoso summarized his version of dependency theory as follows:
there is a financial and technological penetration by the developed capitalist centers of the countries of the periphery and semi-periphery;
this produces an unbalanced economic structure both within the peripheral societies and between them and the centers;
this leads to limitations on self-sustained growth in the periphery;
this favors the appearance of specific patterns of class relations;
these require modifications in the role of the state to guarantee both the functioning of the economy and the political articulation of a society, which contains, within itself, foci of inarticulateness and structural imbalance.
The analysis of development patterns in the 1990s and beyond is complicated by the fact that capitalism develops not smoothly, but with very strong and self-repeating ups and downs, called cycles. Relevant results are given in studies by Joshua Goldstein, Volker Bornschier, and Luigi Scandella.
With the economic growth of India and some East Asian economies, dependency theory has lost some of its former influence. It still influences some NGO campaigns, such as Make Poverty History and the fair trade movement.
Other theorists and related theories
Two other early writers relevant to dependency theory were François Perroux and Kurt Rothschild. Other leading dependency theorists include Herb Addo, Walden Bello, Ruy Mauro Marini, Enzo Faletto, Armando Cordova, Ernest Feder, Pablo González Casanova, Keith Griffin, Kunibert Raffer, Paul Israel Singer, Walter Rodney and Osvaldo Sunkel. Many of these authors focused their attention on Latin America; dependency theory in the Arab world was primarily refined by the Egyptian economist Samir Amin.
Tausch, based on works of Amin from 1973 to 1997, lists the following main characteristics of periphery capitalism:
Regression in both agriculture and small scale industry characterizes the period after the onslaught of foreign domination and colonialism
Unequal international specialization of the periphery leads to the concentration of activities in export-oriented agriculture and or mining. Some industrialization of the periphery is possible under the condition of low wages, which, together with rising productivity, determine that unequal exchange sets in (double factorial terms of trade < 1.0; see Raffer, 1987)
These structures determine in the long run a rapidly growing tertiary sector with hidden unemployment and the rising importance of rent in the overall social and economic system
Chronic current account balance deficits, re-exported profits of foreign investments, and deficient business cycles at the periphery that provide important markets for the centers during world economic upswings
Structural imbalances in the political and social relationships, inter alia a strong 'compradore' element and the rising importance of state capitalism and an indebted state class
The American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein refined the Marxist aspect of the theory and expanded on it, to form world-systems theory. World Systems Theory is also known as WST and aligns closely with the idea of the "rich get richer and the poor get poorer". Wallerstein states that the poor and peripheral nations continue to get more poor as the developed core nations use their resources to become richer. Wallerstein developed the World Systems Theory utilizing the Dependence theory along with the ideas of Marx and the Annales School. This theory postulates a third category of countries, the semi-periphery, intermediate between the core and periphery. Wallerstein believed in a tri-modal rather than a bi-modal system because he viewed the world-systems as more complicated than a simplistic classification as either core or periphery nations. To Wallerstein, many nations do not fit into one of these two categories, so he proposed the idea of a semi-periphery as an in between state within his model. In this model, the semi-periphery is industrialized, but with less sophistication of technology than in the core; and it does not control finances. The rise of one group of semi-peripheries tends to be at the cost of another group, but the unequal structure of the world economy based on unequal exchange tends to remain stable. Tausch traces the beginnings of world-systems theory to the writings of the Austro-Hungarian socialist Karl Polanyi after the First World War, but its present form is usually associated with the work of Wallerstein.
Dependency theorists hold that short-term spurts of growth notwithstanding, long-term growth in the periphery will be imbalanced and unequal, and will tend towards high negative current account balances. Cyclical fluctuations also have a profound effect on cross-national comparisons of economic growth and societal development in the medium and long run. What seemed like spectacular long-run growth may in the end turn out to be just a short run cyclical spurt after a long recession. Cycle time plays an important role. Giovanni Arrighi believed that the logic of accumulation on a world scale shifts over time, and that the 1980s and beyond once more showed a deregulated phase of world capitalism with a logic, characterized - in contrast to earlier regulatory cycles - by the dominance of financial capital.
Criticism
Economic policies based on dependency theory have been criticized by free-market economists such as Peter Bauer and Martin Wolf and others:
Lack of competition: by subsidizing in-country industries and preventing outside imports, these companies may have less incentive to improve their products, to try to become more efficient in their processes, to please customers, or to research new innovations.
Sustainability: industries reliant on government support may not be sustainable for very long, particularly in poorer countries and countries which largely depend on foreign aid from more developed countries.
Domestic opportunity costs: subsidies on domestic industries come out of state coffers and therefore represent money not spent in other ways, like development of domestic infrastructure, seed capital or need-based social welfare programs. At the same time, the higher prices caused by tariffs and restrictions on imports require the people either to forgo these goods altogether or buy them at higher prices, forgoing other goods.
Market economists cite a number of examples in their arguments against dependency theory. The improvement of India's economy after it moved from state-controlled business to open trade is one of the most often cited (see also economy of India, The Commanding Heights). India's example seems to contradict dependency theorists' claims concerning comparative advantage and mobility, as much as its economic growth originated from movements such as outsourcing – one of the most mobile forms of capital transfer. In Africa, states that have emphasized import-substitution development, such as Zimbabwe, have typically been among the worst performers, while the continent's most successful non-oil based economies, such as Egypt, South Africa, and Tunisia, have pursued trade-based development.
According to economic historian Robert C. Allen, dependency theory's claims are "debatable" due to fact that the protectionism that was implemented in Latin America as a solution ended up failing. The countries incurred too much debt and Latin America went into a recession. One of the problems was that the Latin American countries simply had too small national markets to be able to efficiently produce complex industrialized goods, such as automobiles.
Examples of dependency theory
Many nations have been affected by both the positive and negative effects of the Dependency Theory. The idea of national dependency on another nation is not a relatively new concept even though the dependency theory itself is rather new. Dependency is perpetuated by using capitalism and finance. The dependent nations come to owe the developed nations so much money and capital that it is not possible to escape the debt, continuing the dependency for the foreseeable future.
An example of the dependency theory is that during the years of 1650 to 1900 European nations such as Britain and France took over or colonialized other nations. They used their superior military technology and naval strength at the time to do this. This began an economic system in the Americas, Africa, and Asia to then export the natural materials from their land to Europe. After shipping the materials to Europe, Britain and the other European countries made products with these materials and then sent them back to colonized parts of the Americas, Africa, and Asia. This resulted in the transfer of wealth from these regions’ products to Europe for taking control of the products.
Some scholars and politicians claim that with the decline of colonialism, dependency has been erased. Other scholars counter this approach, and state that our society still has national powerhouses such as the United States, European Nations such as Germany and Britain, China, and rising India that hundreds of other nations rely on for military aid, economic investments, etc.
Aid dependency
Aid dependency is an economic problem described as the reliance of less developed countries (LDCs) on more developed countries (MDCs) for financial aid and other resources. More specifically, aid dependency refers to the proportion of government spending that is given by foreign donors. A nation having an aid dependency ratio of about 15%-20% or higher is correlated with negative outcomes for that nation. What causes dependency is the inhibition of development and economic/political reform that results from trying to use aid as a long-term solution to poverty-ridden countries. Aid dependency arose from long term provisions of aid to countries in need in which the receiving country became accustomed to and developed a dependency syndrome. Aid dependency is most common today in Africa. The top donors as of 2013 were the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany while the top receivers were Afghanistan, Vietnam, and Ethiopia.
History of aid dependence
International development aid became widely popularized post World-War Two due to first-world countries trying to create a more open economy as well as cold war competition. In 1970, the United Nations agreed on 0.7% of Gross National Income per country as the target for how much should be dedicated for international aid. In his book “Ending Aid Dependence”, Yash Tondon describes how organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) have driven many African countries into dependency. During the economic crisis in the 1980s and the 1990s, a great deal of Sub-Saharan countries in Africa saw an influx of aid money which in turn resulted in dependency over the next few decades. These countries became so dependent that the President of Tanzania, Benjamin W. Mkapa, stated that “Development aid has taken deep root to the psyche of the people, especially in the poorer countries of the South. It is similar to drug addiction.”
Motives for giving aid
While the widespread belief is that aid is motivated only by assisting poor countries, and this is true in some cases, there is substantial evidence that suggests strategic, political, and welfare interests of the donors are driving forces behind aid. Maizels and Nissanke (MN 1984), and McKinlay and Little (ML, 1977) have conducted studies to analyze donors’ motives. From these studies they found that US aid flows are influenced by military as well as strategic factors. British and French aid is given to countries that were former colonies, and also to countries in which they have significant investment interest and strong trade relations.
Stunted economic growth
A main concern revolving around the issue of foreign aid is that the citizens in the country that is benefiting from aid lose motivation to work after receiving aid. In addition, some citizens will deliberately work less, resulting in a lower income, which in turn qualifies them for aid provision. Aid dependent countries are associated with having a lowly motivated workforce, a result from being accustomed to constant aid, and therefore the country is less likely to make economic progress and the living-standards are less likely to be improved. A country with long-term aid dependency remains unable to be self-sufficient and is less likely to make meaningful GDP growth which would allow for them to rely less on aid from richer countries. Food aid has been criticized heavily along with other aid imports due to its damage to the domestic economy. A higher dependency on aid imports results in a decline in the domestic demand for those products. In the long-run, the agricultural industry in LDC countries grows weaker due to long-term declines in demand as a result from food aid. In the future when aid is decreased, many LDC countries's agricultural markets are under-developed and therefore it is cheaper to import agricultural products. This occurred in Haiti, where 80% of their grain stocks come from the United States even after a large decrease in aid. In countries where there is a primary-product dependency on an item being imported as aid, such as wheat, economic shocks can occur and push the country further into an economic crisis.
Political dependency
Political dependency occurs when donors have too much influence in the governance of the receiving country. Many donors maintain a strong say in the government due to the country's reliance on their money, causing a decrease in the effectiveness and democratic-quality of the government. This results in the receiving country's government making policy that the donor agrees with and supports rather than what the people of the country desire. Government corruptibility increases as a result and inhibits reform of the government and political process in the country. These donors can include other countries or organizations with underlying intentions that may not be in favor of the people. Political dependency is an even stronger negative effect of aid dependency in countries where many of the problems stem from already corrupt politics and a lack of civil rights. For example, Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of the Congo both have extremely high aid dependency ratios and have experienced political turmoil. The politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo have involved civil war and changing of regimes in the 21st century and have one of the highest aid dependency ratios in Africa.
As aid dependence can shift accountability away from the public and to being between state and donors, “presidentialism” can arise. Presidentialism is when the president and the cabinet within a political system have the power in political decision-making. In a democracy, budgets and public investment plans are to be approved by parliament. It is common for donors to fund projects outside of this budget and therefore go without parliament review. This further reinforces presidentialism and establishes practices that undermine democracy. Disputes over taxation and use of revenues are important in a democracy and can lead to better lives for citizens, but this cannot happen if citizens and parliaments don't know the complete proposed budget and spending priorities.
Aid dependency also compromises ownership which is marked by the ability of a government to implement its own ideas and policies. In aid dependent countries, the interests and ideas of aid agencies start to become priority and therefore erode ownership.
Corruption
Aid dependent countries rank worse in terms of level of corruption than in countries that are not dependent. Foreign aid is a potential source of rents, and rent-seeking can manifest as increased public sector employment. As public firms displace private investment, there is less pressure on the government to remain accountable and transparent as a result of the weakened private sector. Aid assists corruption which then fosters more corruption and creates a cycle. Foreign aid provides corrupt governments with free cash flow which further facilitates the corruption. Corruption works against economic growth and development, holding these poor countries down.
Efforts to end aid dependence
Since 2000, aid dependency has decreased by about ⅓. This can be seen in countries like Ghana, whose aid dependency decreased from 47% to 27%, as well as in Mozambique, where the aid dependency decreased from 74% to 58%. Target areas to decrease aid dependence include job creation, regional integration, and commercial engagement and trade. Long-term investment in agriculture and infrastructure are key requirements to end aid dependency as it will allow the country to slowly decrease the amount of food aid received and begin to develop its own agricultural economy and solve the food insecurity
Countering political corruption
Political corruption has been a strong force associated with maintaining dependency and being unable to see economic growth. During the Obama administration, congress claimed that the anti-corruption criteria The Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) used was not strict enough and was one of the obstacles to decreasing aid dependence. Often, in countries with a high corruption perception index the aid money is taken from government officials in the public sector or taken from other corrupt individuals in the private sector. Efforts to disapprove aid to countries where corruption is very prevalent have been a common tool used by organizations and governments to ensure funding is used properly but also to encourage other countries to fix the corruption.
Other methods of aid
It has been proven that foreign aid can prove useful in the long-run when directed towards the appropriate sector and managed accordingly. Specific pairing between organizations and donors with similar goals has produced more success in decreasing dependency than the tradition form of international aid which involves government to government communication. Botswana is a successful example of this. Botswana first began receiving aid in 1966. In this case, Botswana decided which areas needed aid and found donors accordingly rather than simply accepting aid from other countries whose governments had a say in where the money would be distributed towards. Recipient-led cases such as Botswana are more effective partially because it negates the donor's desirability to report numbers on the efficiency of their programs (that often include short-term figures such as food distributed) and instead focuses more on long-term growth and development that may be directed more towards infrastructure, education, and job development.
See also
Causes of poverty
Chicago Boys
Corporatocracy
Cycle of poverty
Distribution of wealth
Golden billion
Hierarchy theory
North–South model
Structural adjustment
Structuralist economics
The Shock Doctrine, by Naomi Klein
Third Space Theory
Uneven and combined development
Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation
World-systems theory
References
Bibliography
Working Paper No. 2004-06, University of Utah Dept. of Economics. Later published as:
Further reading
Amin S. (1976), 'Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formations of Peripheral Capitalism' New York: Monthly Review Press.
Amin S. (1994c), 'Re-reading the postwar period: an intellectual itinerary' Translated by Michael Wolfers. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Amin S. (1997b), 'Die Zukunft des Weltsystems. Herausforderungen der Globalisierung. Herausgegeben und aus dem Franzoesischen uebersetzt von Joachim Wilke' Hamburg: VSA.
Amadi, Luke. 2012. “Africa, Beyond the New Dependency: A Political Economy.” African Journal of Political Science and International Relations 6(8):191–203.
Andrade, Rogerio P. and Renata Carvalho Silva. n.d. “Doing Dissenting Economics in the Periphery: The Political Economy of Maria Da Conceição Tavares.”
Bornschier V. (1996), 'Western society in transition' New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.
Bornschier V. and Chase - Dunn C. (1985), 'Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment' N.Y., N.Y.: Praeger.
Boianovsky, Mauro and Ricaedo Solis. 2014. “The Origins and Development of the Latin American Structuralist Approach to the Balance of Payments, 1944–1964.” Review of Political Economy 26(1):23–59.
Cardoso, F. H. and Faletto, E. (1979), 'Dependency and development in Latin América'. University of California Press.
Cesaratto, Sergio. 2015. “Balance of Payments or Monetary Sovereignty? In Search of the EMU’s Original Sin.” International Journal of Political Economy 44(2):142–56.
Chilcote, Ronald H. 2009. “Trotsky and Development Theory in Latin America.” Critical Sociology 35(6):719–41.
Dávila-Fernández, Marwil and Adrianna Amado. n.d. “Conciliating Prebisch-Singer and Thirlwall: An Assessment of the Dynamics of Terms-of-Trade in a Balance-of-Payments-Constraint Growth Model.” https://web.archive.org/web/20220510222231/http://www.sseg.uniparthenope.it/Program_files/Davila-paper.pdf
Kufakurinani, U. Kvangraven, IH., Santanta, F., Styve, MD. (eds) (2017), Dialogues on Development. Volume 1: Dependency, New York: Institute for New Economic Thinking.
Henke, Holger (2000), 'Between Self-Determination and Dependency: Jamaica's Foreign Relations, 1972-1989' Kingston: University of the West Indies Press.
Jalata, Asafa. 2013. “Colonial Terrorism, Global Capitalism and African Underdevelopment: 500 Years of Crimes Against African Peoples.” The Journal of Pan-African Studies 5(9):1–43.
Kay, Cristóbal. 2005. “André Gunder Frank: From the ‘Development of Underdevelopment’ to the ‘World System.’” Development and Change 36(6):1177–83.
Kay, Cristóbal. 2011. “Andre Gunder Frank: ‘Unity in Diversity’ from the Development of Underdevelopment to the World System.” New Political Economy 16(4):523–38.
Kohler, Gernot, et al. Globalization : Critical Perspectives. Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2003. With contributions by Samir Amin, Immanuel Wallerstein, Christopher Chase-Dunn, Kimmo Kiljunen, Arno Tausch, Patrick Bond, Andre Gunder Frank, Robert J. S. Ross, et al. Pre-publication download of Chapter 5: The European Union: global challenge or global governance? 14 world system hypotheses and two scenarios on the future of the Union, pages 93 - 196 Arno Tausch at http://edoc.vifapol.de/opus/volltexte/2012/3587/pdf/049.pdf .
Kohler G. and Tausch A. (2002) Global Keynesianism: Unequal exchange and global exploitation. Huntington NY, Nova Science.
Lavoie, Marc. 2015. “The Eurozone Crisis: A Balance-of-Payments Problem or a Crisis Due to a Flawed Monetary Design?” International Journal of Political Economy 44(2):157–60.
Olutayo, Akinpelu O. and Ayokunle O. Omobowale. 2007. “Capitalism, Globalisation and the Underdevelopment Process in Africa: History in Perpetuity.” Africa Development 32(2).
Puntigliano, Andrés Rivarola and Örjan Appelqvist. 2011. “Prebisch and Myrdal: Development Economics in the Core and on the Periphery.” Journal of Global History 6(01):29–52.
Sunkel O. (1966), 'The Structural Background of Development Problems in Latin America' Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 97, 1: pp. 22 ff.
Sunkel O. (1973), 'El subdesarrollo latinoamericano y la teoria del desarrollo' Mexico: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 6a edicion.
Yotopoulos P. and Sawada Y. (1999), Free Currency Markets, Financial Crises And The Growth Debacle: Is There A Causal Relationship? , Revised November 1999, Stanford University, USA, and University of Tokyo.
Yotopoulos P. and Sawada Y. (2005), Exchange Rate Misalignment: A New test of Long-Run PPP Based on Cross-Country Data (CIRJE Discussion Paper CIRJE-F-318), February 2005, Faculty of Economics, University of Tokyo.
Tarhan, Ali. 2013. “Financial Crises and Center-Periphery Capital Flows.” Journal of Economic Issues 47(2):411–18.
Vernengo, Matías and David Fields. 2016. “DisORIENT: Money, Technological Development and the Rise of the West.” Review of Radical Political Economics 48(4):562–68.
External links
Centro Argentino de Estudios Internacionales
ECLAC/CEPAL Santiago
Revista Entelequia
University of Texas Inequality Project
Comparative politics
Development economics
Imperialism studies
World systems theory
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Пермеєво
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Пермеєво — село у складі Ічалківського району Мордовії, Росія. Входить до складу Лобаскинського сільського поселення.
Населення
Населення — 303 особи (2010; 367 у 2002).
Національний склад (станом на 2002 рік):
росіяни — 94 %
Джерела
Примітки
Посилання
На Вікімапії
Населені пункти Ічалківського району
Села Мордовії
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Невожілде
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Невожілде — португальська власна назва.
Топоніми
Невожілде (Віла-Верде) — парафія.
Невожілде (Лозада) — парафія.
Невожілде (Порту) — парафія.
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Осадонакопичення
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Осадонакопичення — процес взаємодії поверхневих геосфер Землі — атмосфери, гідросфери і літосфери за участю різних організмів (біосфери), який веде до утворення осадів на поверхні суші, в річках, озерах, морях, океанах.
Загальний опис
Джерело енергії для процесу осадконакопичення — сонячна радіація, що трансформується на поверхні Землі і у водних басейнах в різні біологічні і геологічні процеси. Джерелом речовини для утворення осадів є продукти вивітрювання і перемиву порід суші, берегів водних басейнів, життєдіяльності організмів, вулканічних вивержень і матеріалу, що надходить із космосу.
Масштаби континентального осадконагромадження різко обмежені за площею і приурочені, головним чином, до понижень у рельєфі – міжгір’їв, озер, долин річок, боліт тощо. Розповсюдження різних за складом та умовами утворення континентальних відкладів залежить від клімату. Для областей зі спекотним аридним кліматом характерними є еолові й сольові відклади; для рівнин із вологим гумідним кліматом – алювіальні, делювіальні, елювіальні, озерно-болотяні відклади; для областей материкового зледеніння – моренні, флювіогляціальні, озерно-льодовикові відклади.
В океанах, що за площею перевищують сушу майже вдвічі, осадконагромадження відбувається майже повсюдно. У мілководних зонах переважають теригенні (уламкові) відклади, які характеризуються значною товщиною осадків, різноманітністю їхнього складу і великою кількістю фауни. У глибоководних зонах розвинуті тонкі глинисті мули та відклади решток планктону. Морські відклади, як і континентальні, також залежать від кліматичних умов. Так, для теплих морів із нормальною солоністю характерними є коралові мули та рифи, для холодних морських вод – відклади діатомових мулів і т. ін.
Перерва у осадонакопиченні
Перерва у осадонакопиченні — проміжок часу, протягом якого на тій чи іншій ділянці осади не накопичувалися. Як правило, супроводжується розмивом раніше накопичених відкладів або утворенням кори вивітрювання.
Ритмічність осадонакопичення
Ритмічність осадонакопичення — відносно рівномірне повторення практично однакових або близьких умов осадонакопичення, внаслідок чого утворюються ритмічно-шаруваті осадові поклади (фліш). Ритмічність, як правило, обумовлюється тектонічними і кліматичними факторами.
Див. також
осади
осадові гірські породи
осадові родовища
стратиграфічна перерва
Поверхня нашарування
Галогенез
Література
Геологічні процеси
Седиментологія
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Битва трьох королів (фільм)
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Битва трьох королів (фільм)
«Битва трьох королів» — радянський історичний 2-серійний фільм 1990 року режисерів Сухейля Бен Барка і Учкуна Назарова. Випущений кінокомпанією Узбекфільм. Створений за участі Марокко, Іспанії й Італії. Сценарій Сухейля Бен Барка й Гвідо Кастільйо.
Загальний опис
Стрічка розповідає про життя марокканського султана Абдельмалека (Абд аль-Малік I), який тікає до Османської імперії, бере участь у її війнах проти європейців, а згодом, за підтримки турків здобуває марокканський престол. Кульмінація фільму — битва при Алкасер-Кібірі, так звана «битва трьох королів», в якій головний герой перемагає португальські війська Себаштіана.
Через поверховість діалогів, стереотипність персонажів і низький рівень постановки батальних сцен провалився в прокаті. У радянському прокаті носив назву «Вогняні барабани».
У ролях
Примітки
Посилання
Фільми СРСР 1990
Фільми Марокко
Фільми Узбекистану
Фільми Іспанії
Фільми Італії
Історичні фільми
Історичні фільми СРСР
Фільми студії «Узбекфільм»
Ель-Ксар-ель-Кебір
Фільми, дія яких відбувається в XVI столітті
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Кокер
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Кокер
Джо Кокер — англійський співак, який починав як естрадний виконавець, потім виконував рок і блюз.
Едвард Кокер — англійський гравер і викладач, автор розповсюдженного у Англії у 17 - 18 століттях підручника з арифметики.
Стівен Кокер (29 грудня 1991, Лондон) — англійський футболіст, захисник клубу «Тоттенхем Хотспур».
Найджел Рео-Кокер (14 травня 1984, Лондон) — англійський футболіст сьєрра-леонського походження, півзахисник клубу «Астон Вілла».
Див. також
Кокер — містечко в окрузі Таскалуса, штат Алабама, США.
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ЗАЗ-1102 «Таврія Нова»
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ЗАЗ-1102 «Таврія Нова» — легковий передньопривідний автомобіль з кузовом типу хетчбек, модернізована версія автомобіля ЗАЗ-1102 «Таврія». Вироблявся на Запорізькому автомобілебудівному заводі з 1998 по 2007 рік. «Таврія Нова» знята з виробництва 1 січня 2007 року.
Опис моделі
Модифікація «Таврія Нова» — це повністю модернізований автомобіль, в конструкцію якого в рамках українсько-корейського підприємства «АвтоЗАЗ-ДЕУ» в 1998 р. з метою поліпшення техніко-експлуатаційних показників і усунення виявлених недоліків було внесено близько 300 змін. Модернізації були піддані практично всі вузли та агрегати.
Підсумком став початок серійного виробництва двох модифікацій: «Таврії» перехідного періоду і модернізованої — «Таврія Нова». «Таврія» перехідного періоду — це практично той самий автомобіль, який випускався раніше. Відмінність полягає лише в якості його виготовлення, яке було доведено до вимог, закладених конструкторами при проєктуванні цієї моделі.
Кузов, унаслідок збільшення товщини окремих деталей, став міцнішим і жорсткішим, введені підсилювачі передніх стійок, прорізів дверей і заднього лонжерона, покращена герметичність, встановлені додаткові вібропоглинаючі прокладки, зменшені зазори між деталями кузова. Для підвищення ресурсу двигуна і поліпшення показників його роботи у виготовленні силового агрегату стали застосовуватися якісніші матеріали, підвищилася якість виготовлення деталей і збірки, оптимальний тепловий режим роботи силового агрегату став забезпечуватися потужнішим електровентилятором, систему випуску відпрацьованих газів оснастили глушником з корозійно-стійкої сталі і міцнішим фланцем приймальної вихлопної труби.
На автомобіль почали встановлювати потужні стартер і генератор, нову котушку запалювання зі збільшеною енергією іскри, надійніший датчик включення вентилятора з позолоченими контактами, чеські блок-фари з гідрокоректором світлового потоку, високоточний керамічний резистор датчика рівня палива.
Двигуни
Комплектації
Автомобіль випускався в декількох виконаннях — «базове» з двигуном об'ємом 1,1 л, «стандарт» з двигуном 1,2 л і «люкс» з двигуном 1,2 і 1,3 л, причому існує комплектація двигуна 1,3 л як з карбюраторною системою живлення, так і з системою розподіленого уприскування палива.
«Таврія Нова» випускалась в таких виконаннях:
ЗАЗ-110206-32 — «Стандарт» спрощеної комплектації (мінімальна ціна) з карбюраторним силовим агрегатом 1100 см³.
ЗАЗ-110206-35 — «Стандарт» повної комплектації з карбюраторним силовим агрегатом 1100 см³.
ЗАЗ-110216-35 — «Люкс» з карбюраторним силовим агрегатом 1100 см³.
ЗАЗ-110216-40 — «Люкс» з силовим агрегатом 1100 см³, системою уприскування палива «Сіменс»
ЗАЗ-110207 — «Стандарт» з карбюраторним силовим агрегатом 1200 см³.
ЗАЗ-110217 — «Люкс» з карбюраторним силовим агрегатом 1200 см³.
ЗАЗ-110218 — «Люкс» з карбюраторним силовим агрегатом 1300 см³.
ЗАЗ-110218-40 — «Люкс» з інжекторним силовим агрегатом 1300 см³.
Ціна
Станом на 20.07.2006 року ціна починалась від 22 649 грн.
Примітки
Посилання
Таврия Нова ЗАЗ-1102
Автомобілі ЗАЗ
Автомобілі B-класу
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271964
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efra%C3%ADn%20R%C3%ADos%20Montt
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Efraín Ríos Montt
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Efraín Ríos Montt
José Efraín Ríos Montt (16 June 1926 – 1 April 2018) was a Guatemalan military officer, politician, and dictator who served as de facto President of Guatemala from 1982 to 1983. His brief tenure as chief executive was one of the bloodiest periods in the long-running Guatemalan Civil War. Ríos Montt's counter-insurgency strategies significantly weakened the Marxist guerrillas organized under the umbrella of the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) while also leading to accusations of war crimes and genocide perpetrated by the Guatemalan Army under his leadership.
Ríos Montt was a career army officer. He was director of the Guatemalan military academy and rose to the rank of brigadier general. He was briefly chief of staff of the Guatemalan army in 1973. However, he was soon forced out of the position over differences with the military high command. He ran for president in the 1974 general election, losing to the official candidate, General Kjell Laugerud, in an electoral process widely regarded as fraudulent. In 1978, Ríos Montt controversially abandoned the Catholic Church and joined an Evangelical Christian group affiliated with the Gospel Outreach Church. In 1982, discontent with the rule of General Romeo Lucas García, the worsening security situation in Guatemala, and accusations of electoral fraud led to a coup d'état by a group of junior military officers who installed Ríos Montt as head of a government junta. Ríos Montt ruled as a military dictator for less than seventeen months before his defense minister, General Óscar Mejía Victores overthrew him in another coup.
In 1989, Ríos Montt returned to the Guatemalan political scene as leader of a new political party, the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG). He was elected many times to the Congress of Guatemala, serving as president of the Congress in 1995–96 and 2000–04. A constitutional provision prevented him from registering as a presidential candidate due to his involvement in the military coup of 1982. However, the FRG obtained the presidency and a congressional majority in the 1999 general election. Authorized by the Constitutional Court to run in the 2003 presidential elections, Ríos Montt came in third and withdrew from politics. He returned to public life in 2007 as a member of Congress, thereby gaining legal immunity from long-running lawsuits alleging war crimes committed by him and some of his ministers and counselors during their term in the presidential palace in 1982–83. His immunity ended on 14 January 2012, when his legislative term of office expired. In 2013, a court sentenced Ríos Montt to 80 years in prison for genocide and crimes against humanity, but the Constitutional Court quashed that sentence, and his retrial was never completed.
Early life and career
Efraín Ríos Montt was born in 1926 in Huehuetenango into a large family of the rural middle class. His father was a shopkeeper, and his mother a seamstress, and the family also owned a small farm. His younger brother Mario Enrique Ríos Montt became a Catholic priest and would serve as prelate of Escuintla and later as auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Guatemala.
Intent on making a career in the army, the young Efraín applied to the Polytechnic School (the national military academy of Guatemala) but was rejected because of his astigmatism. He then volunteered for the Guatemalan Army as a private, joining troops composed almost exclusively of full-blooded Mayas, until in 1946, he was able to enter the Polytechnic School. Ríos Montt graduated in 1950 at the top of his class. He taught at the Polytechnic School and received further specialized training, first at the U.S.-run officer training institute that would later be known as the School of the Americas, and later at Fort Bragg in North Carolina and the Italian War College. From the start of his career, Ríos Montt acquired a reputation as a devoutly religious man and as a stern disciplinarian.
Ríos Montt did not play any significant role in the successful CIA-sponsored coup of 1954 against President Jacobo Arbenz. He rose through the ranks of the Guatemalan army and, in 1970–72, served as director of the Polytechnic School. In 1972, in the presidential administration of General Carlos Arana Osorio, Ríos Montt was promoted to brigadier general and in 1973 he became the Army's Chief of Staff (Jefe del Estado Mayor General del Ejército). However, he was removed from that post after three months and, much to his chagrin, dispatched to the Inter-American Defense College in Washington, D.C. According to anthropologist David Stoll, writing in 1990, Ríos Montt was "at odds with the army's command structure since being sidelined by military president Gen. Carlos Arana Osorio in 1974."
Early political involvement
While in the US, the leaders of the Guatemalan Christian Democracy approached Ríos Montt with an invitation to run for president at the head of a coalition of parties opposed to the incumbent regime. Ríos Montt participated in the March 1974 presidential elections as the National Opposition Front (FNO) presidential candidate. His running mate was Alberto Fuentes Mohr, a respected economist and social democrat. At the time, Ríos Montt was generally regarded as an honest and competent military man who could combat the rampant corruption in the Guatemalan government and armed forces. In the run-up to the election, United States officials characterized the candidate Ríos Montt as a "capable left-of-center military officer" who would shift Guatemala "perceptibly but not radically to the left."
1974 presidential elections
The official candidate for the 1974 election was General Kjell Laugerud, whose running mate was Mario Sandoval Alarcón of the far-right National Liberation Movement. Pro-government posters warned "voters not to fall into a communist trap by supporting Ríos," but Ríos Montt proved to be an effective campaigner, and most observers believe that his FNO won the popular vote by an ample majority.
When early returns showed an unmistakable trend in favor of Ríos Montt, the government halted the count and manipulated the results to make it appear that Laugerud finished 71,000 votes ahead of Ríos Montt. Since Laugerud did not have an outright majority of the popular vote, the government-controlled National Congress decided the election, which chose Laugerud by a vote of 38 to 2, with 15 opposition deputies abstaining.
According to independent journalist Carlos Rafael Soto Rosales, Ríos Montt and the FNO leadership knew the election was fraudulent, but acquiesced in Laugerud's "election" because they feared that a popular uprising "would result in disorder that would provoke worse government repression and that a challenge would lead to a confrontation between military leaders." General Ríos Montt then left the country to take up an appointment as military attaché at the Guatemalan embassy in Madrid, where he remained until 1977. It was rumored that the military high command paid Ríos Montt several hundred thousand dollars in exchange for his departure from public life and that during his exile in Spain his unhappiness led him to excessive drinking.
Religious conversion
Ríos Montt retired from the army and returned to Guatemala in 1977. A spiritual crisis caused him to leave the Roman Catholic Church in 1978 and join the Iglesia El Verbo ("Church of the Word"), an evangelical Protestant church affiliated with the Gospel Outreach Church based in Eureka, California. Ríos Montt became very active in his new church and taught religion in a school affiliated with it. At the time, his younger brother Mario Enrique was the Catholic prelate of Escuintla.
Efraín Ríos Montt's conversion has been interpreted as a significant event in the ascendency of Protestantism within the traditionally Catholic Guatemalan nation (see Religion in Guatemala). Ríos Montt later befriended prominent evangelists in the US, including Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson.
De facto presidency
1982 military coup
The security situation in Guatemala had deteriorated under the government of General Romeo Lucas García. By early 1982, the Marxist guerrilla groups belonging to the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) umbrella organization had made gains in the countryside and were seen as threatening an attack on the capital, Guatemala City. On March 7, 1982, General Ángel Aníbal Guevara, the official party's candidate, won the presidential election, a result denounced as fraudulent by all opposition parties. An informal group described as oficiales jóvenes ("young officers") then staged a military coup that overthrew Lucas and prevented Guevara from succeeding him as president.
On March 23, the coup culminated with the installation of a three-person military junta, presided by General Efraín Ríos Montt and composed also of General Horacio Maldonado Schaad and Colonel Luis Gordillo Martínez. Ríos Montt had not been directly involved in the planning of the coup and was chosen by the oficiales jóvenes because of the respect that he had acquired as director of the military academy and as the presidential candidate of the democratic opposition in 1974. The events of March 1982 took the U.S. authorities by surprise.
Because of repeated vote-rigging and the blatant corruption of the military establishment, the 1982 coup was initially welcomed by many Guatemalans. Ríos Montt's reputation for honesty, his leadership of the opposition in the 1974 election, and his vision of "education, nationalism, an end to want and hunger, and a sense of civic pride" were widely appealing. In April 1982, U.S. Ambassador Frederic L. Chapin declared that thanks to the coup of Ríos Montt, "the Guatemalan government has come out of the darkness and into the light." However, Chapin soon afterward reported that Ríos Montt was "naïve and not concerned with practical realities." Drawing on his Pentecostal beliefs, Ríos Montt compared the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse to the four modern evils of hunger, misery, ignorance, and subversion. He also pledged to fight corruption and what he described as the depredations of the rich.
Dictatorship
The government junta immediately declared martial law and suspended the constitution, shut down the legislature, and set up special tribunals (tribunales de fuero especial) to prosecute both common criminals and political dissidents. On April 10, the junta launched the National Growth and Security Plan, whose stated goals were to end indiscriminate violence and teach the populace about Guatemalan nationalism. The junta also announced that it sought to integrate peasants and indigenous peoples into the Guatemalan state, declaring that because of their illiteracy and "immaturity," they were particularly vulnerable to the seductions of "international communism." The government intensified its military efforts against the URNG guerrillas and, on April 20 1982, launched a new counter-insurgency operation known as Victoria 82.
On June 9, General Ríos Montt forced the other two junta members to resign, leaving him as sole head of state, commander of the armed forces, and minister of defense. On 17 August 1982, Ríos Montt established a new Consejo de Estado ("Council of State") as an advisory body whose members were appointed either by the executive or by various civil associations. This Council of State incorporated several representatives of Guatemala's indigenous population, a first in the history of the central Guatemalan government.
Under the motto, No robo, no miento, no abuso ("I don't steal, I don't lie, I don't abuse"), Ríos Montt launched a campaign ostensibly aimed at rooting out corruption in the government and reforming Guatemalan society. He also began broadcasting regular TV speeches on Sunday afternoons, known as discursos de domingo. According to historian Virginia Garrard-Burnett,
Ríos Montt's moralizing message continued to resonate with a significant part of Guatemalan society after he departed from power in 1983. In 1990, anthropologist David Stoll quoted a development organizer as saying that she liked Ríos Montt "because he used to get on television, point his finger at every Guatemalan, and say: 'The problem is you!' That's the only way this country is ever going to change."
Counter-insurgency: Fusiles y Frijoles
Violence escalated in the countryside under the Guatemalan military's plan Victoria 82, which included a rural pacification strategy known as Fusiles y Frijoles, often rendered into English as "beans and bullets" to preserve the alliteration of the original. The "bullets" referred to the organization of the Civil Defense Patrols (Patrullas de Autodefensa Civil, PAC), composed primarily of indigenous villagers who patrolled in groups of twelve, usually armed with a single M1 rifle and sometimes not armed at all. The PAC initiative was intended both to provide a pro-government presence in isolated rural villages with a majority Mayan population and to deter guerrilla activity in the area. The "beans" component of the counter-insurgency strategy referred to programs seeking to increase civilian-military contact and cooperation by improving the infrastructure and resources the government provided to the Mayan villages. This was meant to create a link in the minds of the indigenous and peasant communities between better access to resources and their cooperation with the Guatemalan government in its military struggle against the insurgents.
General Ríos Montt's government announced an amnesty in June 1982 for all insurgents willing to lay down their arms. That was followed a month later by the declaration of a state of siege, curtailing the activities of political parties and labor unions under the threat of death by firing squad for subversion.
Critics have argued that, in practice, Ríos Montt's strategy amounted to a scorched earth campaign targeted against the indigenous Maya population, particularly in the departments of Quiché, Huehuetenango, and Baja Verapaz. According to the 1999 report by the UN-sponsored Historical Clarification Commission (CEH), this resulted in the annihilation of nearly 600 villages. One instance was the Plan de Sánchez massacre in Rabinal, Baja Verapaz, in July 1982, which saw over 250 people killed. Tens of thousands of peasant farmers fled over the border into southern Mexico. In 1982, an Amnesty International report estimated that over 10,000 indigenous Guatemalans and peasant farmers were killed from March to July of that year and that 100,000 rural villagers were forced to flee their homes. According to more recent estimates presented by the CEH, tens of thousands of non-combatants were killed during Ríos Montt's tenure as head of state. At the height of the bloodshed, reports put the number of disappearances and killings at more than 3,000 per month. The 1999 book State Violence in Guatemala, 1960–1996: A Quantitative Reflection, published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, states that Rios Montt's government presided over "the most indiscriminate period of state terror. More state killings occurred during Ríos Montt’s regime than during any other, and in the same period the monthly rate of violence was more than four times greater than for the next highest regime."
On the other hand, the United Nations special rapporteur for the situation of human rights in Guatemala, Lord Colville of Culross, wrote in 1984 that the lot of the rural population of Guatemala had improved under Ríos Montt, as the previous indiscriminate violence of the Guatemalan Army was replaced by a rational strategy of counter-insurgency. Colville also indicated that extrajudicial "killings and kidnappings virtually ceased under the Ríos Montt regime." According to anthropologist David Stoll, "the crucial difference" between Ríos Montt and his predecessor Lucas García was that Ríos Montt replaced "chaotic terror with a more predictable set of rewards and punishments." According to analysts Georges A. Fauriol and Eva Loser of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, "an important component in the 'normalization' of the Guatemalan environment was a marked decrease by late 1982 in the state of fear and violence, which allowed the repositioning of Guatemala's civilian urbanized leadership toward a more vital role in national affairs."
Sociologist and historian Carlos Sabino, in a work published initially in 2007 by the Fondo de Cultura Económica, noted that the army's counter-insurgency in the Guatemalan highlands had been launched at the end of 1981, before the coup that put Ríos Montt in power, and that the reported massacres peaked in May 1982 before dropping off rapidly as a consequence of the policies implemented by the Ríos Montt regime. According to Sabino, the guerrillas were effectively defeated by the PACs organized by Ríos Montt's government, which grew to involve 900,000 men and which, "though only very partially armed, completely took away the guerrilla's capacity for political action," as they could no longer "reach the villages and towns, organize rallies, or recruit fighters and collaborators among the peasants." According to French sociologist Yvon Le Bot, writing in 1992,
In a similar vein, historian Virginia Garrard-Burnett concluded in 2010 that General Ríos Montt's military's successes "were unprecedented in Guatemala’s modern history" and that "had the Cold War remained the primary lens of historical analysis, [he] might well be remembered as a visionary statesman instead of an author of crimes against humanity."
Even some of Ríos Montt's harshest critics have noted that, in his later political career during the 1990s and 2000s, he enjoyed firm and enduring electoral support in the departments of Quiché, Huehuetenango, and Baja Verapaz, which had seen the worst violence during the 1982–83 counter-insurgency campaign. According to David Stoll, "the most obvious reason Nebajeños like the former general is that he offered them the chance to surrender without being killed."
Support from US and Israel
In 1977, the United States under the Jimmy Carter administration suspended aid to Guatemala due to the grave violations of human rights by the Guatemalan government. In 1981, the new Reagan administration authorized the sale to the Guatemalan military of $4 million in helicopter spare parts and $6.3 million in additional military supplies, to be shipped in 1982 and 1983.
President Ronald Reagan traveled to Central America in December 1982. He did not visit Guatemala but met with General Ríos Montt in San Pedro Sula, Honduras, on December 4, 1982. During that meeting, Ríos Montt reassured Reagan that the Guatemalan government's counter-insurgency strategy was not one of "scorched earth," but rather of "scorched Communists," and pledged to work to restore the democratic process in the country. Reagan then declared: "President Ríos Montt is a man of great personal integrity and commitment... I know he wants to improve the quality of life for all Guatemalans and to promote social justice."
Guatemala's poor record on human rights and the refusal of General Ríos Montt to call immediately for new elections prevented the Reagan administration from restoring US aid to Guatemala, which would have required the consent of the US Congress. The Reagan administration did continue the sale of helicopter parts to the Guatemalan military, even though a then-secret 1983 CIA cable noted a rise in "suspect right-wing violence" and an increasing number of bodies "appearing in ditches and gullies."
Israel, which had been supplying arms to Guatemala since 1974, continued its aid provisions during Ríos Montt's government. The cooperation did not just involve hardware but also included providing intelligence and operational training, carried out both in Israel and Guatemala. In 1982, Ríos Montt told ABC News that his success was due to the fact that "our soldiers were trained by Israelis." There was not much outcry in Israel at the time about its involvement in Guatemala, though the support for Ríos Montt was no secret. According to journalist Victor Perera, in 1985, at a cemetery in Chichicastenango, relatives of a man killed by the military told him that "in church they tell us that divine justice is on the side of the poor; but the fact of the matter is, it is the military who get the Israeli guns."
Removal from power
By the end of 1982, Ríos Montt, claiming that the war against the leftist guerrillas had been won, said the government's work was one of "techo, trabajo, y tortillas" ("roofs, work, and tortillas"). Having survived three attempted coups, on June 29, 1983, Ríos Montt declared a state of emergency and announced elections for July 1984. By then, Ríos Montt had alienated many segments of Guatemalan society by his actions. Shortly before the visit to Guatemala by Pope John Paul II in March 1983, Ríos Montt refused the Pope's appeal for clemency to six guerrillas who had been sentenced to death by the regime's special tribunals. The outspoken evangelicalism and the moralizing sermons of the general's regular Sunday television broadcasts (discursos de domingo) were increasingly regarded with embarrassment by many. The military brass was offended by his promotion of young officers in defiance of the Army's traditional hierarchy. Many middle-class citizens were unhappy with the decision, announced on August 1, 1983, to introduce the value-added tax in the country. One week later, on August 8, 1983, his own Minister of Defense, General Óscar Mejía Victores, overthrew the regime in a coup during which seven people were killed.
The leaders of the 1983 coup alleged that Ríos Montt belonged to a "fanatical and aggressive religious group" that had threatened the "fundamental principle of the separation of Church and State." However, historian Virginia Garrard-Burnett considered that the main underlying reason for his removal from power was that Ríos Montt "had severely stanched the flow of graft to military officers and government officials" and was not responsive to the powerful interest groups represented by the Army's high command.
Political violence in Guatemala continued after Ríos Montt was removed from power in 1983. It has been estimated that as many as one and a half million Maya peasants were uprooted from their homes. American journalist Vincent Bevins writes that by corralling indigenous populations from suspect communities into state-established "model villages" (aldeas modelos) that were "little more than deadly concentration camps," Ríos Montt waged genocide differently than his predecessors, although massacres continued apace. Bevins argues this was part of Montt's new strategy for fighting communism: "The guerrilla is the fish. The people are the sea. If you cannot catch the fish, you have to drain the sea."
Efraín Ríos Montt's sister Marta Elena Ríos de Rivas was kidnapped on 26 June 1983 in Guatemala City by members of the leftist Rebel Armed Forces (FAR) when she was leaving the primary school where she worked as a teacher. At the time, she was five months pregnant. After General Ríos Montt was deposed in August of that year, the FAR proceeded to kidnap the sister of the new de facto president, General Mejía Víctores. The new government flatly refused to negotiate with the kidnappers, but the family of General Ríos Montt obtained the release of his sister Marta on 25 September, after 119 days in captivity, by procuring the publication of an FAR comuniqué in several international newspapers.
Later political career
Ríos Montt founded the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) political party in 1989. In the run-up to the 1990 general election, polls indicated that Ríos Montt was the most popular candidate, leading his nearest rival by as many as twelve points. The courts ultimately prevented him from appearing in the ballots because of a provision in the 1985 Constitution of Guatemala that banned people who had participated in a military coup from becoming president. Ríos Montt always claimed that the corresponding article had been written into the Constitution specifically to prevent him from returning to the Presidency and that it could not legitimately be applied retroactively.
In the 1990s Ríos Montt enjoyed significant popular support throughout Guatemala and especially among the native Maya population of the departments of Quiché, Huehuetenango, and Baja Verapaz, where he was perceived as un militar recto (an honest military man), even though those had been the populations most directly affected by the counter-insurgency that Ríos Montt had led in 1982–83. According to anthropologist David Stoll
According to political scientist Regina Bateson, in this new career phase, Ríos Montt embraced populism as his core political strategy. He was an FRG congressman between 1990 and 2004. In 1994, he was elected president of the unicameral legislature. He tried to run again in the 1995–96 Guatemalan general election but was barred from entering the race. The FRG chose Alfonso Portillo to replace Ríos Montt as the party's presidential candidate, and he narrowly lost to Álvaro Arzú of the conservative National Advancement Party. In his youth, Portillo had been affiliated with the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), one of the Marxist insurgent groups that later became part of the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) and which Ríos Montt had combated during his term as president in 1982–83.
The Guatemalan Civil War officially concluded in 1996 with the signing of the peace accords between the Guatemalan government and the URNG, which after that was organized as a legal political party. In March 1999, U.S. President Bill Clinton declared that "for the United States, it is important I state clearly that support for military forces and intelligence units which engaged in violence and widespread repression [in Guatemala] was wrong and the United States must not repeat that mistake."
Ríos Montt's FRG party was successful in the 1999 Guatemalan general election. Its candidate, Alfonso Portillo, was elected president, and the party also obtained a majority in the National Congress. Ríos Montt then served four consecutive one-year terms as president of Congress, from 2000 to 2004.
President Portillo admitted the involvement of the Guatemalan government in human rights abuses over the previous 20 years, including two massacres that took place during Ríos Montt's presidency. The first was in Plan de Sánchez, in Baja Verapaz, with 268 dead, and in Dos Erres in Petén, where 200 people were murdered.
2003 presidential candidate
In May 2003, the FRG nominated Ríos Montt for the November presidential election. However, his candidacy was rejected again by the electoral registry and by two lower courts. On 14 July 2003, the Constitutional Court, which had had several judges appointed by the FRG government, approved his candidacy for president because the prohibition in the 1985 Constitution did not apply retroactively.
On 20 July, the Supreme Court suspended Ríos Montt's campaign and agreed to hear a complaint brought by two right-of-center parties that the retired General was constitutionally barred from running for president. Ríos Montt denounced the ruling as a judicial manipulation and, in a radio address, called on his followers to take to the streets to protest against it. On 24 July, in an event that came to be known as jueves negro ("Black Thursday"), thousands of masked FRG supporters invaded the streets of Guatemala City, armed with machetes, clubs, and guns. They had been bussed in from all over the country by the FRG, and it was alleged that public employees in FRG-controlled municipalities were threatened with the loss of their jobs if they did not participate in the demonstrations. The protestors blocked traffic, chanted threatening slogans, and waved machetes as they marched on the courts, the opposition parties' headquarters, and newspapers. Incidents of torching of buildings, shooting out of windows, and burning of cars and tires in the streets were also reported. A television journalist, Héctor Fernando Ramírez, died of a heart attack while running away from a mob. After two days, the rioters disbanded when an audio recording of Ríos Montt was played on loudspeakers calling them to return to their homes. The situation was so volatile over the weekend that the UN mission and the US embassy were closed.
Following the rioting, the Constitutional Court overturned the Supreme Court decision, allowing Ríos Montt to run for president. However, the jueves negro chaos undermined Ríos Montt's popularity and his credibility as a law-and-order candidate. Support for Ríos Montt also suffered because of the perceived corruption and inefficiency of the incumbent FRG administration under President Portillo. During tense but peaceful presidential elections on November 9, 2003, Ríos Montt received 19.3% of the vote, placing him third behind Óscar Berger, head of the conservative Grand National Alliance (GANA), and Álvaro Colom of the center-left National Unity of Hope (UNE). As he had been required to give up his seat in Congress to run for president, Ríos Montt's 14-year legislative tenure also ended.
In March 2004, a court order forbade Ríos Montt from leaving the country while it determined whether he should stand trial on charges related to jueves negro and the death of Ramírez. On November 20, 2004, Ríos Montt had to request permission to travel to his country home for the wedding of his daughter, Zury Ríos, to U.S. Representative Jerry Weller, a Republican from Illinois. On January 31, 2006, manslaughter charges against him for the death of Ramírez were dropped.
Charges of crimes against humanity
The Inter-Diocese Project for the Recovery of the Historic Memory (REMHI), sponsored by the Catholic Church, and the Historical Clarification Commission (CEH), co-sponsored by the United Nations as part of the 1996 peace accords, produced reports documenting grave violations of human rights committed during the Guatemalan Civil War of 1960–1996. That war had pitted Marxist rebels against the Guatemalan state, including the Guatemalan army. Up to 200,000 Guatemalans were estimated to have been killed during the conflict, making it one of Latin America's bloodiest wars. Both the REMHI and CEH reports found that most of the violence had been carried out by the Guatemalan state and by government-backed death squads. Since the victims of this violence had disproportionately belonged to the indigenous Mayan population of the country, the CEH report characterized the counterinsurgency campaign, significantly designed and advanced during Ríos Montt's presidency, as having included deliberate "acts of genocide."
The REMHI and CEH reports formed the basis for legal actions brought against Ríos Montt and others for crimes against humanity and genocide. Ríos Montt admitted that the Guatemalan army had committed crimes during his term as president and commander-in-chief, but he denied that he had planned or ordered those actions or that there had been any deliberate policy by his government to target the native population that could amount to genocide.
In 1998, Mario Enrique Ríos Montt, younger brother of Efraín Ríos Montt, succeeded murdered bishop Juan Gerardi as head of the Office of Human Rights of the Archdiocese of Guatemala. That office took a leading role in denouncing human rights abuses committed by the state during the Guatemalan Civil War, including during the government of General Ríos Montt.
In Spain
In 1999, Guatemalan Nobel Peace Prize laureate Rigoberta Menchú filed a complaint before the Audiencia Nacional of Spain for torture, genocide, illegal detention, and state-sponsored terrorism, naming Ríos Montt and four other retired Guatemalan generals (two of them ex-presidents) as defendants. Three other civilians that were high government official between 1978 and 1982 were also named in the complaint. The Center for Justice and Accountability and Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos de España joined in the suit brought by Menchú. In September 2005, Spain's Constitutional Court ruled that Spanish courts could try those accused of crimes against humanity, even if the victims were not Spanish nationals.
In June 2006, Spanish judge Santiago Pedraz traveled to Guatemala to interrogate Ríos Montt and the others named in the case. At least 15 appeals filed by the defense attorneys of the indicted prevented him from carrying out the inquiries. On July 7, 2006, Pedraz issued an international arrest warrant against Efraín Ríos Montt and former presidents Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores and Romeo Lucas García (the latter of whom had died in May 2006 in Venezuela). A warrant was also issued for the retired generals Benedicto Lucas García and Aníbal Guevara. Former minister of the interior Donaldo Álvarez Ruiz, who remained at large, and ex-chiefs of police Germán Chupina Barahona and Pedro García Arredondo were also named on the international arrest warrants. Some of those warrants were initially admitted by Guatemalan courts, but they were all ultimately declared invalid in December 2007 by the Constitutional Court.
In Guatemala
On January 17, 2007, Ríos Montt announced that he would run for a seat in Congress in the election to be held later in the year. As a member of Congress, he would again be immune from prosecution unless a court suspended him from office. He won his seat in the September election and led the FRG's 15-member congressional delegation in the new legislature.
Ríos Montt's immunity ended on January 14, 2012, when his term in office expired. On January 26, 2012, he appeared in court in Guatemala City and was formally indicted by Attorney General Claudia Paz y Paz for genocide and crimes against humanity, along with three other former generals. During the court hearing, he declined to make a statement. The court released him on bail but placed him under house arrest pending trial. On March 1, 2012, a judge ruled the charges against Ríos Montt were not covered by the 1996 National Reconciliation Law, which had granted amnesty for political and common crimes committed in the course of the Guatemalan Civil War. On 28 January 2013, judge Miguel Angel Galves opened a pre-trial hearing against Ríos Montt and retired General José Mauricio Rodríguez Sánchez for genocide and crimes against humanity, in particular the killing of 1,771 Maya Ixil Indians, including children.
Ríos Montt went on trial on those charges on 19 March 2013, marking the first time that a former Latin American head of state was tried for genocide in his own country. The trial was suspended on 19 April 2013 by Judge Carol Patricia Flores, following a directive from the Supreme Court of Justice of Guatemala. The judge ordered the legal process to be set back to November 2011, before the retired general was charged with war crimes.
On 10 May 2013, Ríos Montt was convicted by the court of genocide and crimes against humanity and was sentenced to 80 years imprisonment. Announcing the ruling, Judge Iris Yassmin Barrios Aguilar declared that "[t]he defendant is responsible for masterminding the crime of genocide." She continued: "We are convinced that the acts the Ixil suffered constitute the crime of genocide...[Ríos Montt] had knowledge of what was happening and did nothing to stop it." The Court found that "[t]he Ixils were considered public enemies of the state and were also victims of racism, considered an inferior race... The violent acts against the Ixils were not spontaneous. They were planned beforehand." Judge Iris Yassmin Barrios Aguilar referred to evidence that 5.5% of the Ixil people had been wiped out by the army.
On 20 May 2013, the Constitutional Court of Guatemala overturned Ríos Montt's conviction on the grounds that he had not been allowed an effective defense during some of the proceedings. Anthropologist David Stoll, though granting that large numbers of innocent civilians were killed by the army under Ríos Montt's presidency, questioned both the fairness of 2013 trial and the grounds for the charge of genocide.
General Ríos Montt's retrial began in January 2015, but the court later ruled that the proceedings would not be public. It also held that no sentence could be pronounced due to Ríos Montt‘a age and deteriorating physical and mental condition. Earlier, Guatemala's forensic authority ruled that Ríos Montt had dementia so severe that he could not defend himself. The retrial had not been completed when Ríos Montt died in April 2018, and the court, therefore, closed the case against him. His co-defendant, former chief of military intelligence José Mauricio Rodríguez Sánchez, was acquitted in September 2018, although the court found that the counter-insurgency strategy of the Guatemalan army had amounted to genocide.
Death
Ríos Montt died of a heart attack at his home in Guatemala City on April 1, 2018, at the age of 91. The then-incumbent president of Guatemala, Jimmy Morales, expressed his public condolences over the death of General Ríos Montt.
In media and popular culture
Pamela Yates directed When the Mountains Tremble (1983), a documentary film about the war between the Guatemalan Military and the Mayan Indigenous population of Guatemala. Footage from this film was used as forensic evidence in the Guatemalan court for crimes against humanity in the genocide case against Efraín Ríos Montt.
Granito: How to Nail a Dictator (2011) by Pamela Yates is a follow-up to When the Mountains Tremble.
The University of Southern California's Shoah Foundation, funded by director Steven Spielberg, is undertaking an extensive analysis of the genocidal Guatemalan civil wars, documented by hundreds of filmed interviews with survivors.
The 2019 Guatemalan horror film La Llorona features a character named Enrique Monteverde, based on Ríos Montt.
See also
History of Guatemala
Guatemala National Police Archives
References
Further reading
Archivo Histórico de la Policía Nacional, From Silence to Memory: Revelations of the AHPN (Eugene, OR: University of Oregon Libraries, 2013).
Carmack, Robert M. (ed.). Harvest of Violence: The Maya Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis (University of Oklahoma Press, 1988)
Dosal, Paul J. Return of Guatemala's Refugees: Reweaving the Torn (Temple University Press, 1998)
Falla, Ricardo (trans. by Julia Howland). Massacres in the Jungle: Ixcán, Guatemala, 1975–1982 (Westview Press, Boulder, 1994)
Fried, Jonathan L., et al. Guatemala in Rebellion : Unfinished History (Grove Press, NY, 1983).
Goldston, James A. Shattered Hope: Guatemalan Workers and the Promise of Democracy (Westview Press, Boulder, 1989).
LaFeber, Walter. Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America. (W.W. Norton & Company, NY, 1993).
Perera, Victor. Unfinished Conquest: The Guatemalan Tragedy (University of California Press, 1993).
Sabino, Carlos (trans. by Denise Leal). Guatemala, a Silenced History (1944–1989), vol. II: A Break in the Domino Effect (1963–1989), (Grafiaetc, Guatemala, 2018) . Originally published in Spanish as Guatemala, la guerra silenciada (1944–1989): El dominó que no cayó, (Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2007) .
Sanford, Victoria. Buried Secrets: Truth and Human Rights in Guatemala (Palgrave Macmillan, NY, 2003)
Sczepanski, David and Anfuso, Joseph (fwd. by Pat Robertson). Efrain Rios Montt, Servant or Dictator? : The Real Story of Guatemala's Controversial Born-again President (Vision House, Ventura, CA, 1984)
Shillington, John Wesley. Grappling with Atrocity: Guatemalan Theater in the 1990s (Associated University Presses, London, 2002).
Stoll, David. Between Two Armies in the Ixil Towns of Guatemala (Columbia University Press, NY, 1993).
External links
Biography by CIDOB
Guatemala Human Rights Commission
Indicted for Genocide: Guatemala's Efraín Ríos Montt: U.S. and Guatemalan Documents Trace Dictator's Rise to Power, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing. Book No. 419. Posted – 19 March 2013. Edited by Kate Doyle
Site monitoring trial against Rios Montt in Guatemala
1926 births
2018 deaths
20th-century Guatemalan people
Anti-communist terrorism
Anti-Marxism
Defense ministers of Guatemala
Dirty wars
Former Roman Catholics
Guatemalan anti-communists
Guatemalan Christian Democracy politicians
Guatemalan evangelicals
Guatemalan generals
Guatemalan genocide perpetrators
Guatemalan Pentecostals
Heads of government convicted of war crimes
Heads of state convicted of war crimes
Institutional Republican Party politicians
Leaders ousted by a coup
Leaders who took power by coup
Members of the Congress of Guatemala
People from Huehuetenango Department
People of the Cold War
People of the Guatemalan Civil War
20th-century presidents of Guatemala
Presidents of the Congress of Guatemala
Reagan administration controversies
Guatemalan people convicted of genocide
Guatemalan people convicted of war crimes
Guatemalan people convicted of crimes against humanity
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2500303
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%20%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%89%D1%96
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Тур Польщі
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Тур Польщі — багатоденна професійна шосейна велогонка, що проходить щорічно у серпні на дорогах Польщі.
Історія
У 1928 році Товариство велосипедистів Варшави та спортивна газета "Przegląd Sportowy" виступили з ініціативою організувати у Польщі велозмагання на зразок Тур де Франс. Перше таке змагання відбулося 7-11 вересня під назвою "Навколо Польщі". У першій велогонці взяли участь 71 спортсмен. Довжина маршруту сягала майже 1500 км. Переможцем став поляк Фелікс Вьонцек з Товариства велосипедистів Бидгоща.
До початку Другої світової війни у Польщі відбулось ще чотири подібних змагання. Після війни за відновлення велогонки взялась Польська асоціація велоспорту та газета "Czytelnik". Після восьмирічної перерви змагання відновились у 1947 році. Тоді маршрут становив 606 км і був найкоротшим за всю історію цієї велогонки. Переможцем став поляк Станіслав Гжелак.
До 1993 року Тур Польщі не міг досягти високого світового рейтингу через соціалістичний режим в країні та політику «залізної завіси». У 1953 році відбулась найдовша гонка Туру Польщі у 13 етапів та відстаню 2311 км. У 1997 році директором змагань став Чеслав Ланг, олімпійський медаліст 1980 року. Він доклав багато зусиль у підвищенні міжнародного рівня гонки. У 1997 році на конгресі Міжнародного союзу велосипедистів у Сан-Себастьяні Тур Польщі отримав професійну категорію 2,4 і тепер класифікується як "Національна гонка" (перша у своєму роді в країнах Центральної та Східної Європи). 12 жовтня 2001 року тур був підвищений до категорії 2.2.
У 2005 році змагання були включені до елітної серії велогонок UCI World Tour. Завдяки праці Чеслава Ланга за кілька років Тур Польщі зі напіваматорського змагання, відомого лише на посткомуністичному просторі, перетворився на професійні міжнародні елітні велогонки.
Переможці
Посилання
Official website
Велогонки у Європі
Спортивні змагання в Польщі
Засновані в Польщі 1928
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%96%20%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%96%20%28%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BA%29
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Луїджі Корсі (військовик)
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Луїджі Корсі (військовик)
Луїджі Корсі (4 квітня 1898 року, Ла-Спеція — 29 березня 1941 року, Середземне море) — італійський морський офіцер.
Біографія
Луїджі Корсі народився 4 квітня 1898 року в Ла-Спеції. Його батько теж був морським офіцером. У 14-річному віці Луїджі вступив до Військово-морської академії в Ліворно, яку закінчив у 1916 році в званні гардемарина. Брав участь у Першій світовій війні. У 1917 році отримав звання молодшого лейтенанта, а у 1918 році - лейтенанта.
Після закінчення війни командував есмінцем «Конф'єнца», брав участь в окупації Корфу (1923 рік). У 1932 році отримав звання капітана III рангу і призначений командиром есмінця «Есперо», на якому здійснив похід в Китай. У 1933 році отримав звання капітана II рангу. Під час другої італо-ефіопської війни ніс службу у Штабі командувача ВМС Італії. Після закінчення війни був призначений заступником начальника військово-морської академії/
У 1939 році отримав звання капітана I рангу, 1 березня 1940 року призначений командувачем крейсера «Зара». Брав участь в бою біля Калабрії.
Під час бою біля мису Матапан крейсер «Зара» був атакований британськими лінкорами «Ворспайт», «Барем» та «Валіант».
Через декілька хвилин снаряди влучили у носову башту, мостик та машинне відділення. Крейсер охопила сильна пожежа, він накренився на лівий борт. Незабаром британські лінкори припинили вогонь та вийшли з бою, щоб дати змогу есмінцям здійснити торпедні атаки на італійські кораблі.
Близько 2-ї години ночі 29 березня есмінець «Джервіс» помітив італійський крейсер та випустив у нього 4 торпеди. Від влучання торпед вибухнули погреби боєзапасу. Близько 2:30 корабель затонув у точці з координатами .
Загинуло 782 члени екіпажу, включаючи командира дивізії адмірала Карло Каттанео та капітана корабля Луїджі Корсі.
Луїджі Корсі посмертно був нагороджений золотою медаллю «За військову доблесть»..
Нагороди
Золота медаль «За військову доблесть»
Хрест «За військову доблесть»
Кавалер Ордена Корони Італії
Офіцер Ордена Корони Італії
Командор Ордена Корони Італії
Вшанування
На честь Луїджі Корсі планувалось назвати один з есмінців типу «Команданті Медальє д'Оро», але будівництво не було завершене.
Примітки
Італійські військовики Першої світової війни
Учасники Другої світової війни з Італії
Загинули в боях Другої світової війни
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251381
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin%20Davis
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Colin Davis
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Colin Davis
Sir Colin Rex Davis (25 September 1927 – 14 April 2013) was an English conductor, known for his association with the London Symphony Orchestra, having first conducted it in 1959. His repertoire was broad, but among the composers with whom he was particularly associated were Mozart, Berlioz, Elgar, Sibelius, Stravinsky and Tippett.
Davis studied as a clarinetist, but was intent on becoming a conductor. After struggling as a freelance conductor from 1949 to 1957, he gained a series of appointments with orchestras including the BBC Scottish Orchestra, the BBC Symphony Orchestra and the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra. He also held the musical directorships of Sadler's Wells Opera and the Royal Opera House, where he was principal conductor for over fifteen years. His guest conductorships included the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the New York Philharmonic and the Staatskapelle Dresden, among many others.
As a teacher, Davis held posts at the Royal Academy of Music, London, and the Landesgymnasium für Musik "Carl Maria von Weber" (preparatory school for music) in Dresden. He made his first gramophone recordings in 1958, and his discography over the next five decades was extensive, with many studio recordings for Philips Records and a substantial catalogue of live recordings for the London Symphony Orchestra's own label.
Early years
Davis was born in Weybridge, Surrey, the fifth of seven children, to Reginald George Davis (a bank clerk) and Lillian Constance (Colbran) Davis. The family was musical, and he was exposed to music from an early age. He recalled:
"I can still see Sargent conducting the first concert I ever attended. I can still hear Melchior in the final scene of Siegfried – an old 78 playing on my father's gramophone. … I can also remember the moment I decided to make music my life. I was 13 or 14 at the time and the performance was of Beethoven's Eighth. Doors were suddenly opened. I became totally involved, even obsessed by music, although I was frightfully enclosed by my likes and dislikes. Today I'm game for anything."
With financial assistance from his great-uncle, Davis was educated at Christ's Hospital in Sussex and then won a scholarship to the Royal College of Music in London, where he studied the clarinet with Frederick Thurston. His fellow-students included Gervase de Peyer, but Davis developed a greater interest in conducting. He was, however, not eligible for the conducting class at the college, because he could not play the piano.
Following compulsory military service and completing his studies at college, Davis served as a clarinettist in the band of the Life Guards. Stationed at Windsor, he had continual opportunities to attend concerts in London under conductors including Sir Thomas Beecham and Bruno Walter. In 1949, he began his career as a freelance musician (the "freelance wilderness", in his own phrase) where he remained until 1957. His first conducting work was with the Kalmar Orchestra, which he co-founded with other former students of the Royal College. He was subsequently invited to conduct the recently founded Chelsea Opera Group in Don Giovanni. In the early years of his career, he also took some engagements as an orchestral clarinettist. What seemed at first to be a full-time conducting appointment, for the Original Ballet Russe in 1952, ended abruptly after three months, when the company collapsed. In between sparse conducting engagements, Davis worked as a coach and lecturer, including spells at the Cambridge University Musical Society and the Bryanston Summer School, where a performance of L'enfance du Christ awakened his love of Berlioz's music.
BBC and Sadler's Wells
His first breakthrough came in 1957 when, at his third attempt, he secured the post of assistant conductor of the BBC Scottish Orchestra (now the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra). The chief conductor of the orchestra generally chose to conduct the standard repertoire pieces himself, and left Davis with modern works and non-standard repertoire works, including those of Berlioz. By 1959, Davis had developed to the extent that, after a concert of Stravinsky and Mozart with the London Mozart Players, the chief music critic of The Observer, Peter Heyworth, wrote:
"Mr Davis conducted two works in a manner that showed that he is not only outstanding among our younger conductors, but probably the best we have produced since Sir Thomas Beecham, his senior by forty-eight years."
Davis first found wide acclaim when he stood in for an ill Otto Klemperer in a performance of Don Giovanni, at the Royal Festival Hall in 1959. A year later, Beecham invited him to collaborate with him in preparing The Magic Flute at Glyndebourne. Beecham was taken ill, and Davis conducted the opera. After the Don Giovanni, The Times wrote, "A superb conductor of Mozart declared himself last night at the Festival Hall…. Mr Davis emerged as a conductor ripe for greatness." Neville Cardus in The Guardian was less enthusiastic but nevertheless considered that he "had his triumphs" in the performance. After The Magic Flute, The Times called Davis "master of Mozart's idiom, style and significance", although Heyworth in The Observer was disappointed by his tempi, judging them to be too slow.
In 1960, Davis made his début at the Proms in a programme of Britten, Schumann, Mozart and Berlioz. In the same year, he was appointed chief conductor of Sadler's Wells Opera, and in 1961 he was made musical director of the company, with whom he built up a large repertoire of operas, conducting in London and on tour. Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians wrote of this period, "He excelled in Idomeneo, The Rake's Progress and Oedipus rex, and Fidelio; his Wagner, Verdi and Puccini were less successful. He introduced Weill's Mahagonny, and Pizzetti's Assassinio nella cattedrale to the British public and conducted the première of Bennett's The Mines of Sulphur (1965)." Together with the stage director Glen Byam Shaw, he worked to present operas in a way that gave due weight to the drama as well as the music. In his early years, Davis was known as something of a firebrand with a short fuse in rehearsals, and his departure from Sadler's Wells in 1965 was not without acrimony.
After he left Sadler's Wells, and being passed over as principal conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra, Davis was named chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra (BBC SO), effective September 1967. At first, in the general view of the public, his tenure was overshadowed, at least during the Proms, by the memory of Sir Malcolm Sargent. Compared to the "suave father figure" image of Sargent to the promenaders, it took some time for the much younger Davis to be accepted. The BBC's official historian of the Proms later wrote, "Davis never really identified himself with the Proms in the way that Sargent had done. Davis was uncomfortable with the traditional hullabaloo of the Last Night of the Proms and attempted, unsuccessfully, to modernise it. The BBC's Controller of Music, William Glock, was a long-standing admirer of Davis, and encouraged him to put on adventurous programmes, with a new emphasis on modern music, both at the Proms and throughout the rest of the orchestra's annual schedule. Following his tenure as BBC SO chief conductor, Davis served as chief guest conductor of the BBC SO from 1971 to 1976.
Covent Garden
In 1970, Sir David Webster, who ran the Royal Opera and the Royal Ballet companies at Covent Garden, invited Davis to succeed Sir Georg Solti as principal conductor of the opera. At about the same time, the Boston Symphony Orchestra invited him to become its musical director, but Davis felt that if Covent Garden needed him, it was his duty to take on the post. Webster's vision was that Davis and the stage director Sir Peter Hall, formerly of the Royal Shakespeare Company, would work in equal partnership as musical director and director of productions. After early successes together, including the première of Michael Tippett's The Knot Garden in December 1970, Hall left to succeed Laurence Olivier as director of the National Theatre. Webster had retired by that time, leaving Davis, together with Webster's successor as General Administrator, Sir John Tooley, to run the Royal Opera.
Davis' early months in charge at Covent Garden were marked by dissatisfaction among some of the audience, and booing was heard at a "disastrous" Nabucco in 1972. His conducting of Wagner's Ring cycle was at first compared unfavourably with that of his predecessor. Among his successes were Berlioz's massive Les Troyens (with Jon Vickers and Anja Silja) and Benvenuto Cellini, Verdi's Falstaff, the major Mozart operas, and, as one critic put it, he "confirmed his preeminence as a Britten and Stravinsky interpreter" with productions of Peter Grimes and The Rake's Progress. Davis conducted more than 30 operas during his fifteen-year tenure, but "since people like Maazel, Abbado and Muti would only come for new productions", Davis yielded the baton to these foreign conductors, giving up the chance to conduct several major operas, including Der Rosenkavalier, Rigoletto and Aida.
In addition to the standard operatic repertoire, Davis conducted a number of modern and unfamiliar operas, including Tippett's The Knot Garden and The Ice Break (of which he is the dedicatee), and Alexander Zemlinsky's The Dwarf and Eine florentinische Tragödie. With later stage directors at Covent Garden, Davis preferred to work with those who respected the libretto: "I have a hankering for producers who don't feel jealous of composers for being better than they are, and want to impose their, often admittedly clever, ideas on the work in hand." Davis hoped that Götz Friedrich, with whom he worked on Wagner's Ring cycle, would take on the role of principal producer vacated by Hall, "but it seemed that nobody wanted to commit themselves."
During his Covent Garden tenure, Davis returned to the BBC Symphony Orchestra as principal guest conductor from 1971 to 1975, and held the same post with the Boston Symphony Orchestra from 1972 to 1984. In 1977, he became the first English conductor to appear at Bayreuth, where he conducted the opening opera of the festival, Tannhäuser. Despite the Bayreuth habitués' suspicion of newcomers, his Tannhäuser was "highly successful". He debuted at the Metropolitan Opera, New York City, in 1967 with Peter Grimes, the Vienna State Opera in 1986 and the Bavarian State Opera in 1994.
Bavarian Radio Symphony and London Symphony Orchestras
From 1983 to 1993, Davis was chief conductor of the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, with whom he developed his concert hall repertoire, including symphonies by Bruckner and Mahler. He was offered but declined the music directorships of the Cleveland Orchestra in succession to Maazel and the New York Philharmonic in succession to Zubin Mehta. As a principal guest conductor he was associated with the Dresden Staatskapelle, which appointed him honorary conductor (Ehrendirigent) in 1990, the first in the orchestra's 460-year-history, and whose musicians referred to Davis with the nickname "Der Sir". From 1998 to 2003, he was principal guest conductor of the New York Philharmonic.
In 1995, Davis was appointed principal conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra, the culmination of a long association with the orchestra. He had first conducted the LSO in 1959, and in 1964 he headed the orchestra's first world tour. He became principal guest conductor in 1975 and was at the helm in the LSO's first major series at its new home, the Barbican Centre, in a Berlioz/Tippett festival in 1983. In 1997 he conducted the LSO's first residency at Lincoln Center in New York City. Davis was the longest-serving principal conductor in the history of the LSO, holding the post from 1995 until 2006, after which the orchestra appointed him its President, an honour previously held only by Arthur Bliss, William Walton, Karl Böhm and Leonard Bernstein. On 21 June 2009, 50 years to the day after his first LSO performance, a special concert was given at the Barbican, at which present-day players were joined by many past members of the orchestra. His programme for the concert was Mozart's Symphony No 40 in G minor, and Brahms's Piano Concerto No 2, with Nelson Freire as soloist.
During his time with the LSO, both as principal conductor and later as president, Davis conducted series and cycles of the music of Sibelius, Berlioz, Bruckner, Mozart, Elgar, Beethoven, and Brahms, and in 2009 began presenting a cycle of the symphonies of Carl Nielsen. Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians wrote:
"He conducted a Sibelius cycle in 1992 and a concert performance of Les Troyens the following year, both of which have become the stuff of legend. More recently he has added grand performances of Bruckner, Richard Strauss and Elgar, the première of Tippett's last major work, The Rose Lake (1995), and a Berlioz cycle begun with Benvenuto Cellini in 1999 and crowned by an incandescent Les Troyens in December 2000, all confirming his partnership with the LSO as one of the most important of its time."
Teacher
Davis was president of the Landesgymnasium für Musik "Carl Maria von Weber" in Dresden, and held the International Chair of Orchestral Studies at the Royal Academy of Music, London. Jonathan Freeman-Attwood, principal of the academy, wrote of Davis:
"As the Academy's International Chair of Conducting over 25 years, Sir Colin helmed six opera productions and over sixty concerts, classes and chamber music projects. Such extraordinary generosity from a major international conductor is surely unique. He inspired a whole generation here, as did Henry Wood and John Barbirolli before him."
Recordings
Davis's discography is extensive, numbering over 300 recordings. He made his first record in 1958 conducting the Sinfonia of London in performances of Mozart's Symphonies 29 and 39 for World Record Club (TZ 130). This was followed on 8 May 1959 by a recording made in Kingsway Hall, London, for Decca with the New Symphony Orchestra of London and pianist Peter Katin performing Rachmaninov's Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor Op. 18. He made several records for the small independent label L'Oiseau Lyre, including a 1960 L'enfance du Christ and a 1962 Béatrice et Bénédict which, at April 2013, were both still available on CD. For EMI he made both operatic and orchestral recordings, the former with Sadler's Wells forces, including excerpts from Carmen and a complete Oedipus rex, and the latter including Harold in Italy with Yehudi Menuhin, and what remains one of his best-known recordings, a 1961 Beethoven Seventh Symphony.
Philips and RCA
In the 1960s, Davis signed as an exclusive artist for Philips Records, with whom he made an extensive range of recordings in the symphonic repertoire and many operatic recordings, including the major Mozart operas; operas by Tippett, Britten, Verdi and Puccini; and a comprehensive survey of the operas of Berlioz, culminating in an award-winning first recording of the complete Les Troyens issued in May 1970.
Davis's 1966 Philips recording of Handel's Messiah was regarded as revelatory at the time of its issue for its departure from the large-scale Victorian-style performances that had previously been customary. Other Philips recordings included a 1982 set of Haydn's twelve London symphonies with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra "distinguished by performances of tremendous style and authority, and a sense of rhythmic impetus that is most exhilarating"; and a 1995 Beethoven symphony cycle with the Dresden Staatskapelle, of which Gramophone wrote, "There has not been a Beethoven cycle like this since Klemperer's heyday."
Davis made a number of records with the Boston Symphony Orchestra for Philips, including the first of his three Sibelius cycles, which remains in the CD catalogues. They also recorded works by Debussy, Grieg, Schubert, Schumann, and Tchaikovsky.
For RCA Victor Red Seal, Davis recorded complete symphony cycles of Sibelius (with the LSO), Brahms (Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, 1989–98), and Schubert (Dresden Staatskapelle, 1996).
LSO Live
Davis's term as principal conductor of the LSO coincided with the orchestra's decision to launch its own record label, LSO Live. Davis' recordings on the LSO Live label include Beethoven's opera Fidelio (2006), a wide range of Berlioz works, including a second recording of Les Troyens (2000), La damnation de Faust (2000), Roméo et Juliette (2000), Béatrice et Bénédict (2000), Harold en Italie (2003), and the Symphonie fantastique (2000); Britten's Peter Grimes (2004); Dvořák's Symphonies Nos. 6–9 (1999–2004); five Elgar sets: the Enigma Variations (2007) and the Introduction and Allegro for Strings (2005), the three symphonies (2001), and The Dream of Gerontius (2005); Handel's Messiah (2006); Haydn's Die Schöpfung (2007); Holst's The Planets (2002); James MacMillan's St John Passion, (2008) The World's Ransoming and The Confession of Isobel Gowdie (2007); Mozart's Requiem (2007); Nielsen's Symphonies Nos. 4–5 (2011); a third Sibelius symphony cycle (2002–2008); Smetana's Má vlast (2005); Tippett's A Child of Our Time (2007), Verdi's Falstaff (2004), Requiem (2009), and Otello (2010); and Walton's First Symphony (2005).
Awards
Davis was appointed CBE in 1965, knighted in 1980 and appointed Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 2001. He was awarded the Royal Philharmonic Society's gold medal in 1995, the Queen's Medal for Music, 2009, and has numerous international awards, including Commendatore of the Republic of Italy, 1976; Commander's Cross, Order of Merit (Germany), 1987; Commandeur, l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France), 1990; Commander, Order of the Lion (Finland), 1992; Order of Merit (Bavaria), 1993; Officier, Légion d'honneur (France), 1999 (Chevalier, 1982); Order of Maximilian (Bavaria), 2000.
Other awards include Pipe Smoker of the Year in 1996, Male Artist of the Year in the Classic Brit Awards 2008, the Grammy Award in 2006 for Best Opera for his LSO Live recording of Verdi's Falstaff, and the Elgar Medal in 2012.
He won a total of 10 Grammy Awards and 34 nominations during his career.
Personal life
In 1949, Davis married the soprano April Cantelo. They had two children. Their marriage ended in 1964, and in that same year, Davis married Ashraf Naini, known as Shamsi. To satisfy both the Iranian and British authorities, the couple were married three times, once in Iran and twice in the UK, in the Iranian Embassy in London as well as in a UK civil ceremony; they had five children. One of their children is the conductor Joseph Wolfe, who chose a different surname, because he wanted to "create some space to grow and develop my own identity as a musician".
Shamsi died in June 2010 at the time Davis was conducting Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro at the Royal Opera House. Davis continued the run of performances just days later and when asked, the following year, how he had the strength to perform, he replied:
It comes from the music. There is so much negative nonsense talked about Mozart, but he is – well, he's life itself.
Illness and death
After his wife's death, Davis's health declined rapidly. He fell from the podium at Covent Garden in February 2011, and cancelled many engagements in the subsequent months. His last concert in France was on 7 June 2012 at the Théâtre des Champs-Elysées in Paris with the Orchestre National de France and Emanuel Ax. His last concert with the LSO was a performance of Berlioz's Grande Messe des morts on 26 June 2012 at Saint Paul's Cathedral in London. His last known performance was with an amateur London orchestra and soloist Thomas Gould, a month before his death. On 14 April 2013, Davis died in London at the age of 85.
Antonio Pappano, music director at the Royal Opera House, said Davis's death came as a "huge blow". Labour MP Harriet Harman tweeted that Davis had "made a historic contribution to music – in this country & worldwide", while Borjan Canev, former assistant conductor to Davis, said "thank you for being my inspiration".
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Morrison, Richard. "Monarch of all he's survived", Profile of Davis at 80 – The Times, 21 September 2007
The Hector Berlioz Website, page on Sir Colin Davis
The Hector Berlioz Website, page on discography of Sir Colin Davis, compiled by Malcolm Walker and Brian Godfrey
1927 births
2013 deaths
Academics of the Royal Academy of Music
Members of the University of Cambridge Faculty of Music
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
Alumni of the Royal College of Music
BBC Symphony Orchestra
People educated at Christ's Hospital
English conductors (music)
English male conductors (music)
20th-century British conductors (music)
21st-century British conductors (music)
Music directors (opera)
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Knights Bachelor
Conductors (music) awarded knighthoods
Commanders of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Commanders of the Order of the Lion of Finland
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists
Grammy Award winners
People from Weybridge
London Symphony Orchestra principal conductors
20th-century British Army personnel
British Life Guards soldiers
Decca Records artists
RCA Records artists
Military personnel from Surrey
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beautiful%20Intentions
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Beautiful Intentions
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Beautiful Intentions
«Beautiful Intentions» — третій студійний альбом британської поп-співачки Мелані Чісхолм. В Британії реліз відбувся 11 квітня 2005.
Список пісень
Чарти та сертифікація
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт Мелані Чісхолм
Альбоми Мелані Чісхолм
Музичні альбоми 2005
Альбоми Red Girl Records
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1670268
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%20%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8E%20%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%20%28%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%29
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Пам'ятник Миколаю Копернику (Краків)
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Пам'ятник Миколаю Копернику (Краків)
Пам'ятник Миколая Коперника — пам'ятка у Кракові, присвячена астроному Миколаю Копернику, колишньому студенту Краківської академії.
Пам'ятник роботи скульптора Ципріана Годебського був виконаний у 1899 році. Урочисте відкриття відбулося 8 червня 1900 року у дворі Колегіум Маюс — найстарішої будівлі Ягеллонського університету. У 1953 році з ініціативи професора пам'ятник був перенесений до міського парку Краківські Планти і встановлений перед будівлею Ягеллонського університету, де і знаходиться в даний час.
Бронзова пам'ятка зображує Миколая Коперника в костюмі студента. Він стоїть на гранітному п'єдесталі, в який вмонтовано чотири мармурові барельєфи з латинськими написами, присвяченими пам'яті астронома. У руках Коперник тримає астролябію. Спочатку пам'ятник був спроектований як фонтан, про що свідчать пристрої для стоку води внизу п'єдесталу. Чотири мармурові колони, що оточують п'єдестал, були підібрані до неоготичного стилю будівлі Колегіум Маюс.
Ініціатором зведення пам'ятника був історик мистецтв Маріан Соколовський. Кошти, на які було зведено пам'ятник, спочатку призначалися для придбання картин про історію Ягеллонського університету роботи Яна Матейка, проте вони не були написані через смерть художника. Відкриття пам'ятника Копернику було присвячено 500-річному ювілею оновлення Ягеллонського університету.
Крім пам'ятника Ягеллонському університету, у Кракові є ще два пам'ятники Миколі Копернику:
у костелі Святої Анни знаходиться пам'ятник Копернику, який спроєктував і оплатив 1822 року архітектор-єзуїт Себастьян Сераковський, його виконав з чорного мармуру Ян Непомукен Гальєго. Пам'ятник зображує музу астрономії Уранію, що тримає однією рукою щит із сузір'ями, а іншою — лавровий вінок на Копернику.
пам'ятник, що зображує сидячого Миколая Коперника з астролябією і розкритою книгою на сходах будівлі на Славковській вулиці, робота Валерія Гадомського 1872 року. Спорудження цього пам'ятника фінансувала аристократка Софія Потоцька. Відкриття пам'ятника у будівлі Академії знань у лютому 1873 року було присвячено 400-річчю від дня народження астронома.
Посилання
Архивні зображення пам'ятника в бібліотеці Polona
Krokosz, J., 2000. Pomnik Mikołaja Kopernika w Krakowie. Przegląd Odlewnictwa, 50, pp.106-107.
Пам'ятники Кракова
Пам'ятники Миколаю Копернику
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism%20in%20Romania
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Tourism in Romania
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Tourism in Romania
Romania's tourism sector had a direct contribution of EUR 5.21 billion to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2018, slightly higher than in 2017, placing Romania on the 32nd place in the world, ahead of Slovakia and Bulgaria, but behind Greece and the Czech Republic. The total tourism sector's total contribution to Romania's economy, which also takes into account the investments and spending determined by this sector, was some EUR 15.3 billion in 2018, up by 8.4% compared to 2017.
In the first three months of the year 2018, there were 3.12 millions of foreign tourists. Compared to the same 3 months of the previous year, arrivals increased by 10.9% and overnight stays in accommodation establishments increased by 7.1%.
In the first nine months of the year 2019, there were 10 millions of foreign tourists. Compared to the same 9 months of the previous year, arrivals increased by 10.2%.
According to National Tourism Statistics, 15.7 million domestic and foreign tourists stayed in overnight accommodations in 2018. Of these 2.2 million are recorded as foreign tourists.
The most visited cities are Bucharest, Constanța, Brașov, Timișoara, Sibiu, Alba-Iulia, Cluj-Napoca, Sighișoara, Iași and Oradea. Natural touristic attractions include the Danube, the Carpathian Mountains, and the Black Sea. The most popular destinations for tourists are the capital city Bucharest, Brașov County, Cluj County, Prahova County, Constanța County, Bihor County and Sibiu County.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Romania
Churches of Moldavia – The eight Romanian Orthodox Churches of Moldavia are located in Suceava County, northern Moldavia, (Bukovina) and were built approximately between 1487 and 1583.
Dacian Fortresses of the Orăștie Mountains – The six fortresses (Sarmizegetusa Regia, Costești-Cetățuie, Costești-Blidaru, Piatra Roșie, Bănița and Căpâlna) that formed the defensive system of Decebalus were created in the 1st centuries BC and AD as protection against Roman conquest, and played an important role during the Roman-Dacian wars.
Historic Centre of Sighișoara – It is an inhabited medieval citadel that was built in the 12th century by Saxon colonists under the Latin name Castrum Sex and it is the birthplace of Vlad III the Impaler also known by the name of Count Dracula.
Danube Delta – It is the second largest river delta in Europe and best preserved on the continent.
Monastery of Horezu – It was founded in 1690 by Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu in the town of Horezu, Vâlcea County, Wallachia, Romania and it is considered to be a masterpiece of "Brâncovenesc style", known for its architectural purity and balance, the richness of its sculpted detail, its treatment of religious compositions, its votive portraits, and its painted decorative works.
Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania – They are seven villages (six Saxon and one Székely) founded by the Transylvanian Saxons. They are dominated by fortified churches and characterized by a specific settlement pattern that has been preserved since the late Middle Ages.
Wooden Churches of Maramureș – They are high timber constructions with characteristic tall, slim bell towers at the western end of the building. They are a particular vernacular expression of the cultural landscape of this mountainous area of northern Romania. These churches are: Bârsana, Budești, Desești, Ieud, Plopiș, Poienile Izei, Rogoz, Șurdești.
Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe
Activities
Swimming at the Black Sea resorts (from North to South): Năvodari, Mamaia, Constanța, Eforie Nord, Eforie Sud, Costinești, Olimp, Neptun, Jupiter, Cap Aurora, Venus, Saturn, Mangalia, 2 Mai and Vama Veche.
Skiing in the mountain resorts: Sinaia, Bușteni, Semenic, Azuga, Straja, Păltiniș, Rânca, Cavnic, Arieșeni, Predeal and Poiana Brașov.
Cultural cities of Bucharest, Timișoara, Sibiu, Brașov, Cluj-Napoca, Oradea, Arad, Alba Iulia, Sighișoara, Târgu Mureș, and Iași.
Rural tourism, which mainly revolves around the folklore and traditions of Banat, Maramureș and Bukovina. Given their more isolated, mountainous character and diversity of the population, the inhabitants of these two northern Romanian regions have kept old traditions such as painting Easter eggs, painting houses and in some parts have even kept the old local architecture alive.
Rural tourism in Transylvania along the Via Transilvanica, a long-distance hiking and cycling trail which includes attractions such as the villages with fortified churches or the Dacian Fortresses of the Orăștie Mountains.
Hiking in the Carpathian Mountains with many Mountain huts available
Spas and health resorts: Băile Herculane, Băile Felix, Buziaș, Sovata, Călimănești, Moneasa and Techirghiol
Museums
Travel with Mocănița steam-powered locomotive trains in the mountainous areas of Banat, Maramureș, Transylvania, and Bukovina.
Travel the water channels of the Danube Delta, stay in traditional villages that can only be reached by boats such as Sfântu Gheorghe.
Major tourist attractions
Many medieval castles and fortifications
Fortified Transylvanian Saxon medieval cities: Brașov, Râșnov, Rupea, Sighișoara, Sibiu, Cisnădie, Mediaș, Sebeș, Bistrița
Scărișoara Cave and Bears' Cave, both located in Apuseni Mountains
Sphinx and Babele, both situated in Bucegi Mountains
Cheile Nerei-Beușnița National Park, Domogled-Valea Cernei National Park, Semenic-Caraș Gorge National Park, Iron Gates in Caraș-Severin County
Ceahlău Massif and Vânători-Neamț Natural Park in Neamț County
Cheile Bicazului-Hășmaș National Park
Piatra Craiului Mountains
Berca Mud Volcanoes, in Buzău County
Merry Cemetery, in Săpânța, Maramureș County
Palace of the Parliament, Bucharest, one of the largest buildings in the world
Lipscani street, in the old town of Bucharest, the most important commercial area of the city and of the Principality of Wallachia from the Middle Ages to the early 19th century
Transfăgărășan road
Transalpina road
Turda Gorge (Cheile Turzii)
Turda Salt Mine
Praid Salt Mines
Iron Gates (Danube Gorge)
Hațeg Island, Hunedoara County
Sighișoara, a medieval fortified city in southeastern Transylvania (also the birthplace of Vlad Țepeș)
The old town of Timișoara
Bigăr Waterfall: according to The World Geography, Bigăr waterfall is a unique waterfall worldwide.
Cozia National Park, with mountains, ancient ruins, and medieval castles
Danube Delta
Romanian Black Sea resorts
Ancient ruins, Murfatlar Cave Complex, Măcin Mountains in Dobrogea
Festivals
George Enescu Festival, in Bucharest
EUROPAfest Jazz festival in Bucharest
Gărâna Jazz Festival in Caraș-Severin
Revolution Festival in Timișoara
Peninsula / Félsziget Festival in Târgu Mureș
Golden Stag Festival, in Brașov
Callatis Festival, in Mangalia
Electric Castle Festival, in Bonțida Bánffy Castle near Cluj-Napoca
Transilvania International Film Festival in Cluj-Napoca
Untold Festival, in Cluj-Napoca – Romania's biggest music festival
Neversea Festival, in Constanta
SAGA Festival, in Bucharest
International Theatre Festival in Sibiu
Sighișoara Medieval Festival
Foreign visitors by country
Most visitors arriving to Romania in 2022 were from the following countries:
Facilities for disabled travellers
Facilities for disabled travellers in Romania range from patchy to nonexistent. Anyone with mobility problems should go prepared and ideally have local contacts.
Although it has made some slow strides towards disabled access since then, and new buildings need to be wheelchair-accessible, implementation has been very poor. In practice Romania remains by and large off-limits to disabled travellers.
Industrial and creative tourism
Industrial tourism, as a niche of tourism in Romania and as a solution to the restructuring and disappearance of former large industrial sites (mining, metallurgy, heavy industry), takes on interest in the country still slowly, despite the country's join to the European Union in 2007. Even if presently the country is confronted with a long and difficult economic transition, it has a rich industrial and scientific history with many of the world's priorities and still has surviving authentic traditional crafts and rural communities. Limited to some geographic areas and not yet on a large scale, by the means of European funds and projects, a sustainable revival of the traditional sector is supported, which also implies creative tourism participatory activities.
Against this big potential, there are relatively few entities, the majority being state owned, that are organizing, providing or permitting public visits, a main cause of this still being the weak implication and support of many public authorities. Meanwhile, the tourism stakeholders pay a relatively weak attention to the hard core of this niche (industrial heritage, technique, science and living industry), and practically there are not many package offers of this kind on the market, with some notable exceptions: ethnographic and wine tourism, also some rehabilitated industrial and forest narrow railways and steam engines still operating.
Primary attractions
According, an industrial and creative tourism attractions web directory for Romania and some neighbouring countries, providing photos and short English descriptions of each objective, the main attractions open to the public are:
the national and regional technical and ethnographic museums: the Dimitrie Leonida National Technical Museum and the Aviation Museum in Bucharest, the mining museums in Brad, Petrosani, Rosia Montana, a technical museum in Iasi, the tram museum in Timișoara, the Oil Museum in Ploiesti, the astronomic observatories in Bucharest and Bacau, the village museums from Bucharest, Pitesti, Sibiu, Cluj, Timișoara, Valcea, Suceava;
the railway tourism on the recently rehabilitated narrow gauges from Brad, Abrud, Covasna, Moldovita, Agnita, Vaser, the Oravita – Anina mountain railway opened in 1864;
the power plant museums from Cernavoda (nuclear), Iron Gates (hydro, on the Danube, 2200 MW, the biggest in European Union), Sadu (hydro, built in 1896), Sinaia (hydro, built in 1899), Grebla – Resita (hydro, built in 1904);
factory tours: exception making some food (chocolate, soft drinks, yogurt) factories which provide visits for school children, there are no important companies (car, manufacturing, porcelain, textile, high technology, etc.) to promote such tourist visits. However, some reference enterprises may accept visits at special requests (the Resita Works, metallurgy, heavy machinery, founded in 1771, having a very interesting museum too, The Ruschita Marble Exploitation). A remarkable visit program, started in October 2013, offers the Timisoreana brewery, a factory founded in 1718, with very valuable heritage;
industrial heritage: even if valuable, a large majority of the monuments are still abandoned by their owners. However, a few exceptions could be mentioned;
motorsports: despite the missing of an international standard infrastructure like raceways, there are national federations organizing events for many categories and racing schools offering participatory courses;
the salt mines from: Turda, Praid, Cacica, Slanic Prahova, Ocnele Mari, Ocna Sibiului (salt lakes) are equally famous for their tourism interest (museums, underground entertainment parks) as well as therapeutic exploitation (respiratory diseases)
traditional crafts: wood carving, weaving, pottery, glass, embroidery. Many craftsmen preserved the traditions in some village areas from Moldavia, Transylvania and Oltenia. The majority are only selling their products on local markets, but they begin to organize and a few open their workshops to the tourists too;
wineries: some vineyards have incredible landscapes and the wines produced here have a well established and long tradition. Wine tourism provides presentations of the technologies and the storage caves, and is well developed in Romania. Famous big wineries: Murfatlar, Cotnari, Dragasani, Recaș, Prahova Valley, Odobesti, Husi, Cricova (near Chisinau, in the Republic of Moldova, is huge, with about 80 kilometres of tunnels and caves)
Infrastructure
There are 16 international commercial airports in service today. Overall, airports in the country were transited in 2016 by 16.4 million passengers. The largest number of passengers was attracted by Bucharest's Henri Coandă International Airport, which closed the year with a traffic of almost 11 million passengers.
Romania also has a large network of railways, CIA World Factbook lists Romania with the 22nd largest railway network in the world. The railway network is significantly interconnected with other European railway networks.
See also
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Romania
Castles in Romania
Protected areas of Romania
Transportation in Romania
Aviation in Romania
Seven Natural Wonders of Romania
Seven Manmade Wonders of Romania
References
Further reading
Tourism in the New Europe: The Challenges and Opportunities of EU Enlargement. pp. 256–265.
OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2012. pp. 397–402
The Report: Romania 2008. pp. 98–100.
Geography of Travel and Tourism. pp. 286–287.
Yahoo News article
The Financial Times article
International Medical Travel Journal article
External links
Official Tourism Site of Romania
Economy of Romania
Industrial tourism
Romania
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Чистяков Андрій Анатолійович
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Чистяков Андрій Анатолійович
Андрій Анатолійович Чистяков (9 березня 1987, м. Магнітогорськ, СРСР) — російський хокеїст, нападник. Виступає за «Мечел» (Челябінськ) у Вищій хокейній лізі.
Вихованець хокейної школи «Металург» (Магнітогорськ). Виступав за «Амур» (Хабаровськ), ХК «Есб'єрг», «Аріада-Акпарс» (Волжськ), «Сокіл» (Новочебоксарськ), Газпром-ОГУ (Оренбург), «Іжсталь» (Іжевськ).
Батько: Анатолій Чистяков.
Посилання
Профіль на Eliteprospects
Уродженці Магнітогорська
Російські хокеїсти
Хокеїсти «Амура»
Хокеїсти «Есб'єрга»
Хокеїсти «Аріади-Акпарс»
Хокеїсти «Сокола» (Новочебоксарськ)
Хокеїсти «Іжсталі»
Хокеїсти «Мечела»
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-581
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U-581
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U-581 — німецький підводний човен типу VIIC, часів Другої світової війни.
Замовлення на будівництво човна було віддане 8 січня 1940 року. Човен був закладений на верфі суднобудівної компанії «Blohm + Voss» у Гамбурзі 25 вересня 1940 року під будівельним номером 557, спущений на воду 12 червня 1941 року, 31 липня 1941 року увійшов до складу 5-ї флотилії. Також за час служби перебував у складі 7-ї флотилії. Єдиним командиром човна був капітан-лейтенант Вернер Пфайфер.
Човен зробив 2 бойових походи, в яких потопив 1 допоміжне військове судно.
Потоплений 2 лютого 1942 року у Північній Атлантиці південно-східніше Орта глибинними бомбами британського есмінця «Весткотт». 4 члени екіпажу загинули, 42 врятовані.
Потоплені та пошкоджені кораблі
Примітки
Підводні човни типу VII
Підводні човни Німеччини часів Другої світової війни
Підводні човни, затоплені кораблями
Кораблі, побудовані в Гамбурзі
Кораблі 1941
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bordzi%C5%82%C3%B3wka
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Bordziłówka
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Bordziłówka is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Rossosz, within Biała Podlaska County, Lublin Voivodeship, in eastern Poland. It lies approximately south of Biała Podlaska and north-east of the regional capital Lublin.
References
Villages in Biała Podlaska County
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Роговик Шмальгаузена
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Роговик Шмальгаузена (Cerastium schmalhausenii) — вид квіткових рослин родини гвоздикових (Caryophyllaceae).
Валідність таксону викликає сумніви. Зокрема The Plant List вважає цей таксон синонімом до Cerastium gracile Dufour, а Catalogue of Life — Cerastium ramosissimum Boiss.
Біоморфологічна характеристика
Це зелена однорічна рослина 5–15 см заввишки. Надземні пагони розгалужуються майже від основи. Нижні листки в розетках, обернено-яйцеподібні, інші довгасті. Чашолистки 3–4 мм у довжину, пелюстки майже рівні по довжині чашолисткам; коробочки вдвічі довші.
Поширення
Росте в Україні й пд.-євр. Росії.
В Україні вид росте на степових і кам'янистих схилах — на півдні Правобережного Степу, зрідка.
Примітки
Шмальгаузена
Флора України
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Міжгорський міський округ
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Міжгорський міський округ — адміністративна одиниця Республіки Башкортостан Російської Федерації.
Адміністративний центр та єдиний населений пункт — місто Міжгор'є.
Населення
Населення району становить 15603 особи (2019, 17352 у 2010, 19082 у 2002).
Примітки
Міські округи Башкортостану
Міжгор'є
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Work Song (альбом Нета Еддерлі)
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Work Song (альбом Нета Еддерлі)
Work Song — студійний альбом американського джазового корнетиста Нета Еддерлі, випущений у 1960 році лейблом Riverside.
Опис
Work Song став майже класичним альбомом Нета Еддерлі. Еддерлі використовує корнет-віолончель-гітару для соло за участі Сема Джонса і Веса Монтгомері, разом з ритм-секцією з піаністом Боббі Тіммонсом, Персі Гітом або Кітером Беттсом на контрабасі і ударником Луї Гейзом. Альбом містить ранню версію найвідомішого хіта Еддерлі «Work Song». Також гурт виконує «Sack O' Woe» Кеннонболла Еддерлі. На чотирьох композиціях використані невеликі гурти, Тіммонс відсутній на «My Heart Stood Still», на якій Кітер Беттс грає на віолончелі і Джонс на контрабасі; на «Mean to Me» Нету акомпанують Монтгомері, Беттс і Гейз; дві балади («I've Got a Crush on You» і «Violets for Your Furs») інтерпретовані тріо Еддерлі-Монтгомері-Джонс. Тут Еддерлі знаходиться у своїй найкращій формі і грає доволі лірично.
Список композицій
«Work Song» (Нет Еддерлі) — 4:15
«Pretty Memory» (Боббі Тіммонс) — 3:54
«I've Got a Crush on You» (Джордж Гершвін, Айра Гершвін) — 2:53
«Mean to Me» (Фред Е. Алерт, Рой Терк) — 4:59
«Fallout» (Нет Еддерлі) — 4:51
«Sack of Woe» (Джуліан Еддерлі) — 4:24
«My Heart Stood Still» (Річард Роджерс, Лоренц Гарт) — 5:40
«Violets for Your Furs» (Том Адейр, Метт Денніс) — 3:47
«Scrambled Eggs» (Сем Джонс) — 3:20
Учасники запису
Нет Еддерлі — корнет
Вес Монтгомері — гітара
Боббі Тіммонс — фортепіано (1, 2, 5, 6, 9)
Сем Джонс — контрабас, віолончель
Кітер Беттс — контрабас, віолончель
Персі Гіт — контрабас
Луї Гейз — ударні
Технічний персонал
Оррін Кіпньюз — продюсер, текст
Джек Хіггінс — інженер [запис]
Лоуренс Н. Шустак — фотографія [обкладинка і фотографії вкладиша]
Гарріс Левайн, Кен Брейрен, Пол Бейкон — дизайн [обкладинка]
Посилання
Огляд на Allmusic
Опис на Discogs
Інформація на Jazzdisco
Альбоми Нета Еддерлі
Альбоми Riverside Records
Альбоми, записані на Reeves Sound Studios
Альбоми, спродюсовані Орріном Кіпньюзом
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Яків Пилип Кулик
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Яків Пилип Кулик (1 травня 1793, Львів, Королівство Галичини і Володимирії, Габсбурзька монархія — 28 лютого 1863, Прага, Богемське королівство, Австрійська імперія) — видатний український математик, фізик, доктор філософії, сеньйор колегії професорів філософського факультету, публічний ординарний професор вищої математики, декан філософського факультету Празького університету, ректор Грацького універститету, член багатьох учених товариств, звичайний член Королівської чеської Академії наук, автор багатьох праць з математики та фізики, зокрема, склав таблиці першочисел та таблиці розкладу чисел.
Життєпис
Яків Пилип Кулик народився 1 травня (20 квітня за старим стилем) 1793 року у Львові в родині львівського службовця Стефана Кулика та Констанції з Березовських.
Початкову освіту здобув народної школі, далі було навчання у академічній гімназії, яку закінчив 1809 року. Тут у Пилипа почав проявлятися інтерес до природничих наук, особливо до фізики та математики. Батько мріяв, щоб син став правником. Тому 1810 року Пилип вступає на філософський факультет Львівського університету, через те, що у той час, щоби навчатися на правничому, медичному або теологічному факультетах університету, слід було спочатку закінчити філософський факультет, та у 1811 році його закінчує. Наступних три роки він навчався на правничому факультеті вишу, який закінчив 1814 року, і таким чином були задоволені не лише він, але й його батьки.
У вересні 1814 року Пилип Кулик переїхав до Оломовця, а згодом місцевий ліцей оголосив конкурс на заміщення вакантної посади професора кафедри фізики та математики, у якому взяв участь й Пилип Кулик та несподівано для усіх переміг. 14 листопада 1814 року був призначений професором ліцею, де мав 7 годин занять з математики щотижня. Після двох років, він з 1816 року — професор фізики у Грацькому університеті, а з 1817 року — професор астрономії у Львівській Політехніці. У 1822 році він здобув ступінь доктора філософії за працю «Про феномен веселки», а у 1822—1823 роках — ректор Грацького університету.
1826 року Кулик переїхав до Праги, де був призначений на посаду професора вищої математики у Празькому університеті. Тут він викладав математику, в основному — диференціальне та інтегральне числення та аналітичну механіку. Від 1829 року він обіймав також посаду декана філософського факультету, а від 1831 року — був членом математичної секції Королівського чеського товариства науковців.
У 1831 році у Празі вийшов друком перший підручник Кулика — «Підручник вищого аналізу». Об'ємний підручник (470 с.) складався з чотирьох розділів — «Методи невизначених коефіцієнтів», «Диференціальне та інтегральне числення», «Криві з простою кривизною», «Поверхні та криві з подвійною кривизною», тобто в цілому охоплювали питання математичного аналізу та аналітичної геометрії.
У 1842 році він видав колосальну працю «Практична школа для рисунків», адже він мав неабиякий хист до малювання та створював взірці для шкіл, малярів, проектантів, літографів, яких за своє життя створив близько 40 тисяч.
Написання підручників з математики та механіки для нього було постійним заняттям. Так, у 1843 році світ побачив ще один підручник Кулика, що складався з двох частин — «Підручник вищого аналізу» (друге видання) та «Підручник з арифметики та алгебри». У цьому підручнику матеріал математичного аналізу доповнений темами, що складають основу вищої арифметики та алгебри.
Значним є його внесок у розвиток механіки, а саме те, що Кулик сформулював теорему отримання вислідних сил, які виникають в результаті дії двох сил під кутом одна до одної. 1841 року вийшов підручник Кулика — «Вища механіка в лекціях». 1846 року у Ліпско він видав друком ґрунтовний підручник «Основи вищої механіки», яким був значно доповнене та розширене видання 1841 року. Об'ємний підручник (750 с.) складався вже з п'яти розділів — «Статика фіксованого тіла», «Застосування статики», «Динаміка», «Гідростатика» та «Гідродинаміка та гідравліка».
Пилип Кулик також займався питаннями календографії та багато років опрацьовував астрономічну частину «Календаря літочислення». 1831 р. вперше з'явився «Тисячолітній календар» — корисний посібник для історіографів, дипломатів, архівістів, суддів, юристів, сільських священиків і взагалі для тих, хто цікавиться манускриптами, історичними книжками та документальним підтвердженням хронологічних дат, що перевидавався декілька разів. Друге видання цього календаря було доповнене календарем юдеїв та турків. 1840 року Сенат університету доручив Куликові скласти логарифмічні таблиці для урядових цілей, що він досконало виконав.
Після того як під час революційних подій «весни народів» 1848 року згорів Львівський університет з бібліотекою, то ректорат звернувся до багатьох вчених, у тому числі й до Пилипа Кулика з проханням подарувати книги для бібліотеки. Кулик відгукнувся на їх прохання та подарував навчальному закладу 498 праць в 1000 томів, переважно математичної тематики.
У 1851 році він отримав чин цісарського радника двору. Того ж року виходить його праця польською мовою «Новий спосіб найзручнішого, найвигіднішого і надійного множення та ділення чисел. Для молоді галицьких шкіл». 1860 року у своїй праці «Вклад у розв'язок вищих рівнянь, зокрема кубічних», він детально описує порядок визначення наявності раціонального кореня в рівняннях будь-якого порядку, а також досліджує ірраціональні та кратні корені.
1861 року на замовлення та кошти Королівського Чеського товариства науковців з'явився «Календар християнського літочислення», складений Куликом. В цьому календарі його автор створив великодній календар від 800 до 1940 року, а також починаючи з 1583 року. день святкування Великодня вказується за старим та новими стилями літочислення.
Багато працював над дослідженням та проектуванням ланцюгових мостів, їхньої практичності й безпечності. Ще 1838 року у своїй праці «Дослідження про лінії ланцюгового мосту» Кулик досліджував практичні питання з механіки. В праці автором пояснювалися властивості тих кривих ліній, які беруть на себе роль підвісних ланцюгів ланцюгового мосту, на той час, коли окрім власної ваги мають витримувати ще й вагу підвісних жердин, тобто ліній ланцюгових мостів. Згодом, за його розрахунками, було споруджено низку мостів, зокрема, у Празі та Будапешті.
Помер 28 лютого 1863 року та похований на Ольшанському цвинтарі у Празі. Пізніше Кулика перепоховали на Вишеградському цвинтарі-пантеоні — місце, де поховані найвизначніші діячі чеської науки та культури. Могила його розташована біля головної крипти з великою фрескою на стіні, де на бляшаному орнаменті золотими літерами викарбувано латиною його ім'я.
Родина
4 листопада 1828 році у Львові Пилип Кулик одружився з Катериною — дочкою заможного міщанина Вацлава Дегла та Барбари з дому Ґріндлів. У цього подружжя було двоє дітей: Юстин — доктор права, адвокат, і Ангеліна, була дружиною доктора юстиції Антоніна Ранди, який згодом став віце-президентом Верховного суду, міністром юстиції Австро-Угорщини, професором юридичного факультету Карло-Фердинандового університету. Дружина Пилипа Кулика померла у 1883 році.
З цією родиною були у дружніх відносинах Горбачевські. Донька Івана Горбачевського Марія у своїх спогадах зазначала, що пані Ангеліна Рандова не раз заявляла їй про те, що «в її жилах тече руська кров», а батьки її найбільше розмовляли між собою українською.
Праці
Наукові праці Якова Пилипа Кулика зберігаються в архівних фондах Наукової бібліотеки ЛНУ ім. І. Франка нижче перелічені лише деякі з них:
1822 — Die phaenomenis Iridis.
1825 — Divisores numerorum decies millia non excedentium etc. Tafeln der einfachen Factoren jeder grösse en Zahl unter einer Million ;
1831 — Lehrbuch der höheren Analysis; Der tausendjährige Kalender. Ein nützliches Handbuch für Historiographen, Diplomatiker, Archivare, Richter, Advokaten, Landgeistliche und überhaupt für alle Jene…;
1833 — Die Toisirtafeln zur leichteren berechnung des Längen, Flächen — und Kubik-Inhalts und die verschiedenen Münz, — Mass-, und Gewichtsbäträge;
1834 — Der tausendjährige Kalender. Ein nützliches Handbuch für Historiographen, Diplomatiker, Archivare, Richter, Advokaten, Landgeistliche und überhaupt für alle Jene, welche die in den alten Manuskripten, Geschichtsbüchern und Urkunden vorkommenden chronologischen Daten zu bestimmen haben ;
1836 — Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Inhalts zylindrischer und konischer Gefässe in Bierbrauereien und Branntweinbrennereien;
1838 — Unter Suchungen über die Kettenbrückenlinie;
1841 — Höhere Mechanik nach der Vorlesungen;
1843—1844 — Lerbuch der höheren Arithmetik und Algebra; Lehrbuch der höheren Analysis (Zweiter Band);
1846 — Anfangsgründe der höheren Mathematik mit Rücksicht auf ihre technischen Anwendungen; Anfangsgründe des höheren Mechanik;
1848 — Tafeln der Quadrat und Kubikzahlen aller natürlichen Zahlen bis Hunderttausend, nebst ihrer Anwendung auf die Zerlegung gröser Zahlen auf ihre Factoren;
1851 — Tablice wycinkow hiperbolicznych tudziez dlugosci ukow a cwiercokregow eliptycznych; Nowy sposob latwiejszego wygodniejszego i pewniejszego mnozenia i dzilenia liczb. Dla mlodziežy szkol qalicyjskich;
1853 — Über die Tafel primitiver Würzeln;
1860 — Beiträge zur Auflösung höherer Gleichungen überhaupt und der kubischen Gleichungen insbesondere;
1861 — Die Jahresformen der christlichen Zeitrechnung.
Дослідження спадщини Якова Пилипа Кулика триває й сьогодні як в Україні, так і за кордоном. Цьому присвячені праці Я. Матвіїшина, І. Депмана, С. Порубського, Л. Моравця, Василя Шендеровського, С. Лісковець.
Примітки
Джерела
Бородин А., Бугай А. Биографический словарь деятелей в области математики. — Киев: Радянська школа, 1979. — 608 с.
Депман И. Замечательные славянские вычислители Г. Вега и Я. П. Кулик / под редакцией Рыбкина Г., Юшкевича А. // Историко-математические исследования — Москва: Наука, 1963. — Вып. № 6. — С. 593—608.
Козирський В., Шендеровський В. З плеяди геніальних // Урядовий кур'єр. — 2000. — 6 травня.
Лісковець С. Педагогічна та науково-публіцистична діяльність Якова Пилипа Кулика (1793—1863) / Державна наукова сільськогосподарська бібліотека НААН України // Історія науки і біографістика. — 2012. — № 2.
Лісковець С. Про дослідження маловідомих наукових праць Якова Пилипа Кулика // Питання історії науки і техніки — Київ: 2011. — С. 100—106.
Лісковець С. Про маловідомі математичні таблиці Якова Пилипа Кулика // Питання історії науки і техніки — Київ: 2012. — № 3 (23). — С. 6—10.
Лісковець С. Яків Пилип Кулик (1793—1863). — вчений, педагог, організатор науки: автореферат дисертація… канд. іст. наук: 07.00.07 / Лісковець С. — Київ: Б.в., 2012. — 22 с.
Шендеровський В. З плеяди геніальних — Пилип Кулик // Нехай не гасне світ науки. Книга 1 / Василь Шендеровський; За ред. Емми Бабчук. — 3-є вид. — Київ: ВД «Простір», 2009. — ISBN 978-966-2068-13-9. — 416 с.
Moravec L. Jacob Philipp Kulik and his Calendars // WDS'10 Proceedings of Contributed Papers. — Part I. — 2010. — PP. 145—150. — ISBN 978-80-7378-139-2.
Посилання
Пилип Кулик
Оцифровані праці Пилипа Кулика
Уродженці Львова
Українські математики
Українські фізики
Українські філософи
Автори підручників з алгебри
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639892
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD
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Серандон
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Серандон — муніципалітет у Франції, у регіоні Нова Аквітанія, департамент Коррез. Населення — .
Муніципалітет розташований на відстані близько 390 км на південь від Парижа, 105 км на південний схід від Ліможа, 50 км на схід від Тюля.
Демографія
Розподіл населення за віком та статтю (2006):
Економіка
У 2010 році в муніципалітеті числилось 179 оподаткованих домогосподарств, у яких проживали 362,0 особи, медіана доходів виносила євро на одного особоспоживача
Сусідні муніципалітети
Галерея зображень
Посилання
Див. також
Список муніципалітетів департаменту Коррез
Примітки
Муніципалітети департаменту Коррез
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4631426
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B7%20%28%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%29
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Сарсаз (Юргинський округ)
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Сарсаз (Юргинський округ)
Сарсаз — присілок у складі Юргинського округу Кемеровської області, Росія.
Стара назва — Сар-Саз.
Населення
Населення — 476 осіб (2010; 528 у 2002).
Національний склад (станом на 2002 рік):
татари — 61 %
росіяни — 36 %
Джерела
Примітки
Населені пункти Юргинського округу
Присілки Кемеровської області
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3217004
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournus
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Tournus
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Tournus is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in eastern France.
Geography
Tournus is located on the right bank of the Saône, 20 km. northeast of Mâcon on the Paris-Lyon railway.
Population
Sights
The church of St Philibert (early 11th century), is the main surviving building of the former Benedictine abbey of Tournus, suppressed in 1785. It is in the Burgundian Romanesque style. The façade lacks one of the two flanking towers originally designed for it. The nave is roofed with barrel vaulting, supported on tall cylindrical columns. Both the choir and the 11th century crypt beneath it have an ambulatory and side chapels.
In the Place de l'Hôtel de Ville stands a statue of Jean-Baptiste Greuze, born in the town in 1725.
Economy
Tournus is an important tourist area, with one four-star hotel (the Greuze) and one three-star hotel (the Rempart). In 2013, four restaurants had a Michelin star: the Greuze, Quartier Gourmand, Aux Terasses, and Meulien.
There are vineyards in the surrounding district and the town and its port have considerable commerce in wine and in stone from the neighboring quarries. Chairmaking was an important industry.
There are several industrial areas to the north and south-west. The town manufactures a large quantity of domestic white goods, at the Groupe SEB factory, and cookware at the Tefal factory.
There is a market every Saturday morning.
Sport
On 9 June 2009, the town was the start of the Stage 3 of the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré cycle race.
On 10 July 2010, the town was en route of the Stage 7 of the Tour de France cycle race.
Notable people
See also: :Category:People from Tournus.
Jean-Baptiste Greuze (1725–1805), painter.
Albert Thibaudet (1874–1936), a French essayist and literary critic.
Gabriel Voisin (1880–1973), aviation and automobile pioneer.
Marie-Hélène Mathieu, (born 1929), religious worker for the disabled.
Josiane Bost (born 1956), a French former racing cyclist
See also
Communes of the Saône-et-Loire department
Lords of Brancion
References
Communes of Saône-et-Loire
Burgundy
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2996618
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B0-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B6%20%28%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B4-%D0%9B%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8%29
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Ляга-Вож (притока Иджид-Ляги)
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Ляга-Вож (притока Иджид-Ляги)
Ляга-Вож або Лягавож або Лязавож — річка в Республіці Комі, Росія, ліва притока річки Иджид-Ляга, лівої притоки річки Ілич, правої притоки річки Печора. Протікає територією Троїцько-Печорського району.
Річка починається на північно-східних схилах хребта Яни-Пулуньєр (Иджид-Болбаноїз) хребта Поясовий Камінь. Протікає на північний схід, північ, північний захід, північний схід та північний захід.
Притоки:
ліва — Ангріп
Джерела
Посилання
Державний водний реєстр Росії
Річки Троїцько-Печорського району
Річки басейну Ілича
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4626210
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%20%28%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%29
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Шипіцино (Промишленнівський округ)
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Шипіцино (Промишленнівський округ)
Шипіцино — присілок у складі Промишленнівського округу Кемеровської області, Росія.
Населення
Населення — 217 осіб (2010; 188 у 2002).
Національний склад (станом на 2002 рік):
росіяни — 91 %
Джерела
Примітки
Населені пункти Промишленнівського округу
Присілки Кемеровської області
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4446455
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B7%D0%B0%20%28%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F%29
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Уза (станція)
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Уза (станція)
Уза (до 1902 — Семенівка) — проміжна станція Гомельського відділення Білоруської залізниці на електрифікованій лінії Гомель — Жлобин. Розташована у однойменному селі Буда-Кошельовському районі Гомельської області.
Примітки
Джерела
Посилання
Інформація на сайті Державного центру картографо-геодезичних матеріалів і даних Республіки Білорусь
Станції Гомельського відділення Білоруської залізниці
Транспорт Гомельської області
Буда-Кошельовський район
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3199726
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%20112
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Псалом 112
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Псалом 112 (у масоретській нумерації — 113) — 112-й псалом Книги псалмів. Латиною псалом відомий відомий своїм інципітом «Laudate pueri Dominum».
Псалом 112 є регулярною частиною єврейських, католицьких, англіканських та протестантських літургій. У юдаїзмі він є першим із шести псалмів, які входять до молитви Галель — молитви прослави і подяки, яку читають на свято Рош Ходеш (перший день єврейського місяця) та свята Ізраїлю. У католицизмі псалом включиний до вечірніх Богослужінь. Він був часто покладений на музику, наприклад, Клаудіо Монтеверді «Vespro della Beata Vergine» — твір, написаний на основі псалому (1610).
Текст
Літургійне використання
Юдаїзм
Псалом 112 є одним із шести псалмів (113–118), на основі яких написана молитва Галель. У дні читання молитви Галель цей псалом читають повністю.
Він є також однією із так званих Єгипетських молитов Галель, імовірно написаних царем Давидом.
Вірш 2 є частиною вечірньої молитви Маарів, а також присутній у повторенні молитви «Аміда» під час святкування Рош Гашана.
Католицька церква
У католицизмі псалом включений до вечірніх Богослужінь.
Використання у музиці
Цей псалом був часто покладений на музику, так як він належить до псалмів, які включені на вечірні Богослужіння. Традиційно твори були покладені на музику латиною як «Laudate pueri Dominum». Клаудіо Монтеверді написав композицію «Vespro della Beata Vergine», яка була опублікована в 1610 році. Вольфганг Амадей Моцарт використав текс псалому в двох композиціях для вечірніх: «Vesperae solennes de Dominica», K. 321 та «Vesperae solennes de confessore», K. 339.
Окремі композиції псалому включають п’ять творів, написаних Антоніо Вівальді, RV 600–603. Георг Фрідріх Гендель поклав цей псалом на музику двічі: твір у фа мажорі, який є його найбільш ранньою композицією, можливо, написаною ще в 1701/02 рр. у Галле, HWV 236 та твір, написаний у ре мажорі у Римі в 1707 році, HWV 237. У 1830 році Фелікс Мендельсон поклав на музику псалом як один із трьох мотетів для жіночого хору і органу, Op. 39, No. 2.
Примітки
Посилання
Переклад Біблії Івана Огієнка
Псалом 112 на різних мовах і в інтерпретаціях різних композиторів
Псалми
Молитви
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6555
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage
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Carthage
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Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classical world. It became the capital city of the civilisation of Ancient Carthage and later Roman Carthage.
The city developed from a Phoenician colony into the capital of a Punic empire which dominated large parts of the Southwest Mediterranean during the first millennium BC. The legendary Queen Elissa, Alyssa or Dido, originally from Tyre, is regarded as the founder of the city, though her historicity has been questioned. In the myth, Dido asked for land from a local tribe, which told her that she could get as much land as an oxhide could cover. She cut the oxhide into strips and laid out the perimeters of the new city. As Carthage prospered at home, the polity sent colonists abroad as well as magistrates to rule the colonies.
The ancient city was destroyed in the nearly three year siege of Carthage by the Roman Republic during the Third Punic War in 146 BC. It was re-developed a century later as Roman Carthage, which became the major city of the Roman Empire in the province of Africa. The question of Carthaginian decline and demise has remained a subject of literary, political, artistic, and philosophical debates in both ancient and modern histories.
Late antique and medieval Carthage continued to play an important cultural and economic role in the Byzantine period. The city was sacked and destroyed by Umayyad forces after the Battle of Carthage in 698 to prevent it from being reconquered by the Byzantine Empire. It remained occupied during the Muslim period and was used as a fort by the Muslims until the Hafsid period when it was taken by the Crusaders with its inhabitants massacred during the Eighth Crusade. The Hafsids decided to destroy its defenses so it could not be used as a base by a hostile power again. It also continued to function as an episcopal see.
The regional power had shifted to Kairouan and the Medina of Tunis in the medieval period, until the early 20th century, when it began to develop into a coastal suburb of Tunis, incorporated as Carthage municipality in 1919. The archaeological site was first surveyed in 1830, by Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe. Excavations were performed in the second half of the 19th century by Charles Ernest Beulé and by Alfred Louis Delattre. The Carthage National Museum was founded in 1875 by Cardinal Charles Lavigerie. Excavations performed by French archaeologists in the 1920s first attracted an extraordinary amount of attention because of the evidence they produced for child sacrifice. There has been considerable disagreement among scholars concerning whether child sacrifice was practiced by ancient Carthage. The open-air Carthage Paleo-Christian Museum has exhibits excavated under the auspices of UNESCO from 1975 to 1984. The site of the ruins is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Etymology
The name Carthage is the Early Modern anglicisation of Middle French , from Latin and (cf. Greek and Etruscan ) from the Punic "new city", implying it was a "new Tyre". The Latin adjective , meaning "Phoenician", is reflected in English in some borrowings from Latinnotably the Punic Wars and the Punic language.
The Modern Standard Arabic form is an adoption of French , replacing an older local toponym reported as Cartagenna that directly continued the Latin name.
Topography, layout, and society
Overview
Carthage was built on a promontory with sea inlets to the north and the south. The city's location made it master of the Mediterranean's maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea had to pass between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia, where Carthage was built, affording it great power and influence. Two large, artificial harbors were built within the city, one for harboring the city's prodigious navy of 220 warships and the other for mercantile trade. A walled tower overlooked both harbors. The city had massive walls, long, which was longer than the walls of comparable cities. Most of the walls were on the shore and so could be less impressive, as Carthaginian control of the sea made attack from that direction difficult. The of wall on the isthmus to the west were truly massive and were never penetrated.
Carthage was one of the largest cities of the Hellenistic period and was among the largest cities in preindustrial history. Whereas by AD 14, Rome had at least 750,000 inhabitants and in the following century may have reached 1 million, the cities of Alexandria and Antioch numbered only a few hundred thousand or less. According to the history of Herodian, Carthage rivaled Alexandria for second place in the Roman empire.
Layout
The Punic Carthage was divided into four equally sized residential areas with the same layout. The Punic had religious areas, market places, council house, towers, a theater, and a huge necropolis; roughly in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called the Byrsa. Surrounding Carthage were walls "of great strength" said in places to rise above 13 m, being nearly 10 m thick, according to ancient authors. To the west, three parallel walls were built. The walls altogether ran for about to encircle the city. The heights of the Byrsa were additionally fortified; this area being the last to succumb to the Romans in 146 BC. Originally the Romans had landed their army on the strip of land extending southward from the city.
Outside the city walls of Carthage is the Chora or farm lands of Carthage. Chora encompassed a limited area: the north coastal tell, the lower Bagradas river valley (inland from Utica), Cape Bon, and the adjacent sahel on the east coast. Punic culture here achieved the introduction of agricultural sciences first developed for lands of the eastern Mediterranean, and their adaptation to local African conditions.
The urban landscape of Carthage is known in part from ancient authors, augmented by modern digs and surveys conducted by archeologists. The "first urban nucleus" dating to the seventh century, in area about , was apparently located on low-lying lands along the coast (north of the later harbors). As confirmed by archaeological excavations, Carthage was a "creation ex nihilo", built on 'virgin' land, and situated at what was then the end of a peninsula. Here among "mud brick walls and beaten clay floors" (recently uncovered) were also found extensive cemeteries, which yielded evocative grave goods like clay masks. "Thanks to this burial archaeology we know more about archaic Carthage than about any other contemporary city in the western Mediterranean." Already in the eighth century, fabric dyeing operations had been established, evident from crushed shells of murex (from which the 'Phoenician purple' was derived). Nonetheless, only a "meager picture" of the cultural life of the earliest pioneers in the city can be conjectured, and not much about housing, monuments or defenses. The Roman poet Virgil (70–19 BC) imagined early Carthage, when his legendary character Aeneas had arrived there:
"Aeneas found, where lately huts had been,
marvelous buildings, gateways, cobbled ways,
and din of wagons. There the Tyrians
were hard at work: laying courses for walls,
rolling up stones to build the citadel,
while others picked out building sites and plowed
a boundary furrow. Laws were being enacted,
magistrates and a sacred senate chosen.
Here men were dredging harbors, there they laid
the deep foundations of a theatre,
and quarried massive pillars... ."Virgil here, however, does innocently inject his own Roman cultural notions into his imagined description, e.g., Punic Carthage evidently built no theaters per se. Cf., Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968).
The two inner harbors, named cothon in Punic, were located in the southeast; one being commercial, and the other for war. Their definite functions are not entirely known, probably for the construction, outfitting, or repair of ships, perhaps also loading and unloading cargo. Larger anchorages existed to the north and south of the city. North and west of the cothon were located several industrial areas, e.g., metalworking and pottery (e.g., for amphora), which could serve both inner harbors, and ships anchored to the south of the city.
Considering the importance of the Byrsa, the citadel area to the north, our knowledge of it is patchy. Its prominent heights were the scene of fierce combat during the fiery destruction of the city in 146 BC. The Byrsa was the reported site of the Temple of Eshmun (the healing god), at the top of a stairway of sixty steps. A temple of Tanit (the city's queen goddess) was likely situated on the slope of the 'lesser Byrsa' immediately to the east, which runs down toward the sea. Also situated on the Byrsa were luxury homes.
South of the citadel, near the cothon was the tophet, a special and very old cemetery, which when begun lay outside the city's boundaries. Here the Salammbô was located, the Sanctuary of Tanit, not a temple but an enclosure for placing stone stelae. These were mostly short and upright, carved for funeral purposes. The presence of infant skeletons from here may indicate the occurrence of child sacrifice, as claimed in the Bible, although there has been considerable doubt among archeologists as to this interpretation and many consider it simply a cemetery devoted to infants. Probably the tophet burial fields were "dedicated at an early date, perhaps by the first settlers." Recent studies, on the other hand, indicate that child sacrifice was practiced by the Carthaginians.
Between the sea-filled cothon for shipping and the Byrsa heights lay the agora [Greek: "market"], the city-state's central marketplace for business and commerce. The agora was also an area of public squares and plazas, where the people might formally assemble, or gather for festivals. It was the site of religious shrines, and the location of whatever were the major municipal buildings of Carthage. Here beat the heart of civic life. In this district of Carthage, more probably, the ruling suffets presided, the council of elders convened, the tribunal of the 104 met, and justice was dispensed at trials in the open air.
Early residential districts wrapped around the Byrsa from the south to the north east. Houses usually were whitewashed and blank to the street, but within were courtyards open to the sky. In these neighborhoods multistory construction later became common, some up to six stories tall according to an ancient Greek author. Several architectural floorplans of homes have been revealed by recent excavations, as well as the general layout of several city blocks. Stone stairs were set in the streets, and drainage was planned, e.g., in the form of soakaways leaching into the sandy soil. Along the Byrsa's southern slope were located not only fine old homes, but also many of the earliest grave-sites, juxtaposed in small areas, interspersed with daily life.
Artisan workshops were located in the city at sites north and west of the harbors. The location of three metal workshops (implied from iron slag and other vestiges of such activity) were found adjacent to the naval and commercial harbors, and another two were further up the hill toward the Byrsa citadel. Sites of pottery kilns have been identified, between the agora and the harbors, and further north. Earthenware often used Greek models. A fuller's shop for preparing woolen cloth (shrink and thicken) was evidently situated further to the west and south, then by the edge of the city. Carthage also produced objects of rare refinement. During the 4th and 3rd centuries, the sculptures of the sarcophagi became works of art. "Bronze engraving and stone-carving reached their zenith."
The elevation of the land at the promontory on the seashore to the north-east (now called Sidi Bou Saïd), was twice as high above sea level as that at the Byrsa (100 m and 50 m). In between runs a ridge, several times reaching 50 m; it continues northwestward along the seashore, and forms the edge of a plateau-like area between the Byrsa and the sea. Newer urban developments lay here in these northern districts.
Due to the Roman's leveling of the city, the original Punic urban landscape of Carthage was largely lost. Since 1982, French archaeologist Serge Lancel excavated a residential area of the Punic Carthage on top of Byrsa hill near the Forum of the Roman Carthage. The neighborhood can be dated back to early second century BC, and with its houses, shops, and private spaces, is significant for what it reveals about daily life of the Punic Carthage.
The remains have been preserved under embankments, the substructures of the later Roman forum, whose foundation piles dot the district. The housing blocks are separated by a grid of straight streets about wide, with a roadway consisting of clay; in situ stairs compensate for the slope of the hill. Construction of this type presupposes organization and political will, and has inspired the name of the neighborhood, "Hannibal district", referring to the legendary Punic general or sufet (consul) at the beginning of the second century BC. The habitat is typical, even stereotypical. The street was often used as a storefront/shopfront; cisterns were installed in basements to collect water for domestic use, and a long corridor on the right side of each residence led to a courtyard containing a sump, around which various other elements may be found. In some places, the ground is covered with mosaics called punica pavement, sometimes using a characteristic red mortar.
Society and local economy
Punic culture and agricultural sciences, after arriving at Carthage from the eastern Mediterranean, gradually adapted to the local conditions. The merchant harbor at Carthage was developed after settlement of the nearby Punic town of Utica, and eventually the surrounding African countryside was brought into the orbit of the Punic urban centers, first commercially, then politically. Direct management over cultivation of neighbouring lands by Punic owners followed. A 28-volume work on agriculture written in Punic by Mago, a retired army general, was translated into Latin and later into Greek. The original and both translations have been lost; however, some of Mago's text has survived in other Latin works. Olive trees (e.g., grafting), fruit trees (pomegranate, almond, fig, date palm), viniculture, bees, cattle, sheep, poultry, implements, and farm management were among the ancient topics which Mago discussed. As well, Mago addresses the wine-maker's art (here a type of sherry).
In Punic farming society, according to Mago, the small estate owners were the chief producers. They were, two modern historians write, not absent landlords. Rather, the likely reader of Mago was "the master of a relatively modest estate, from which, by great personal exertion, he extracted the maximum yield." Mago counselled the rural landowner, for the sake of their own 'utilitarian' interests, to treat carefully and well their managers and farm workers, or their overseers and slaves. Yet elsewhere these writers suggest that rural land ownership provided also a new power base among the city's nobility, for those resident in their country villas. By many, farming was viewed as an alternative endeavour to an urban business. Another modern historian opines that more often it was the urban merchant of Carthage who owned rural farming land to some profit, and also to retire there during the heat of summer. It may seem that Mago anticipated such an opinion, and instead issued this contrary advice (as quoted by the Roman writer Columella):
The man who acquires an estate must sell his house, lest he prefer to live in the town rather than in the country. Anyone who prefers to live in a town has no need of an estate in the country." "One who has bought land should sell his town house, so that he will have no desire to worship the household gods of the city rather than those of the country; the man who takes greater delight in his city residence will have no need of a country estate.
The issues involved in rural land management also reveal underlying features of Punic society, its structure and stratification. The hired workers might be considered 'rural proletariat', drawn from the local Berbers. Whether there remained Berber landowners next to Punic-run farms is unclear. Some Berbers became sharecroppers. Slaves acquired for farm work were often prisoners of war. In lands outside Punic political control, independent Berbers cultivated grain and raised horses on their lands. Yet within the Punic domain that surrounded the city-state of Carthage, there were ethnic divisions in addition to the usual quasi feudal distinctions between lord and peasant, or master and serf. This inherent instability in the countryside drew the unwanted attention of potential invaders. Yet for long periods Carthage was able to manage these social difficulties.
The many amphorae with Punic markings subsequently found about ancient Mediterranean coastal settlements testify to Carthaginian trade in locally made olive oil and wine. Carthage's agricultural production was held in high regard by the ancients, and rivaled that of Romethey were once competitors, e.g., over their olive harvests. Under Roman rule, however, grain production (wheat and barley) for export increased dramatically in 'Africa'; yet these later fell with the rise in Roman Egypt's grain exports. Thereafter olive groves and vineyards were re-established around Carthage. Visitors to the several growing regions that surrounded the city wrote admiringly of the lush green gardens, orchards, fields, irrigation channels, hedgerows (as boundaries), as well as the many prosperous farming towns located across the rural landscape.
Accordingly, the Greek author and compiler Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC), who enjoyed access to ancient writings later lost, and on which he based most of his writings, described agricultural land near the city of Carthage c. 310 BC:
It was divided into market gardens and orchards of all sorts of fruit trees, with many streams of water flowing in channels irrigating every part. There were country homes everywhere, lavishly built and covered with stucco. ... Part of the land was planted with vines, part with olives and other productive trees. Beyond these, cattle and sheep were pastured on the plains, and there were meadows with grazing horses.Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 277.
Ancient history
Greek cities contested with Carthage for the Western Mediterranean culminating in the Sicilian Wars and the Pyrrhic War over Sicily, while the Romans fought three wars against Carthage, known as the Punic Wars, from the Latin "Punic" meaning "Phoenician", as Carthage was a Phoenician colony grown into an empire.
Punic Republic
The Carthaginian republic was one of the longest-lived and largest states in the ancient Mediterranean. Reports relay several wars with Syracuse and finally, Rome, which eventually resulted in the defeat and destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War. The Carthaginians were Phoenician settlers originating in the Mediterranean coast of the Near East. They spoke Canaanite, a Semitic language, and followed a local variety of the ancient Canaanite religion, the Punic religion. The Carthaginians travelled widely across the seas and set up numerous colonies. Unlike Greek, Phoenician, and Tyrian colonizers who "only required colonies to pay due respect for their home-cities", Carthage is said to have "sent its own magistrates to govern overseas settlements".
The fall of Carthage came at the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC at the Battle of Carthage. Despite initial devastating Roman naval losses and Hannibal's 15-year occupation of much of Roman Italy, who was on the brink of defeat but managed to recover, the end of the series of wars resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by Scipio Aemilianus. The Romans pulled the Phoenician warships out into the harbor and burned them before the city, and went from house to house, capturing and enslaving the people. About 50,000 Carthaginians were sold into slavery. The city was set ablaze and razed to the ground, leaving only ruins and rubble. After the fall of Carthage, Rome annexed the majority of the Carthaginian colonies, including other North African locations such as Volubilis, Lixus, Chellah. Today a "Carthaginian peace" can refer to any brutal peace treaty demanding total subjugation of the defeated side.
Salting legend
Since at least 1863, it has been claimed that Carthage was sown with salt after being razed, but there is no evidence for this.
Roman Carthage
When Carthage fell, its nearby rival Utica, a Roman ally, was made capital of the region and replaced Carthage as the leading center of Punic trade and leadership. It had the advantageous position of being situated on the outlet of the Medjerda River, Tunisia's only river that flowed all year long. However, grain cultivation in the Tunisian mountains caused large amounts of silt to erode into the river. This silt accumulated in the harbor until it became useless, and Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage.
By 122 BC, Gaius Gracchus founded a short-lived colony, called Colonia Iunonia, after the Latin name for the Punic goddess Tanit, Iuno Caelestis. The purpose was to obtain arable lands for impoverished farmers. The Senate abolished the colony some time later, to undermine Gracchus' power.
After this ill-fated effort, a new city of Carthage was built on the same land by Julius Caesar in the period from 49 to 44 BC, and by the first century, it had grown to be the second-largest city in the western half of the Roman Empire, with a peak population of 500,000. It was the center of the province of Africa, which was a major breadbasket of the Empire. Among its major monuments was an amphitheater.
Carthage also became a center of early Christianity (see Carthage (episcopal see)). In the first of a string of rather poorly reported councils at Carthage a few years later, no fewer than 70 bishops attended. Tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was increasingly represented in the West by the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, but a more serious rift among Christians was the Donatist controversy, against which Augustine of Hippo spent much time and parchment arguing. At the Council of Carthage (397), the biblical canon for the western Church was confirmed. The Christians at Carthage conducted persecutions against the pagans, during which the pagan temples, notably the famous Temple of Juno Caelesti, were destroyed.
The Vandals under Gaiseric invaded Africa in 429. They relinquished the facade of their allied status to Rome and defeated the Roman general Bonifacius to seize Carthage, the once most treasured province of Rome. The 5th-century Roman bishop Victor Vitensis mentions in his Historia Persecutionis Africanae Provincia that the Vandals destroyed parts of Carthage, including various buildings and churches. Once in power, the ecclesiastical authorities were persecuted, the locals were aggressively taxed, and naval raids were routinely launched on Romans in the Mediterranean.
After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the fifth century, the Eastern Roman Empire finally subdued the Vandals in the Vandalic War in 533–534 and made Carthage capital of Byzantine North Africa. Thereafter, the city became the seat of the praetorian prefecture of Africa, which was made into an exarchate during the emperor Maurice's reign, as was Ravenna on the Italian Peninsula. These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of the Byzantine Empire, all that remained of its power in the West. In the early seventh century Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Carthage, overthrew the Byzantine emperor Phocas, whereupon his son Heraclius succeeded to the imperial throne.
Islamic period
The Roman Exarchate of Africa was not able to withstand the seventh-century Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. The Umayyad Caliphate under Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in 686 sent a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qays, who won a battle over the Romans and Berbers led by King Kusaila of the Kingdom of Altava on the plain of Kairouan, but he could not follow that up. In 695, Hassan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. An imperial fleet arrived and retook Carthage, but in 698, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Emperor Tiberios III at the 698 Battle of Carthage. Roman imperial forces withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta. Fearing that the Byzantine Empire might reconquer it, they decided to destroy Roman Carthage in a scorched earth policy and establish their headquarters somewhere else. Its walls were torn down, the water supply from its aqueducts cut off, the agricultural land was ravaged and its harbors made unusable.
The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to the Byzantine Empire's influence in the region.
It is clear from archaeological evidence that the town of Carthage continued to be occupied, as did the neighborhood of Bjordi Djedid. The Baths of Antoninus continued to function in the Arab period and the eleventh-century historian Al-Bakri stated that they were still in good condition at that time. They also had production centers nearby. It is difficult to determine whether the continued habitation of some other buildings belonged to Late Byzantine or Early Arab period. The Bir Ftouha church may have continued to remain in use although it is not clear when it became uninhabited. Constantine the African was born in Carthage.
The Medina of Tunis, originally a Berber settlement, was established as the new regional center under the Umayyad Caliphate in the early 8th century. Under the Aghlabids, the people of Tunis revolted numerous times, but the city profited from economic improvements and quickly became the second most important in the kingdom. It was briefly the national capital, from the end of the reign of Ibrahim II in 902, until 909, when the Shi'ite Berbers took over Ifriqiya and founded the Fatimid Caliphate.
Carthage remained a residential see until the high medieval period, and is mentioned in
two letters of Pope Leo IX dated 1053, written in reply to consultations regarding a conflict between the bishops of Carthage and Gummi. In each of the two letters, Pope Leo declares that, after the Bishop of Rome, the first archbishop and chief metropolitan of the whole of Africa is the bishop of Carthage.
Later, an archbishop of Carthage named Cyriacus was imprisoned by the Arab rulers because of an accusation by some Christians. Pope Gregory VII wrote Cyriacus a letter of consolation, repeating the hopeful assurances of the primacy of the Church of Carthage, "whether the Church of Carthage should still lie desolate or rise again in glory".
By 1076, Cyriacus was set free, but there was only one other bishop in the province. These are the last of whom there is mention in that period of the history of the see.
The fortress of Carthage was used by the Muslims until Hafsid era and was captured by the Crusaders during the Eighth Crusade. The inhabitants of Carthage were slaughtered by the Crusaders after they took it, and it was used as a base of operations against the Hafsids. After repelling them, Muhammad I al-Mustansir decided to raze Cathage's defenses in order to prevent a repeat.
Modern history
Carthage is some east-northeast of Tunis; the settlements nearest to Carthage were the town of Sidi Bou Said to the north and the village of Le Kram to the south. Sidi Bou Said was a village which had grown around the tomb of the eponymous sufi saint (d. 1231), which had been developed into a town under Ottoman rule in the 18th century. Le Kram was developed in the late 19th century under French administration as a settlement close to the port of La Goulette.
In 1881, Tunisia became a French protectorate, and in the same year Charles Lavigerie, who was archbishop of Algiers, became apostolic administrator of the vicariate of Tunis. In the following year, Lavigerie became a cardinal. He "saw himself as the reviver of the ancient Christian Church of Africa, the Church of Cyprian of Carthage", and, on 10 November 1884, was successful in his great ambition of having the metropolitan see of Carthage restored, with himself as its first archbishop. In line with the declaration of Pope Leo IX in 1053, Pope Leo XIII acknowledged the revived Archdiocese of Carthage as the primatial see of Africa and Lavigerie as primate.
The Acropolium of Carthage (Saint Louis Cathedral of Carthage) was erected on Byrsa hill in 1884.
Archaeological sites
The Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe conducted a first survey of the topography of the archaeological site (published in 1833).
Antiquarian interest was intensified following the publication of Flaubert's Salammbô in 1858. Charles Ernest Beulé performed some preliminary excavations of Roman remains on Byrsa hill in 1860. A more systematic survey of both Punic and Roman-era remains is due to Alfred Louis Delattre, who was sent to Tunis by cardinal Charles Lavigerie in 1875 on both an apostolic and an archaeological mission.
Audollent cites Delattre and Lavigerie to the effect that in the 1880s, locals still knew the area of the ancient city under the name of Cartagenna (i.e. reflecting the Latin n-stem Carthāgine).
Auguste Audollent divided the area of Roman Carthage into four quarters, Cartagenna, Dermèche, Byrsa and La Malga. Cartagenna and Dermèche correspond with the lower city, including the site of Punic Carthage; Byrsa is associated with the upper city, which in Punic times was a walled citadel above the harbour; and La Malga is linked with the more remote parts of the upper city in Roman times.
French-led excavations at Carthage began in 1921, and from 1923 reported finds of a large quantity of urns containing a mixture of animal and children's bones. René Dussaud identified a 4th-century BC stela found in Carthage as depicting a child sacrifice.
A temple at Amman (1400–1250 BC) excavated and reported upon by J.B. Hennessy in 1966, shows the possibility of bestial and human sacrifice by fire. While evidence of child sacrifice in Canaan was the object of academic disagreement, with some scholars arguing that merely children's cemeteries had been unearthed in Carthage, the mixture of children's with animal bones as well as associated epigraphic evidence involving mention of mlk led some to believe that, at least in Carthage, child sacrifice was indeed common practice. However, though the animals were surely sacrificed, this does not entirely indicate that the infants were, and in fact the bones indicate the opposite. Rather, the animal sacrifice was likely done to, in some way, honour the deceased.
A study conducted in 1970 by M. Chabeuf, the then Doctor of Science from the University of Paris, showed little difference between 17 modern Tunisians, and 68 Punic remains. An analysis the following year on 42 North-West African skulls dating back to Roman times concluded that they were overall similar to modern Berbers and other Mediterranean populations, especially eastern Iberians. They also noted the presence of one outlier in Tunisia who appears to have inherited mechtoid traits, which led them to hypothesize the persistence of such affinities well into the Punic and Roman era.
M. C. Chamla and D Ferembach (1988) in their entry dealing with the craniometric conclusions of Protohistorical Algerians and Punics in the region of Tunisia, found strong sexual dimorphism with male skulls being robust. Mediterranean elements were dominant, but Mechtoid features, as well as 'Negroid' traits were present in some of the samples. Overall, Punic burials showed affinities with Algerians, Roman Era skulls from Tarragona (Spain), Guanches, and to a lesser extent Abydos (XVIIIth dynasty), Etruscans, Bronze Age Syrians (Euphrates) and skulls from Lozere (France). The anthropological position of the Algerian and Punic people when it comes to populations of the Mediterranean Basin agreed quite well with the geographical situation.
Jehan Desanges stated that "In the Punic burial grounds, negroid remains were not rare and there were black auxiliaries in the Carthaginian army who were certainly not Nilotics".
In 1990, Shomarka Keita, a biological anthropologist, had conducted a craniometric study which featured a set of remains from Northern Africa. He examined a sample of 49 Maghreban crania which included skulls from pre-Roman Carthage and concluded that, although they were heterogeneous, many of them showed physical similarities to crania from equatorial Africa, ancient Egypt, and Kush. S.O.Y. Keita's report in 2018, found the pre-Roman Carthaginian series to be intermediate between the Phoenician and Maghrebian. He noted the findings are consistent with an interpretation that it reflects both local and Levantine ancestry due to specific interactions in the ancient period.
Joel. D. Irish in 2001 when measuring for dental affinities, found strong similarities and very small distances between the Canary Islanders and Punic Carthaginians-whom originated in West Asia, suggesting a particularly close affinity, despite the geographic distance between these two populations. This result according to Irish, may reflect Berber/Carthaginian admixture. Overall, the findings discovered that "the Canary Island sample is most similar to the four samples from Northwest Africa: the Shawia Berbers, Kabyle Berbers, Bedouin Arabs and Carthaginians, less similar to the three Egyptian samples and least like the three Nubian samples."
In 2016, an ancient Carthaginian individual, who was excavated from a Punic tomb in Byrsa Hill, was found to belong to the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup. The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late 6th century BC, and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb. Craniometric analysis of the young man indicated likely Mediterranean/European ancestry as opposed to African or Asian.
Climate change
Due to its coastal location, Carthage Archeological Site is vulnerable to sea level rise. In 2022, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report included it in the list of African cultural sites which would be threatened by flooding and coastal erosion by the end of the century, but only if climate change followed RCP 8.5, which is the scenario of high and continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the warming of over 4°C., and is no longer considered very likely. The other, more plausible scenarios result in lower warming levels and consequently lower sea level rise: yet, sea levels would continue to increase for about 10,000 years under all of them. Even if the warming is limited to 1.5°C, global sea level rise is still expected to exceed after 2000 years (and higher warming levels will see larger increases by then), consequently exceeding 2100 levels of sea level rise under RCP 8.5 (~ with a range of ) well before the year 4000. Thus, it is a matter of time before the Carthage Archeological Site is threatened by rising water levels, unless it can be protected by adaptation efforts such as sea walls.
Commune
The commune of Carthage was created by a decree of the Bey of Tunis on 15 June 1919, during the rule of Naceur Bey.
In 1920, the first seaplane base was built on the Lake of Tunis for the seaplanes of Compagnie Aéronavale. The Tunis Airfield opened in 1938, serving around 5,800 passengers annually on the Paris-Tunis route.
During World War II, the airport was used by the United States Army Air Force Twelfth Air Force as a headquarters and command control base for the Italian Campaign of 1943.
Construction on the Tunis-Carthage Airport, which was fully funded by France, began in 1944, and in 1948 the airport become the main hub for Tunisair.
In the 1950s the Lycée Français de Carthage was established to serve French families in Carthage. In 1961 it was given to the Tunisian government as part of the Independence of Tunisia, so the nearby Collège Maurice Cailloux in La Marsa, previously an annex of the Lycée Français de Carthage, was renamed to the Lycée Français de La Marsa and began serving the lycée level. It is currently the Lycée Gustave Flaubert.
After Tunisian independence in 1956, the Tunis conurbation gradually extended around the airport, and Carthage (قرطاج Qarṭāj) is now a suburb of Tunis, covering the area between Sidi Bou Said and Le Kram. Its population as of January 2013 was estimated at 21,276,
mostly attracting the more wealthy residents. If Carthage is not the capital, it tends to be the political pole, a "place of emblematic power" according to Sophie Bessis, leaving to Tunis the economic and administrative roles. The Carthage Palace (the Tunisian presidential palace) is located in the coast.
The suburb has six train stations of the TGM line between Le Kram and Sidi Bou Said:
Carthage Salammbo (named for the ancient children’s cemetery where it stands), Carthage Byrsa (named for Byrsa hill), Carthage Dermech (Dermèche), Carthage Hannibal (named for Hannibal), Carthage Présidence (named for the Presidential Palace) and Carthage Amilcar (named for Hamilcar).
Trade and business
The merchants of Carthage were in part heirs of the Mediterranean trade developed by Phoenicia, and so also heirs of the rivalry with Greek merchants. Business activity was accordingly both stimulated and challenged. Cyprus had been an early site of such commercial contests. The Phoenicians then had ventured into the western Mediterranean, founding trading posts, including Utica and Carthage. The Greeks followed, entering the western seas where the commercial rivalry continued. Eventually it would lead, especially in Sicily, to several centuries of intermittent war. Although Greek-made merchandise was generally considered superior in design, Carthage also produced trade goods in abundance. That Carthage came to function as a manufacturing colossus was shown during the Third Punic War with Rome. Carthage, which had previously disarmed, then was made to face the fatal Roman siege. The city "suddenly organised the manufacture of arms" with great skill and effectiveness. According to Strabo (63 BC – AD 21) in his Geographica:
[Carthage] each day produced one hundred and forty finished shields, three hundred swords, five hundred spears, and one thousand missiles for the catapults... . Furthermore, [Carthage although surrounded by the Romans] built one hundred and twenty decked ships in two months... for old timber had been stored away in readiness, and a large number of skilled workmen, maintained at public expense.
The textiles industry in Carthage probably started in private homes, but the existence of professional weavers indicates that a sort of factory system later developed. Products included embroidery, carpets, and use of the purple murex dye (for which the Carthaginian isle of Djerba was famous). Metalworkers developed specialized skills, i.e., making various weapons for the armed forces, as well as domestic articles, such as knives, forks, scissors, mirrors, and razors (all articles found in tombs). Artwork in metals included vases and lamps in bronze, also bowls, and plates. Other products came from such crafts as the potters, the glassmakers, and the goldsmiths. Inscriptions on votive stele indicate that many were not slaves but 'free citizens'.
Phoenician and Punic merchant ventures were often run as a family enterprise, putting to work its members and its subordinate clients. Such family-run businesses might perform a variety of tasks: own and maintain the ships, providing the captain and crew; do the negotiations overseas, either by barter or buying and selling, of their own manufactured commodities and trade goods, and native products (metals, foodstuffs, etc.) to carry and trade elsewhere; and send their agents to stay at distant outposts in order to make lasting local contacts, and later to establish a warehouse of shipped goods for exchange, and eventually perhaps a settlement. Over generations, such activity might result in the creation of a wide-ranging network of trading operations. Ancillary would be the growth of reciprocity between different family firms, foreign and domestic.
State protection was extended to its sea traders by the Phoenician city of Tyre and later likewise by the daughter city-state of Carthage. Stéphane Gsell, the well-regarded French historian of ancient North Africa, summarized the major principles guiding the civic rulers of Carthage with regard to its policies for trade and commerce:
to open and maintain markets for its merchants, whether by entering into direct contact with foreign peoples using either treaty negotiations or naval power, or by providing security for isolated trading stations
the reservation of markets exclusively for the merchants of Carthage, or where competition could not be eliminated, to regulate trade by state-sponsored agreements with its commercial rivals
suppression of piracy, and promotion of Carthage's ability to freely navigate the seas
Both the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians were well known in antiquity for their secrecy in general, and especially pertaining to commercial contacts and trade routes. Both cultures excelled in commercial dealings. Strabo (63 BC–AD 21) the Greek geographer wrote that before its fall (in 146 BC) Carthage enjoyed a population of 700,000, and directed an alliance of 300 cities. The Greek historian Polybius (–120) referred to Carthage as "the wealthiest city in the world".
Constitution of state
A "suffet" (possibly two) was elected by the citizens, and held office with no military power for a one-year term. Carthaginian generals marshalled mercenary armies and were separately elected. From about 550 to 450 the Magonid family monopolized the top military position; later the Barcid family acted similarly. Eventually it came to be that, after a war, the commanding general had to testify justifying his actions before a court of 104 judges.
Aristotle (384–322) discusses Carthage in his work, Politica; he begins: "The Carthaginians are also considered to have an excellent form of government." He briefly describes the city as a "mixed constitution", a political arrangement with cohabiting elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, i.e., a king (Gk: basileus), a council of elders (Gk: gerusia), and the people (Gk: demos). Later Polybius of Megalopolis (–122, Greek) in his Histories would describe the Roman Republic in more detail as a mixed constitution in which the Consuls were the monarchy, the Senate the aristocracy, and the Assemblies the democracy.
Evidently Carthage also had an institution of elders who advised the Suffets, similar to a Greek or the Roman Senate. We do not have a Punic name for this body. At times its members would travel with an army general on campaign. Members also formed permanent committees. The institution had several hundred members drawn from the wealthiest class who held office for life. Vacancies were probably filled by recruitment from among the elite, i.e., by co-option. From among its members were selected the 104 Judges mentioned above. Later the 104 would come to evaluate not only army generals but other office holders as well. Aristotle regarded the 104 as most important; he compared it to the ephorate of Sparta with regard to control over security. In Hannibal's time, such a Judge held office for life. At some stage there also came to be independent self-perpetuating boards of five who filled vacancies and supervised (non-military) government administration.
Popular assemblies also existed at Carthage. When deadlocked the Suffets and the quasi-senatorial institution of elders might request the assembly to vote; also, assembly votes were requested in very crucial matters in order to achieve political consensus and popular coherence. The assembly members had no legal wealth or birth qualification. How its members were selected is unknown, e.g., whether by festival group or urban ward or another method.
The Greeks were favourably impressed by the constitution of Carthage; Aristotle had a separate study of it made which unfortunately is lost. In his Politica he states: "The government of Carthage is oligarchical, but they successfully escape the evils of oligarchy by enriching one portion of the people after another by sending them to their colonies." "[T]heir policy is to send some [poorer citizens] to their dependent towns, where they grow rich." Yet Aristotle continues, "[I]f any misfortune occurred, and the bulk of the subjects revolted, there would be no way of restoring peace by legal means." Aristotle remarked also:
Many of the Carthaginian institutions are excellent. The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal to the constitution; the Carthaginians have never had any rebellion worth speaking of, and have never been under the rule of a tyrant.
The city-state of Carthage, whose citizens were mainly Libyphoenicians (of Phoenician ancestry born in Africa), dominated and exploited an agricultural countryside composed mainly of native Berber sharecroppers and farmworkers, whose affiliations to Carthage were open to divergent possibilities. Beyond these more settled Berbers and the Punic farming towns and rural manors, lived the independent Berber tribes, who were mostly pastoralists.
In the brief, uneven review of government at Carthage found in his Politica Aristotle mentions several faults. Thus, "that the same person should hold many offices, which is a favorite practice among the Carthaginians." Aristotle disapproves, mentioning the flute-player and the shoemaker. Also, that "magistrates should be chosen not only for their merit but for their wealth." Aristotle's opinion is that focus on pursuit of wealth will lead to oligarchy and its evils.
[S]urely it is a bad thing that the greatest offices... should be bought. The law which allows this abuse makes wealth of more account than virtue, and the whole state becomes avaricious. For, whenever the chiefs of the state deem anything honorable, the other citizens are sure to follow their example; and, where virtue has not the first place, their aristocracy cannot be firmly established.
In Carthage the people seemed politically satisfied and submissive, according to the historian Warmington. They in their assemblies only rarely exercised the few opportunities given them to assent to state decisions. Popular influence over government appears not to have been an issue at Carthage. Being a commercial republic fielding a mercenary army, the people were not conscripted for military service, an experience which can foster the feel for popular political action. But perhaps this misunderstands the society; perhaps the people, whose values were based on small-group loyalty, felt themselves sufficiently connected to their city's leadership by the very integrity of the person-to-person linkage within their social fabric. Carthage was very stable; there were few openings for tyrants. Only after defeat by Rome devastated Punic imperial ambitions did the people of Carthage seem to question their governance and to show interest in political reform.
In 196, following the Second Punic War (218–201), Hannibal, still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader, was elected suffet. When his reforms were blocked by a financial official about to become a judge for life, Hannibal rallied the populace against the 104 judges. He proposed a one-year term for the 104, as part of a major civic overhaul. Additionally, the reform included a restructuring of the city's revenues, and the fostering of trade and agriculture. The changes rather quickly resulted in a noticeable increase in prosperity. Yet his incorrigible political opponents cravenly went to Rome, to charge Hannibal with conspiracy, namely, plotting war against Rome in league with Antiochus the Hellenic ruler of Syria. Although the Roman Scipio Africanus resisted such manoeuvre, eventually intervention by Rome forced Hannibal to leave Carthage. Thus, corrupt city officials efficiently blocked Hannibal in his efforts to reform the government of Carthage.
Mago (6th century) was King of Carthage; the head of state, war leader, and religious figurehead. His family was considered to possess a sacred quality. Mago's office was somewhat similar to that of a pharaoh, but although kept in a family it was not hereditary, it was limited by legal consent. Picard, accordingly, believes that the council of elders and the popular assembly are late institutions. Carthage was founded by the king of Tyre who had a royal monopoly on this trading venture. Thus it was the royal authority stemming from this traditional source of power that the King of Carthage possessed. Later, as other Phoenician ship companies entered the trading region, and so associated with the city-state, the King of Carthage had to keep order among a rich variety of powerful merchants in their negotiations among themselves and over risky commerce across the Mediterranean. Under these circumstance, the office of king began to be transformed. Yet it was not until the aristocrats of Carthage became wealthy owners of agricultural lands in Africa that a council of elders was institutionalized at Carthage.
Contemporary sources
Most ancient literature concerning Carthage comes from Greek and Roman sources as Carthage's own documents were destroyed by the Romans. Apart from inscriptions, hardly any Punic literature has survived, and none in its own language and script. A brief catalogue would include:
three short treaties with Rome (Latin translations);
several pages of Hanno the Navigator's log-book concerning his fifth century maritime exploration of the Atlantic coast of west Africa (Greek translation);
fragments quoted from Mago's fourth/third century 28-volume treatise on agriculture (Latin translations);
the Roman playwright Plautus (– 184) in his Poenulus incorporates a few fictional speeches delivered in Punic, whose written lines are transcribed into Latin letters phonetically;
the thousands of inscriptions made in Punic script, thousands, but many extremely short, e.g., a dedication to a deity with the personal name(s) of the devotee(s).
"[F]rom the Greek author Plutarch [(c. 46 – c. 120)] we learn of the 'sacred books' in Punic safeguarded by the city's temples. Few Punic texts survive, however." Once "the City Archives, the Annals, and the scribal lists of Suffets" existed, but evidently these were destroyed in the horrific fires during the Roman capture of the city in 146 BC.
Yet some Punic books (Latin: libri punici) from the libraries of Carthage reportedly did survive the fires. These works were apparently given by Roman authorities to the newly augmented Berber rulers. Over a century after the fall of Carthage, the Roman politician-turned-author Gaius Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (86–34) reported his having seen volumes written in Punic, which books were said to be once possessed by the Berber king, Hiempsal II (r. 88–81). By way of Berber informants and Punic translators, Sallust had used these surviving books to write his brief sketch of Berber affairs.
Probably some of Hiempsal II's libri punici, that had escaped the fires that consumed Carthage in 146 BC, wound up later in the large royal library of his grandson Juba II (r. 25 BC–AD 24). Juba II not only was a Berber king, and husband of Cleopatra's daughter, but also a scholar and author in Greek of no less than nine works. He wrote for the Mediterranean-wide audience then enjoying classical literature. The libri punici inherited from his grandfather surely became useful to him when composing his Libyka, a work on North Africa written in Greek. Unfortunately, only fragments of Libyka survive, mostly from quotations made by other ancient authors. It may have been Juba II who 'discovered' the five-centuries-old 'log book' of Hanno the Navigator, called the Periplus, among library documents saved from fallen Carthage.
In the end, however, most Punic writings that survived the destruction of Carthage "did not escape the immense wreckage in which so many of Antiquity's literary works perished." Accordingly, the long and continuous interactions between Punic citizens of Carthage and the Berber communities that surrounded the city have no local historian. Their political arrangements and periodic crises, their economic and work life, the cultural ties and social relations established and nourished (infrequently as kin), are not known to us directly from ancient Punic authors in written accounts. Neither side has left us their stories about life in Punic-era Carthage.
Regarding Phoenician writings, few remain and these seldom refer to Carthage. The more ancient and most informative are cuneiform tablets, c. 1600–1185, from ancient Ugarit, located to the north of Phoenicia on the Syrian coast; it was a Canaanite city politically affiliated with the Hittites. The clay tablets tell of myths, epics, rituals, medical and administrative matters, and also correspondence. The highly valued works of Sanchuniathon, an ancient priest of Beirut, who reportedly wrote on Phoenician religion and the origins of civilization, are themselves completely lost, but some little content endures twice removed. Sanchuniathon was said to have lived in the 11th century, which is considered doubtful. Much later a Phoenician History by Philo of Byblos (64–141) reportedly existed, written in Greek, but only fragments of this work survive. An explanation proffered for why so few Phoenician works endured: early on (11th century) archives and records began to be kept on papyrus, which does not long survive in a moist coastal climate. Also, both Phoenicians and Carthaginians were well known for their secrecy.
Thus, of their ancient writings we have little of major interest left to us by Carthage, or by Phoenicia the country of origin of the city founders. "Of the various Phoenician and Punic compositions alluded to by the ancient classical authors, not a single work or even fragment has survived in its original idiom." "Indeed, not a single Phoenician manuscript has survived in the original [language] or in translation." We cannot therefore access directly the line of thought or the contour of their worldview as expressed in their own words, in their own voice. Ironically, it was the Phoenicians who "invented or at least perfected and transmitted a form of writing [the alphabet] that has influenced dozens of cultures including our own."
As noted, the celebrated ancient books on agriculture written by Mago of Carthage survives only via quotations in Latin from several later Roman works.
In art and literature
The scant remains of what was once a great city are reflected upon in Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration, Carthage, to an engraving of a painting by J. Salmon, published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837 with quotes from Sir Grenville Temple's Journal.
The protagonist in Isaac Asimov's 1956 science-fiction short story "The Dead Past" is an academic professor obsessed with debunking historical perceptions of Carthage.
See also
History of Carthage
Carthage tophet
Asterius Chapel
Notes
References
Sources
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Li, Hansong (2022). "Locating Mobile Sovereignty: Carthage in Natural Jurisprudence" History of Political Thought 43(2): 246–272.
External links
Phoenician cities
Destroyed populated places
Former populated places in Tunisia
Populated places established in the 9th century BC
Populated places disestablished in the 7th century
Phoenician colonies in Tunisia
Tourist attractions in Tunisia
Child sacrifice
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Лучіан Мурешан
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Лучіан Мурешан (Фіріза, Румунія) — румунський кардинал, Верховний архієпископ Фаґараша і Альба-Юлії, глава Румунської греко-католицької церкви.
Біографія
Народився в селі Фернезіу (сьогодні частина Бая-Маре), Румунія. Десятий з дванадцяти дітей Петру Мурешана і Марії Бребан.
Навчався у початковій школі в Фернезіу (1938—1944), а пізніше (1944—1948) — в ліцеї Ґеорґе Шінкай. Мав намір вступати до греко-католицької духовної семінарії, але в зв'язку з тим, що постановою Національних зборів Румунії у 1948 році було заборонене будь-яке навчання релігії в Румунії, З 1948 по 1951 рік навчався в деревообробному училищі в Бая-Маре. З 1951 по 1954 рік проходив обов'язкову військову службу в авіаційній школі в Турнішор (Сібіу). Після закінчення військового училища він був направлений у батальйон реактивної авіації в Крайові. У 1953 році переведений на будівництво першої ГЕС країни, в Біказ. У зв'язку з переслідуванням греко-католицької церкви в Румунії, впродовж 10 років працював робітником у кам'яному кар'єрі в Фернезіу, а згодом, аж до виходу на пенсію в 1990 році, — у департаменті доріг і мостів. Одночасно навчався в підпільній духовній семінарії.
У 1964 році румунські греко-католицькі єпископи були звільнені з в'язниці, і 19 грудня 1964 року Лучіан Мурешан отримав пресвітерські свячення з рук єпископа-помічника Марамуреського Йоана Драґоміра. Своє душпастирське служіння спочатку він здійснював підпільно, одночасно працюючи в кар'єрі, а потім у Департаменті доріг і мостів. Після смерті єпископа Драґоміра 25 квітня 1985 року він тимчасово управляв Марамуреською єпархією. Після революції 1989 року Румунська греко-католицька церква була легалізована.
Єпископ
14 березня 1990 року Папа Римський Іван Павло II призначив Лучіана Мурешана єпископом Марамуреським. Єпископська хіротонія відбулася 27 травня того ж року в еспланаді «Пам'ятник румунським солдатам» в Бая-Маре. Головним святителем був архієпископ Фаґараша і Альба-Юлії Александру Тодя, а співсвятителями єпископ Лугозький Йоан Плоскару і архієпископ Ґвідо дель Местрі, тодішній апостольський нунцій у Німеччині, в присутності 100 священиків і понад 20000 вірних.
4 липня 1994 року Лучіан Мурешан був призначений архієпископом і митрополитом Фаґараша і Альба-Юлії, главою Румунської греко-католицької церкви. У 2003 році призначений членом Конгрегації Східних Церков. 16 грудня 2005 року Румунську греко-католицьку церкву піднесено до рангу Верховного Архієпископства, а митрополиту Фаґараша і Альба-Юлії надано сан Верховного Архієпископа.
Кардинал
На консисторії, що відбулася 18 лютого 2012 року, Папа Римський Бенедикт XVI надав Лучіану Мурешану сан кардинала-пресвітера з титулом римської церкви Сант-Атаназіо. У зв'язку з тим, що кардиналові Мурешану вже сповнилося 80 років, він не має права брати участь у конклаві.
Нагороди
Офіцерський хрест ордена Зірки Румунії (6 червня 2015).
Примітки
Посилання
Біографія в словнику кардиналів С. Міранди
Короткі біографічні дані в базі www.catholic-hierarchy.org
Кардинали з Румунії
Уродженці Мармароша
Єпископи Румунської греко-католицької церкви
Уродженці Бая-Маре
Кардинали, призначені папою Бенедиктом XVI
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Бурильна головка
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Бурильна головка — частина бурильної машини, призначена для передавання бурильному інструменту крутильного моменту у поєднанні з ударами або ударів з поворотами інструмента вхолосту.
Розрізняють Б.г. обертальної, ударно-поворотної, ударно-обертальної, обертально-ударної дії, а також універсальні Б.г. (поєднання ударів з поворотами інструмента).
Загальний опис
Бурильна головка руйнує породу по периферії вибою і залишає у центрі свердловини керн, який при заглибленні свердловини поступає в керноприймальний пристрій. Керноприймальний пристрій призначений для прийому керна, відриву його від масиву гірської породи і збереження керна у процесі буріння та під час його транспортування по свердловині аж до підйому його на поверхню для досліджень.
Бурильні головки поділяють на такі класи: лопатеві, шарошкові, алмазні і твердосплавні з озброєнням в вигляді запресованих зубців круглого чи прямокутного перерізу.
Шарошкові бурильні головки виготовляються з фрезерованим та вставним твердосплавним озброєнням типів МСЗ, СЗ, СТ, ТКЗ для керноприймальних пристроїв як із незнімним, так і зі знімним керноприймачем. Вони призначені для відбору керна переважно роторним способом (або з приводом від низькообертових вибійних двигунів) в породах від середньої твердості до твердих і міцних, в тому числі і абразивних.
Лопатеві бурильні головки порівняно із шарошковими краще зберігають керн, збільшують його виніс, оскільки, працюють в режимі різання. Недоліком лопатевих бурильних головок є відносно вузька область застосування, можливе зменшення діаметра свердловини. Робочі органи можуть бути виготовлені у вигляді звичайних лопатей лопатевого долота з будь-якою кількістю лопатей. Лопаті оснащують твердосплавними зубцями. Лопатеві бурильні головки застосовують при буріння м'яких слабоабразивних порід, де необхідно відібрати керн відносно невеликої довжини, яка дорівнює проходці за рейс без суттєвої втрати діаметра свердловини. У Росії серійно випускають лопатеві бурильні головки типу М. Ця бурильна головка оснащена трьома ступінчасто-спіральними лопатями, які армовані твердосплавними зубцями Г23 та дев'ятьма промивальними отворами. Частина бурильної головки, яка калібрує керн має вигляд коронки з посиленим озброєнням. Основний потік промивальної рідини відведений від керна.
Алмазні бурильні головки випускають типів МС, С, СТ і Т. Вони так само як алмазні долота можуть бути одношарові та імпрегновані, зі ступінчастим і гладким секторами, можуть оснащуватись як природними або синтетичними алмазами, так і алмазотвердосплавними пластинами або різцями.
За конструкцією твердосплавні бурильні головки аналогічні алмазним, але контактні сектори укріплені твердим сплавом «Славутич». Твердосплавні бурильні головки випускають типів С і Т для керноприймальних пристроїв з незнімним керноприймачем. Твердосплавні бурильні головки типу С призначені для відбору керну у мало- та середньоабразивних породах середньої твердості (до 1500 МПа), а типу Т у середньо- та високоабразивних твердих породах (до 2000 МПа).
Література
Орловський В. М., Білецький В. С., Вітрик В. Г., Сіренко В. І. Бурове і технологічне обладнання. Харків: Харківський національний університет міського господарства імені О. М. Бекетова, НТУ «ХПІ», ТОВ НТП «Бурова техніка», Львів, Видавництво «Новий Світ — 2000», 2021. — 358 с.
Довідник «Буріння свердловин», т.1, т.2, т.3, т.4, т.5. Мислюк М. А., Рибчич І. Й., Яремійчук Р. С. Київ.: Інтерпресс ЛТД, т.1 — 2002. — 363с., т.2 — 2002. — 304с., т.4 — 2012. — 608 с. т.3 — 2004. — 294с., т.5 — 2004.-373с.
Бурове обладнання
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Burns (musician)
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Burns (musician)
Matthew James Burns (born 31 October 1985), known mononymously as Burns, is a British musician, record producer, songwriter, and DJ. His recent writing and production credits include Lady Gaga, Britney Spears, Liam Payne, Little Mix, Louis Tomlinson, Pitbull, Ellie Goulding, Kacy Hill, Ariana Grande, Anitta, Bebe Rexha, Ava Max, and others.
Early life
Burns's mother was an artist and painter, and his father was a professional heavyweight boxer. Burns began making music at the age of twelve, playing guitar and keyboards before discovering sampling as a teenager. At the age of 15, Burns started producing his own tracks, combining sound hardware from the seventies and eighties with modern music software and samples.
Musical career
BURNS was taken on by Three Six Zero for management. He was then chosen to warm up for every show of deadmau5's U.S. 30-day tour and subsequently joined Calvin Harris on his UK tour. He also released two EPs Turbo and Teknique on 2112 Records.
In 2010, BURNS released "Y.S.L.M (You Stopped Loving Me)" with French artist Fred Falke, also releasing his So Many Nights EP. In 2011, Burns released a track with NT89 entitled "Traffic" and went on to release "Iced Out" on Calvin Harris' Fly Eye label. In 2012, Burns secured a residency at The Wynn Hotel, Las Vegas while playing shows across America. He released "Lies" in September with remixes from Skream, Tiga, Acrobat and Otto Knows. The single entered the BBC Radio 1 playlist at C moving to B one week later and then on to A for 7 consecutive weeks. The track peaked at number 32 in the UK Singles Chart and at number 36 in the Netherlands.
BURNS began his solo residency at OMNIA nightclub in Las Vegas in 2016. In 2017, BURNS was signed by RCA Records. His first release on the label, "Far Gone feat. Johnny Yukon" was released in summer of that year. He followed with a second single "Angel" in April 2018, and also "Hands On Me" which featured Maluma and Rae Sremmurd. "Hands On Me" was the first English-speaking feature for Latin artist Maluma.
Discography
Compilation albums
2010 – This Is Burns 001 - European Sex Music - Part 1
Extended plays
Singles
As lead artist
As featured artist
Remixes
Productions
References
External links
Living people
1985 births
English record producers
English male songwriters
English DJs
British electronic dance music DJs
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Tor
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Tor (скор. від ) — це браузер, створений для забезпечення анонімності в мережі Інтернет. Клієнтське програмне забезпечення Tor маршрутизує Інтернет-трафік через всесвітню мережу добровільно встановлених серверів з метою приховування розташування користувача. Окрім того, використання Tor робить складнішим відслідковування Інтернет-активності як на рівні вебсайту, так і на рівні Інтернет-провайдера, включаючи «відвідування вебсайтів, залишені повідомлення та коментарі на відповідних ресурсах, миттєві повідомлення та інші форми зв'язку», до користувача і призначений для захисту приватності користувача та можливості проведення конфіденційних операцій, приховуючи користувацьку активність в мережі від стороннього моніторингу.
«Цибулева маршрутизація» відображає шарову природу шифрування цього сервісу: початкові дані шифруються та розшифровуються багато разів, потім передаються через наступні вузли Tor, кожен з яких розшифровуює «шар» шифру перед передачею даних наступному вузлу і, зрештою, до місця призначення. Це зменшує можливість розшифрування оригінальних даних в процесі передачі.
Клієнтське програмне забезпечення Tor — вільне програмне забезпечення і використання мережі Tor безкоштовне.
Історія
Альфа-версія програмного забезпечення, з «функціонуючою та розгорнутою» мережею цибулевої маршрутизації, була оголошена 20 вересня 2002 року.
Початково проект був спонсорований Воєнно-морською дослідницькою лабораторією США (United States Naval Research Laboratory), а згодом, з 2004 до 2005 р. фінансово підтримувався Electronic Frontier Foundation. Програмне забезпечення Tor на цей момент розробляється організацією Tor Project, яка є дослідницько-освітньою неприбутковою організацією, розміщеною в США починаючи з грудня 2006 року і отримала розповсюджену фінансову підтримку.
Функціонування
Tor націлений на приховування особистості своїх користувачів і їхньої активності в мережі від аналізу трафіку та спостереження за мережею шляхом відокремлення ідентифікації та маршрутизації. Це реалізація цибулевої маршрутизації, яка шифрує і довільно направляє комунікації через мережу вузлів, що добровільно їх підтримують в різних частинах світу. Ці маршрутизатори застосовують шифрування в багатошаровому вигляді (звідси метафора про цибулю), щоб забезпечити досконалу пряму секретність між вузлами, отже надаючи користувачам анонімність щодо знаходження в мережі. Ця анонімність розширюється до розміщення матеріалів, які інакше могли б бути заборонені в зв'язку цензурою, через анонімні приховані сервіси Tor. Також, утримуючи деякі з вхідних вузлів (bridge relays) засекреченими, користувачі можуть ухилятись від інтернет-цензури, яка покладається на блокування публічних вузлів мережі Tor.
Через те, що IP-адреса відправника і отримувача не є одночасно у вигляді відкритого тексту на будь-яких вузлах шляху, крім виходу, жодна з частин інформації не є відкритим текстом, отже не можливо на будь-якій точці комунікаційного каналу ідентифікувати обидва кінці. Отримувачу здається, що останній Tor-вузол (вихідний) є ініціатором передачі даних, а не просто відправником.
Операції з трафіком
Програмне забезпечення Tor періодично транслює віртуальне коло через Tor-мережу, використовуючи багаторівневе шифрування, що забезпечує досконалу пряму секретність. В той же час, програмне забезпечення надає SOCKS-інтерфейс своїм клієнтам. SOCKS-програмне забезпечення може бути направлене на Tor, який згодом мультиплексує трафік через віртуальне Tor-коло. Проксі-сервер Polipo використовує SOCKS 4 і SOCKS 5 протоколи, а отже рекомендований для використання разом з анонімізуючою мережею Tor.
Потрапляючи всередину Tor-мережі, трафік відправляється від вузла до вузла, остаточно досягаючи вихідний вузол, на якому видається пакет у формі відкритого тексту і направляється до свого початкового місцепризначення. З точки зору призначення, походженням цього трафіку є вихідний Tor-вузол.
Tor працює на TCP-рівні передачі даних в мережі. Програми, чий трафік зазвичай анонімізують, використовуючи Tor, включають Internet Relay Chat (IRC), миттєві повідомлення і World Wide Web. Перегляд вебсторінок через Tor часто поєднаний з Polipo або Privoxy проксі-сервісами. Privoxy — фільтрувальний проксі-сервер, що направлений поліпшити захист інформації на прикладному рівні моделі OSI і рекомендований до використання разом з анонімізуючою мережею Tor організацією torproject.org.
У старих версіях програмного забезпечення Tor (до травня-червня 2010 року), як і багатьох анонімізуючих сервісів перегляду вебсторінок, прямі DNS-запити виконуються багатьма програмами, без використання Tor-проксі. Це дозволяє кому-небудь спостерігати за з'єднанням користувача з метою виявлення (наприклад), який WWW сайт вони переглядають через Tor, хоча зміст інформації, переглядуваної користувачем залишиться прихованим. Використання Privoxy, або команди «torify» є одним з можливих рішень даної проблеми. Додатково, програми, що використовують SOCKS5 — що підтримує проксі-запити, засновані на імені — може маршрутизувати DNS-запити через Tor, проводячи пошук при вихідному вузлі, отже отримуючи таку ж анонімність як і решта Tor-трафіку.
Починаючи з версії 0.2.0.1-alpha, Tor включає власний DNS-інструмент, який буде проводити запити через змішані мережі. Це має закривати DNS-вразливість і дає можливість взаємодіяти з address mapping facilities Tor-мережі для надання доступу до прихованих Tor-сервісів (.onion) програмам, що не використовують SOCKS.
Приховані сервіси
Tor також може надавати анонімність серверам у формі сервісів з прихованим місцезнаходженням, які є Tor-клієнтами, чи вузлами, на яких виконується спеціально налаштоване серверне програмне забезпечення. Замість видачі IP-адреси сервера (а отже і його місцезнаходження в мережі), приховані сервіси доступні через притаманні Tor-мережі .onion псевдо-домени верхнього рівня (TLD).Tor-мережа розуміє ці домени верхнього рівня і маршрутизує дані анонімно в та з прихованих сервісів. Використання Tor-клієнту необхідно для отримання доступу до прихованих сервісів.
Приховані сервіси розміщені в Tor-мережі починаючи з 2004 року. Окрім бази даних, що містить дескриптори прихованих сервісів, Tor децентралізований згідно зі своєю будовою; не існує безпосереднього списку всіх прихованих сервісів. Проте є ряд прихованих сервісів, які слугують цій меті.
Так як приховані сервіси не використовують вихідні вузли, вони не чутливі до «прослуховувань вихідного вузла». Хоча є ряд проблем безпеки, щодо прихованих Tor-сервісів. Наприклад, сервіси, які доступні через приховані Tor-сервіси і загальнодоступну мережу інтернет вразливі до кореляційних атак, а отже недосконало приховані. Інші небезпеки включають неправильно сконфігуровані сервіси (пр. ідентифікації інформації, включеної по замовчуванню у повідомленнях про помилку вебсерверів), статистики uptime і downtime, перехоплюючі атаки і помилки зі сторони користувача.
Приховані сервіси можуть бути доступні без прямого підключення до мережі Tor через Tor2web.
Уразливості
Tor не здатен і не намагається надавати захист проти моніторингу трафіку, що входить і виходить з Tor-мережі. Попри те, що Tor захищає від аналізу трафіку, він не може попередити встановлення наявності трафіку (т.зв. end-to-end correlation).
Співробітники Кембріджського Університету представили статтю на Сімпосію IEEE 2005 року про безпеку та приватність щодо технік аналізу трафіку, які дозволяли зловмисникам з частковим оглядом мережі зробити висновок про те, який з вузлів використовується для трансляції анонімних потоків. Ця техніка помітно знижує анонімність, яку надає Tor. Також було показано, що на перший погляд потоки, що не відносяться один до одного, можуть бути прив'язані назад до того ж ініціатора передачі. Проте, ця атака не здатна виявити особистість користувача-ініціатора.
Загрози безпеці
Слід пам'ятати, що один з вузлів ланцюжка Tor цілком може виявитися уразливим. Також, з тієї або іншої причини, ворожі до клієнта дії може здійснювати сайт — від спроб з'ясувати справжню адресу клієнта до «відбиття» його повідомлення.
Перегляд і модифікація повідомлення
На останньому вузлі ланцюжка Tor початкове повідомлення від клієнта остаточно розшифровується для передачі його серверу в первинному виді. Відповідно:
Перший вузол ланцюжка знає справжню адресу клієнта;
Останній вузол ланцюжка бачить початкове повідомлення від клієнта, хоча і не знає істинного посилача
Сервер-адресат бачить початкове повідомлення від клієнта, хоча і не знає істинного посилача
Всі інтернет-шлюзи на шляху від останнього вузла мережі Tor до сервера-адресата бачать початкове повідомлення від клієнта, хоча і не знають адреси істинного посилача.
Розкриття посилача
При роботі з мережею Tor до повідомлень користувача може додаватися технічна інформація, що повністю, або частково розкриває посилача.
Технічна інформація про адресу сервера-одержувача може видаватися клієнтом шляхом DNS-запитів до свого DNS-сервера, легко перехоплюваних провайдером. Вирішенням цієї проблеми буде налаштування дозволу імен через мережу Tor, або блокування фаєрволом доступу Tor до DNS шляхом заборони вихідних з'єднань на віддалений порт 53 чи використання сторонніх DNS-серверів, таких як OpenDNS чи TorDNS;
Сервер може запитувати, а клієнт видавати технічну інформацію про адресу клієнта і конфігурації його операційної системи і браузера. Запит може йти як через виконання в браузері сценаріїв мови JavaScript і Java, так і іншими способами. Ця проблема може бути розв'язана відключенням в браузері відповідних сценаріїв і мов, а також використанням фільтрувальних проксі-серверів, таких як Polipo, Privoxy і Proxomitron.
Інші загрози безпеці
На шляху від останнього вузла мережі Tor до сервера призначення, повідомлення (що йде у відкритому виді) може бути модифіковане
На шляху від останнього вузла мережі Tor до сервера призначення, існує можливість крадіжки призначених для користувача реквізитів доступу до серверу, наприклад, логіна і пароля, cookie, або сеансу зв'язку
Сервер може відхилити повідомлення з адресою посилача вузла мережі Tor. Так чинять багато серверів для захисту від спама, анонімного вандалізму і з інших причин. Зокрема, так чинить Вікіпедія, Google, Linux.org.ru і деякі корпорації.
Застосування
Більша частина програмного забезпечення Tor написана мовою програмування Сі та приблизно становить 146,000 рядків коду.
(колишній Azureus), BitTorrent клієнт, написаний мовою Java, включає вбудовану підтримку Tor.
Маршрутизатори з вбудованою апаратною підтримкою Tor на даний час знаходяться в розробці організацією Torouter project. Код програмного забезпечення знаходиться на стадії альфа версії, та запускається з платформи OpenWrt.
Проект Guardian активно розробляє програмне забезпечення відкритого коду для платформи Android з метою створення більш захищених мобільних комунікацій. Програмне забезпечення включає: Gibberbot — клієнт миттєвих повідомлень, що використовує Off-the-Record Messaging-шифрування; Orbot — Tor клієнт для Android; Orweb — мобільний браузер; ProxyMob — аддон для Firefox що допомагає керувати HTTP, SOCKS, і SSL-проксі налаштування для інтеграції з Orbot; і Secure Smart Cam — набір інструментів-утиліт для покращення конфіденційності інформації, що зберігається в пристрої.
Найпоширеніші пакунки (bundle) TOR'у
Існують розробки пакунків TOR для основних операційних систем, але, наразі, зупинимося на збірці під Windows.
У пакет входять власне сама програма TOR, Vidalia (графічний інтерфейс) і Privoxy (фільтрувальний проксі). Privoxy відповідає за фільтрацію контенту, блокування cookies-файлів та небезпечних скриптів. Поруч з цим, Privoxy блокує рекламу на вебсторінках, як і будь-який інший фільтрувальний проксі.
Розробники TOR наполегливо рекомендують використовувати Privoxy через можливу загрозу витоку DNS (DNS leak). Так що, хоч і можна завантажити та встановити кожен компонент пакету окремо, краще прислухатися до поради розробників TOR.
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний вебсайт
Tor Project FAQ
Що таке Tor
Криптографічні програми
Інтернет конфіденційність
Проксі-сервери
Вільне програмне забезпечення на C
Інтернет-протоколи
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4183563
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umerkot
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Umerkot
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Umerkot
Amarkot (Urdu: ; Dhatki : عمرڪوٽ ;Sindhi: عمرڪوٽ; IPA: [ʊmərkoːʈ], formerly known as Amarkot) is a city in the Sindh province of Pakistan. The Mughal emperor Akbar was born in Umerkot in 1542. The Hindu folk deities Pabuji and Ramdev married in Amarkot.
The local language is Dhatki, one of the Rajasthani languages of the Indo-Aryan language family. It is most closely related to Marwari. Sindhi, Urdu and Punjabi are also understood by the citizens.
Etymology
The city is named after a local ruler of Sindh, Umer Soomro (of Soomra dynasty) of the Umar Marvi folk tale, which also appears in Shah Jo Risalo, one of the popular tragic romances of Sindh. However, the myth of Umer Marvi is believed to have been made up to Islamize the history of Amarkot, which was named after its original founder, Amar Singh.
History
Amarkot province was ruled by the Sodha Rajput clan during the medieval period. Rana Parshad, the Sodha Rajput ruler of Umarkot, gave refuge to Humayun, the second Mughal Emperor when he was ousted by Sher Shah Suri, and the following year Mughal Emperor, Akbar, was born here. Later on, Akbar brought northwestern India, including modern Pakistan, under Mughal rule.
After the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, Amarkot was captured by several regional powers, including the Persians, Afghans, Kalhora and Talpur Balochs of Sindh, Rathore Rajputs of Jodhpur and finally by the British.
Amarkot was annexed by Jodhpur State in 1779 from the Kalhora nawab of Sindh. Umerkot and its fort was traded to the British in 1843 by the Maharaja of Jodhpur in return for a Rs.10,000 reduction in the tribute imposed on Jodhpur State. The British appointed Syed Mohammad Ali governor of the province. In 1847, Rana Ratan Singh was hanged at the fort by the British, for killing Syed Mohammad Ali in a tax protest.
After the British conquered Sindh, they made it part of the Bombay Presidency of British India. In 1858, the entire area around Tharparkar became part of the Hyderabad District. In 1860 the region was renamed Eastern Sindh Frontier, with a headquarters at Amarkot. In 1882, it was reorganized as the Thar and Parkar district, headed by a British Deputy Commissioner, with a political superintendent at Amarkot. However, in 1906 the district headquarters moved from Amarkot to Mirpur Khas.
Rana Chandra Singh, a federal minister and the chieftain of the Hindu Sodha Thakur Rajput clan and the Amarkot Jagir, was one of the founding members of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and was elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan from Umarkot seven times as a PPP member between 1977 and 1999, when he founded the Pakistan Hindu Party (PHP). Currently, his politician son Rana Hamir Singh claims to be the 26th Rana of Tharparkar, Umarkot and Mithi.
Points of interest
The city is well connected with the other large cities like Karachi, the provincial capital and Hyderabad.
Umarkot has many sites of historical significance such as Akbar's birthplace, Umarkot, Umerkot Fort and Momal Ji Mari.
There is an ancient temple, Shiv Mandir, Umerkot, as well as a Kali Mata Temple, Krishna Mandir at old Amarkot and Manhar Mandir Kathwari Mandir at Rancho Line.
Education
The city has more than 100 schools, 20 colleges, and one polytechnic college.
Religion
The Umarkot Shiv Mandir is one of the most ancient and sacred Hindu temples in Sindh.
See also
Islamkot
Mithi
District Government of Umerkot
Akbar
Tharparkar
Umar Marvi
Gallery
Notes
References
External links
District government Umerkot official website (English version)
Hinduism in Sindh
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946289
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechcraft%20Bonanza
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Beechcraft Bonanza
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Beechcraft Bonanza
The Beechcraft Bonanza is an American general aviation aircraft introduced in 1947 by Beech Aircraft Corporation of Wichita, Kansas. The six-seater, single-engined aircraft is still being produced by Beechcraft and has been in continuous production longer than any other aircraft in history. More than 17,000 Bonanzas of all variants have been built, produced in both distinctive V-tail and conventional tail configurations; early conventional-tail versions were marketed as the Debonair.
Design and development
At the end of World War II, two all-metal light aircraft emerged, the Model 35 Bonanza and the Cessna 195, that represented very different approaches to the premium end of the postwar civil-aviation market. With its high-wing, seven-cylinder radial engine, fixed tailwheel undercarriage, and roll-down side windows, the Cessna 195 was a continuation of prewar technology. The Bonanza, however, featured an easier-to-manage, horizontally opposed, six-cylinder engine, retractable tricycle undercarriage (although the nosewheel initially was not steerable, but castering) and low-wing configuration.
Designed by a team led by Ralph Harmon, the model 35 Bonanza was a relatively fast, low-wing, all-aluminum design, at a time when most light aircraft were still made of wood and fabric. The Model 35 featured retractable landing gear, and its signature V-tail (equipped with combination elevator-rudders called "ruddervators"). The prototype 35 Bonanza made its first flight on December 22, 1945, with the type receiving an airworthiness certificate on March 25, 1947. Production began that year. The first 30–40 Bonanzas produced had fabric-covered flaps and ailerons, after which those surfaces were covered with magnesium alloy sheet.
The Bonanza family eventually comprised three major variants:
Model 35 Bonanza (1947–1982; V-tail)
Model 33 Debonair or Bonanza (1960–1995; conventional tail)
Model 36 Bonanza (1968–present; a stretched Model 33)
The Model 33 Debonair was introduced in 1960 as a lower-priced model with more austere standard instrumentation, exterior equipment, paint schemes, and interior fabrics and trim than the more prestigious V-tail Bonanza. However, most Bonanza features were available as factory options on the Debonair, and by the mid 1960s, most Debonair buyers were ordering most or all of these options. Realizing this, Beechcraft dropped the Debonair name and most of the basic and seldom-ordered standard features with the introduction of the E33 in 1968.
Despite its name, the Twin Bonanza is a substantially wider and heavier aircraft that is mostly dissimilar to the single-engined Bonanza; the only major shared parts are the front fuselage sides, windows, and main cabin door. However, the Twin Bonanza had trouble competing with the similarly capable but substantially lighter Cessna 310 and Piper PA-23, so Beechcraft used the basic Bonanza fuselage and many other Bonanza parts to create the twin-engined Travel Air, which was later developed into the Baron.
Operational history
The V-tail design gained a reputation as the "forked-tail doctor killer", due to crashes by overconfident wealthy amateur pilots, fatal accidents, and in-flight breakups. "Doctor killer" has sometimes been used to describe the conventional-tailed version, as well. However, a detailed analysis by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association of accident records for common single-engine retractable-gear airplanes in the United States between 1982 and 1989 demonstrated that the Bonanza had a slightly lower accident rate than other types in the study. Pilot error was cited in 73% of V-tail crashes and 83% of conventional-tail crashes, with aircraft-related causes accounting for 15% and 11% of crashes respectively. However, the study noted that the aircraft had an unusually high incidence of gear-up landings and inadvertent landing gear retractions on the ground, which were attributed to a non-standard gear-retraction switch on early models that is easily confused with the switch that operates the flaps. Models starting in 1984 use a more distinctive relocated landing-gear switch, augmented by "squat switches" in the landing gear that prevent its operation while compressed by the aircraft's weight, and a throttle position switch that prevents gear retraction at low engine power settings.
In 1982, the production of the V-tail Model 35 ended. In the late 1980s, repeated V-tail structural failures prompted the United States Department of Transportation and Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to conduct extensive wind tunnel and flight tests, which proved that the V-tail did not meet type certification standards under certain conditions; the effort culminated with the issuance of an airworthiness directive to strengthen the tail, which significantly reduced the incidence of in-flight breakups. Despite this, Beech has long contended that most V-tail failures involve operations well beyond the aircraft's intended flight envelope.
Subsequent analysis of National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) accident records between 1962 and 2007 revealed an average of three V-tail structural failures per year, while the conventional-tailed Bonanza 33 and 36 suffered only eleven such failures in total during the same 45 years. Most V-tail failures involved flight under visual flight rules into instrument meteorological conditions, flight into thunderstorms, or airframe icing.
In addition to the structural issues, the Bonanza 35 has a relatively narrow center of gravity envelope, and the tail design is intolerant of imbalances caused by damage, improper maintenance, or repainting. Such imbalances may induce dangerous aeroelastic flutter. Due to the anodic properties of the magnesium used for the V-tail ruddervator skins, they tend to corrode, often resulting in permanent grounding of affected aircraft because the problem can only be fixed by complete replacement of the skins or the entire empennage, and the required parts are no longer available. The American Bonanza Society has issued a reward of $500,000 to encourage the development of aftermarket replacement skins under a supplemental type certificate. Despite these issues, many Bonanza 35 owners insist that the aircraft is reasonably safe, and its reputation has resulted in reduced purchase costs for budget-conscious buyers.
The conventional-tail Model 33 continued in production until 1995. Still built today is the Model 36 Bonanza, a longer-bodied, straight-tail variant of the original design, introduced in 1968. No Bonanzas were delivered in 2021, but on April 10, 2022, it was announced that production of the Bonanza G36 had restarted.
In January 2012, the Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority issued an airworthiness directive grounding all Bonanzas, Twin Bonanzas, and Debonairs equipped with a single pole-style yoke and that have forwarded elevator control cables that are more than 15 years old until they could be inspected. The AD was issued based on two aircraft found to have frayed cables, one of which suffered a cable failure just prior to takeoff, and resulting concerns about the age of the cables in fleet aircraft of this age. At the time of the grounding, some Bonanzas had reached 64 years in service. Aircraft with frayed cables were grounded until the cables were replaced, and those that passed inspection were required to have their cables replaced within 60 days regardless. The AD affected only Australian aircraft and was not adopted by the airworthiness authority responsible for the type certificate, the US Federal Aviation Administration. The FAA instead opted to issue a Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin requesting that the elevator control cables be inspected during the annual inspection.
QU-22 Pave Eagle
The QU-22 was a Beech 36/A36 Bonanza modified during the Vietnam War to be an electronic monitoring signal relay aircraft, developed under the project name "Pave Eagle" for the United States Air Force. An AiResearch turbocharged, reduction-geared Continental GTSIO-520-G engine was used to reduce its noise signature, much like the later Army-Lockheed YO-3A. These aircraft were intended to be used as unmanned drones to monitor seismic and acoustic sensors dropped along the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos and report troop and supply movements. When the project was put into operation in 1968, however, the aircraft were all flown by pilots of the 554th Reconnaissance Squadron Detachment 1, call sign "Vampire". A separate operation "Compass Flag" monitored the General Directorate of Rear Services along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, linking to the 6908th security squadron.
Six YQU-22A prototypes (Model 1074, modifications of the Beech 33 Debonair) were combat-tested in 1968, and two were lost during operations, with a civilian test pilot killed. Twenty-seven QU-22Bs (Model 1079) were modified, 13 in 1969 and 14 in 1970, with six lost in combat. Two Air Force pilots were killed in action. All the losses were due to engine failures or effects of turbulence. A large cowl bump above the spinner was faired-in for an AC current generator, and a higher weight set of Baron wings and spars were used to handle the fuel load.
Variants
Model 33 Debonair/Bonanza
35-33 Debonair
(1959) Based on Bonanza with conventional fin and tailplane, and basic trim and interior, powered by one Continental IO-470-J, 233 built.
35-A33 Debonair
(1961) Fitted with improved interior trim, and powered by IO-470J or IO-470K. 154 built.
B33 Debonair
(1961-1965) Further refined version, with new instrument panel, contoured fin leading edge and fuel tank modifications (as per N35 Bonanza). IO-470K engine. 426 built.
C33 Debonair
(1965-1967) Higher gross weight and provision for enlarged rear windows. 304 built.
C33A Debonair
(1966-1967) Powered by Continental IO-520-B engine. 179 built.
D33
One S35 modified as a military close-support prototype, with conventional tail assembly and six underwing hardpoints.
E33 Bonanza
(1968-1969) Powered by IO-470K. 116 built.
E33A Bonanza
(1968-1969) E33 with a 285 hp Continental IO-520-B engine, 85 built.
E33B Bonanza
E33 with strengthened airframe and certified for aerobatics. Unbuilt.
E33C Bonanza
(1968-1969) E33B with a 285 hp Continental IO-520-B engine, 25 built.
F33 Bonanza
(1970) E33 with modified rear side windows and minor improvements, 20 built
F33A Bonanza
(1970-1994) F33 with a 285 hp Continental IO-520-B engine, later aircraft have a longer S35/V35 cabin and extra seats, 1502 built.
F33C Bonanza
(1970 onwards) F33A certified for aerobatics, 154 built on special order up to 1987
G33 Bonanza
(1972-1973) F33 with a Continental IO-470-N engine and V35B trim, 50 built.
Model 35 Bonanza
35
(1947–1948), initial production version with Continental E-185 or E-185-1 engine, 1500 built.
A35
(1949) Model 35 with higher takeoff weight, tubular wing spars and nosewheel steering, 701 built.
B35
(1950) A35 with a Continental E-185-8 engine, 480 built.
C35
(1950-1952) B35 with a 185hp Continental E-185-11 engine, metal propeller, larger tail surfaces, and higher takeoff weight, approved for the Lycoming GO-435-D1 engine, 719 built.
D35
(1953) C35 with increased takeoff weight and minor changes, approved for the Lycoming GO-435-D1 engine. 298 built.
E35
(1954) Powered by E-185-11 or Continental E-225-8 engine, 301 built.
F35
(1955) Powered by E-185-11 or E-225-8 engine. Extra rear window each side, strengthened wing leading edges and tail spar caps. 392 built.
G35
(1956) Powered by Continental E-225-8 engine, thicker windshield. 476 built.
H35
(1957) Powered by a Continental O-470-G engine, and with modified structure. 464 built.
J35
(1958) Powered by a fuel injected Continental IO-470-C engine. 396 built.
K35
(1959) Increased fuel load, optional fifth seat and increased takeoff weight, 436 built.
M35
(1960) Similar to K35, 400 built.
N35
(1961) Powered by a Continental IO-470-N engine, increased fuel capacity, increased takeoff weight, and larger rear side windows, 280 built.
O35
(1961) Experimental version fitted with laminar flow airfoil. Only one built.
P35
(1962–1963) New instrument panel. 467 built.
S35
(1964–1966) Powered by Continental IO-520-B engine, higher takeoff weight, longer cabin interior, optional fifth and sixth seat and new rear window, 667 built.
V35
(1966–1967) Fitted with single-piece windshield, powered by IO-520-B or optional turbocharged TSIO-520-D engine (as V35-TC). 873 built, including 79 V35-TCs.
V35A
(1968–1969) Fitted with revised windshield, powered by IO-520-B or by optional turbocharged TSIO-520-D engine (as V35A-TC), 470 built, including 46 V35A-TCs.
V35B
(1970–1982) Initially with minor improvements over V35A, but had major internal redesign in 1972, and 24-volt electrical system in 1978. Normally powered by IO-520B, but available with optional TSIO-520-D (as V35TC) until 1971. 1335 built, including 7 V35TCs.
Model 36 Bonanza
36
(1968–1969) Revised utility aircraft with similar tail to Model 33 with a fuselage stretch, four cabin windows each side, starboard rear double doors and seats for six, one 285 hp Continental IO-520-B engine, 184 built.
A36
(1970–2005) Model 36 with improved deluxe interior, a new fuel system, higher takeoff weight, from 1984 fitted with a Continental IO-550-BB engine and redesigned instrument panel and controls, 2128 built
A36AT
Model A36 "Airline Trainer" with reduced-diameter propeller, exhaust baffles, and reduced RPM to reduce noise for flight schools.
A36TC
(1979–1981) Model 36 with a three-bladed propeller and a 300 hp turbocharged Continental TSIO-520-UB engine, 280 built
T36TC
(1979) A36 fitted with T-tail and a 325 hp Continental TSIO-520 engine, one built
B36TC
(1982–2002) A36TC with longer span wing, increased range, redesigned instrument panel and controls, higher takeoff weight, 116 built
G36
(2006–present) – glass cockpit update of the A36 with the Garmin G1000 system
QU-22
YQU-22A (Model 1074)
USAF military designation for a prototype intelligence-gathering drone version of the Bonanza 36, six built
YAU-22A (Model PD.249)
Prototype low-cost close-support version using Bonanza A36 fuselage and Baron B55 wings, one built
QU-22B (Model 1079)
Production drone model for the USAF operation Pave Eagle, 27 built, modified with turbocharging, three-bladed propeller, and tip-tanks
Modifications
Allison Turbine Bonanza
Allison, in conjunction with Soloy Aviation Solutions, certified a conversion of Beech A36 Bonanza aircraft to be powered by an Allison 250-B17C turboprop engine.
Continental Voyager Bonanza (A36)
Standard aircraft with a liquid-cooled Continental Motors TSIOL-550-B engine.
Propjet Bonanza (A36)
Standard aircraft modified by Tradewind Turbines with an Allison 250-B17F/2 turboprop engine (Original STC # 3523NM by Soloy).
TurbineAir Bonanza (B36TC)
Modification by Rocket Engineering subsidiary West Pacific Air, LLC with a 500 hp Pratt & Whitney PT6A-21 turboprop engine and fuel capacity.
Whirlwind System II Turbonormalized Bonanza (36, A36, G36)
Standard aircraft modified by Tornado Alley Turbo with a Tornado Alley Turbonormalizing (keeps power up to 20,000ft) system and approved for a 4000 lb MTOW
Whirlwind TCP Bonanza (A36TC or B36TC)
Standard aircraft modified by Tornado Alley Turbo with a TCM IO-550B engine and Tornado Alley Turbonormalizing system, this airframe is approved for a 4042 lb MTOW.
Bay Super V
A multi-engine conversion of the C35 Bonanza.
Model 40
The Beechcraft Model 40A was an experimental twin-engined aircraft based on the Bonanza. Only one prototype was built in 1948. It featured a unique over/under arrangement of two 180-hp Franklin engines mounted on top of each other and driving a single propeller. The plane had a different engine cowl from a standard Bonanza, and the nose gear could not fully retract, but otherwise it greatly resembled the production Bonanzas of the time. Certification rules demanded a firewall be fitted between the two engines, however, thus stopping development. The status of the prototype is unknown.
Parastu 14
Reverse engineered derivative of F33A by Defense Industries Organization of Iran, fitted with winglets. First flown April 5, 1988. Approximately 14 in service by 2001.
Operators
Civil
The Bonanza is popular with air charter companies, and is operated by private individuals and companies.
In 1949, Turner Airlines (later renamed Lake Central Airlines) commenced operations using three V-tail Bonanzas. That same year,
Central Airlines began operations using eight Bonanzas, later adding three more to the fleet before starting to phase them out in 1950 in favor of the Douglas DC-3.
Military
Haitian Air Corps – 1 x Bonanza F33
Indonesian Naval Aviation – 4 x Bonanza G36
Imperial Iranian Air Force – 10 x Bonanza F33A and 39 x Bonanza F33C
Israeli Air Force - Bonanza A36 called Hofit.
Ivory Coast Air Force – 1 x Bonanza F33C
Mexican Air Force – 10 x Bonanza F33C
Netherlands Government Flying School – 16 x Bonanza F33C
National Guard – 1 x Bonanaza A35
Portuguese Air Force – 1 × Bonanza A35 operated 1949–55.
Spanish Air Force – 29 x Bonanza F33C and 25 x Bonanza F33A
Royal Thai Navy – 3 x Beech 35 Bonanza
United States Air Force - QU-22Bs.
Notable flights
In January 1949, the fourth Bonanza to come off the production line was piloted by Captain William Odom from Honolulu, Hawaii, to the continental United States (2,900 statute miles), the first light airplane to do so. The airplane was called Waikiki Beech, and its 40-gallon (150 L) fuel capacity was increased (using fuselage and wing tanks) to 268 gallons (1010 L), which gave a still-air range of nearly 5,000 statute miles.
In March 1949, Captain Odom piloted Waikiki Beech a distance of from Honolulu to Teterboro, New Jersey, setting a nonstop record. The flight time was 36:01 hours, at an average speed of , consuming of fuel. After that flight, the airplane was donated to the Smithsonian Institution's National Air Museum, as the National Air and Space Museum was then called.
On October 7, 1951, an American congressman from Illinois, Peter F. Mack, Jr., began an around-the-world trip in Waikiki Beech, on loan from the museum and reconditioned at the Beech factory, and renamed Friendship Flame. He spent 15 weeks traveling through 30 countries (223 hours flight time). The plane was again refurbished in 1975 and returned to the National Air and Space Museum. It is still on display there, with both names painted on its sides.
On May 31, 2014, 19-year-old MIT student Matt Guthmiller from Aberdeen, South Dakota, departed Gillespie Field in El Cajon, California, in a 1981 A36 Bonanza on a 44-day-12-hour solo circumnavigation, making him the Guinness World Record holder as the youngest person to fly solo around the world when he landed back in El Cajon on July 14, 2014, at 19 years, 7 months, and 15 days of age. During 170 hours of flight time, he made 23 stops in 15 countries on five continents, and covered about , while raising awareness for computer science education and supporting Code.org.
Accidents and incidents
On October 28, 1947, Oregon Governor Earl Snell, Oregon Secretary of State Robert S. Farrell, Jr., and State Senate President Marshall E. Cornett were killed along with pilot Cliff Hogue when their Bonanza 35 crashed in stormy weather southwest of Dog Lake in Lake County, Oregon.
On January 26, 1952, Zubeida Begum and Hanwant Singh, Maharaja of Jodhpur, died when their Beechcraft Bonanza crashed in Godwar (Rajasthan), India. Hanwant Singh was overworked while campaigning for elections and is reported to have been sleeping only four hours a night. The wreckage from this crash was discovered in storage in the cellar of the Central Jail in Jodhpur in 2011.
On July 31, 1955, the rising Hollywood star Robert Francis died with two others when the Bonanza he was piloting crashed immediately after take-off from Burbank Airport.
On February 3, 1959, rock and roll stars Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and The Big Bopper, as well as pilot Roger Peterson, died when their Beechcraft Bonanza 35, registration N3794N, crashed shortly after takeoff at night in poor weather. The accident in northern Iowa later became known as "The Day the Music Died", after Don McLean referred to it by that name in his song "American Pie".
On July 31, 1964, country music star Jim Reeves and his pianist Dean Manuel died when the Beechcraft Debonair N8972M Reeves was piloting crashed in the Brentwood area of Nashville during a violent thunderstorm.
On February 14, 1975, Congressman Jerry Pettis was killed when the Beechcraft Model V35B Bonanza he was piloting crashed near Cherry Valley, California, after he encountered adverse weather conditions. The Jerry Pettis Memorial Veterans Administration Hospital in Loma Linda, California, is named in his honor.
On February 7, 1981, Apple Computer cofounder Steve Wozniak crashed his Beechcraft Bonanza while taking off from Santa Cruz Sky Park. The NTSB investigation revealed Wozniak did not have a "high performance" endorsement (meaning he was not legally qualified to operate the airplane) and had a "lack of familiarity with the aircraft." The cause of the crash was determined to be a premature liftoff, followed by a stall and "mush" into a 12-foot embankment. Wozniak later made a full recovery, albeit with a case of temporary anterograde amnesia.
On March 19, 1982, Ozzy Osbourne's guitarist Randy Rhoads was killed when the wing of the Bonanza F35 in which he was riding hit the band's tour bus then crashed into a tree and a nearby residence. Both of the other people on the aircraft, pilot Andrew Aycock and Osbourne's makeup artist Rachel Youngblood, also died in the crash. The NTSB cited the causes of the crash as poor judgement, buzzing, and misjudged clearance, as well as indicating that the use of the aircraft was not authorized by the aircraft's owner.
On January 14, 1996, Armenian-Turkish musician Onno Tunç died when a private Bonanza crashed in bad weather on a mountain at Tazdağ near Selimiye village of Armutlu, Yalova on his journey from Bursa to Istanbul.
On March 13, 2006, game show host Peter Tomarken crashed his Bonanza A36 into Santa Monica Bay while climbing from Santa Monica Airport in California. He was en route to San Diego to pick up a cancer patient who needed transportation to UCLA Medical Center for treatment. Tomarken and his wife were killed in the crash.
On July 23, 2014, Haris Suleman, a Pakistani-American pilot attempting to fly around the world in 30 days to promote education, crashed his Beechcraft Bonanza in the Pacific Ocean, killing him and leaving his father Babar Suleman, also on board, missing.
Specifications (2011 model G36)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
The history of the development of the Bonanza
History of the V-tail safety issue
AVweb review of the Beechcraft 36 Bonanza
Bonanza
Low-wing aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
1940s United States civil utility aircraft
V-tail aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1945
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15579288
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breux-Jouy
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Breux-Jouy
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Breux-Jouy is a commune in the Essonne department in Île-de-France in northern France.
Inhabitants of Breux-Jouy are known as Brojiciens.
See also
Communes of the Essonne department
References
External links
Mayors of Essonne Association
Communes of Essonne
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30520489
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayagama%20Divisional%20Secretariat
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Ayagama Divisional Secretariat
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Ayagama Divisional Secretariat is a Divisional Secretariat of Ratnapura District, of Sabaragamuwa Province, Sri Lanka.
References
Divisional Secretariats Portal
Divisional Secretariats of Ratnapura District
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