id
stringlengths 3
8
| url
stringlengths 31
795
| title
stringlengths 1
211
| text
stringlengths 12
350k
|
|---|---|---|---|
1821143
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%20%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%BE
|
Алессандро Марчелло
|
Алессандро Марчелло (1 лютого 1673, Венеція — 19 червня 1747, Венеція) — венеціанський композитор-любитель. Брат Бенедетто Марчелло.
Життя і творчість
Алессандро Марчелло походив із дворянської родини. Перш за все він був математиком, філософом і поетом. Музику Марчелло складав для свого задоволення і вважався композитором-аматором.
У числі збережених творів А. Марчелло — 12 сольних кантат, 12 скрипкових сонат, а також 18 концертів для різних інструментів з оркестром. Найвідомішим з них є вперше опублікований в 1717 році концерт для гобоя і струнних ре мінор (раніше помилково приписувалися Б.Марчелло). Його перекладення для клавіру пізніше виконав Йоганн Себастьян Бах (BWV 974). Свої твори публікував під псевдонімом Етеріо Стінфаліко.
Твори
12 сольних кантат (1708)
18 Концертів для різних інструментів з оркестром, зокрема «Концерт для гобоя і струнних ре мінор» (1717)
12 скрипкових сонат (1738)
Джерела
Алессандро Марчелло
Примітки
Італійські композитори
|
2784476
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96
|
Бронішовиці
|
Бронішовиці
Бронішовиці — село в гміні Отмухув Ниського повіту Опольського воєводства
Бронішовиці — село в гміні Бодзехув Островецького повіту Свентокшиського воєводства
|
56656
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaka
|
Dhaka
|
Dhaka (or ; ), formerly known as Dacca, is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh. It is the ninth-largest and seventh-most densely populated city in the world. Dhaka is a megacity, and has a population of 10.2 million residents as of 2022, and a population of over 22.4 million residents in Dhaka Metropolitan Area. It is widely considered to be the most densely populated built-up urban area in the world. Dhaka is the most important cultural, economic, and scientific hub of Eastern South Asia, as well as a major Muslim-majority city. Dhaka ranks third in South Asia and 39th in the world in terms of GDP. Lying on the Ganges Delta, it is bounded by the Buriganga, Turag, Dhaleshwari and Shitalakshya rivers. Dhaka is also the largest Bengali-speaking city in the world.
The area of Dhaka has been inhabited since the first millennium. An early modern city developed from the 17th century as a provincial capital and commercial centre of the Mughal Empire. Dhaka was the capital of a proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal for 75 years (1608–39 and 1660–1704). It was the hub of the muslin trade in Bengal and one of the most prosperous cities in the world. The Mughal city was named Jahangirnagar (The City of Jahangir) in honour of the erstwhile ruling emperor Jahangir. The city's wealthy Mughal elite included princes and the sons of Mughal emperors. The pre-colonial city's glory peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries when it was home to merchants from across Eurasia. The Port of Dhaka was a major trading post for both riverine and seaborne trade. The Mughals decorated the city with well-laid gardens, tombs, mosques, palaces, and forts. The city was once called the Venice of the East.
Under British rule, the city saw the introduction of electricity, railways, cinemas, Western-style universities and colleges and a modern water supply. It became an important administrative and educational centre in the British Raj, as the capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam province after 1905. In 1947, after the end of British rule, the city became the administrative capital of East Pakistan. It was declared the legislative capital of Pakistan in 1962. In 1971, after the Liberation War, it became the capital of independent Bangladesh. In 2008, Dhaka celebrated 400 years as a municipal city.
A beta-global city, Dhaka is the centre of political, economic and cultural life in Bangladesh. It is the seat of the Government of Bangladesh, many Bangladeshi companies, and leading Bangladeshi educational, scientific, research, and cultural organizations. Since its establishment as a modern capital city, the population, area and social and economic diversity of Dhaka have grown tremendously. The city is now one of the most densely industrialized regions in the country. The city accounts for 35% of Bangladesh's economy. The Dhaka Stock Exchange has over 750 listed companies. Dhaka hosts over 50 diplomatic missions; as well as the headquarters of BIMSTEC, CIRDAP, and the International Jute Study Group. Dhaka has a renowned culinary heritage. The city's culture is known for its rickshaws, Kachi Biryani, art festivals, street food, and religious diversity. Dhaka's most prominent architectural landmark is the modernist Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban; while it has a heritage of 2000 buildings from the Mughal and British periods. The city is associated with two Nobel laureates. Dhaka's annual Bengali New Year parade, its Jamdani sari, and its rickshaw art have been recognized by UNESCO as the intangible cultural heritage of humanity. The city has produced many writers and poets in several languages, especially in Bengali and English.
Etymology
The origins of the name Dhaka are uncertain. It may derive from the dhak tree, which was once common in the area, or from Dhakeshwari, the 'patron goddess' of the region. Another popular theory states that Dhaka refers to a membranophone instrument, dhak which was played by order of Subahdar Islam Khan I during the inauguration of the Bengal capital in 1610.
Some references also say it was derived from a Prakrit dialect called Dhaka Bhasa; or Dhakka, used in the Rajtarangini for a watch station; or it is the same as Davaka, mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta as an eastern frontier kingdom. According to Rajatarangini written by a Kashmiri Brahman, Kalhana, the region was originally known as Dhakka. The word Dhakka means watchtower. Bikrampur and Sonargaon—the earlier strongholds of Bengal rulers were situated nearby. So Dhaka was most likely used as the watchtower for fortification purpose.
History
Pre-Mughal
The history of urban settlements in the area of modern-day Dhaka dates to the first millennium. The region was part of the ancient district of Bikrampur, which was ruled by the Sena dynasty. Under Islamic rule, it became part of the historic district of Sonargaon, the regional administrative hub of the Delhi and the Bengal Sultanates. The Grand Trunk Road passed through the region, connecting it with North India, Central Asia and the southeastern port city of Chittagong. Before Dhaka, the capital of Bengal was Gour. Even earlier capitals included Pandua, Bikrampur and Sonargaon. The latter was also the seat of Isa Khan and his son Musa Khan, who both headed a confederation of twelve chieftains that resisted Mughal expansion in eastern Bengal during the late 16th century. Due to a change in the course of the Ganges, the strategic importance of Gour was lost. Dhaka was viewed with strategic importance due to the Mughal need to consolidate control in eastern Bengal. The Mughals also planned to extend their empire beyond into Assam and Arakan. Dhaka and Chittagong became the eastern frontiers of the Mughal Empire.
Early period of Mughal Bengal
Dhaka became the capital of the Mughal province of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1610 with a jurisdiction covering modern-day Bangladesh and eastern India, including the modern-day Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. This province was known as Bengal Subah. The city was founded during the reign of Emperor Jahangir. Emperor Shah Jahan visited Dhaka in 1624 and stayed in the city for a week, four years before he became emperor in 1628. Dhaka became one of the richest and greatest cities in the world during the early period of Bengal Subah (1610-1717). The prosperity of Dhaka reached its peak during the administration of governor Shaista Khan (1644-1677 and 1680–1688). Rice was then sold at eight maunds per rupee. Thomas Bowrey, an English merchant sailor who visited the city between 1669 and 1670, wrote that the city was 40 miles in circuit. He estimated the city to be more populated than London with 900,000 people.
Bengal became the economic engine of the Mughal Empire. Dhaka played a key role in the proto-industrialisation of Bengal. It was the centre of the muslin trade in Bengal, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets as far away as Central Asia. Mughal India depended on Bengali products like rice, silk and cotton textiles. European East India Companies from Britain, Holland, France, and Denmark also depended on Bengali products. Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, with many products being sold to Dutch ships in Bengali harbours and then transported to Batavia in the Dutch East Indies. Bengal accounted for 50% of textiles and 80% of silks in Dutch textile imports from Asia. Silk was also exported to premodern Japan. The region had a large shipbuilding industry which supplied the Mughal Navy. The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250 tons annually, compared to 23,061 tons produced by North America from 1769 to 1771. The Mughals decorated the city with well-laid-out gardens. Caravanserai included the Bara Katra and Choto Katra. The architect of the palatial Bara Katra was Abul Qashim Al Hussaini Attabatayi Assemani. According to inscriptions in the Bangladesh National Museum, the ownership of Bara Katra was entrusted to an Islamic waqf. The Bara Katra also served as a residence for Mughal governors, including Prince Shah Shuja (the son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan). Dhaka was home to an array of Mughal bureaucrats and military officials, as well as members of the imperial family. The city was guarded by Mughal artillery like the Bibi Mariam Cannon (Lady Mary Cannon).
Islam Khan I was the first Mughal governor to reside in the city. Khan named it "Jahangir Nagar" (The City of Jahangir) in honour of the Emperor Jahangir. The name was dropped soon after the English conquered. The main expansion of the city took place under Governor Shaista Khan. The city then measured , with a population of nearly one million. Dhaka became home to one of the richest elites in Mughal India.
The construction of Lalbagh Fort was commenced in 1678 by Prince Azam Shah, who was the governor of Bengal, a son of Emperor Aurangzeb and a future Mughal Emperor himself. The Lalbagh Fort was intended to be the viceregal residence of Mughal governors in eastern India. Before the fort's construction could be completed, the prince was recalled by Emperor Aurangzeb. The fort's construction was halted by Shaista Khan after the death of his daughter Pari Bibi, who is buried in a tomb in the centre of the unfinished fort. Pari Bibi, whose name means Fairy Lady, was legendary for her beauty, engaged to Prince Azam Shah, and a potential future Mughal empress before her premature death. Internal conflict in the Mughal court cut short Dhaka's growth as an imperial city. Prince Azam Shah's rivalry with Murshid Quli Khan resulted in Dhaka losing its status as the provincial capital. In 1717, the provincial capital was shifted to Murshidabad where Murshid Quli Khan declared himself as the Nawab of Bengal.
Naib Nizamat
Under the Nawabs of Bengal, the Naib Nazim of Dhaka was in charge of the city. The Naib Nazim was the deputy governor of Bengal. He also dealt with the upkeep of the Mughal Navy. The Naib Nazim was in charge of the Dhaka Division, which included Dhaka, Comilla, and Chittagong. Dhaka Division was one of the four divisions under the Nawabs of Bengal. The Nawabs of Bengal allowed European trading companies to establish factories across Bengal. The region then became a hotbed for European rivalries. The British moved to oust the last independent Nawab of Bengal in 1757, who was allied with the French. Due to the defection of Nawab's army chief Mir Jafar to the British side, the last Nawab lost the Battle of Plassey.
After the Battle of Buxar in 1765, the Treaty of Allahabad allowed the British East India Company to become the tax collector in Bengal on behalf of the Mughal Emperor in Delhi. The Naib Nazim continued to function until 1793 when all his powers were transferred to the East India Company. The city formally passed to the control of the East India Company in 1793. British military raids damaged a lot of the city's infrastructure. The military conflict caused a sharp decline in the urban population. Dhaka's fortunes received a boost with connections to the mercantile networks of the British Empire. With the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Dhaka became a leading centre of the jute trade, as Bengal accounted for the largest share of the world's jute production.
But the British neglected Dhaka's industrial and urban development until the late 19th century. Income from the pre-colonial, proto-industrialized textile industry dried up. Bengali weavers went out of business after the imposition of a 75% tax on the export of cotton from Bengal, as well as the surge in imports of cheap, British-manufactured fabrics after the advent of the spinning mule and steam power. The rapid growth of the colonial capital Calcutta contributed to the decline in Dhaka's population and economy in the early 1800s. In 1824, an Anglican bishop described Dhaka as a "city of magnificent ruins".
Trade and migration
Dhaka hosted factories of the English East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and French East India Company. The property of the Ahsan Manzil was initially bought by the French for their factory and later sold to the Dhaka Nawab Family. The Portuguese were reportedly responsible for introducing cheese. Dhaka saw an influx of migrants during the Mughal Empire. An Armenian community from the Safavid Empire settled in Dhaka and was involved in the city's textile trade, paying a 3.5% tax. The Armenians were very active in the city's social life. They opened the Pogose School. Marwaris were the Hindu trading community. Dhaka also became home to Jews and Greeks. The city has a Greek memorial. Several families of Dhaka's elite spoke Urdu and included Urdu poets. Persians also settled in the city to serve as administrators and military commanders of the Mughal government in Bengal. The legacy of cosmopolitan trading communities lives on in the names of neighbourhoods in Old Dhaka, including Farashganj (French Bazaar), Armanitola (Armenian Quarter) and Postogola (Portuguese Quarter).
According to those who lived in the historic city, "Dhaka was a courtly, genteel town – the very last flowering, in their telling, of Mughal etiquette and sensibility. It is this history that is today still reflected in the faded grandeur of the old city, now crumbling due to decades of neglect. The narrow, winding, high-walled lanes and alleyways, the old high-ceilinged houses with verandas and balconies, the old neighbourhoods, the graveyards and gardens, the mosques, the grand old mansions – these are all still there if one goes looking". Railway stations, postal departments, civil service posts and river port stations were often staffed by Anglo-Indians.
The city's hinterland supplied rice, jute, gunny sacks, turmeric, ginger, leather hides, silk, rugs, saltpeter, salt, sugar, indigo, cotton, and iron. British opium policy in Bengal contributed to the Opium Wars with China. American traders collected artwork, handicrafts, terracotta, sculptures, religious and literary texts, manuscripts, and military weapons from Bengal. Some objects from the region are on display in the Peabody Essex Museum. The increase in international trade led to profits for many families in the city, allowing them to buy imported luxury goods.
British Raj
During the Indian mutiny of 1857, the city witnessed revolts by the Bengal Army. Direct rule by the British crown was established following the successful quelling of the mutiny. It bestowed privileges on the Dhaka Nawab Family, which dominated the city's political and social elite. The Dhaka Cantonment was established as a base for the British Indian Army. The British developed the modern city around Ramna, Shahbag Garden, and Victoria Park. Dhaka got its own version of the hansom cab as public transport in 1856. The number of carriages increased from 60 in 1867 to 600 in 1889.
A modern civic water system was introduced in 1874. In 1885, the Dhaka State Railway was opened with a 144 km metre gauge (1000 mm) rail line connecting Mymensingh and the Port of Narayanganj through Dhaka. The city later became a hub of the Eastern Bengal State Railway. The first film shown in Dhaka was screened on the Riverfront Crown Theatre on 17 April 1898. The film show was organized by the Bedford Bioscope Company. The electricity supply began in 1901.
This period is described as being "the colonial-era part of Dhaka, developed by the British during the early 20th century. Similar to colonial boroughs the length and breadth of the Subcontinent, this development was typified by stately government buildings, spacious tree-lined avenues, and sturdy white-washed bungalows set amidst always overgrown (the British never did manage to fully tame the landscape) gardens. Once upon a time, this was the new city; and even though it is today far from the ritziest part of town, the streets here are still wider and the trees more abundant and the greenery more evident than in any other part".
Some of the early educational institutions established during the period of British rule include the Dhaka College, the Dhaka Medical School, the Eden College, St. Gregory's School, the Mohsinia Madrasa, Jagannath College and the Ahsanullah School of Engineering. Horse racing was a favourite pastime for elite residents in the city's Ramna Race Course beside the Dhaka Club. The Viceroy of India would often dine and entertain with Bengali aristocrats in the city. Automobiles began appearing after the turn of the century. A 1937 Sunbeam-Talbot Ten was preserved in the Liberation War Museum. The Nawabs of Dhaka owned Rolls-Royces. Austin cars were widely used. Beauty Boarding was a popular inn and restaurant.
Dhaka's fortunes changed in the early 20th century. British neglect of Dhaka's urban development was overturned with the first partition of Bengal in 1905, which restored Dhaka's status as a regional capital. The city became the seat of government for Eastern Bengal and Assam, with a jurisdiction covering most of modern-day Bangladesh and all of what is now Northeast India. The partition was the brainchild of Lord Curzon, who finally acted on British ideas for partitioning Bengal to improve administration, education, and business. Dhaka became the seat of the Eastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council. While Dhaka was the main capital throughout the year, Shillong acted as the summer retreat of the administration. Lieutenant Governors were in charge of the province. They resided in Dhaka. The Lt Governors included Sir Bampfylde Fuller (1905-1906), Sir Lancelot Hare (1906-1911), and Sir Charles Stuart Bayley (1911-1912). Their legacy lives on in the names of three major thoroughfares in modern Dhaka, including Hare Road, Bayley Road, and Fuller Road. The period saw the construction of stately buildings, including the High Court and Curzon Hall. The city was home to diverse groups of people, including Armenians, Jews, Anglo-Indians and Hindus. The Hindus included both Marwaris and Bengali Hindus, with a plurality emerging by 1941 and engaged in professions like teaching, medicine, law, and business.
Dhaka was the seat of government for 4 administrative divisions, including the Assam Valley Division, Chittagong Division, Dacca Division, Rajshahi Division, and the Surma Valley Division. There were a total of 30 districts in Eastern Bengal and Assam, including Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur and Backergunge in Dacca Division; Tippera, Noakhali, Chittagong and the Hill Tracts in Chittagong Division; Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri, Rangpur, Bogra, Pabna and Malda in Rajshahi Division; Sylhet, Cachar, the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, the Naga Hills and the Lushai Hills in Surma Valley Division; and Goalpara, Kamrup, the Garo Hills, Darrang, Nowgong, Sibsagar and Lakhimpur in Assam Valley Division. The province was bordered by Cooch Behar State, Hill Tipperah and the Kingdom of Bhutan.
On the political front, partition allowed Dhaka to project itself as the standard-bearer of Muslim communities in British India; as opposed to the heavily Hindu-dominated city of Calcutta. In 1906, the All India Muslim League was founded in the city during a conference on liberal education hosted by the Nawab of Dhaka and the Aga Khan III. The Muslim population in Dhaka and eastern Bengal generally favoured partition in the hopes of getting better jobs and educational opportunities. Many Bengalis, however, opposed the bifurcation of the ethnolinguistic region. The partition was annulled by an announcement from King George V during the Delhi Durbar in 1911. The British decided to reunite Bengal while the capital of India was shifted to New Delhi from Calcutta.
As a "splendid compensation" for the annulment of partition, the British gave the city a newly formed university in the 1920s. The University of Dhaka was initially modelled on the residential style of the University of Oxford. It became known as the Oxford of the East because of its residential character. Like Oxford, students in Dhaka were affiliated with their halls of residence instead of their academic departments (this system was dropped after 1947 and students are now affiliated with academic departments). The university's faculty included scientist Satyendra Nath Bose (who is the namesake of the Higgs boson); linguist Muhammad Shahidullah, Sir A F Rahman (the first Bengali vice-chancellor of the university); and historian R. C. Majumdar. The university was established in 1921 by the Imperial Legislative Council. It started with three faculties and 12 departments, covering the subjects of Sanskrit, Bengali, English, liberal arts, history, Arabic, Islamic Studies, Persian, Urdu, philosophy, economics, politics, physics, chemistry, mathematics, and law.
The East Bengal Cinematograph Company produced the first full-length silent movies in Dhaka during the 1920s, including Sukumari and The Last Kiss. DEVCO, a subsidiary of the Occtavian Steel Company, began widescale power distribution in 1930. The Tejgaon Airport was constructed during World War II as a base for Allied Forces. The Dhaka Medical College was established in 1946.
At the time of the partition of India, many rich Hindu families relocated to West Bengal. Their properties were seized by the state under laws that eventually became known as the Vested Property Act.
Metropolitan Dhaka
The development of the "real city" began after the partition of India. After partition, Dhaka became known as the second capital of Pakistan. This was formalized in 1962 when Ayub Khan declared the city as the legislative capital under the 1962 constitution. New neighbourhoods began to spring up in formerly barren and agrarian areas. These included Dhanmondi (rice granary), Katabon (thorn forest), Kathalbagan (jackfruit grove), Kalabagan (banana grove), Segunbagicha (teak grove) and Gulshan (flower garden). Living standards rapidly improved from the pre-partition standards. The economy began to industrialize. On the outskirts of the city, the world's largest jute mill was built. The mill produced jute goods which were in high demand during the Korean War. People began building duplex houses. In 1961, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip witnessed the improved living standards of Dhaka's residents. The Intercontinental hotel, designed by William B. Tabler, was opened in 1966. Estonian-American architect Louis I. Kahn was enlisted to design the Dhaka Assembly, which was originally intended to be the federal parliament of Pakistan and later became independent Bangladesh's parliament. The East Pakistan Helicopter Service connected the city to regional towns.
The Dhaka Stock Exchange was opened on 28 April 1954. The first local airline Orient Airways began flights between Dhaka and Karachi on 6 June 1954. The Dhaka Improvement Trust was established in 1956 to coordinate the city's development. The first master plan for the city was drawn up in 1959. The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization established a medical research centre (now called ICDDR,B) in the city in 1960.
The early period of political turbulence was seen between 1947 and 1952, particularly the Bengali Language Movement. From the mid-1960s, the Awami League's 6-point autonomy demands began giving rise to pro-independence aspirations across East Pakistan. In 1969, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was released from prison amid a mass upsurge which led to the resignation of Ayub Khan in 1970. The city had an influential press with prominent newspapers like the Pakistan Observer, Ittefaq, Forum, and the Weekly Holiday. During the political and constitutional crisis in 1971, the military junta led by Yahya Khan refused to transfer power to the newly elected National Assembly, causing mass riots, civil disobedience, and a movement for self-determination. On 7 March 1971, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman addressed a massive public gathering at the Ramna Race Course Maidan in Dhaka, in which he warned of an independence struggle. Subsequently, East Pakistan came under a non-co-operation movement against the Pakistani state. On Pakistan's Republic Day (23 March 1971), Bangladeshi flags were hoisted throughout Dhaka in a show of resistance.
On 25 March 1971, the Pakistan Army launched military operations under Operation Searchlight against the population of East Pakistan. Dhaka bore the brunt of the army's atrocities, witnessing a genocide and a campaign of wide-scale repression, with the arrest, torture, and murder of the city's civilians, students, intelligentsia, political activists and religious minorities. The army faced mutinies from the East Pakistan Rifles and the Bengali police. Large parts of the city were burnt and destroyed, including Hindu neighbourhoods. Much of the city's population was either displaced or forced to flee to the countryside. Dhaka was struck with numerous air raids by the Indian Air Force in December. The Pakistan Eastern Command surrendered to Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora at the Ramna Race Course in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.
After independence, Dhaka's population grew from several hundred thousand to several million in five decades. Dhaka was declared the national capital by the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh in 1972. The post-independence period witnessed rapid growth as Dhaka attracted migrant workers from across rural Bangladesh. 60% of population growth has been due to rural migration. The city endured socialist unrest in the early 1970s, followed by a few years of martial law. The stock exchange and free market were restored in the late 1970s. In the 1980s, Dhaka saw the inauguration of the National Parliament House (which won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture), a new international airport and the Bangladesh National Museum. Bangladesh pioneered the formation of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and hosted its first summit in Dhaka in 1985. A mass uprising in 1990 led to the return of parliamentary democracy. Dhaka hosted a trilateral summit between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh in 1998; the summit of the D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation in 1999 and conferences of the Commonwealth, SAARC, the OIC and United Nations agencies during various years.
In the 1990s and 2000s, Dhaka experienced improved economic growth and the emergence of affluent business districts and satellite towns. Between 1990 and 2005, the city's population doubled from 6 million to 12 million. There has been increased foreign investment in the city, particularly in the financial and textile manufacturing sectors. Between 2008 and 2011, the government of Bangladesh organized three years of celebrations to mark 400 years since Dhaka's founding as an early modern city. But frequent hartals by political parties have greatly hampered the city's economy. The hartal rate has declined since 2014. In some years, the city experienced a widespread flash flood during the monsoon.
Dhaka is one of the fastest-growing megacities in the world. It is predicted to be one of the world's largest metropolises by 2025, along with Tokyo, Mexico City, Shanghai, Beijing and New York City. Most of its population are rural migrants, including climate refugees. Congestion is one of the most prominent features of modern Dhaka. In 2014, it was reported that only 7% of the city was covered by roads. The first phase of Dhaka Metro Rail from Uttara to Agargaon was inaugurated by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina on 28 December 2022. However, nearly one third of Dhaka's population lives in slums, as of 2016. The city's main river, the Buriganga River, has become one of the most polluted rivers in the country.
Geography
Topography
Dhaka is located in central Bangladesh at , on the eastern banks of the Buriganga River. The city lies on the lower reaches of the Ganges Delta and covers a total area of . Tropical vegetation and moist soils characterize the land, which is flat and close to sea level. This leaves Dhaka susceptible to flooding during the monsoon seasons owing to heavy rainfall and cyclones. Due to its location on the lowland plain of the Ganges Delta, the city is fringed by extensive mangroves and tidal flat ecosystems. Dhaka District is bounded by the districts of Gazipur, Tangail, Munshiganj, Rajbari, Narayanganj, and Manikganj.
Cityscape
Except Old Dhaka, which is an old bazaar-style neighbourhood, the layout of the city follows a grid pattern with organic development influenced by traditional South Asian as well as Middle Eastern and Western patterns. Growth of the city is largely unplanned and is focused on the northern regions and around the city centre, where many of the more affluent neighbourhoods may be found. Most of the construction in the city consists of concrete high-rise buildings. Middle-class and upper-class housing, along with commercial and industrial areas, occupy most of the city. However, nearly one third of Dhaka's population lives in slums, as of 2016 (see below).
Dhaka does not have a well-defined central business district. Old Dhaka is the historic commercial centre, but most development has moved to the north. In 1985, the area around Motijheel was considered the "modern" CBD, while by 2005 Gulshan was considered the "newest" part of the CBD. Many Bangladeshi government institutions can be found in Motijheel, Segunbagicha, Tejgaon, Karwan Bazar, and Sher-e-Bangla Nagar.
Much activity is centred around a few large roads, where road laws are rarely obeyed and street vendors and beggars are frequently encountered.
For much of recent history, Dhaka was characterized by roadside markets and small shops that sold a wide variety of goods. Recent years have seen the widespread construction of shopping malls. Two of the largest shopping malls in the city and the wider South Asian region are the Jamuna Future Park and Bashundhara City.
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Dhaka has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw). The city has a distinct monsoonal season, with an annual average temperature of and monthly means varying between in January and in May. Approximately 87% of the average annual rainfall of occurs between May and October.
Parks and greenery
There are many parks within Dhaka City, including Ramna Park, Suhrawardy Udyan, Shishu Park, National Botanical Garden, Baldha Garden, Chandrima Uddan, Gulshan Park and Dhaka Zoo.
Rivers and lakes
Almost 10% of the city's area consists of water: There are 676 ponds and 43 canals.
The Buriganga River flows past the southwest outskirts of Dhaka. Its average depth is and its maximum depth is . It ranks among the most polluted rivers in the country.
The city is surrounded by six interconnected river systems—the Buriganga and Dhaleshwari in the southwest, Turag and Tongi Khal in the north, and Balu and Sitalakhya in the east—which support trade, transport, and stormwater drainage.
There are several lakes within the city, such as Crescent Lake, Dhanmondi Lake, Baridhara-Gulshan Lake, Banani lake, Uttara Lake, Hatirjheel-Begunbari Lake, 300 Feet Road Prionty lake, Ramna lake.
Environmental pollution
Increasing air and water pollution affects public health and the quality of life in the city. The air pollution is caused for example by vehicle traffic and congestion. Also, due to the unregulated manufacturing of bricks and other causes, Dhaka has very high levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution.
Water pollution is caused by the discharge of municipal wastewater from households and industry without treatment. As of 2011 only 20% of the city is connected to a sewer system, whereas 80% is not connected. As a result, the rivers in Dhaka have severe pathogen pollution, as indicated by the fecal coliform count that is several hundred times higher than the recommended national and international standards of less than 200 cfu per litre for bathing and swimming.
In addition to the organic and pathogen pollution load from the 1.2 million m3 of untreated sewage, the rivers receive about 60,000 m3 of industrial effluent every day from nine major industrial clusters (as of 2021). There are an estimated 500–700 wet processing and dyeing textile factories releasing a range of chemicals including salts, dyes and bleaches, and 155 tanneries discharging heavy metals, including chromium.
Four of the rivers surrounding Dhaka—Buriganaga, Sitalakhya, Balu and Turag—are so polluted that they have been declared as ecologically critical areas in 2009 by the Department of Environment. This makes them unsuitable for any human use. Nevertheless, people living in low-income and slum areas still have a lot of direct contact with river water, exposing them to health risks. They use river water for dish washing, laundry, cleaning fish and vegetables, and personal washing, washing and dyeing denim, washing fish baskets or plastic sheets, collecting plastic waste and fishing. As a result, many of the immediate environmental burdens of river pollution are borne by these low-income residents.
Water bodies and wetlands around Dhaka are facing destruction as these are being filled up to construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate developments. Coupled with pollution, such erosion of natural habitats threatens to destroy much of the regional biodiversity.
Government
Capital city
As the capital of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka is home to numerous state and diplomatic institutions. The Bangabhaban is the official residence and workplace of the President of Bangladesh, who is the ceremonial head of state under the constitution. The National Parliament House is located in the modernist capital complex designed by Louis Kahn in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar. The Ganabhaban, the official residence of the Prime Minister, is situated on the north side of Parliament. The Prime Minister's Office is located in Tejgaon. Most ministries of the Government of Bangladesh are housed in the Bangladesh Secretariat. The Supreme Court, the Dhaka High Court and the Foreign Ministry are located in the Segunbagicha-Shahbagh area. The Defence Ministry and the Ministry of Planning are located in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar. The Armed Forces Division of the government of Bangladesh and the army, navy and air force HQs of the Bangladesh Armed Forces are located in Dhaka Cantonment. Several important installations of the Bangladesh Army are also situated in Dhaka and Mirpur Cantonments. The Bangladesh Navy's principal administrative and logistics base, BNS Haji Mohshin, is located in Dhaka. The Bangladesh Air Force maintains the BAF Bangabandhu Air Base and BAF Khademul Bashar Air Base in Dhaka.
Dhaka hosts 54 resident embassies and high commissions and numerous international organizations. Most diplomatic missions are located in the Gulshan and Baridhara areas of the city. The Agargaon area near Parliament is home to the country offices of the United Nations, the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the Islamic Development Bank.
Civic administration
History
The municipality of Dhaka was founded on 1 August 1864 and upgraded to "Metropolitan" status in 1978. In 1983, the Dhaka City Corporation was created as a self-governing entity to govern Dhaka.
Under a new act in 1993, an election was held in 1994 for the first elected Mayor of Dhaka. The Dhaka City Corporation ran the affairs of the city until November 2011.
Municipal government
In 2011, Dhaka City Corporation was split into two separate corporations – Dhaka North City Corporation and Dhaka South City Corporation to ensure better civic facilities. These two corporations are headed by two mayors, who are elected by direct vote of the citizen for 5 years. The area within city corporations was divided into several wards, each having an elected commissioner. In total, the city has 130 wards and 725 mohallas.
RAJUK is responsible for coordinating urban development in the Greater Dhaka area.
DMP is responsible for maintaining law and order within the metro area. It was established in 1976. DMP has 56 police stations as administrative units.
Administrative agencies
Unlike other megacities worldwide, Dhaka is serviced by over two dozen government organizations under different ministries. Lack of coordination among them and centralization of all powers by the Government of Bangladesh keeps the development and maintenance of the city in a chaotic situation.
Economy
As the most densely industrialized region of the country, the Greater Dhaka Area accounts for 35% of Bangladesh's economy. The Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranks Dhaka as a beta− global city, in other words, one that is instrumental in linking their region into the world economy. Major industrial areas are Tejgaon, Shyampur and Hazaribagh. The city has a growing middle class, driving the market for modern consumer and luxury goods. Shopping malls serve as vital elements in the city's economy.
The city has historically attracted numerous migrant workers. Hawkers, peddlers, small shops, rickshaw transport, roadside vendors and stalls employ a large segment of the population – rickshaw drivers alone number as many as 400,000. Half the workforce is employed in household and unorganised labour, while about 800,000 work in the textile industry. The unemployment rate in Dhaka was 23% in 2013.
Almost all large local conglomerates have their corporate offices located in Dhaka. Microcredit also began here and the offices of the Nobel Prize-winning Grameen Bank and BRAC (the largest non-governmental development organisation in the world) are based in Dhaka. Urban developments have sparked a widespread construction boom; new high-rise buildings and skyscrapers have changed the city's landscape. Growth has been especially strong in the finance, banking, manufacturing, telecommunications, and service sectors, while tourism, hotels, and restaurants continue as important elements of the Dhaka economy.
Dhaka has rising traffic congestion and inadequate infrastructure; the national government has recently implemented a policy for rapid urbanization of surrounding areas and beyond by the introduction of a ten-year relief on income tax for new construction of facilities and buildings outside Dhaka.
CBDs
The Dhaka metropolitan area boasts of several central business districts (CBDs). In the southern part of the city, the riverfront of Old Dhaka is home to many small businesses, factories, and trading companies. Near Old Dhaka lies Motijheel, which is the biggest CBD in Bangladesh. The Motijheel area developed in the 1960s. Motijheel is home to the Bangladesh Bank, the nation's central bank; as well as the headquarters of the largest state-owned banks, including Janata Bank, Pubali Bank, Sonali Bank and Rupali Bank. By the 1990s, the affluent residential neighbourhoods of Gulshan, Banani and Uttara in the northern part of the city became major business centres and now hosts many international companies operating in Bangladesh. The Purbachal New Town Project is planned as the city's future CBD.
The following is a list of the main CBDs in Dhaka.
Motijheel
Kawran Bazar
Paltan
Dhanmondi
Gulshan
Banani/DOHS
Uttara
Mirpur/DOHS
Bashundhara Residential Area
Panthapath
Maghbazar
Mohakhali/DOHS
Gulistan
Jatrabari
Industrial areas
Tejgaon I/A
Old Dhaka
Trade associations
Major trade associations based in the city include:
Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce & Industries (FBCCI)
Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DCCI)
Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI)
Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA)
Bangladesh Knitwear Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BKMEA)
Newspaper Owners' Association of Bangladesh (NOAB)
Real Estate and Housing Association of Bangladesh (REHAB)
Stock market
The Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) had a market capitalization of BDT 5,136,979.000 million in 2021. Some of the largest companies listed on the DSE include:
Grameenphone
BEXIMCO
BSRM
Titas Gas
Summit Group
The City Bank
BRAC Bank
IDLC Finance Limited
Square Pharmaceuticals
Eastern Bank Limited
Orion Group
Demographics
Population
The city, in combination with localities forming the wider metropolitan area, is home to over 22 million . The population is growing by an estimated 3.3% per year, one of the highest rates among Asian cities. The continuing growth reflects ongoing migration from rural areas to the Dhaka urban region, which accounted for 60% of the city's growth in the 1960s and 1970s. More recently, the city's population has also grown with the expansion of city boundaries, a process that added more than a million people to the city in the 1980s. According to the Far Eastern Economic Review, Dhaka will be home to 25 million people by the end of 2025.
This rapid population growth makes it difficult for the city government to provide the necessary infrastructure in a timely manner, e.g. for water supply, electricity and waste management.
Slums
About 30% of Dhaka's population lives in slums (or unplanned urban settlements), as of 2016. Estimates from 2011 and 2015 found that there are about "3 to 5 thousand slums and squatter settlements scattered all over the city". It is often the new arrivals, people migrating from rural areas, who end up living in slums. People only have very limited access to water, sanitation and other services in those slum areas.
Slums may be found in the outskirts and in less-visible areas such as alleyways. As of 2021, the largest slum is in Kamrangirchar, where about 600,000 people live in slum conditions.
Ethnicity
The city population is composed of people from virtually every region of Bangladesh. The long-standing inhabitants of the old city are known as Dhakaite and have a distinctive Bengali dialect and culture. Dhaka is also home to a large number of Bihari refugees, who are descendants of migrant Muslims from eastern India during 1947 and settled down in East Pakistan. The correct population of Biharis living in the city is ambiguous, but it is estimated that there are at least 300,000 Urdu-speakers in all of Bangladesh, mostly residing in old Dhaka and in refugee camps in Dhaka, although official figures estimate only 40,000. Between 15,000 and 20,000 of the Rohingya, Santal, Khasi, Garo, Chakma and Mandi tribal peoples reside in the city.
Language
Most residents of Dhaka speak Bengali, the national language. Many distinctive Bengali dialects such as Dhakaiya Kutti, Chittagonian and Sylheti are also spoken by segments of the population. English is spoken by a large segment of the population, especially for business purposes. The city has both Bengali and English newspapers. Urdu, including Dhakaiya Urdu, is spoken by members of several non-Bengali communities, including the Biharis.
Literacy
The literacy rate in Dhaka is also increasing quickly. It was estimated at 69.2% in 2001. The literacy rate had gone up to 74.6% by 2011 which is significantly higher than the national average of 72%.
Religion
Islam is the dominant religion of the city, with 19.3 million of the city's population being Muslim, and a majority belonging to the Sunni sect. There is also a small Shia sect, and an Ahmadiya community. Hinduism is the second-largest religion numbering around 1.47 million adherents. Smaller segments represent 1% and practise Christianity and Buddhism. In the city proper, over 8.5 million of the 8.9 million residents are Muslims, while 320,000 are Hindu and nearly 50,000 Christian.
Culture
Literature
Dhaka is a major centre for Bengali literature. It has been the hub of Bengali Muslim literature for more than a century. Its heritage also includes historic Urdu and Persian literary traditions. Dark Diamond by Shazia Omar in set in Mughal-era Dhaka during the reign of Shaista Khan, the Mughal viceroy and uncle of Emperor Aurangzeb.The Soldier in the Attic by Akhteruzzaman Elias is considered to be one of the best depictions of life in Old Dhaka and is set during Bengali uprisings in 1969. A Golden Age by Tahmima Anam is also set in Dhaka during the Bangladeshi War of Independence and includes references to the Dhaka Club, the Dhaka University and the Dhanmondi area.
Textiles
For centuries, the region around Dhaka has been the center of production for fine cotton textiles. Muslin was abundantly produced in the region. The weavers of Dhaka were patronized by the rulers of Bengal and Delhi. They supplied textiles to the Mughal imperial court. The city of Dhaka became one of the most important centers of the cotton textile trade in the 17th century. It was literally the capital of the Muslin trade in Bengal. Merchants from around the world came to Dhaka to buy its much sought after cotton fabrics. UNESCO has recognized Jamdani muslin as an intangible cultural heritage. According to UNESCO, "Jamdani is a vividly patterned, sheer cotton fabric, traditionally woven on a handloom by craftspeople and apprentices around Dhaka". UNESCO believes "the Jamdani sari is a symbol of identity, dignity and self-recognition and provides wearers with a sense of cultural identity and social cohesion. The weavers develop an occupational identity and take great pride in their heritage; they enjoy social recognition and are highly respected for their skills".
Festivals
Annual celebrations for Language Martyrs' Day (21 February), Independence Day (26 March), and Victory Day (16 December) are prominently celebrated across the city. Dhaka's people congregate at the Shaheed Minar and the Jatiyo Smriti Soudho to remember the national heroes of the liberation war. These occasions are observed with public ceremonies and rallies on public grounds. Many schools and colleges organise fairs, festivals, and concerts in which citizens from all levels of society participate.
Pohela Baishakh, the Bengali New Year, falls annually on 14 April and is popularly celebrated across the city. Large crowds of people gather on the streets of Shahbag, Ramna Park and the campus of the University of Dhaka for celebrations. Pahela Falgun, the first day of spring of the month Falgun in the Bengali calendar, is also festively celebrated in the city. This day is marked with colourful celebration and traditionally, women wear yellow saris to celebrate this day. This celebration is also known as Basanta Utsab (Spring Festival). Nabanna is a harvest celebration, usually celebrated with food and dance, and music on the 1st day of the month of Agrahayan of the Bengali year. Birthdays of Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam are observed respectively as Rabindra Jayanti and Nazrul Jayanti. The Ekushey Book Fair, which is arranged each year by Bangla Academy, takes place for the whole month of February. This event is dedicated to the martyrs who died on 21 February 1952 in a demonstration calling for the establishment of Bengali as one of the state languages of former East Pakistan. Shakrain Festival is an annual celebration observed with the flying of kites. It is usually observed in the old part of the city at the end of Poush, the ninth month of the Bengali calendar (14 or 15 January in the Gregorian calendar).
The Islamic festivals of Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, Eid-E-Miladunnabi and Muharram; the Hindu festival of Durga Puja; the Buddhist festival of Buddha Purnima; and the Christian festival of Christmas witness widespread celebrations across the city.
Despite the growing popularity of music groups and rock bands, traditional folk music remains widely popular. The works of the national poet Kazi Nazrul Islam, national anthem writer Rabindranath Tagore and mystic saint songwriter Lalon have a widespread following across Dhaka. Bailey Road is known as natak para (drama neighbourhood) for its two theatre halls.
Cultural institutions
Bengal Foundation
Chhayanaut
Institute of Fine Arts
Nazrul Institute
Samdani Art Foundation
Shilpakala Academy
Annual and biennial cultural events
Bengal Classical Music Festival
Chobi Mela International Photography Festival
Dhaka Art Summit
Dhaka Lit Fest
Dhaka World Music Festival
Dhaka International Book Fair
Dhaka International Trade Fair
Ekushey Book Fair
Rickshaws
Dhaka has been called the Rickshaw Capital of the World. Once home to over a million cycle rickshaws, the number of cycle rickshaws has reduced in recent years. Cycle rickshaws also cause enormous traffic congestion for local residents. Locals have debated a potential ban on rickshaws to clear Dhaka's streets for smooth traffic. Cycle rickshaws are a source of income for low income people who migrate to Dhaka in search of work. The cycle rickshaw is three wheeled and driven by a single person.
Rickshaws have become a symbol of the city. Rickshaws are colorfully painted with floral patterns and depictions of birds, animals, movie stars, religious text, historical events and national heroes. According to UNESCO, "Rickshaws and rickshaw painting are viewed as a key part of the city's cultural tradition and a dynamic form of urban folk art".
Cuisine
Historically, Dhaka has been the culinary capital of Bengal for Muslim cuisine, particularly Mughlai cuisine. Restaurants in the city serve several types of biryani, including Kachi Biryani (goat meat), Tehari (beef), Murg Pulao (chicken), and Ilish Pulao (ilish fish). Khichuri rice is a popular comfort food. A distinct variant of Bengali-Mughlai cuisine evolved in the city. Like other Mughal cities, a special tradition exists to eat nihari beef stew during breakfast. In Dhaka, the nihari stew can be eaten with Bengali breads. Chefs from Dhaka, the former Mughal provincial capital, served in the kitchens of the Nawabs of Dhaka and Murshidabad. They invented the Kachi Biryani, which is a variant of biryani with mutton steaks and potatoes. One of the longest surviving outlets serving authentic Kachi Biryani is Fakhruddin's. Kachi Biryani is highly popular in Bangladeshi cuisine, with food critic and former MasterChef Australia judge Matt Preston praising its use of potatoes. Borhani is served as a drink alongside biryani. The Nawabi cuisine of Dhaka was notable for its patishapta dessert and the Kubali pulao. The korma recipe of the Nawab family was included by Madhur Jaffrey in her cookbook "Madhur Jaffrey's Ultimate Curry Bible". Bakarkhani breads from Dhaka were served in the courts of Mughal rulers.
Since 1939, Haji biryani has been a leading biryani restaurant in the city. Dhaka also has a style of Murg Pulao (chicken biryani) which uses turmeric and malai (cream of milk) together. Local kebabs are widely eaten when dining out. The seekh kebab and chicken tikka are the most popular dishes in kebab restaurants, which are eaten with either naan or paratha. Liver is often eaten with breads, as a stuffing, or as a curry. Star Kabab is the most popular kebab chain in the city, alongside other chains and gourmet restaurants. Different kinds of bhurta, which refers to mashed vegetables, are widely eaten. Various types of Bengali fish curry are found in the city. Along with South Asian cuisine, a large variety of Western and Chinese cuisine is served at numerous restaurants and food courts. Upmarket areas include many Thai, Japanese and Korean restaurants. Italian food is also very popular in Dhaka, especially in upmarket areas.
During Ramadan, Chowkbazaar becomes a busy marketplace for iftar items. The jilapi of Dhaka are much thicker than counterparts in India and Pakistan. The Shahi jilapi (king's jilapi) is one of the thickest jilapi produced. The phuchka and jhalmuri are popular street food. Dhaka hosts an array of Bengali dessert chains that sell a wide variety of sweets. Samosas and shingaras are also widely eaten traditional snacks. In recent years, the number of Bangladeshi-owned burger outlets has increased across the city. Notable bakeries include the Prince of Wales bakery in Old Dhaka and the Cooper's chain.
Architecture
The architectural history of Dhaka can be subdivided into the Mughal, British, and modern periods. As a result, Dhaka has landmarks of Mughal architecture, Indo-Saracenic architecture, and modernist architecture. The oldest brick structure in the city is the Binat Bibi Mosque, which was built in 1454 in the Narinda area of Dhaka during the reign of the Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (r. 1435 – 1459) of the Bengal Sultanate. Old Dhaka is home to over 2000 buildings built between the 16th and 19th centuries, which form an integral part of Dhaka's cultural heritage. Modern Dhaka is often criticized as a concrete jungle.
In the old part of the city, the fading grandeur of the Mughal era is evident in the crumbling, neglected caravanserai like Bara Katra and Choto Katra. Some structures like the Nimtali arch have been restored. The old city features narrow alleyways with high-walled lanes and houses with indoor courtyards. The early 20th century government quarter in Ramna includes stately colonial buildings set amidst gardens and parks. Among colonial buildings, the Curzon Hall stands out for "synthesizing imperial grandiosity with sporadic Mughal motifs".
Amongst modernist buildings, the Grameenphone headquarters is described as "a paradigm setter for corporate Bangladesh". The Museum of Independence and its attached national monument were inspired by the "land-water mysticism of deltaic Bengal" and the "evocative expansiveness of a Roman forum or the geographical assemblage of an Egyptian mastaba sanctuary". Dhaka's Art Institute, designed by Muzharul Islam, was the pioneering building of Bengali regional modernism. The vast expanse of the national parliament complex was designed by Louis Kahn. It is celebrated as Dhaka's pre-eminent civic space. The national parliament complex comprises 200 acres (800,000 m2) in the heart of the city. The Kamalapur railway station was designed by American architect Robert Boughey. In the last few decades, Bangladesh's new wave of cultural architecture has been influenced by Bengali aesthetics and the environment. City Centre Bangladesh is currently the tallest building in the city.
Publishing and media
In 1849, the Kattra Press became the first printing press in the city. The name alludes to the katra, the Bengali word for caravanserai. In 1856, Dacca News became the first English-language newspaper in the city. The Dacca News Press was the first commercial printing press in the city. Books published in Dhaka stirred discourse in the social and literary circles of Bengal. The Bengal Library Catalogue records the expansion of the publishing industry during the 1860s. Between 1877 and 1895, there were 45 printing presses in Dhaka. Between 1863 and 1900, more than a hundred Islamic puthi were published in Dhaka. Bookshops sprang up in Chowkbazaar, Islampur, Mughaltuli, and Patuatuli. Albert Library was a den for leftwing activists. After partition, the number of publishing houses in Dhaka rose from 27 in 1947 to 88 in 1966. Prominent bookshops included Wheeler's Bookstall and Presidency Library. Banglabazaar has since become the hub of the book trade. Bookworm is a famous local book shop that has been located adjacent to the Prime Minister's Office for three decades until being ordered to relocate in 2022; it is now located in Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed Park.
Dhaka is the centre of the national media in Bangladesh. It is home to the state-owned Bangladesh Television and Bangladesh Betar. In recent years, the number of privately owned television channels and radio stations has increased greatly. There are over two dozen Bengali language television channels in the private sector, including 24-hour news channels. Radio is also popular across the city. Dhaka is home to national newspapers, including Bengali newspapers like Prothom Alo, Ittefaq, Inqilab, Janakantha, and Jugantor; as well as English language newspapers The Daily Star, The Financial Express, The Business Standard, Dhaka Tribune, and New Age. Broadcast media based in Dhaka include Gaan Bangla, Banglavision, DBC News, Somoy TV, Independent TV and Ekattor.
Education and research
Dhaka has the largest number of schools, colleges and universities of any Bangladeshi city. The education system is divided into five levels: primary (from grades 1 to 5), junior (from grades 6 to 8), secondary (from grades 9 to 10), higher secondary (from grades 11 to 12) and tertiary. The five years of primary education concludes with a Primary School Completion (PSC) Examination, the three years of junior education concludes with Junior School Certificate (JSC) Examination. Next, two years of secondary education concludes with a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of higher secondary or intermediate training, which culminate in a Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) Examination. Education is mainly offered in Bengali. However, English is also widely taught and used. Many Muslim families send their children to attend part-time courses or even to pursue full-time religious education alongside other subjects, which is imparted in Bengali and Arabic in schools, colleges and madrasas.
There are 52 universities in Dhaka. Dhaka College is the oldest institution for higher education in the city and among the earliest established in British India, founded in 1841. Since independence, Dhaka has seen the establishment of numerous public and private colleges and universities that offer undergraduate and graduate degrees as well as a variety of doctoral programs. The University of Dhaka is the oldest public university in the country which has more than 30,000 students and 1,800 faculty staff. It was established in 1921 being the first university in the region. The university has 23 research centres and 70 departments, faculties, and institutes. Eminent seats of higher education include Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), Jagannath University and Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University. Dhaka Medical College is one of the oldest and largest medical colleges in the country. Founded in 1875, the Dhaka Medical School was the first medical school in British East Bengal, which became Sir Salimullah Medical College in 1962. Other government medical colleges are Shaheed Suhrawardy Medical College, Mugda Medical College and Armed Forces Medical College, Dhaka.
Two Nobel laureates are prominently associated with the city, including Amartya Sen who grew up in the city during the 1930s and 1940s, and attended St. Gregory's School; and Muhammad Yunus, who studied at Dhaka University, founded the Grameen Bank and lives in the city.
Learned societies and think tanks
Asiatic Society of Bangladesh
Atomic Energy Centre, Dhaka
Bangla Academy
Bangladesh Academy of Sciences
Bangladesh Enterprise Institute
Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies
Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies
Bangladesh Institute of Law and International Affairs
Bangladesh Institute of Peace & Security Studies
Centre for Policy Dialogue
Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh
International Jute Study Group
Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization
Yunus Centre
Sports
Cricket and football are the two most popular sports in Dhaka and across the nation. Teams are fielded in intra-city and national competitions by many schools, colleges and private entities. The Dhaka Metropolis cricket team represents Dhaka City in the National Cricket League, the oldest domestic first-class cricket competition in Bangladesh. The Dhaka Premier League is the only domestic List A cricket tournament now in Bangladesh. It gained List A status in 2013–14 season. In domestic Twenty20 cricket, Dhaka has a Bangladesh Premier League franchise known as Minister Dhaka.
Dhaka has the distinction of having hosted the first official Test cricket match of the Pakistan cricket team in 1954 against India. The Bangabandhu National Stadium was formerly the main venue for domestic and international cricket matches, but now exclusively hosts football matches. It hosted the opening ceremony of the 2011 Cricket World Cup, while the Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium, exclusively used for cricket, hosted 6 matches of the tournament including two quarter-final matches. Dhaka has also hosted the South Asian Games three times, in 1985, 1993 and 2010. Dhaka is the first city to host the games three times. The Bangabandhu National Stadium was the main venue for all three editions. Dhaka also hosted the ICC Men's T20 World Cup, along with Chittagong and Sylhet, in 2014.
In football, the Dhaka Derby between Mohammedan SC and Abahani Limited Dhaka is the biggest sports rivalry in the country. The two clubs have maintained their fierce rivalry over the years in the Bangladesh Football Premier League and previously in the historic Dhaka League, which is the second oldest football league in South Asia, officially commencing in 1948. The Bangabandhu National Stadium in Dhaka has been the home venue for the national football team since 2005. It has hosted the SAFF Championship on three occasions, with the first being the 2003 edition, which Bangladesh went on to win. The 1978 AFC Youth Championship was the first major international tournament hosted by the stadium.
The National Sports Council, responsible for promoting sports activities across the nation, is based in Dhaka. Dhaka also has stadiums largely used for domestic events such as the Bangladesh Army Stadium, the Bir Sherestha Shaheed Shipahi Mostafa Kamal Stadium, the Dhanmondi Cricket Stadium, the Maulana Bhasani Hockey Stadium and the Outer Stadium Ground. The city's colleges and universities are active in intercollegiate athletics.
There are two golf courses in Dhaka, Army Golf Club and Kurmitola Golf Club.
Infrastructure
Transport
Motorcycles comprised half of Dhaka's registered vehicles in 2023, while car ownership rate is only six per cent. One of the world's least motorised cities, the three-wheeled cycle rickshaw is the most popular and ubiquitous mode of transport, which accounted for 54 per cent of vehicle trips in 2011. Dhaka is among the most congested cities in the world, and traffic was estimated to cost the local economy billion per year in 2020. The average speed of a car travelling in the city is less than . Auto rickshaws powered by compressed natural gas, often referred to by locals as "CNGs", are also a popular mode of transport.
Road
The city is connected to other parts of the country through highway and railway links. Five of Bangladesh's eight major national highways start from the city: N1, N2, N3, N5 and N8. Dhaka is also directly connected to the two longest routes of the Asian Highway Network: AH1 and AH2, as well as to the AH41 route. Highway links to the Indian cities of Kolkata, Agartala, Guwahati and Shillong have been established by the BRTC and private bus companies, which also run regular international bus services to those cities from Dhaka.
The Dhaka Elevated Expressway, the first of its kind in the country, improves connectivity between the northern part of the city and the central, southern, and south-eastern parts. An extension, the Dhaka–Ashulia Elevated Expressway, is expected to open in 2026.
Rickshaws
Cycle rickshaws and CNG auto-rickshaws are the main modes of transport within the metro area, with more than 1.5 million rickshaws running each day: the highest number in any city in the world. However, only around 220 thousand rickshaws are licensed by the city government. Over 15,000 legally registered CNGs serve passengers in Dhaka, with thousands more operating illegally.
Ride sharing
Since 2016, Uber and Pathao have dominated the ride-sharing market in Dhaka, which offer both car and motorcycle services. Ride-sharing services have led to a decline in the use of CNG auto-rickshaws, although Uber has expanded its services to include CNG auto-rickshaws in 2021.
Bus
Buses carried about 1.9 million passengers per day in 2007. Public buses in Dhaka are primarily operated by numerous private companies, with a minority run by the state-owned Bangladesh Road Transport Corporation (BRTC). BRTC buses are red, based initially on the Routemaster buses of London. There are three inter-district bus terminals in Dhaka, which are located in the city's Mohakhali, Saidabad, and Gabtoli areas. It is now planned to move three inter-district bus terminals outside the town. Highway links to the Indian cities of Kolkata, Agartala, Guwahati and Shillong have been established by the BRTC and private bus companies, which also run regular international bus services to those cities from Dhaka.
Set to open in December 2024, the Dhaka Bus Rapid Transit system is expected to reduce travel time from Dhaka to the satellite town of Gazipur from as long as four hours to just 35–40 minutes.
Waterways
The Sadarghat River Port on the banks of the Buriganga River serves for the transport of goods and passengers upriver and to other ports in Bangladesh. Inter-city and inter-district motor vessels and passenger ferry services are used by many people to travel riverine regions of the country from the city. Water bus services are available on the Buriganga River and Hatirjheel and Gulshan lakes, providing connectivity via two routes, Tejgaon–Gulshan and Tejgaon–Rampura.
Rail
Kamalapur railway station, situated on the northeast side of Motijheel, is the largest and busiest of the city's railway stations. It was designed by American architect Robert Boughey and was completed in 1969. The state-owned Bangladesh Railway provides suburban and national services, with regular express train services connecting Dhaka with other major urban areas, such as Chittagong, Rajshahi, Khulna, Sylhet and Rangpur. The Maitree Express and the Mitali Express provides connections from Dhaka to West Bengal in India.
Dhaka Metro Rail is a mass rapid transit system serving Dhaka, Bangladesh. It is a part of the 20-year-long Strategic Transport Plan (STP) outlined by the Dhaka Transport Coordination Authority (DTCA). The first phase of Dhaka Metro's MRT Line 6 was inaugurated by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and commenced commercial operations on 28 December 2022.
The metro network is planned to contain six lines. Before the opening of the Dhaka Metro Rail, Dhaka was the biggest city in the world without a mass rapid transit system. Unrelated to the metro, there is also a proposal to build a subway and an orbital railway system.
Air
Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport (formerly Zia International Airport), located north of Dhaka city centre, is the largest and busiest international airport in the country. Although built with an annual passenger-handling capacity of 8 million, it handled more than 11 million passengers in 2023. The average aircraft movement per day is around 330 flights. It is the hub of most Bangladeshi airlines. Domestic service flies to Chittagong, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Cox's Bazar, Jessore, Barisal, and Saidpur (Rangpur), and international services fly to major cities in Asia, Europe and the Middle East. The airport's capacity is expected to more than double to 20 million once the modern third terminal opens fully in October 2024. According to the project design, the third terminal will have 12 boarding bridges and 16 conveyor belts. The terminal will have 115 check-in counters and 128 immigration desks.
Water supply and sanitation
Water management in Dhaka faces numerous challenges such as flooding, poor service quality, groundwater depletion, inadequate sanitation, polluted river water, unplanned urban development, and the existence of large slums.
The Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (Dhaka WASA) is "responsible for providing drinking water, sewerage, and stormwater drainage services to the city". The work of Dhaka WASA is funded by the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development, and Cooperatives.
87% of the city's growing water demand is currently sourced from groundwater (as of 2021). This is because the extreme contamination of rivers and lakes makes surface water treatment economically and technologically unfeasible. However, the groundwater table is falling (three metres per year, as of 2011) and hence Dhaka WASA is looking to expand surface water treatment and use.
Dhaka has two sewage treatment plants serving the city, the Pagla Sewerage Treatment Plant (PSTP) located in Narayanganj District, which can treat 120 mega litres per day, and the Dasherkandi Sewage Treatment Plant, with a capacity to treat 500 mega litres. Dhaka WASA plans to build four other modern sewage treatment plants to handle 100 percent of Dhaka's sewage by 2030.
The Bangladesh Urban Informal Settlements Survey 2016 included a representative sample of 588 households across small, medium and large slums in Dhaka. It showed that 68% of the households accessed piped water through a shared connection within the slum compound. The poorest households shared a waterpoint with 43 other households on average compared to 23 sharers among the richest households. In terms of sanitation, only 8% of the slum households had access to a flush toilet connected to a septic tank, while 78% used improved pit latrines and the remaining 10% depended on hanging latrines.
Twin towns – sister cities
Kolkata, India
New York City, United States
Guangzhou, China
Bucharest, Romania
Lima, Peru
See also
List of districts and suburbs of Dhaka
List of places of worship in Dhaka city
List of largest cities
List of metropolitan areas in Asia
List of most expensive cities for expatriate employees
List of urban agglomerations in Asia
Mia Shaheb Moidan
References
Further reading
External links
Capital Development Authority
Dhaka North City Corporation
Dhaka South City Corporation
Dhaka Transport Coordination Authority
Dhaka Metropolitan Police website
Dhaka History
Capitals in Asia
Populated places in Dhaka Division
South Asia
Cities in Bangladesh
Articles containing video clips
17th-century BC establishments
Capitals of Bengal
Populated places established in 1608
|
1762781
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD
|
Морально-психологічний стан
|
Морально-психологічний стан особового складу – це
сукупність душевних переживань, які генеруються на чуттєвому рівні психіки людини при взаємодії з об’єктивною дійсністю та усвідомленні особистісних якостей і через систему психологічного захисту активно впливають на психічне здоров’я військовослужбовців та проявляються у моральній діяльності (Іллюк О.О.) [с. 83]
цілісне, визначальне морально-психологічне явище, яке є похідним від інтегрованої єдності й взаємодії духовних, моральних, морально-психо-логічних, політичних, національних, соціальних, економічних, військово-службо-вих, навчально-бойових (у воєнний час бойових), інших соціально-психологічних і психологічних чинників, котрі інтеграційно відображаються в їх соціальній психіці у вигляді певних морально-психологічних стереотипів, спрямовуючих його діяльність і поведінку (Варій М. Й.) [с. 16]
інтегральний показник, що характеризує ступінь задоволеності особового складу підрозділу зовнішніми і внутрішніми умовами життєдіяльності та рівень його індивідуальної і групової (колективної) готовності до діяльності за штатним призначенням в звичайних та екстремальних умовах у даний час і в конкретній обстановці (Зельницький В.А.) [с. 20]
цілісна, інтегральна сукупність політичних, духовних цінностей і позицій, потреб і інтересів, почуттів, які переважають і домінують в свідомості військовослужбовців у даний час чи протягом його певного проміжку (Московчук Ю.А.) [с. 23]
Ключовим словом у словосполученні “морально-психологічний стан” є поняття “психіка”. У словнику С. І. Ожегова (1970 р. вид.) поняття “психіка” тлумачиться як сукупність душевних переживань, як відображення у свідомості об’єктивної дійсності, душевний склад, властивий кому-небудь. Свідомість – це вища, властива лише людині форма відображення об’єктивної дійсності. Отже, свідомість людини – це форма відображення об’єктивної дійсності; моральний дух є вираженням раціонального рівня свідомості людини; морально-психологічний стан є вираженням чуттєвого рівня свідомості людини [с. 128, 129].
Головним регулятивом і метою чуттєвої сфери свідомості є те, що З. Фрейд свого часу назвав “принципом задоволення” і цінності (краса, правда і справедливість) як форма узгодження предметної дійсності з нашими духовними цілями і значеннями. Задоволення чи незадоволення генерують у людини відповідні душевні переживання. Категорію “переживання” багато військових психологів розглядають як психологічні стани. Душевні переживання особового складу проявляються у моральній діяльності. Отже, категорія “морально-психологічний стан” є відображенням чуттєвих якостей особового складу, що формуються переважно на чуттєвому рівні психіки і проявляються у моральній діяльності військовослужбовців [с. 20].
Морально-психологічний стан особового складу як і моральний дух особового складу, є одним із складників людського фактора військових формувань (частин, підрозділів) [с. 207].
Методологічні засади сутності морально-психологічного стану
Методологічними засадами сутності людського фактора військових формувань та його складників – морального духу і морально-психологічного стану особового складу, є такі положення:
раціональний і чуттєвий рівні відображення психікою людини об’єктивної дійсності;
раціональний і чуттєвий рівні психіки людини;
раціональний і чуттєвий розподіл функцій півкуль головного мозку людини;
структурні компоненти психіки людини (свідомість, несвідоме і надсвідоме);
раціональна (мотиваційно-вольова), чуттєва (емоційна) та ейдетична форми свідомості людини;
визначення структурним компонентом свідомості людини самосвідомості;
джерела свідомості людини;
особливості структурних компонентів несвідомого у психіці людини і їх вплив на свідомість;
суспільна природа свідомості людини; структура (компоненти) суспільної свідомості [с. 21].
Раціональні (мотиваційно-вольові) якості особового складу позначаються категорією “моральний дух”, чуттєві (емоційні) – категорією “морально-психологічний стан”, ейдетичні якості (єдність раціональних і чуттєвих якостей) – категорією “людський фактор” [с. 77, 78].
Моральний дух характеризує мотиваційно-вольові: фундаментальні, стійкі, довготривалі якості особового складу, а морально-психологічний стан – емоційні: мінливі, не довготривалі, ситуативні [с. 78].
Складники морально-психологічного стану
Складники морально-психологічного стану – це основні взаємозалежні чинники чуттєвих (емоційних) якостей військовослужбовців, що визначені відповідно до ефективності впливу на формування їх особистісного механізму психологічного захисту, функціонального призначення, тривалості дії та ціннісного значення для життєдіяльності особового складу [с. 133].
Складниками морально-психологічного стану є:
демографічний – включає фактори: віковий – життєвий досвід (кількість прожитих років), освітній – наявність освіти, сімейний – сімейний стан, календарної військової вислуги, досвіду дій в екстремальних умовах;
особистісний – включає фактори, що визначають задоволення військовослужбовця своїми особистісними якостями: пам’яттю, характером, темпераментом, здібностями, фізичним здоров’ям;
службовий – включає фактори, що визначають задоволення військовослужбовців: службою у військовій структурі, посадою, надійністю зброї і бойової техніки, станом дисципліни, особистою професійною підготовкою;
моральний – включає фактори, що визначають задоволення особового складу морально-етичними чинниками: відносинами між військовослужбовцями, справедливістю командирів (начальників), ставленням особового складу до місцевого населення; поведінкою військовослужбовців у громадських місцях, особистим зовнішнім виглядом;
природно-кліматичний – включає фактори, що визначають задоволення особового складу природними та кліматичними умовами служби і умовами виконання службово-бойових та навчальних завдань: природа, клімат, екологія, погода, пора року [с. 65].
Фактори складників морально-психологічного стану – це структурні компоненти основних детермінантів чуттєвих (емоційних) якостей особового складу, які виражають суттєві ознаки цих чинників, забезпечують оптимальну ефективність формуючого впливу і нейтралізації внутрішніх та зовнішніх загроз [с. 133].
До змісту наведених складників морально-психологічного стану особового складу можна додати й інші фактори, але до критеріальної бази взяті лише ті, які виражають основні, суттєві ознаки, є характерними для всіх категорій військовослужбовців, а їх дослідження не потребує спеціальних умов, тривалих та складних обчислень. У разі поглибленого дослідження морально-психологічного стану особового складу невеликих підрозділів і обслуг можна зважати й на другорядні фактори [с. 65].
Класифікація рівнів морально-психологічного стану
Залежно від отриманих показників (за 100 бальною шкалою оцінюванн) рівень морально-психологічного стану особового складу (РМПС) класифікується як “високий”, “середній”, “низький”, “загрозливий”, зокрема:
“високий”, якщо РМПС [100…67,1];
“середній”, якщо РМПС [67…50,1];
“низький”, якщо РМПС [50…33,1];
“загрозливий”, якщо РМПС [33…0] [с. 149].
Досліджений рівень морального духу є важливим показником для оцінювання базового психологічного захисту, базових психологічних втрат, базової психологічної безпеки, ситуаційної психологічної безпеки особового складу.
Для уніфікації дій та скорочення часу на проведення необхідних розрахунків з оцінювання морально-психологічного стану особового складу розроблено “Програму автоматизованого розрахунку рівня морально-психологічного стану особового складу” , яка разом з “Методичними рекомендаціями щодо оцінювання морально-психологічного стану” у формі окремих файлів додається до “Методики оцінювання морально-психологічного стану особового складу” [с. 125–190].
Інтерпретація результатів оцінювання морально-психологічного стану
Інтерпретація результатів оцінювання морально-психологічного стану є важливою вихідною позицією для прийняття рішення командирами і начальниками на застосування частин і підрозділів для виконання службово-бойових завдань, організації навчання та виховання особового складу.
“Високий” РМПС – за рівнем морально-психологічного стану особовий склад до виконання службово-бойових завдань готовий повністю, доцільно залучати на головних напрямках дій і у визначальних елементах бойового порядку.
“Середній” РМПС – за рівнем морально-психологічного стану особовий склад до виконання службово-бойових завдань готовий обмежено, доцільно залучати на другорядних напрямках дій і у відповідних елементах бойового порядку.
“Низький” РМПС – за рівнем морально-психологічного стану особовий склад до виконання службово-бойових завдань не готовий, доцільно залучати на допоміжних напрямках дій і в аналогічних елементах бойового порядку.
“Загрозливий” РМПС – за рівнем морально-психологічного стану особовий склад деморалізований, залучати до виконання службово-бойових завдань не рекомендується [с. 149, 150] .
Джерела
Військова справа
Військова психологія
|
1941026
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA%20%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%20%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97%20%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%97
|
Список банків Великої Британії
|
Список банків Великої Британії
В списку представлені найбільші банки Великої Британії. Усього в 2010 році у Великій Британії діяло понад 200 комерційних банків.
Центральний банк
Банк Англії
Найбільші роздрібні комерційні банки
Інші великі банки
Банк Ірландії
Північний банк (Ірландія)
Перший трастовий банк
Клайдсдейл банк
Allied Irish Banks
Bradford & Bingley
The Co-operative Bank
Halifax
HBOS
Al Rayan Bank
N M Rothschild & Sons
Santander UK
Tesco Bank
TSB Bank
Virgin Money UK
Примітки
Списки:Велика Британія
|
136372
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalia%2C%20Texas
|
Natalia, Texas
|
Natalia, Texas
Natalia is a city in Medina County, Texas, United States. The population was 1,202 at the 2020 census. It was founded in 1912 and was named after Natalie Pearson Nicholson, daughter of Frederick Stark Pearson, engineer, designer and builder of the Medina Dam.
Natalia is part of the San Antonio Metropolitan Statistical Area.
Geography
Natalia is located at (29.188744, –98.857931). This is about 30 mi (48 km) southwest of Downtown San Antonio in Medina County.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , is land and , is water.
Natalia is located on State Highway 132 and is adjacent to Interstate 35.
Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 census, there were 1,202 people, 416 households, and 298 families residing in the city. There were 499 housing units.
2000 census
As of the 2000 census, there were 1,663 people, 513 households, and 397 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 584 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 65.54% White, 1.14% African American, 0.42% Native American, 0.18% Asian, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 29.28% from other races, and 3.31% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 79.43% of the population.
There were 513 households, out of which 44.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.0% were married couples living together, 18.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.6% were non-families. 19.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.24 and the average family size was 3.73.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 36.3% under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 16.4% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $22,557, and the median income for a family was $25,690. Males had a median income of $19,943 versus $16,484 for females. The per capita income for the city was $8,583. About 27.2% of families and 33.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 42.7% of those under age 18 and 24.6% of those age 65 or over.
Education
Natalia is served by the Natalia Independent School District.
Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Natalia has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.
References
External links
City of Natalia – Official Website
Handbook of Texas Online: Natalia, Texas
Cities in Texas
Cities in Medina County, Texas
Greater San Antonio
Populated places established in 1912
1912 establishments in Texas
|
12905
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goth%20subculture
|
Goth subculture
|
Goth subculture
Goth is a music-based subculture that began in the United Kingdom during the early 1980s. It was developed by fans of gothic rock, an offshoot of the post-punk music genre. Post-punk artists who presaged the gothic rock genre and helped develop and shape the subculture include Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bauhaus, the Cure, and Joy Division.
The goth subculture has survived much longer than others of the same era, and has continued to diversify and spread throughout the world. Its imagery and cultural proclivities indicate influences from 19th-century Gothic fiction and from horror films. The scene is centered on music festivals, nightclubs, and organized meetings, especially in Western Europe. The subculture has associated tastes in music, aesthetics, and fashion.
The music preferred by goths includes a number of styles such as gothic rock, death rock, cold wave, dark wave, and ethereal wave. The Gothic fashion style draws influences from punk, new wave, New Romantic fashion and the dressing styles of earlier periods such as the Victorian, Edwardian, and Belle Époque eras. The style most often includes dark (usually solid black) attire, dark makeup, and black hair.
Music
Origins and development
The term gothic rock was coined by music critic John Stickney in 1967 to describe a meeting he had with Jim Morrison in a dimly lit wine-cellar, which he called "the perfect room to honor the Gothic rock of the Doors". That same year, the Velvet Underground song "All Tomorrow's Parties" created a kind of "mesmerizing gothic-rock masterpiece" according to music historian Kurt Loder. In the late 1970s, the gothic adjective was used to describe the atmosphere of post-punk bands such as Siouxsie and the Banshees, Magazine, and Joy Division. In a live review about a Siouxsie and the Banshees' concert in July 1978, critic Nick Kent wrote, concerning their music, "[P]arallels and comparisons can now be drawn with gothic rock architects like the Doors and, certainly, early Velvet Underground". In March 1979, in his review of Magazine's second album Secondhand Daylight, Kent noted there was "a new austere sense of authority" in the music, with a "dank neo-Gothic sound". Later that year, the term was also used by Joy Division's manager, Tony Wilson on 15 September in an interview for the BBC TV programme's Something Else. Wilson described Joy Division as "gothic" compared to the pop mainstream, right before a live performance of the band. The term was later applied to "newer bands such as Bauhaus who had arrived in the wake of Joy Division and Siouxsie and the Banshees". Bauhaus's first single issued in 1979, "Bela Lugosi's Dead", is generally credited as the starting point of the gothic rock genre.
In 1979, Sounds described Joy Division as "Gothic" and "theatrical". In February 1980, Melody Maker qualified the same band as "masters of this Gothic gloom". Critic Jon Savage would later say that their singer Ian Curtis wrote "the definitive Northern Gothic statement". However, it was not until the early 1980s that gothic rock became a coherent music subgenre within post-punk, and followers of these bands started to come together as a distinctly recognizable movement. They may have taken the "goth" mantle from a 1981 article published in UK rock weekly Sounds: "The face of Punk Gothique", written by Steve Keaton. In a text about the audience of UK Decay, Keaton asked: "Could this be the coming of Punk Gothique? With Bauhaus flying in on similar wings could it be the next big thing?" The F Club night in Leeds in Northern England, which had opened in 1977 firstly as a punk club, became instrumental to the development of the goth subculture in the 1980s. In July 1982, the opening of the Batcave in London's Soho provided a prominent meeting point for the emerging scene, which would be briefly labelled "positive punk" by the NME in a special issue with a front cover in early 1983. The term Batcaver was then used to describe old-school goths.
Outside the British scene, deathrock developed in California during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a distinct branch of American punk rock, with acts such as Christian Death, Kommunity FK and 45 Grave at the forefront.
Gothic genre
The bands that defined and embraced the gothic rock genre included Bauhaus, early Adam and the Ants, the Cure, the Birthday Party, Southern Death Cult, Specimen, Sex Gang Children, UK Decay, Virgin Prunes, Killing Joke, and the Damned. Near the peak of this first generation of the gothic scene in 1983, The Face Paul Rambali recalled "several strong Gothic characteristics" in the music of Joy Division. In 1984, Joy Division's bassist Peter Hook named Play Dead as one of their heirs: "If you listen to a band like Play Dead, who I really like, Joy Division played similar music to Play Dead."
By the mid-1980s, bands began proliferating and became increasingly popular, including the Sisters of Mercy, the Mission, Alien Sex Fiend, the March Violets, Xmal Deutschland, the Membranes, and Fields of the Nephilim. Record labels like Factory, 4AD and Beggars Banquet released much of this music in Europe, and through a vibrant import music market in the US, the subculture grew, especially in New York and Los Angeles, California, where many nightclubs featured "gothic/industrial" nights and bands like Black Tape for a Blue Girl, Theatre of Ice, Human Drama and The Wake became key figures for the genre to expand on an nationwide level. The popularity of 4AD bands resulted in the creation of similar US labels, such as Wax Trax! Records and Projekt.
The 1990s saw further growth for some 1980s bands and the emergence of many new acts, as well as new goth-centric US record labels such as Cleopatra Records, among others. According to Dave Simpson of The Guardian, "[I]n the 90s, goths all but disappeared as dance music became the dominant youth cult". As a result, the goth movement went underground and fractured into cyber goth, shock rock, industrial metal, gothic metal, and Medieval folk metal. Marilyn Manson was seen as a "goth-shock icon" by Spin.
In 1993, Jack Off Jill's front woman Jessicka coined the term Riot Goth to define music and aesthetics that were similar to riotgrrrl – bloody babydoll dresses and songs that addressed issues such as abuse, selfharm, depression and feminism. Jack Off Jill is referred to as "legendary" by Alternative Press and "cult heroes" by The Guardian.
Art, historical and cultural influences
The Goth subculture of the 1980s drew inspiration from a variety of sources. Some of them were modern or contemporary, others were centuries-old or ancient. Michael Bibby and Lauren M. E. Goodlad liken the subculture to a bricolage. Among the music-subcultures that influenced it were punk, new wave, and glam. But it also drew inspiration from B-movies, Gothic literature, horror films, vampire cults and traditional mythology. Among the mythologies that proved influential in Goth were Celtic mythology, Christian mythology, Egyptian mythology, and various traditions of Paganism.
The figures that the movement counted among its historic canon of ancestors were equally diverse. They included the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), Comte de Lautréamont (1846–1870), Salvador Dalí (1904–1989) and Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980). Writers that have had a significant influence on the movement also represent a diverse canon. They include Ann Radcliffe (1764–1823), John William Polidori (1795–1821), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Sheridan Le Fanu (1814–1873), Bram Stoker (1847–1912), Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), H. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937), Anne Rice (1941–2021), William Gibson (1948–present), Ian McEwan (1948–present), Storm Constantine (1956–2021), and Poppy Z. Brite (1967–present).
18th and 19th centuries
Gothic literature is a genre of fiction that combines romance and dark elements to produce mystery, suspense, terror, horror and the supernatural. According to David H. Richter, settings were framed to take place at "...ruinous castles, gloomy churchyards, claustrophobic monasteries, and lonely mountain roads". Typical characters consisted of the cruel parent, sinister priest, courageous victor, and the helpless heroine, along with supernatural figures such as demons, vampires, ghosts, and monsters. Often, the plot focused on characters ill-fated, internally conflicted, and innocently victimized by harassing malicious figures. In addition to the dismal plot focuses, the literary tradition of the gothic was to also focus on individual characters that were gradually going insane.
English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto is one of the first writers who explored this genre. The American Revolutionary War-era "American Gothic" story of the Headless Horseman, immortalized in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (published in 1820) by Washington Irving, marked the arrival in the New World of dark, romantic storytelling. The tale was composed by Irving while he was living in England, and was based on popular tales told by colonial Dutch settlers of the Hudson Valley, New York. The story would be adapted to film in 1922, in 1949 as the animated The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad, and again in 1999.
Throughout the evolution of the goth subculture, classic Romantic, Gothic and horror literature has played a significant role. E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), H. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937), and other tragic and Romantic writers have become as emblematic of the subculture as the use of dark eyeliner or dressing in black. Baudelaire, in fact, in his preface to Les Fleurs du mal (Flowers of Evil) penned lines that could serve as a sort of goth malediction:
C'est l'Ennui! —l'œil chargé d'un pleur involontaire,
Il rêve d'échafauds en fumant son houka.
Tu le connais, lecteur, ce monstre délicat,
—Hypocrite lecteur,—mon semblable,—mon frère!
It is Boredom! — an eye brimming with an involuntary tear,
He dreams of the gallows while smoking his water-pipe.
You know him, reader, this delicate monster,
—Hypocrite reader,—my twin,—my brother!
Visual art influences
The gothic subculture has influenced different artists—not only musicians—but also painters and photographers. In particular their work is based on mystic, morbid and romantic motifs. In photography and painting the spectrum varies from erotic artwork to romantic images of vampires or ghosts. There is a marked preference for dark colours and sentiments, similar to Gothic fiction. At the end of the 19th century, painters like John Everett Millais and John Ruskin invented a new kind of Gothic.
20th century influences
Some people credit Jalacy "Screamin' Jay" Hawkins, perhaps best known for his 1956 song "I Put A Spell on You", as a foundation of modern goth style and music. Some people credit the band Bauhaus' first single "Bela Lugosi's Dead", released in August 1979, with the start of goth subculture.
In the early 90s, Jack Off Jill, fronted by vocalist Jessicka, pioneered the 'Riot Goth' sound, combining elements of the goth and riot grrrl genres. Through their lyrics, the band tackled issues such as misogyny and racism, giving them significant underground appeal.
21st century influences
The British sitcom The IT Crowd featured a recurring goth character named Richmond Avenal, played by Noel Fielding. Fielding said in an interview that he himself had been a goth at age fifteen and that he had a series of goth girlfriends. This was the first time he dabbled in makeup. Fielding said that he loved his girlfriends dressing him up.
The game Visigoths vs. Mall Goths (2020) by Lucian Kahn is about "two versions of Goths – the ancient Roman peoples and the black-clad teenagers" and is set in LA in the 1990s.
Characteristics of the scene
Icons
Goth icons include several bandleaders: Siouxsie Sioux, of Siouxsie and the Banshees; Robert Smith, of the Cure; Peter Murphy, of Bauhaus; Dave Vanian, of The Damned; Rozz Williams, of Christian Death; Olli Wisdom, leader of the band Specimen and keyboardist Jonathan Melton aka Jonny Slut, who evolved the Batcave style. Nick Cave was dubbed as "the grand lord of gothic lushness".
Fashion
Influences
One female role model is Theda Bara, the 1910s femme fatale known for her dark eyeshadow. In 1977, Karl Lagerfeld hosted the Soirée Moratoire Noir party, specifying "tenue tragique noire absolument obligatoire" (black tragic dress absolutely required). The event included elements associated with leatherman style.
Siouxsie Sioux was particularly influential on the dress style of the gothic rock scene; Paul Morley of NME described Siouxsie and the Banshees' 1980 gig at Futurama: "[Siouxsie was] modeling her newest outfit, the one that will influence how all the girls dress over the next few months. About half the girls at Leeds had used Sioux as a basis for their appearance, hair to ankle". Robert Smith, Musidora, Bela Lugosi, Bettie Page, Vampira, Morticia Addams, Nico, Rozz Williams, David Bowie and Lux Interior are also style icons.
The 1980s established designers such as Drew Bernstein of Lip Service, and the 1990s saw a surge of US-based gothic fashion designers, many of whom continue to evolve the style to the present day. Style magazines such as Gothic Beauty have given repeat features to a select few gothic fashion designers who began their labels in the 1990s, such as Kambriel, Rose Mortem, and Tyler Ondine of Heavy Red.
American model Gabbriette who has been known for her goth aesthetic, has been at the forefront of what has been dubbed the "Succubus Chic" trend of 2023.
Styling
Gothic fashion is marked by conspicuously dark, antiquated and homogeneous features. It is stereotyped as eerie, mysterious, complex and exotic. A dark, sometimes morbid fashion and style of dress, typical gothic fashion includes colored black hair and black period-styled clothing. Both male and female goths can wear dark eyeliner and dark fingernail polish, most especially black. Styles are often borrowed from punk fashion and—more currently—from the Victorian and Elizabethan periods. It also frequently expresses pagan, occult or other religious imagery. Gothic fashion and styling may also feature silver jewelry and piercings.
Ted Polhemus described goth fashion as a "profusion of black velvets, lace, fishnets and leather tinged with scarlet or purple, accessorized with tightly laced corsets, gloves, precarious stilettos and silver jewelry depicting religious or occult themes". Of the male "goth look", goth historian Pete Scathe draws a distinction between the Sid Vicious archetype of black spiky hair and black leather jacket in contrast to the gender ambiguous individuals wearing makeup. The first is the early goth gig-going look, which was essentially punk, whereas the second evolved into the Batcave nightclub look. Early goth gigs were often very hectic affairs, and the audience dressed accordingly.
In contrast to the LARP-based Victorian and Elizabethan pomposity of the 2000s, the more Romantic side of 1980s trad-goth—mainly represented by women—was characterized by new wave/post-punk-oriented hairstyles (both long and short, partly shaved and teased) and street-compliant clothing, including black frill blouses, midi dresses or tea-length skirts, and floral lace tights, Dr. Martens, spike heels (pumps), and pointed toe buckle boots (winklepickers), sometimes supplemented with accessories such as bracelets, chokers and bib necklaces. This style, retroactively referred to as Ethergoth, took its inspiration from Siouxsie Sioux and mid-1980s musicians from the 4AD roster like Elizabeth Fraser and Lisa Gerrard.
The New York Times noted: "The costumes and ornaments are a glamorous cover for the genre's somber themes. In the world of Goth, nature itself lurks as a malign protagonist, causing flesh to rot, rivers to flood, monuments to crumble and women to turn into slatterns, their hair streaming and lipstick askew".
Cintra Wilson declares that the origins of the dark romantic style are found in the "Victorian cult of mourning". Valerie Steele is an expert in the history of the style.
Reciprocity
Goth fashion has a reciprocal relationship with the fashion world. In the later part of the first decade of the 21st century, designers such as Alexander McQueen, Anna Sui, Rick Owens, Gareth Pugh, Ann Demeulemeester, Philipp Plein, Hedi Slimane, John Richmond, John Galliano, Olivier Theyskens and Yohji Yamamoto brought elements of goth to runways. This was described as "Haute Goth" by Cintra Wilson in the New York Times.
Thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Jean Paul Gaultier and Christian Lacroix have also been associated with the fashion trend. In Spring 2004, Riccardo Tisci, Jean Paul Gaultier, Raf Simons and Stefano Pilati dressed their models as "glamorous ghouls dressed in form-fitting suits and coal-tinted cocktail dresses". Swedish designer Helena Horstedt and jewelry artist Hanna Hedman also practice a goth aesthetic.
Films and television
Some of the early gothic rock and deathrock artists adopted traditional horror film images and drew on horror film soundtracks for inspiration. Their audience responded by adopting appropriate dress and props. Use of standard horror film props such as swirling smoke, rubber bats, and cobwebs featured as gothic club décor from the beginning in The Batcave. Such references in bands' music and images were originally tongue-in-cheek, but as time went on, bands and members of the subculture took the connection more seriously. As a result, morbid, supernatural and occult themes became more noticeably serious in the subculture. The interconnection between horror and goth was highlighted in its early days by The Hunger, a 1983 vampire film starring David Bowie, Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon. The film featured gothic rock group Bauhaus performing Bela Lugosi's Dead in a nightclub. Tim Burton created a storybook atmosphere filled with darkness and shadow in some of his films like Beetlejuice (1988), Batman (1989), Edward Scissorhands (1990), Batman Returns (1992) and the stop motion films The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), which was produced/co-written by Burton, and Corpse Bride (2005), which he co-produced. The Nickelodeon cartoon Invader Zim is also based on the goth subculture.
As the subculture became well-established, the connection between goth and horror fiction became almost a cliché, with goths quite likely to appear as characters in horror novels and film. For example, The Craft, The Crow, The Matrix and Underworld film series drew directly on goth music and style. The dark comedies Beetlejuice, The Faculty, American Beauty, Wedding Crashers, and a few episodes of the animated TV show South Park portray or parody the goth subculture. In South Park, several of the fictional schoolchildren are depicted as goths. The goth kids on the show are depicted as finding it annoying to be confused with the Hot Topic "vampire" kids from the episode "The Ungroundable" in season 12, and even more frustrating to be compared with emo kids. The goth kids are usually depicted listening to gothic music, writing or reading Gothic poetry, drinking coffee, flipping their hair, and smoking.
Morticia Addams from The Addams Family created by Charles Addams is a fictional character and the mother in the Addams Family. Morticia was played by Carolyn Jones in the 1964 television show The Addams Family and by Anjelica Huston in the 1991 version, and voiced by Charlize Theron in 2019 animated film.
A recurring sketch in the 1990s on NBC's Saturday Night Live was Goth Talk, in which a public access channel broadcast hosted by unpopular young goths would continually be interrupted by the more "normal" kids in school. The sketch featured series regulars Will Ferrell, Molly Shannon, and Chris Kattan.
Books and magazines
A prominent American literary influence on the gothic scene was provided by Anne Rice's re-imagining of the vampire in 1976. In The Vampire Chronicles, Rice's characters were depicted as self-tormentors who struggled with alienation, loneliness, and the human condition. Not only did the characters torment themselves, but they also depicted a surreal world that focused on uncovering its splendour. These Chronicles assumed goth attitudes, but they were not intentionally created to represent the gothic subculture. Their romance, beauty, and erotic appeal attracted
many goth readers, making her works popular from the 1980s through the 1990s. While Goth has embraced Vampire literature both in its 19th century form and in its later incarnations, Rice's postmodern take on the vampire mythos has had a "special resonance" in the subculture. Her vampire novels feature intense emotions, period clothing, and "cultured decadence". Her vampires are socially alienated monsters, but they are also stunningly attractive. Rice's goth readers tend to envision themselves in much the same terms and view characters like Lestat de Lioncourt as role models.
Richard Wright's novel Native Son contains gothic imagery and themes that demonstrate the links between blackness and the gothic; themes and images of "premonitions, curses, prophecies, spells, veils, demonic possessions, graves, skeletons" are present, suggesting gothic influence. Other classic themes of the gothic are present in the novel, such as transgression and unstable identities of race, class, gender, and nationality.
The re-imagining of the vampire continued with the release of Poppy Z. Brite's book Lost Souls in October 1992. Despite the fact that Brite's first novel was criticized by some mainstream sources for allegedly "lack[ing] a moral center: neither terrifyingly malevolent supernatural creatures nor (like Anne Rice's protagonists) tortured souls torn between good and evil, these vampires simply add blood-drinking to the amoral panoply of drug abuse, problem drinking and empty sex practiced by their human counterparts", many of these so-called "human counterparts" identified with the teen angst and goth music references therein, keeping the book in print. Upon release of a special 10th anniversary edition of Lost Souls, Publishers Weekly—the same periodical that criticized the novel's "amorality" a decade prior—deemed it a "modern horror classic" and acknowledged that Brite established a "cult audience".
The 2002 release 21st Century Goth by Mick Mercer, an author, noted music journalist and leading historian of gothic rock, explored the modern state of the goth scene around the world, including South America, Japan, and mainland Asia. His previous 1997 release, Hex Files: The Goth Bible, similarly took an international look at the subculture.
In the US, Propaganda was a gothic subculture magazine founded in 1982. In Italy, Ver Sacrum covers the Italian goth scene, including fashion, sexuality, music, art and literature. Some magazines, such as the now-defunct Dark Realms and Goth Is Dead included goth fiction and poetry. Other magazines cover fashion (e.g., Gothic Beauty); music (e.g., Severance) or culture and lifestyle (e.g., Althaus e-zine).
On 31 October 2011, ECW Press published the Encyclopedia Gothica written by author and poet Liisa Ladouceur with illustrations done by Gary Pullin. This non-fiction book describes over 600 words and phrases relevant to Goth subculture.
Brian Craddock's 2017 novel Eucalyptus Goth charts a year in the life of a household of 20-somethings in Brisbane, Australia. The central characters are deeply entrenched in the local gothic subculture, with the book exploring themes relevant to the characters, notably unemployment, mental health, politics, and relationships.
In 2023, several books about the music genre and the subculture, were released. John Robb's The Art of Darkness: The History of Goth was hailed in The Times as a "new magestrial survey", and Cathi Unsworth's Season of the Witch: The Book of Goth was praised in Mojo as a "superb history of the dark and all its risings".
Graphic art
Visual contemporary graphic artists with this aesthetic include Gerald Brom, Dave McKean, and Trevor Brown as well as illustrators Edward Gorey, Charles Addams, Lorin Morgan-Richards, and James O'Barr. The artwork of Polish surrealist painter Zdzisław Beksiński is often described as gothic. British artist Anne Sudworth published a book on gothic art in 2007.
Events
There are large annual goth-themed festivals in Germany, including Wave-Gotik-Treffen in Leipzig and M'era Luna in Hildesheim, both annually attracting tens of thousands of people. Castle Party is the biggest goth festival in Poland.
Interior design
In the 1980s, goths decorated their walls and ceilings with black fabrics and accessories like rosaries, crosses and plastic roses. Black furniture and cemetery-related objects such as candlesticks, death lanterns and skulls were also part of their interior design. In the 1990s, the interior design approach of the 1980s was replaced by a less macabre style.
Sociology
Gender and sexuality
Since the late 1970s, the UK goth scene refused "traditional standards of sexual propriety" and accepted and celebrated "unusual, bizarre or deviant sexual practices". In the 2000s, many members "claim overlapping memberships in the queer, polyamorous, bondage-discipline/sadomasochism, and pagan communities".
Though sexual empowerment is not unique to women in the goth scene, it remains an important part of many goth women's experience: The scene's "celebration of active sexuality" enables goth women to "resist mainstream notions of passive femininity". They have an "active sexuality" approach which creates "gender egalitarianism" within the scene, as it "allows them to engage in sexual play with multiple partners while sidestepping most of the stigma and dangers that women who engage in such behavior" outside the scene frequently incur, while continuing to "see themselves as strong".
Men dress up in an androgynous way: "Men 'gender blend,' wearing makeup and skirts". In contrast, the "women are dressed in sexy feminine outfits" that are "highly sexualized" and which often combine "corsets with short skirts and fishnet stockings". Androgyny is common among the scene: "androgyny in Goth subcultural style often disguises or even functions to reinforce conventional gender roles". It was only "valorised" for male goths, who adopt a "feminine" appearance, including "make-up, skirts and feminine accessories" to "enhance masculinity" and facilitate traditional heterosexual courting roles.
Identity
While goth is a music-based scene, the goth subculture is also characterized by particular aesthetics, outlooks, and a "way of seeing and of being seen". In more recent years, goths have been able to meet people with similar interests, learn from each other and take part in the scene through social media, manifesting in the same practices which take place in goth clubs. This is not a new phenomenon since before the rise of social media online forums had the same function for goths. Observers have raised the issue of to what degree individuals are truly members of the goth subculture. On one end of the spectrum is the "Uber goth", a person who is described as seeking a pallor so much that they apply "as much white foundation and white powder as possible". On the other end of the spectrum exists what another writer terms "poseurs" – "goth wannabes, usually young kids going through a goth phase who do not hold to goth sensibilities but want to be part of the goth crowd". It has been said that a "mall goth" is a teen who dresses in a goth style and spends time in malls with a Hot Topic store, but who does not know much about goth subculture or its music, thus making them a poseur. In one case, even a well-known performer has been labelled with the pejorative term – a "number of goths, especially those who belonged to this subculture before the late-1980s, reject Marilyn Manson as a poseur who undermines the true meaning of goth".
Media and academic commentary
The BBC described academic research that indicated that goths are "refined and sensitive, keen on poetry and books, not big on drugs or anti-social behaviour". Teens often stay in the subculture "into their adult life", and they are likely to become well-educated and enter professions such as medicine or law. The subculture carries on appealing to teenagers who are looking for meaning and for identity. The scene teaches teens that there are difficult aspects to life that you "have to make an attempt to understand" or explain.
The Guardian reported that a "glue binding the [goth] scene together was drug use"; however, in the scene, drug use was varied. Goth is one of the few subculture movements that is not associated with a single drug, in the way that the Hippie subculture is associated with cannabis and the Mod subculture is associated with amphetamines. A 2006 study of young goths found that those with higher levels of goth identification had higher drug use.
Perception on nonviolence
A study conducted by the University of Glasgow, involving 1,258 youth interviewed at ages 11, 13, 15 and 19, found goth subculture to be strongly nonviolent and tolerant, thus providing "valuable social and emotional support" to teens vulnerable to self harm and mental illness.
School shootings
In the weeks following the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, media reports about the teen gunmen, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, portrayed them as part of a gothic cult. An increased suspicion of goth subculture subsequently manifested in the media. This led to a moral panic over teen involvement in goth subculture and a number of other activities, such as violent video games. Harris and Klebold had initially been thought to be members of "The Trenchcoat Mafia", an informal club within Columbine High School. Later, such characterizations were considered incorrect.
Media reported that the gunman in the 2006 Dawson College shooting in Montreal, Quebec, Kimveer Singh Gill, was interested in goth subculture. Gill's self-professed love of Goth culture was the topic of media interest, and it was widely reported that the word "Goth", in Gill's writings, was a reference to the alternative industrial and goth subculture rather than a reference to gothic rock music. Gill, who committed suicide after the attack, wrote in his online journal: "I'm so sick of hearing about jocks and preps making life hard for the goths and others who look different, or are different". Gill described himself in his profile on Vampirefreaks.com as "Trench[...] the Angel of Death" and he stated that "Metal and Goth kick ass". An image gallery on Gill's Vampirefreaks.com blog had photos of him pointing a gun at the camera or wearing a long black trench coat.
Mick Mercer stated that Gill was "not a Goth. Never a Goth. The bands he listed as his chosen form of ear-bashing were relentlessly metal and standard grunge, rock and goth metal, with some industrial presence". Mercer stated that "Kimveer Gill listened to metal", "He had nothing whatsoever to do with Goth" and further commented "I realise that like many Neos [neophyte], Kimveer Gill may even have believed he somehow was a Goth, because they're [Neophytes] only really noted for spectacularly missing the point".
Prejudice and violence directed at goths
In part because of public misunderstanding surrounding gothic aesthetics, people in the goth subculture sometimes suffer prejudice, discrimination, and intolerance. As is the case with members of various other subcultures and alternative lifestyles, outsiders sometimes marginalize goths, either by intention or by accident. Actress Christina Hendricks talked of being bullied as a goth at school and how difficult it was for her to deal with societal pressure: "Kids can be pretty judgmental about people who are different. But instead of breaking down and conforming, I stood firm. That is also probably why I was unhappy. My mother was mortified and kept telling me how horrible and ugly I looked. Strangers would walk by with a look of shock on their face, so I never felt pretty. I just always felt awkward".
On 11 August 2007, while walking through Stubbylee Park in Bacup, Lancashire, a young couple, Sophie Lancaster and Robert Maltby, were attacked by a group of teenagers. Lancaster subsequently died from the severe head injuries she suffered in the attack. It later emerged that the attackers had attacked the couple because they were goths. On 29 April 2008, two of the attackers, Ryan Herbert and Brendan Harris, were convicted for the murder of Lancaster and given life sentences. Three others were given lesser sentences for the assault on her boyfriend Robert Maltby. In delivering the sentence, Judge Anthony Russell stated, "This was a hate crime against these completely harmless people targeted because their appearance was different to yours". He went on to defend the goth community, calling goths "perfectly peaceful, law-abiding people who pose no threat to anybody". Judge Russell added that he "recognised it as a hate crime without Parliament having to tell him to do so and had included that view in his sentencing". Despite this ruling, a bill to add discrimination based on subculture affiliation to the definition of hate crime in British law was not presented to parliament.
In 2013, police in Manchester announced they would be treating attacks on members of alternative subcultures, such as goths, the same as they do for attacks based on race, religion, and sexual orientation.
A more recent phenomenon is the emergence of goth YouTubers who very often address the prejudice and violence against goths. These personalities create videos as a response to problems that they personally face, which include challenges such as bullying, and dealing with negative descriptions of themselves. Viewers often engage closely with these YouTubers, asking them for advice on how to deal with related personal struggles and getting responses in the form of personal messages or videos. These interactions take the form of an informal mentoring which contributes to the building of solidarity within the goth scene.
Self-harm study
A study published on the British Medical Journal concluded that "identification as belonging to the Goth subculture [at some point in their lives] was the best predictor of self harm and attempted suicide [among young teens]", and that it was most possibly due to self-selection, with people committing self harm joining the goth subculture in order to get support from individuals with similar experiences.
According to The Guardian, some goth teens are more likely to harm themselves or attempt suicide. A medical journal study of 1,300 Scottish schoolchildren until their teen years found that the 53% of the 25 goth teens sampled had attempted to harm themselves and 47% had attempted suicide. The study found that the "correlation was stronger than any other predictor".
The authors held that most self-harm by teens was done before joining the subculture, and that joining the subculture would actually protect them and help them deal with distress in their lives, while cautioning that the study was based on a small sample size and needed replication to confirm the results. The study was criticized for using only a small sample of goth teens and not taking into account other influences and differences between types of goths.
See also
Dark academia
Visual kei
References
Citations
Bibliography
Robb, John (2023). The Art of Darkness : The History Of Goth. Louder Than War Books.
Unsworth, Cathi (2023). Season of the Witch: The Book of Goth. Nine Eight Books.
Further reading
A first-person account of an individual's life within the Goth subculture.
A chronological/aesthetic history of Goth covering the spectrum from Gothic architecture to the Cure.
Includes a lengthy explanation of Gothic history, music, fashion, and proposes a link between mystic/magical spirituality and dark subcultures.
Covering literature, music, cinema, BDSM, fashion, and subculture topics.
An international survey of the Goth scene.
An exploration of the modern state of the Goth subculture worldwide.
A global view of the goth scene from its birth in the late 1970s to the present day.
An etiquette guide to "gently persuade others in her chosen subculture that being a polite Goth is much, much more subversive than just wearing T-shirts with "edgy" sayings on them".
An illustrated view of the goth subculture.
Youth culture
1980s fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
Musical subcultures
Culture-related controversies
Stereotypes
Youth culture in the United Kingdom
Youth culture in the United States
|
5060322
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%20%28%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%29
|
Касах (село)
|
Касах (село)
Касах — село Котайської області у Вірменії.
Відомі уродженці
Асатрян Ваагн Феліксович (1977—2020) — вірменський військовий діяч, полковник Збройних Сил Вірменії, Національний Герой Вірменії (2020, посмертно).
Ріпсіме Хуршудян (нар. 1987) — чемпіонка Європи з важкої атлетики.
Див. також
Касах (річка)
Примітки
Посилання
Касах на сайті GEOnet Names Server
World Gazeteer: Armenia — World-Gazetteer.com
Результати перепису та обліку житлових умов населення Вірменії 2001 року
Котайк
Села Вірменії
|
2797264
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96%20%28%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F%29
|
Слубиці (значення)
|
Слубиці (значення)
Слубиці — місто в Слубицькому повіті Любуського воєводства
Слубиці — гміна в Плоцькому повіті Мазовецького воєводства
Слубиці — гміна в Слубицькому повіті Любуського воєводства
Слубиці — село в гміні Слубиці Плоцького повіту Мазовецького воєводства
|
4919199
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA%20%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%20%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%201013%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83
|
Список керівників держав 1013 року
|
Список керівників держав 1013 року — це перелік правителів країн світу 1013 року.
Список керівників держав 1012 року — 1013 рік — Список керівників держав 1014 року — Список керівників держав за роками
Європа
Англія
Король Англії — Етельред Безрадний (978—1013); Свен I Вилобородий (1013—1014)
Гвікке — елдормен Леофвін (994—1023)
Корнволл — граф Ґодвін ап Алурд (1010—1050)
Балканський півострів
Перше Болгарське царство — Самуїл (997—1014)
Західне Болгарське царство — Самуїл (980—1014)
Дукля — Йован Володимир (990—1016)
Білорусь
Полоцьке князівство — Брячислав Ізяславич (1001/1003-1044)
Турівське князівство — Святополк Окаянний (988/990-1013/1015)
Волзька Болгарія — Ібрагім ібн Мумін (1006—1025/1026)
Вельс
Брихейніог — Гріфід ап Елісед (-1045)
Королівство Гвент — Родрі ап Елісед (983—1015)
Королівство Гвінед — Айдан ап Блегіврид (1005—1018)
Дехейбарт — Едвін ап Ейніон (1005—1018)
Морганнуг — Гівел ап Овейн (990/1000-1015/1043)
Королівство Повіс — до 1018 невідомо
Візантійська імперія — Василій II Болгаробійця (976—1025)
Неаполітанське герцогство — Сергій IV (1002–1036)
Ірландія — верховний король Бріан Боройме (1002—1014)
Айлех — Флайхбертах О'Нейлл (1004—1031)
Айргіалла — — Мак Лейгінн мак Кербайлл (998—1022)
Дублін (королівство) — Сітрік Шовкова Борода (995—1036)
Коннахт — Тадг Ін Ейх Гіл МакКатал (1010—1030)
Ленстер — Маелморд (1003—1014)
Король Міде — Маел Сехнайлл мак Домнайлл (976—1022)
Мунстер — Бріан Боройме (978—1014)
Улад — Ніалл мак Дейв Туйнне (1007—1016)
Конайлле Муйрхемне — Кінаед мак Ін Гейркке (1012—1029)
Італія
Королівство Італія (Священна Римська імперія) — Ардуін Іврейський (1002—1014)
Венеційська республіка — дож Оттон Орсеоло (1008/1009-1026)
Іврейська марка — Ардуїн (бл. 990—1015)
Князівство Капуанське — Пандульф II (1007-1022)
Князівство Беневентське — Пандульф II (981–1014)
Герцогство Гаета — Іоанн V (1012-1032)
Маркграфство Монферрат — Гульєльмо III (991—1042)
Салернське князівство — Гваймар III (994–1027)
Сполетське герцогство — Раньє (1010—1020)
Сицилійський емірат — Джа'фар II аль-Кальбі (998—1019)
Катепанат Італії — Василь Месардоніт (1010—1016)
Кавказ
Абхазьке царство — Баграт III (978—1014)
Вірменія — Гагік I (989—1020)
Кахетія — Баграт III приєднав Кахетію і Гереті до царства Картлі до 1014.
Тао-Кларджеті — Баграт III (1008—1014)
Німеччина
Маркграфство Австрія — Генріх I (994—1018)
Герцогство Баварія — маркграф Генріх IV Святий (1009—1017)
Архієпископ Зальцбургу — Хартвіг (991—1023)
Герцогство Каринтія — Адальберо (1911—1035)
Кельнське курфюрство — Геріберт (999—1021)
Лужицька марка — Геро Лужицький — західна частина (до 1015); Болеслав I — східна частина (1002—1025)
Архієпископ Майнца Ерканбальд (1011—1021)
Маркграфство Мейсен — Герман I (1009—1038)
Ободрицький союз — Мстислав (995—1019)
Герцогство Саксонія — Бернхард II (1011—1059)
Саксонська марка — Геро II (993—1015)
Герцогство Швабія — Ернст I (1012—1015)
Піренейський півострів
Графство Безалу — Бернард I Таллаферо (988–1020)
Королівство Леон — король Леону Галісії та Астурії Альфонсо V (999—1028)
Коїмбрське графство — Моніо Гонсалвес (981/983-1017)
Кордовський емірат — Гішам II (1010—1013); Сулайман ібн аль-Хакам (1013—1016)
Валенсійська тайфа — Мубарак і Музаффар (1010—1018)
Аркоська тайфа — Мухаммад I аль-Джазарі Імад ад Даула (1011/1012-1029/1030)
Гранадська тайфа — Заві бен Зірі (1013—1019/1020)
Кармонська тайфа — Абдаллах (1013/1014-1023/1024)
Мурсійська тайфа — Хайран (1011—1014)
Толедська тайфа — Ібн Масарра (?-?)
Тортоська тайфа — Лабіб аль-Амірі аль-Фата (1010—1039/1040)
Бадахоська тайфа — Сабур (1012/1013—1022)
Альмерійська тайфа — Афлах (1012—1014)
Королівство Наварра — Санчо III (1000—1035)
Графство Португалія — Альвіто Нунеш (1008—1016)
Польща — Болеслав I Хоробрий (992—1025)
Скандинавія
конунґ данів Свен I Вилобородий (986—1014)
Король Норвегії Свен I Вилобородий (1000—1014)
Швеція — Улоф III Шетконунг (995—1022)
Угорське князівство — король Стефан I Угорський (1000/1001—1038)
Україна — Київський князь Володимир Святославич (979—1015)
Волинське князівство — Всеволод Володимирович (987—1013); Святослав Ярославич (1013—1054)
Овруцьке князівство — Святослав Володимирович (988—1015)
Тмутороканське князівство — Мстислав Хоробрий (988—1023)
Королівство Франція — Роберт II Побожний (987—1031)
Герцогство Аквітанія — Ґійом V Великий (995—1030)
Арелатське королівство — Рудольф III (993—1032)
Графство Булонь — граф Бодуен II (990—1033)
Графство Бургундія — Оттон-Вільгельм (982–1026)
Графство Ванн — Будик (1004/1005-1037/1038)
Герцогство Васконія — герцог Санш VI Ґійом (1009—1032)
Бретонське герцогство — Фульк III Нерра (987—1040)
Голландія — Дірк III (993—1039)
Ено (графство) — Готфрід I (998—1023)
Графство Керсі — Гуго (1010—1053)
Графство Ла Марш — Бернар I (1010/1012-1047)
Нижня Лотарингія — Готфрід I (1012—1023)
Люксембург (графство) — Генріх I (998—1026)
Льєзьке єпископство — Балдерік II Льєзький (1008—1018)
Графство Мен — Гуго III (992-1015)
Монпельє (сеньйорія) — Гільйом I де Монпельє (985—1025)
граф Монса Реньє V (1013—1039)
Намюр (графство) — Роберт II (1011—1018/1031)
Нормандія — Річард II (996—1026)
Савойське графство — Гумберт I (1003—1047/1048)
Графство Тулуза — Гильйом III Тайлефер (978—1037)
Урхельське графство — Ерменгол II (1011—1039)
Фландрія — Балдуїн IV (987—1035)
Графство Фуа — Бернар Роже де Фуа (1011/1012-1036/1038)
Хорватія — Крешимир III (1000—1030) і Гойслав (1000—1020)
Чехія — князь Яромир (1004—1012)
Шотландія
Король Шотландії [ Малкольм II (1005—1034)
Стратклайд — Еоган II (997—1018)
Святий Престол; Папська держава — папа римський Бенедикт VIII (1012—1024)
Вселенський патріарх — Сергій ІІ (998/999-1001/1019)
Тбіліський емірат — Алі II Джафар (981—1032)
Азія
Близький Схід
Фатіміди — Аль-Хакім (996—1021)
Багдадський халіфат — Кадір (991—1031)
Шаріфат Мекки — Абу'л-Фатах аль-Хасан (994—1039)
Дербентський емірат — аль-Мансур I (1001—1034)
Зіядіди — Ібрагім або Абдулла (близько 1012—1018)
Зіяриди — Манучіхр (1012—1031)
Держава Ширваншахів — Язід II (991—1027)
Васпураканське царство — Сенекерім (1003—1021)
Візантія
Карське царство — Абас (984—1029)
Сюнікське царство — Васак (998—1040)
Ташир-Дзорагетська держава — Гагік I (989—1020)
Династія Лі — Лі Тхай То (1009—1028)
Індія
Гуджара-Пратіхари — Раджапала (989—1018)
Гуджарадеша — Дурлабхараджа (1008—1022)
Династія Какатіїв — Бета I (1000—1030/1050)
Камарупа — Ґо Пала (990—1015)
самраат Кашмірської держави (Династія Лохара) — Санграмараджа (1003—1028)
Мевар (князівство) — Нараварман (?-?)
Імперія Пала — Махіпала I (988—1038)
Держава Пандья — підкорено Чолою до 1190
Раджарата — раджа Махінда V (1001—1017)
Династія Тхакурі — Рудрадева I (1008—1015)
Саканбарі — нріпа [ Говіндараджа III (1012—1036)
Західні Чалук'ї — Вікрамадітья V (1008—1014/1015)
Східні Чалук'ї — Вімаладітья (1011—1018)
Чандела — магараджа Джеджа-Бхукті Від'ядхара (1002/1003-1035)
магараджа держави Чеді й Дагали Коккала II (990—1015)
Чола — Раджараджа Чола I (985—1014)
Династія Шахі (Кабулшахи, Індошахи) — Трилочанапала (1011—1022)
Індонезія
Матарам — Дармавангса (990—1006/1016)
Сунда — Прабу Діва Санг'ян (1012—1019)
Шривіджая — Шрі Маравіджаятунггаварман (1004/1006-1017)
Китай
Далі — до 1081 невідомо
ідикут Кучі — до 1126 — невідомі
Династія Ляо — Єлюй Лунсюй (982—1031)
Династія Сун — Чжао Хен (997—1022)
Корея
Корьо — Хьонджон (1009—1031)
Паган — король Чунсо Чаунґп'ю (1001—1021)
Персія і Середня Азія
Баванди — Абу Джафар Мухаммад (? — 1027)
Буїди — Султан ад-Даула (1012—1024)
Газневіди — Махмуд Газневі (998—1030)
Какуїди — Мухаммад Душманзіяр (1008—1041)
Мамуніди — Мамун II (1009—1017)
Раввадіди — Мамлан I (988—1019)
Саларіди — Марзубан II ібн Ісмаїл (979? — до 1050)
Шеддадіди — Фадл I (Фазлун I) ібн Мухаммад (985—1031)
Кхмерська імперія — Шрі Маравіджаятунггаварман (1006/1011-1017/1025)
Середня Азія
Караханідська держава — Ахмад Арслан-хан (998—1017)
Японія — Імператор Сандзьо (1011—1016)
Африка
Берегвати — ?
Зіріди — Бадіс ібн аль-Мансур (995—1016)
Макурія — Стефанос (?1006 — ?1027)
Сіджильмаський емірат — Ванудіе ібн Хазрун (999—1020; втретє)
Фатіміди — Аль-Хакім (996—1021)
Феський емірат — Аль-Муїзз ібн Зірі (999—1026)
Королівство Шоа — амір Ейдал (?-?)
Керівники держав за роками
|
61671394
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Court%20of%20Thorns%20and%20Roses
|
A Court of Thorns and Roses
|
A Court of Thorns and Roses is a series by American author Sarah J. Maas, which follows the journey of Feyre Archeron after she is brought into the faerie lands of Prythian. The first book of the series, A Court of Thorns and Roses, was released in May 2015. The series centers on Feyre's adventures across Prythian and the faerie courts, following the epic love story and fierce struggle that ensues after she enters the fae lands.
The series is a New York Times Best Seller and has been optioned by Hulu for a television series adaptation by Ronald D. Moore.
Books
Main
Companions
A Court of Thorns and Roses Coloring Book (2017)
Development
Maas initially intended the series as a retelling of the fairy tales Beauty and the Beast, East of the Sun and West of the Moon, and Tam Lin. These tales inspired the finished series, though it was not ultimately a dedicated retelling.
She began writing A Court of Thorns and Roses in early 2009, with the first draft taking about five weeks to complete.
A Court of Mist and Furys first draft was written entirely in a split point of view between Feyre and Rhysand. The second book went through multiple name changes, including A Court of Wind and Stone, A Court of Calm and Fury, A Court of Stars and Smoke, A Court of Wings and Stars, A Court of Venom and Silver and A Court of Stars and Frost. Like the first novel, the second is based upon multiple fairy tales and myths, including Hades and Persephone, where the Greek mythology-inspired characters such as Rhysand and Feyre and their home in the Night Court. Other fairy tale inspirations include Hansel and Gretel, which spawned the character of the Weaver, and the Book of Exodus, which loosely inspired parts of the backstory for Miryam and Drakon.
The final cover of A Court of Wings and Ruin was designed by Adrian Dadich, with the dress pictured on the cover originally designed by Charlie Bowater and later adapted by Dadich.
On July 12, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Maas was writing five new books for the series, that would include two novellas and three further novels which would be set before and after the first trilogy.
In 2020, the series was reprinted and published by Bloomsbury with new illustrated covers. A Court of Thorns and Roses has existed in the gray area between Young Adult and New Adult fiction since the publication of the first book. At the time A Court of Thorns and Roses was published, the New Adult categorization had not caught on the way publishers hoped it would. Maas agreed to publish the book as YA so long as her editor did not censor any of the sexual content. The A Court of Thorns and Roses series is now firmly classified as New Adult.
Reception
Awards
Accolades
Censorship in the United States
In 2022, according to the American Library Association's Office of Intellectual Freedom, A Court of Mist and Fury was tied for the tenth-most banned and challenged book in the United States. In 2023 a school district in Mason City, Iowa, made international news when they banned the book from library shelves after running a list of books through ChatGPT and asking it if the books, "contain a description or depiction of a sex act."
In February of 2024, individuals in the Rutherford County Schools (Tennessee) library system were "...quietly instructed by higher ups to remove 20 books from all RCS library shelves", with the entirety of this five book series being included among those twenty selections; an internal review by RCS determined that two of those twenty titles did not meet the standard for obscenity as defined by Tennessee state law and were accordingly allowed to remain upon school shelves. The removal of the eighteen remaining books occurred without seeking input from librarians and without due process policy for the school system being applied; as of mid-March 2024, all of those eighteen books (still including this entire series) remain off RCS shelves. The Rutherford County Library Alliance, a nonprofit organization whose mission statement defines them as being "...dedicated to safeguarding the principles of intellectual freedom and unrestricted access to information within the public library system of Rutherford County, Tennessee", is in the process of challenging this censorship.
Adaptations
A Court of Thorns and Roses was optioned by Jo Bamford's and Piers Tempest's Tempo Productions in November 2015. The producers revealed in 2018 they had hired Rachel Hirons to work as the movie's screenwriter.
In March 2021, it was announced that A Court of Thorns and Roses series had been opted for a television adaptation by 20th Television for Hulu. The series is set to be developed by Ronald D. Moore alongside Maas. In an interview with The New York Times, Maas confirmed that she was developing the project with the writers and the showrunner as the executive producer of the adaptation. As of December 2023, no cast had been set, but writing for the script has continued for the adaptation. In February 2024, it was announced By TVLine that the adaptation has been scrapped and will not be shopped to other networks; however, Variety reported that these reports were inaccurate.
References
Book series introduced in 2012
Fantasy novel series
American fantasy novels
Novels set in fictional countries
Young adult fantasy novels
Censored books
Bloomsbury Publishing books
Romance novel series
Novels about magic
American romance novels
Novels about fairies
|
19766645
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309%20Irish%20Cup
|
2008–09 Irish Cup
|
2008–09 Irish Cup
The 2008–09 Irish Cup was the 129th edition of the Irish Cup, Northern Ireland's premier football knock-out cup competition. The competition began on 25 October 2008 with the first round and ended on 9 May 2009 with the final.
Linfield were the defending champions, winning their third consecutive Irish Cup the previous season after a 2–1 win over Coleraine in the 2008 final. This season they reached the semi-finals, but were defeated by Cliftonville. Crusaders went on to lift the trophy, beating Cliftonville 1–0 in the final. In doing so, they earned a place in the second qualifying round of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League.
Results
First round
The matches were played on 25 October and 1 November 2008.
|}
Second round
The games were played on 22 November 2008.
|}
Third round
In this round entered winners from the Second Round as well as all 17 teams from IFA Championship. The games were played on 13 December 2008.
|}
Fourth round
In this round entered winners from the Third Round as well as all 12 teams from IFA Premiership. The games were played on 17 January 2009.
|}
Replays
|}
Fifth round
In this round entered the sixteen winners from the Fourth Round. The matches were played on 14 February 2009.
|}
Quarter-finals
Semi-finals
Replay
Final
References
2008-09
2008–09 domestic association football cups
2008–09 in Northern Ireland association football
2008 in Northern Ireland sport
2009 in Northern Ireland sport
|
55882921
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bozhenishki%20Urvich
|
Bozhenishki Urvich
|
Bozhenishki Urvich is a ruined fortress on the northern slopes of Lakavishki ridge in the western Balkan Mountains/ Stara Planina(Old Mountain), 3 km south of village Bozhenitsa and 20 km from the town of Botevgrad, Bulgaria. It is situated at an elevation of 750 m.
An asphalt road leads to the resting base "Urvich". From there, a marked path leads to the remains of the fortress. The path takes around 20 minutes by foot. The secrets of the fortress were discovered in 1918, when, after a storm, people discovered a medieval inscription among the roots of a fallen tree.
The Bozhenishki inscription was first read and interpreted by Academician Petar Mutafchiev. He noted that the author (the hewer) of the inscription "has not thought about the size of the surface. He started with large letters and started decreasing the size of the letters and increasing the length of the rows as he noticed there is not enough space...". The inscription reads:
Аз Драгомир писах. Аз, севаст Огнян, бях при цар Шишман кефалия и много зло патих. В това време турците воюваха. Аз поддържах вярата на Шишмана царя. (Bulgarian)"I, Dragomir, had written. I, sevast Ognyan, was a kephale of Emperor Shishman and took a great evil. At the same time Turks were fighting. I kept my faith in Emperor Shishman."
According to the explorers, "with its exclusiveness, from both a historical and a philological point of view, the Bozhenishki inscription of sevast Ognyan enriches the «stone archive» of Medieval Bulgaria.".
According to archaeological studies conducted in 1972, the place has been inhabited since the prehistory, but the first fortress equipment dates from around 5th-6th centuries, when it represented a unit of the Early Byzantine defense system. The peak of fortress development was around 13-14 centuries during the Second Bulgarian Empire, when outer wall was erected. The wall acted as a barrier from the north, where the only entrance from the village of Bozhenitsa is situated.
By the end of 14th century, the fortress served as the headquarters of boyar Ognen (Ognyan), a local governor (kephale) during the rule of Emperor Ivan Shishman (r. 1371–1395). One of the most notable points of interest is a 10 meter deep water cistern, as well as the cave chapel inside the fortress. A trove of silver coins, dating from the reign of Ivan Shishman, was uncovered near the gates at the depth of 0.2-1.5 m. Hundreds of arrow and spear heads, as well as skeletons of soldiers, have been discovered buried near the walls. They testify the fight between sevast Ognyan and the Turks around 1395.
In 1966 the medieval fortress was declared as a site of national significance.
References
Botevgrad Municipality
Buildings and structures in Sofia Province
Castles in Bulgaria
Balkan mountains
|
3908148
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%B4
|
Ніклозамід
|
Ніклозамід — синтетичний протигельмінтний препарат, який є похідним саліцилової кислоти, та застосовується перорально. Ніклозамід застосовується з 1958 року. Препарат входить до переліку основних лікарських засобів, розробленого ВООЗ. Станом на серпень 2020 року ніклозамід не зареєстрований в Україні.
Фармакологічні властивості
Ніклозамід — синтетичний протигельмінтний препарат, який є похідним саліцилової кислоти. Механізм дії препарату полягає в порушенні метаболізму глюкози, порушенні окисного фосфорилювання та анаеробного метаболізму цестод. Ніклозамід застосовується при дифілоботріозі, гіменолепідозі та теніаринхозі. Ніклозамід неефективний при ентеробіозі та нематодозах. Проте препарат небажаний при теніозі, оскільки може спричинити виникнення цистицеркозу. Ніклозамід ефективний також при гельмінтозах у низки тварин.
Побічна дія
При застосуванні ніклозаміду можуть спостерігатись наступні побічні ефекти: нудота, блювання, біль у животі, запор та свербіж шкіри. Рідше спостерігається запаморочення, шкірний висип, сонливість, перианальний свербіж або неприємний смак у роті.
Експериментальне застосування
Ніклозамід вивчається як потенційний препарат для лікування низки форм раку. Ніклозамід разом з іншим протигельмінтним препаратом оксиклозанідом за результатами клінічних досліджень є активним як in vivo, так і in vitro проти метициліно-резистентних штамів Staphylococcus aureus. Кілька медичних компаній повідомили про ефективність ніклозаміду в лікуванні коронавірусної хвороби 2019.
Примітки
Посилання
Ніклозамід безводний // ФЕ
Никлозамид
Протигельмінтні препарати
Лікарські засоби за алфавітом
Основні ліки ВООЗ
|
6930411
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20route%20E762
|
European route E762
|
European route E762
European route E 762 is a road part of the International E-road network. It begins in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and officially ends at the border between Montenegro and Albania. In Albania, some road signs indicate the route heading towards Tirana.
Route
Sarajevo
Foča
: Šćepan Polje - Podgorica
: Podgorica
: Podgorica - Božaj
References
External links
UN Economic Commission for Europe: Overall Map of E-road Network (2007)
International E-road network
799762
E762
E762
E762
|
1585344
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D0%BE%20%28%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%29
|
Сяо (музичний інструмент)
|
Сяо (музичний інструмент)
Сяо (вимовляється ) — китайська вертикальна флейта. Зазвичай, виробляється з темно-коричневого бамбуку (називають «фіолетовий бамбук» китайською). Крім того, іноді (зокрема в Тайвань) називається Dongxiao, dòng означає «дірки». Стародавня назва Сяо shùdí (竖 笛, буквально — «Вертикальна бамбукова флейта»), тоді як назва Сяо в давнину стосувалася також флейти Ді.
Існує багато різновидів Сяо. Найпоширеніший із них завдовжки 75-80 см, має 6 отворів і пентатонічний звукоряд, що починається від ре першої октави. Сучасні моделі інколи мають 8 отворів. Тримають інструмент під кутом приблизно 45° до корпусу.
Посилання
Xiao page сайту Paul and Bernice Noll
Xiao відео
Китайські народні інструменти
Дерев'яні духові музичні інструменти
|
3087534
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81
|
Гармс
|
Гармс
Ребекка Гармс (нім. Rebecca Harms; народилася 7 грудня 1956, Гамброк біля Ільцена) — німецький політик (Союз 90/Партія Зелених) і режисер документаліст.
Герман Гармс, Теодор Гармс (нім. Hermann August Theodor Harms або нім. Hermann Harms, 16 липня 1870 — 27 листопада 1942) — німецький ботанік.
Лі Ґармс (англ. Lee Garmes; 27 травня 1898 — 31 серпня 1978) — американський кінооператор.
|
28622885
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20US%20Open%20%E2%80%93%20Women%27s%20doubles
|
2010 US Open – Women's doubles
|
2010 US Open – Women's doubles
Serena Williams and Venus Williams were the defending champions. However, Serena withdrew from the tournament because of a foot injury and Venus chose to participate in the singles event only. Vania King and Yaroslava Shvedova defeated Liezel Huber and Nadia Petrova 2–6, 6–4, 7–6(7–4) in the final. This match was played over two days due to heavy rainfall on September 12.
Seeds
Draw
Finals
Top half
Section 1
Section 2
Bottom half
Section 3
Section 4
External links
Main draw
2010 US Open – Women's draws and results at the International Tennis Federation
Women's Doubles
US Open (tennis) by year – Women's doubles
2010 in women's tennis
2010 in American women's sports
|
44969924
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%20WTA%20Tour
|
2016 WTA Tour
|
2016 WTA Tour
The 2016 WTA Tour was the elite professional tennis circuit organised by the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) for the 2016 tennis season. The 2016 WTA Tour calendar comprises the Grand Slam tournaments (supervised by the International Tennis Federation (ITF), the WTA Premier tournaments (Premier Mandatory, Premier 5, and regular Premier), the WTA International tournaments, the Fed Cup (organized by the ITF), the year-end championships (the WTA Tour Championships and the WTA Elite Trophy). Also included in the 2016 calendar is the Summer Olympic Games and Hopman Cup, which were organized by the ITF and did not distribute ranking points.
Schedule
This is the complete schedule of events on the 2016 calendar, with player progression documented from the quarterfinals stage.
Key
Note: In the Champions and Runners-up columns, a tournament's results in doubles are also included.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
Statistical information
These tables present the number of singles (S), doubles (D), and mixed doubles (X) titles won by each player and each nation during the season, within all the tournament categories of the 2016 WTA Tour: the Grand Slam tournaments, the tennis event at the Rio de Janeiro Summer Olympic Games, the year-end championships (the WTA Tour Championships and the Tournament of Champions), the WTA Premier tournaments (Premier Mandatory, Premier 5, and regular Premier), and the WTA International tournaments. The players/nations are sorted by: 1) total number of titles (a doubles title won by two players representing the same nation counts as only one win for the nation); 2) cumulated importance of those titles (one Grand Slam win equalling two Premier Mandatory/Premier 5 wins, one year-end championships win equalling one-and-a-half Premier Mandatory/Premier 5 win, one Premier Mandatory/Premier 5 win equalling two Premier wins, one Olympic win equalling one-and-a-half Premier win, one Premier win equalling two International wins); 3) a singles > doubles > mixed doubles hierarchy; 4) alphabetical order (by family names for players).
Key
Titles won by player
Titles won by nation
Titles information
The following players won their first main circuit title in singles, doubles, or mixed doubles:
Singles
Irina Falconi – Bogotá (draw)
Çağla Büyükakçay – İstanbul (draw)
Viktorija Golubic – Gstaad (draw)
Laura Siegemund – Båstad (draw)
Johanna Konta – Stanford (draw)
Duan Yingying – Nanchang (draw)
Christina McHale – Tokyo (draw)
Océane Dodin – Quebec City (draw)
Kristýna Plíšková – Tashkent (draw)
Peng Shuai – Tianjin (draw)
Doubles
Elise Mertens – Auckland (draw)
Han Xinyun – Hobart (draw)
Christina McHale – Hobart (draw)
Verónica Cepede Royg – Rio de Janeiro (draw)
Varatchaya Wongteanchai – Kuala Lumpur (draw)
Yang Zhaoxuan – Kuala Lumpur (draw)
CoCo Vandeweghe – Indian Wells (draw)
Eri Hozumi – Katowice (draw)
Miyu Kato – Katowice (draw)
Andreea Mitu – İstanbul (draw)
İpek Soylu – İstanbul (draw)
Xenia Knoll – Rabat (draw)
Jessica Moore – Bucharest (draw)
Lu Jingjing – Nanchang (draw)
Makoto Ninomiya – Tokyo (draw)
Kirsten Flipkens – Seoul (draw)
Mixed doubles
Elena Vesnina – Australian Open (draw)
Heather Watson – Wimbledon (draw)
Laura Siegemund – US Open (draw)
The following players defended a main circuit title in singles, doubles, or mixed doubles:
Singles
Angelique Kerber – Stuttgart (draw)
Serena Williams – Wimbledon (draw)
Svetlana Kuznetsova – Moscow (draw)
Doubles
Martina Hingis – Brisbane (draw)
Sania Mirza – Sydney (draw)
Top 10 entry
The following players entered the top 10 for the first time in their careers:
Singles
Belinda Bencic (enters at #9 on February 15)
Roberta Vinci (enters at #10 on February 22)
Madison Keys (enters at #10 on June 20)
Johanna Konta (enters at #9 on October 10)
Doubles
Caroline Garcia (enters at #9 on May 9)
WTA rankings
These are the WTA rankings of the top 20 singles players, doubles players, and the top 10 doubles teams on the WTA Tour, of the 2016 season.
Singles
Number 1 ranking
Doubles
Number 1 ranking
Prize money leaders
Angelique Kerber topped the 2016 money list and joined Serena Williams as the only two women to ever win over $10,000,000 in a single season. Additionally, Kerber became the 15th WTA player to win $20,000,000 in career earnings. The top-32 players earned over $1,000,000. Bethanie Mattek-Sands won $1,088,600 in doubles tournaments. It was the 3rd consecutive year that a player earned over $1,000,000 in doubles events.
Statistics leaders
Points distribution
* Assumes undefeated round robin match record.
WTA fan polls
Player of the month
Breakthrough of the month
Shot of the month
Retirements
Following is a list of notable players (winners of a main tour title, and/or part of the WTA rankings top 100 (singles) or (doubles) for at least one week) who announced their retirement from professional tennis, became inactive (after not playing for more than 52 weeks), or were permanently banned from playing, during the 2016 season:
Sofia Arvidsson (born 16 February 1984, in Halmstad, Sweden) – She decided to retire in January 2016 at the age of 31.
Gabriela Chmelinová (born 2 June 1976 in Prague, Czechoslovakia) – Chmelinová announced her retirement from professional tennis in 2016.
Lourdes Domínguez Lino (born 31 March 1981 in Pontevedra, Spain) – She decided to retire in November 2016 at the age of 35.
Maureen Drake (born 21 March 1971 in Toronto, Canada) – She announced her second and permanent retirement from professional tennis in August 2016.
Janette Husárová (born 4 June 1974 in Bratislava, Slovakia) – In February 2016 Husárová announced her retirement from professional tennis.
Ana Ivanovic (born 6 November 1987 in Belgrade, Serbia) – The former world number 1 announced her retirement from professional tennis December 2016.
Klaudia Jans-Ignacik (born 24 September 1984 in Gdynia, Poland) – She announced her retirement from professional tennis in August 2016.
Mathilde Johansson (born 28 April 1985, in Boulogne-Billancourt, France) – Johansson played her final match in the singles 2016 French Open qualifications.
Sandra Klemenschits (born 13 November 1982 in Salzburg, Austria) – She announced her retirement from professional tennis in October 2016.
Maria Kondratieva (born 17 January 1982 in Moscow, Russia) – Kondratieva announced her retirement from professional tennis in 2016.
Klára Koukalová (born 24 February 1982 in Prague, Czech Republic) – She announced her retirement from professional tennis in September 2016.
Petra Rampre (born 20 January 1980 in Ljubljana, Slovenia) – Rampre announced her retirement from professional tennis in 2016.
Tamarine Tanasugarn (born 24 May 1977, in Los Angeles, United States) – She announced her retirement from professional tennis in June 2016.
Vladimíra Uhlířová (born 4 May 1978 in České Budějovice, Czechoslovakia) – She announced her retirement from professional tennis in January 2016.
Nicole Vaidišová (born 23 April 1989 in Nuremberg, West Germany) – She announced her second and permanent retirement from professional tennis in July 2016.
Stephanie Vogt (born 15 February 1990 in Vaduz, Liechtenstein) – She announced her retirement from professional tennis in August 2016.
Yan Zi (born 12 November 1984 in Sichuan, China) – Yan Zi announced her retirement from professional tennis in 2016.
See also
2016 ATP World Tour
2016 WTA 125K series
2016 ITF Women's Circuit
Women's Tennis Association
International Tennis Federation
References
External links
Women's Tennis Association (WTA) official website
International Tennis Federation (ITF) official website
Wta Tour
|
76662
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82
|
Командно-диспетчерський пункт
|
Командно-диспетчерський пункт (аббр. КДП, розмовн. вежа, башта, вишка) — елемент летовища, споруда зі спеціально обладнаним приміщеннями на території аеродрому, з якої здійснюються централізоване керування повітряним рухом в районі аеродрому, в зоні зльоту і посадки повітряних суден, а також контроль за повітряним рухом в межах визначених кордонів у районі диспетчерської служби. Групу посадових осіб функціонально підготовлених для керування повітряним рухом, називають групою керівництва польотами (ГКП).
На невеликих аеродромах спортивної або легкомоторної авіації, а також у вертолітних частинах, може застосовуватися термін СКП (стартово-командний пункт).
Призначення та будова КДП
Як правило, командно-диспетчерський пункт розташовується в спеціально побудованій багатоповерховій капітальній споруді баштового типу специфічної архітектури з великою площею скління, «ліхтар» якої забезпечує огляд аеродрому й повітряної зони в межах, встановлених для диспетчерів стартового пункту й пункту рулювання. Саме через цю особливість на жаргоні, вона називається вишкою або баштою.
На командно-диспетчерському пункті знаходяться авіадиспетчери-фахівці служби руху і група керівництва польотами. З КДП здійснюється керування рухом літальних апаратів в зоні відповідальності, а також пересуванням спецавтотранспорту по території аеродрому. На КДП здійснюється оформлення передполітної і післяполітної документації, передполітна підготовка екіпажів, підготовка й планування польотів; збирається, обробляється і доводиться до командного, льотного і диспетчерського складу метеоінформація. З КДП здійснюється дистанційне керування й контроль за радіотехнічним і світлосигнальним обладнанням аеропорту.
Склад командно-диспетчерського пункту
Зазвичай до складу КДП входять диспетчерські пункти:
районний центр єдиної системи керування повітряним рухом (РДЦ) або районний диспетчерський пункт (РДП),
командно-диспетчерський пункт місцевих повітряних ліній (КДП МПЛ) і стартовий диспетчерський пункт місцевих повітряних ліній (СДП МПЛ),
диспетчерський пункт підходу або головний диспетчерський пункт підходу (ДПП),
диспетчерський пункт кола (ДПК) і диспетчерський пункт кола місцевих повітряних ліній (ДПК МПЛ),
диспетчерський пункт системи посадки (ДПСП),
пункт диспетчера посадки (ПДП)
диспетчерський пункт рулювання (ДПР),
стартовий диспетчерський пункт (СДП) і допоміжний стартовий диспетчерський пункт (ДСДП),
аеродромний диспетчерський пункт (АДП),
допоміжний диспетчерський пункт (ДДП).
До диспетчерів аеродрому належать диспетчери ДПР, СДП, ДСДП, КДП МПЛ та СДП МПЛ.
Залежно від найбільшого числа літальних апаратів, що обслуговують за годину (у тому числі їх зльотів і посадок на аеродромі) і тих, які пролітають крізь зону району диспетчерської служби, КДП розподіляються на шість розрядів (КДП-I, КДП-II, КДП-III тощо).
«Острів» на авіаносцях
КДП потрібен і на авіаносних кораблях. Для забезпечення найбільш можливої корисної площі польотної палуби, КДП, ГКП і антени РЛС розміщуються на так званому «острові» — єдиній надпалубній надбудові. «Острів», як правило, розташовується по правому борту. Інше обладнання корабля розташовується з боків корпусу нижче рівня польотної палуби.
Див. також
Аеродром
Аеропорт
Радар
Організація потоків повітряного руху
Авіадиспетчер
Злітно-посадкова смуга
Примітки
Джерела
Звід авіаційних правил України. АПУ 1. Авіаційний персонал.
Военный энциклопедический словарь. — под. ред. Н. В. Огаркова. — Москва: Военное издательство, 1983. — 863 с. — ISBN ББК 68я2 В63
Командно-диспетчерський пункт. Енциклопедія «Авіація»
Наказ держслужби безпеки авіації від 25.10.2005 № 796 «Про затвердження Правил сертифікації цивільних аеродромів України»
Аеродромна інфраструктура
Диспетчеризація
|
5260924
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%20%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%20%D0%B4%D0%B5%20%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0
|
Даніель Варела де Піна
|
Даніель Варела де Піна (7 серпня 1996) — боксер з Кабо-Верде.
Аматорська кар'єра
На Олімпійських іграх 2020 програв у першому бою Шахобідіну Зоїрову (Узбекистан).
На чемпіонаті світу 2023 програв Джабалі Бріді (Барбадос).
Посилання
На сайті olympedia
Боксери найлегшої ваги
Боксери на літніх Олімпійських іграх 2020
Боксери на літніх Олімпійських іграх 2024
|
750541
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C
|
Мюроль
|
Мюроль — муніципалітет у Франції, у регіоні Овернь-Рона-Альпи, департамент Пюї-де-Дом;
Мюроль — муніципалітет у Франції, у регіоні Окситанія, департамент Аверон.
Мюроль — історичний замок у департаменті Пюї-де-Дом, регіон Овернь-Рона-Альпи, Історична пам'ятка Франції національного значення.
Мюроль (сир) — сорт сиру.
|
22385176
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenwood%20Limited
|
Kenwood Limited
|
Kenwood Limited is a British kitchen appliances manufacturer based in Havant, Hampshire. Kenwood designs, produces and sells kitchen appliances including stand mixers, blenders, food processors, kettles and toasters.
The company was founded by Kenneth Maynard Wood in 1947 in the town of Woking at 79 Goldsworth Road. In 1962 the company moved to Havant where they currently maintain operations.
History
1940s
The first Kenwood product was a toaster invented by Kenneth Wood, which was brought to market in 1947, known as the A100.
1950s–1960s
Three years later in 1950, the first version of the Kenwood Chef Kitchen machine was launched at the Ideal Home Exhibition.
1970s–1980s
The company's first food processor was launched in 1979.
In 1989, the business invested in its first factory in China.
1990s – present
In 1997, at the age of 81, Kenneth Wood died following a short illness.
In 2001, Italian rival small appliance maker De'Longhi bought the Kenwood company for £45.9 million (about $66.7 million).
The Kenwood Chef's original designer, Kenneth Grange, was knighted in 2013 for his services to design.
Products
Kenwood's products include the following categories:
Kitchen machines
Food and drink preparation (Food processors, blenders, juicers)
Breakfast (Kettles, toasters, coffee makers)
References
External links
Ken Wood in Making the Modern World
Kenwood UK website
British companies established in 1947
Kitchenware brands
Home appliance manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Manufacturing companies established in 1947
Companies based in Hampshire
Havant
1947 establishments in England
De'Longhi
British subsidiaries of foreign companies
2001 mergers and acquisitions
|
16885554
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Pixar%20films
|
List of Pixar films
|
List of Pixar films
Pixar Animation Studios is an American CGI film production company based in Emeryville, California, United States. Pixar has produced 28 feature films, which were all released by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through the Walt Disney Pictures banner, with their first being Toy Story (which was also the first theatrically released CGI-animated feature ever released) on November 22, 1995, and their latest being Inside Out 2 on June 14, 2024.
Their upcoming slate of films includes Elio in 2025, and Toy Story 5 in 2026. Additionally, a release date on March 6, 2026 has been reserved for another Pixar film.
Films
Released
Upcoming
In-development projects
Additionally, Enrico Casarosa, Daniel Chong, Aphton Corbin, Brian Fee, Kristen Lester, Dan Scanlon, Domee Shi and Rosana Sullivan have been working on their respective untitled feature films, all of which would be based upon original ideas.
In November 2023, Creative Director of the Cars franchise Jay Ward said he was working on multiple projects for the franchise.
Production cycle
In July 2013, then-Pixar president Edwin Catmull said that the studio planned to release one original film each year, and a sequel every other year, as part of a strategy to release "one and a half movies a year." On July 3, 2016, Pixar's current president Jim Morris announced that the studio might be moving away from sequels after Toy Story 4 and Pixar was only developing original ideas with five films in development at the time of the announcement.
Cancelled projects
Monkey
Back when Pixar was still a part of Lucasfilm in 1985, they started pre-production on a film called Monkey. After they spun off as a new company in 1986, they were still working on it. In the end, they realized they had to abandon it because of technical limitations.
The Yellow Car
In 1995, Jorgen Klubien started writing a script for a film titled The Yellow Car. He wrote the first draft of the script with Joe Ranft. Then in 1998, the film was scrapped in favor of Toy Story 2'''s 1999 release. The Yellow Car would eventually be reworked into Cars in 2001 then released in 2006.
1906
In 2005, Pixar began collaborating with Disney and Warner Bros. on a live-action film adaptation of James Dalessandro's novel 1906, with Brad Bird announced as the director. It would have marked Pixar's first involvement in a live-action production and their first collaboration with a major production company other than Disney. Disney and Pixar left the project due to script problems and an estimated budget of $200 million, and it is in limbo at Warner Bros. However, in June 2018, Bird mentioned the possibility of adapting the novel as a TV series, and the earthquake sequence as a live-action feature film.
Newt
A Pixar film titled Newt (which was set to be directed by Gary Rydstrom) was announced in April 2008, with Pixar planning to release it in 2011, which was later delayed to 2012, but it had finally been canceled by early 2010. John Lasseter noted that the film's proposed plot line was similar to another film, Blue Sky Studios' Rio, which was released in 2011. In a March 2014 interview, Pixar president Edwin Catmull stated that Newt was an idea that was not working in pre-production. When the project was passed to Pete Docter, the director of Monsters, Inc. and Up, he pitched an idea that Pixar thought was better, and that concept became Inside Out.
ShadeMaker
In 2010, Henry Selick formed a joint venture with Pixar called Cinderbiter Productions, which was to exclusively produce stop-motion films. Its first project under the deal, a film titled ShadeMaker was set to be released on October 4, 2013, but was canceled in August 2012 due to creative differences. Selick was given the option to shop ShadeMaker (now titled The Shadow King) to other studios. Selick later stated in interviews that the film suffered from interference from John Lasseter who Selick claimed came in and constantly changed elements of the script and production that ended up raising the budget that would lead to its cancelation. By November 2022, Selick had reacquired the rights for The Shadow King from Disney and that he may revive the project.
The Graveyard Book
In April 2012, Walt Disney Pictures acquired the rights and hired Henry Selick, director of The Nightmare Before Christmas and the film adaptation of Gaiman's novel Coraline, to direct The Graveyard Book. The film was moved to Pixar as a stop-motion production, which would have been the company's first adapted work. After the studio and Selick parted ways over scheduling and development, it was announced in January 2013 that Ron Howard would direct the film. In July 2022, it was announced that Marc Forster will direct the adaptation with a screenplay by David Magee under Walt Disney Studios.
Circle Seven Animation projects
In addition, when the now-defunct Circle Seven Animation was open, there were plans for sequels to Finding Nemo (for which Pixar made their own sequel, Finding Dory) and Monsters, Inc. (for which Pixar made a prequel, Monsters University), as well as a different version of Toy Story 3. Pixar's later sequels had no basis in Circle Seven's projects, and were created completely separately.
Co-productionBuzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins is an animated direct-to-video film and a spin-off of the Toy Story franchise produced by Walt Disney Television Animation with an opening sequence created by Pixar. The film was released on August 8, 2000, and led to a television series called, Buzz Lightyear of Star Command with Pixar creating the CGI portion of the opening theme.A Spark Story is a feature-length documentary film co-produced by Pixar, Disney+, and Supper Club. The film centers on directors Aphton Corbin and Louis Gonzales as they work to bring their SparkShorts projects Twenty Something and Nona to the screen.
Collaboration
Pixar assisted in the English localization of several Studio Ghibli films, mainly those from Hayao Miyazaki.
Pixar was brought on board to fine tune the script of The Muppets. The film was released on November 23, 2011.
Pixar assisted with the story development for The Jungle Book, as well as providing suggestions for the film's end credits sequence. The film was released on April 15, 2016. Additional special thanks credit was given to Mark Andrews.Mary Poppins Returns includes a sequence combining live-action and traditional hand-drawn animation. The animation was supervised by Ken Duncan and James Baxter. Over 70 animators specializing in hand-drawn 2D animation from Pixar and Walt Disney Animation Studios were recruited for the sequence. The film was released on December 19, 2018.
Related productionsPlanes is a spin-off of the Cars franchise, produced by the now defunct DisneyToon Studios and co-written and executive produced by John Lasseter. The film was conceived from the short film Air Mater, which introduces aspects of Planes and ends with a hint of the film. It was released on August 9, 2013. A sequel, Planes: Fire & Rescue, was released on July 18, 2014. A Planes spin-off film was announced in July 2017, with a release date of April 12, 2019, but was removed from the release schedule on March 1, 2018. The film was eventually canceled when DisneyToon Studios was shut down on June 28, 2018.Ralph Breaks the Internet, produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and co-executive produced by Lasseter, features Kelly Macdonald reprising her role as Merida from Brave, as well as a cameo from Tim Allen reprising his role (via archive recordings) as Buzz Lightyear from the Toy Story franchise, and a sample of Patrick Doyle's score from Brave''. The film, released on November 21, 2018, also features many visual references to Pixar and its films. Additionally, Andrew Stanton received a "Narrative Guru" credit.
Reception
Box office
Critical and public response
Academy Awards
See also
List of Pixar shorts
List of computer-animated films
List of Blue Sky Studios productions
List of Walt Disney Animation Studios films
List of Disney theatrical animated feature films
List of 20th Century Studios theatrical animated feature films
References
External links
Pixar
Pixar animated films
Films
Pixar
Lists of films by studio
American films by studio
Walt Disney Pictures animated films
el:Pixar Animation Studios#Ταινίες
|
4302993
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C
|
Білокрутець
|
Білокрутець — присілок у складі Бабушкінського району Вологодської області, Росія. Входить до складу Підболотного сільського поселення.
Населення
Населення — 17 осіб (2010; 26 у 2002).
Національний склад (станом на 2002 рік):
росіяни — 100 %
Джерела
Примітки
Посилання
На Вікімапії
Населені пункти Бабушкінського району (Вологодська область)
Присілки Вологодської області
|
5063112
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F%20iKon
|
Дискографія iKon
|
Дискографія iKon
Південнокорейський бой-бенд iKon випустив чотири студійні альбоми, чотири мініальбомів, одина збірка, один концертний альбом, один сингл-альбом і вісімнадцять синглів.
Альбоми
Студійні альбоми
Перевидання
Збірки
Концертні альбоми
Мініальбоми
Сингл-альбоми
Сингли
Інші пісні у чартах
Нотатки
Примітки
Посилання
iKon
iKon
|
2047709
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85
|
Фішах
|
Фішах — громада в Німеччині, знаходиться в землі Баварія. Підпорядковується адміністративному округу Швабія. Входить до складу району Аугсбург.
Площа — 30,10 км2. Населення становить ос. (станом на ).
Географія
Адміністративний поділ
Громада складається з 11 районів:
Аретсрід
Ельмішванг
Іцлісгофен
Фішах
Гаймберг
Райтенбух
Зігертсгофен
Тодтеншлойле
Тронетсгофен
Вілльматсгофен
Волльметсгофен.
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт
Громади Баварії
|
15783347
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montureux-l%C3%A8s-Baulay
|
Montureux-lès-Baulay
|
Montureux-lès-Baulay (literally Montureux near Baulay) is a commune in the Haute-Saône department in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in eastern France.
See also
Communes of the Haute-Saône department
References
Communes of Haute-Saône
|
292810
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%20%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
|
Брусилов Олексій Олексійович
|
Брусилов Олексій Олексійович
Олексій Олексійович Брусилов (Тифліс, нині Тбілісі — , Москва) — російський військовий діяч, генерал від кавалерії (1912).
Біографія
1872 року закінчив Пажеський корпус. Проходив військову службу на Кавказі. Був учасником російсько-османської війни 1877—1878 років.
1883 року закінчив кавалерійську школу в Санкт-Петербурзі. Надалі був її викладачем, а від 1902 року — начальником цієї школи.
У 1906—1914 роках Брусилов — начальник 2-ї гвардійської кавалерійської дивізії, командир 14-го армійського корпусу, помічник командира Варшавського військового округу, командир 12-го армійського корпусу. Один рік проживав у Вінниці.
Учасник Першої світової війни. Командував 8-ю армією. Від березня 1916 року був головнокомандувачем Південно-Західного фронту, війська якого в травні — серпні 1916 року здійснили прорив австро-німецького фронту. Ця найвдаліша бойова операція російської армії за всю війну увійшла в історію як Брусиловський прорив.
У травні — липні 1917 року Брусилов обіймав посаду Верховного головнокомандувача Збройних сил Росії, відстоював ідею ведення війни до переможного кінця.
Після Жовтневого перевороту 1917 року Брусилов усунувся від активної діяльності, жив у Москві. Навесні — влітку 1918 року таємно співпрацював із Білим рухом. У серпні — жовтні 1918 року перебував під арештом на гауптвахті в Московському Кремлі за підозрою в контрреволюційній діяльності. До весни 1919 року перебував під домашнім арештом.
На початку польсько-радянської війни 1920 Брусилов добровільно вступив до Червоної армії.
Помер 17 березня 1926 року від запалення легенів. Брусилова поховано на Новодівочому кладовищі в Москві.
Посилання
А. А. Брусилов. Мои воспоминания
Російські військовики Першої світової війни
Царські офіцери на службі в РСЧА
Поховані в Новодівочому монастирі
Уродженці Тбілісі
|
1683837
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/94%20%D0%B4%D0%BE%20%D0%BD.%20%D0%B5.
|
94 до н. е.
|
94 до н. е.
Події
Народились
Лю Фулін — імператор династії Хань у 87 — 74 до н. е. (посмертне ім'я — Імператор Чжао)
Померли
Нікомед III Евергет (дав.-гр. Νικομήδης Εὐεργέτης, д/н — бл.94 до н. е.) — цар Віфінії бл.127 до н. е.—94 до н. е. роках.
Див. також
94 до н. е.
90-ті до н. е.
|
1794517
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE
|
Кундудо
|
Кундудо — гора, розташована в регіоні Оромія, Ефіопія. Вершина гори лежить на схід від стін міста Харер. В горі є величезні печери, а в південній частині знайдено старовинні гравюри, які не були відомі до 2008 р. Поблизу гори пасовище в 13 га, яке є оселищем для диких коней, які збереглися в Східній Африці. Висота гори сягає 2965 м.
Нижче Кундудо є кілька населених пунктів. Також неподалік знаходиться храм і особливої конструкції мечеть.
Історія
Цю гору згадував британський дослідник Річард Френсіс Бертон, його команда подорожувала уздовж північного підніжжя гори в січні 1854 р.
13 лютого 2009 р. група з шести італійських і французьких спелеологів, вивчаючи гору, знову виявили печеру. Печера класифікується серед п'яти найкращих на континенті і є єдиною в Ефіопії, яка містить різні види корисних копалин, сформованих в печері.
Фототека
Виноски
Гори Ефіопії
Двотисячники
|
4929144
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%20%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%20%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83
|
Аннали вроцлавського магістрату
|
Аннали вроцлавського магістрату (лат. Annales magistratus Wratislaviensis, пол. Rocznik magistratu wroclawskiego) - компіляція, названа видавцем XVIII ст. В. Соммерсберг: «вроцлавськими анналами». За своєю передмовою складено в 1514 «з найстаріших книг цього та інших міст» щоб вроцлавський магістрат «зміг би вирішувати суспільні та приватні справи з більшою користю». Рукопис втрачено. У частині до 1308 майже повністю відповідають Старим вроцлавським анналам. Охоплюють період із 1149 по 1491. Описують події історії Сілезії, повідомляючи при цьому окремі відомості з історії решти Польщі, а також Чехії, Угорщини, Німеччини та ін.
Видання
Annales magistratus Wratislaviensis/ed. W. Arndt // MGH. SS. 1866. T. XIX, p. 527-531 .
Rocznik magistratu wroclawskiego / wydal A. Bielowski // MPH, Tomus 3. Lwow. 1878, p. 680-688 .
Переклади російською мовою
Аннали вроцлавського магістрату у перекладі А.А. З. Досаєва на сайті Східна література
Див. також
Старі краківські (свентокшиські) аннали
Короткі краківські аннали
Аннали Сендзивоя
Любінські аннали
Кам'янські аннали
Аннали краківських францисканців
Аннали Красінських
Куявські аннали
Мазовецькі аннали
Коротка силезька хроніка
Старі вроцлавські аннали
Старші вроцлавські аннали
Старші кшешувські аннали
Аннали Хотельського
Аннали Каспара Пержинського
Примітки
Посилання
из Monumenta Germaniae Historica
латинский текст издания А. Беловски из Monumenta Poloniae Historica
Тевтонський орден
Історія Чехії
Історія Німеччини
|
4761044
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%20%28%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%29
|
Кушавера (присілок)
|
Кушавера (присілок)
Кушавера — присілок в Хвойнинському районі Новгородської області Російської Федерації.
Населення становить 7 осіб. Входить до складу муніципального утворення Дворищинське сільське поселення.
Історія
Від 2005 року входить до складу муніципального утворення Дворищинське сільське поселення
Населення
Примітки
Населені пункти Хвойнинського району
|
13246269
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel%20Kerschowski
|
Isabel Kerschowski
|
Isabel Kerschowski (born 22 January 1988) is a German football striker. She played for 1. FFC Turbine Potsdam and for the German national team.
International career
Kerschowski played for Germany at the 2008 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup.
She was part of the squad for the 2016 Summer Olympics, where Germany won the gold medal.
International goals
Scores and results list Germany's goal tally first:
Source:
Personal life
In September 2017, she married her girlfriend.
Honours
1. FFC Turbine Potsdam
UEFA Women's Champions League: Winner 2009–10
Bundesliga: Winner 2005–06, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12
DFB-Pokal: Winner 2005–06
DFB-Hallenpokal for women: 2008, 2009
VfL Wolfsburg
Bundesliga: Winner 2016–17
DFB-Pokal: Winner 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17
Germany
Summer Olympic Games: Gold medal, 2016
UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship: Winner 2006, 2007
Individual
UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship: Golden Player 2006
References
External links
1988 births
Living people
German women's footballers
Germany women's international footballers
1. FFC Turbine Potsdam players
Bayer 04 Leverkusen (women) players
VfL Wolfsburg (women) players
Footballers from Berlin
German twins
Footballers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Germany
Olympic medalists in football
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Women's association football defenders
Women's association football forwards
Frauen-Bundesliga players
Olympic footballers for Germany
German lesbian sportswomen
German LGBT footballers
German lesbians
20th-century German LGBT people
21st-century German LGBT people
UEFA Women's Euro 2017 players
|
661084
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20black%20flycatcher
|
Northern black flycatcher
|
Northern black flycatcher
The northern black flycatcher (Melaenornis edolioides) is a small passerine bird in the flycatcher family, Muscicapidae.
Range
This is an insectivorous species which is a resident breeder in tropical Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia and south to Zaire and Tanzania.
Habitat
The northern black flycatcher is found in moist wooded areas and cultivation. It nests in a hole or reuses the old nest of another species, and lays two or three eggs. Breeding takes place in the wet season.
Description
The northern black flycatcher is long. It is a large upright long-tailed flycatcher. The adult is uniformly black. Juveniles are blackish-brown with buff scaling.
The long square-ended tail helps to distinguish this species from two other all-black insectivores, the fork-tailed drongo and the shorter-tailed and red-eyed common square-tailed drongo.
Song
This flycatcher has a simple musical song and a thin tsee-whee call.
References
Birds of The Gambia by Barlow, Wacher and Disley,
northern black flycatcher
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
northern black flycatcher
|
584138
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%96%20%28%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B0%29
|
Серизі (Ена)
|
Серизі (Ена)
Серизі, Серізі — муніципалітет у Франції, у регіоні О-де-Франс, департамент Ена. Населення — .
Муніципалітет розташований на відстані близько 125 км на північний схід від Парижа, 80 км на схід від Ам'єна, 31 км на північний захід від Лана.
Демографія
Розподіл населення за віком та статтю (2006):
Економіка
Сусідні муніципалітети
Посилання
Серизі на сайті французького Національного інституту географії
Див. також
Список муніципалітетів департаменту Ена
Примітки
Муніципалітети департаменту Ена
|
3447904
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/51%20%D0%BA%D0%BC%20%28%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82%2C%20%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8F%29
|
51 км (зупинний пункт, Придніпровська залізниця)
|
51 км (зупинний пункт, Придніпровська залізниця)
51 кілометр — залізничний колійний пост / зупинний пункт Криворізької дирекції Придніпровської залізниці на електрифікованій лінії Апостолове — Запоріжжя II між станціями Апостолове (11 км) та Тік (7 км). Розташований за кількасот метрів від села Запорізьке Криворізького району Дніпропетровської області.
Пасажирське сполучення
Через зупинний пункт Платформа 51 км прямують приміські електропоїзди за напрямком — Кривий Ріг-Головний / , проте не зупиняються.
Джерела
Транспорт Криворізького району
Транспорт Апостолівського району
Зупинні пункти Придніпровської залізниці
Зупинні пункти Дніпропетровської області
|
4896792
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/.32%20Winchester%20Special
|
.32 Winchester Special
|
.32 Winchester Special (або .32 WS) — фланцевий набій створений в жовтні 1901 року для використання в важільній гвинтівці Winchester Модель 94. Назва співпадає з назвою набою .32-20 Winchester, але не має до нього відношення (набій також відомий як .32 WCF).
Історія
Набій .32 Winchester Special, як і набій .30-30 Winchester 1895 року, створено шляхом обтискання гільзи набою .38-55 Winchester 1884 року. Набій .32 Winchester Special (.321 in) відрізняється від набою .30-30 Winchester (.308 in) діаметром кулі. Що більш важливо, компанія Winchester зменшила крок нарізів в гвинтівці Модель 94, з 1:12 для набою .30-30 до 1:16 для набою .32 Winchester Special. Winchester використали повільніший крок нарізки для зменшення забруднення при розробці нового набою для спортсменів, які бажали перезаряджати свої набої чорним порохом та литими кулями. Його также продавали як більш потужний набій за .30-30, але при цьому мав менший відбій ніж набій .30-40 Krag, також відомий як .30 Army. Цей новий набій користувався помірним успіхом і така ситуація не змінювалася через невеликий вибір куль діаметром .321 дюйма. Для набою .30-30 існує великий вибір куль за типом і вагою, в той час як для діаметра .321 дюйми є лише дві куля вагою 170 та 165 гран. Також через повільний крок нарізки точність погіршується по мірі зносу стволу.
Продуктивність
Балістика схожа на балістику набою .30-30 та його кулі .308 калібру (7,62 мм), але більший кулі діаметр в .321 (8.15 мм) набою .32 WS наносить більшу рану. Проте, при однаковій вазі кулі в обох набоях, куля .30 калібру має більшу щільність перетину, а відповідно і більшу пробивну властивість. Згідно з початковими заявами компанії Winchester набій .32 WS має більшу на 5-10% енергію ніж набій .30-30 на близьких відстанях, і менше на великих дистанціях через підвищений опір завдяки більшому діаметру .321 і зменшеній щільності перетину.
Параметри
Див. також
Перелік гвинтівкових набоїв
Примітки
Посилання
Extra Special
The .32 Winchester Special
.32 Winchester Not So Special
An Impulsive Purchase Turns Out To Be A Good Deal
The .32 Winchester Special Returns to the Model 94 Rifle Line
Набої Winchester Repeating Arms Company
Шаблон:Webarchive:посилання на Wayback Machine
|
208145
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch%20bonnet
|
Scotch bonnet
|
Scotch bonnet (also known as Bonney peppers, or Caribbean red peppers) is a variety of chili pepper named for its supposed resemblance to a Scottish tam o' shanter bonnet. It is ubiquitous in West Africa and the Caribbean.
Like the closely related habanero, Scotch bonnets have a heat rating of 100,000–350,000 Scoville units. For comparison, most jalapeño peppers have a heat rating of 2,500 to 8,000. A completely sweet variety of Scotch bonnet, cachucha, is grown on some Caribbean islands.
Cuisine
Scotch bonnets are used to flavor many dishes and cuisines worldwide and are often used in hot sauces and condiments. The Scotch bonnet has a sweeter flavor and stouter shape, distinct from its habanero relative with which it is often confused.
Scotch bonnets are mostly used in West Africa, West Indian, Sri Lankan, and Maldivian cuisines and pepper sauces, though they often appear in other Caribbean recipes. Scotch bonnets are used in jerk cooking. They are also used in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama for Caribbean-styled recipes such as rice and peas, rondón, saus, beef patties, and ceviche.
See also
Bajan pepper sauce
Caribbean cuisine
Cuisine of Jamaica
Cuisine of Nigeria
Cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago
Jamaican jerk spice
List of Capsicum cultivars
Nagabon
References
External links
Capsicum cultivars
Caribbean cuisine
Costa Rican cuisine
Chili peppers
Flora of Jamaica
Guyanese cuisine
Maldivian cuisine
Nicaraguan cuisine
Panamanian cuisine
Sri Lankan cuisine
Surinamese cuisine
West African cuisine
|
31037408
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Barker%20%28sailor%29
|
Ian Barker (sailor)
|
Ian Barker (sailor)
Ian Barker (born 10 August 1966 in Cardiff) is a British sailor. He won a silver medal in the High Performance Dinghy class at the 2000 Summer Olympics with Simon Hiscocks. He lives in Christchurch, England. He coached the Irish 49er team for Rio 2016 Olympics.
References
External links
1966 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Cardiff
British male sailors (sport)
Olympic sailors for Great Britain
Sailors at the 2000 Summer Olympics – 49er
Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain
Olympic medalists in sailing
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Welsh Olympic medallists
505 class world champions
World champions in sailing for Great Britain
|
1119648
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/55561%20%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D2%91
|
55561 Маденберґ
|
55561 Маденберґ (55561 Madenberg) — астероїд головного поясу, відкритий 9 січня 2002 року Бертоном Л. Стівенсом.
Тіссеранів параметр щодо Юпітера — 3,584.
Примітки
Див. також
Список астероїдів (55501-55600)
Посилання
Інформація про малі планети на сайті minorplanetcenter.net
Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 2002
Головний пояс астероїдів
|
280756
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%27%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%28%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
|
Мар'янівка (Бориспільський район)
|
Мар'янівка (Бориспільський район)
Мар'янівка — село в Україні, у Переяславській міській громаді Бориспільського району Київської області. Населення становить 7 осіб.
Історія
Російська імперія
Хутір був приписан до Петро-Павлівської церкви у Переяславі
За даними 1859 року село є «хутором власницьким» Марьяновка; дворів — 10; населення — 76 особи (ч. —34, ж. — 42)
Є на мапі 1869 року
За даними 1911 року село є «хутором»; населення — 46 особи (ч. — 18, ж. — 28)
Примітки
Література
Села Київської області
|
2600937
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%20%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F%20%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%8F
|
Теорема перерахування Поя
|
Теорема перерахування Поя, також відома як теорема Редфілда-Поя, теорема в комбінаториці, що випливає з та узагальнює лему Бернсайда про кількість орбіт дії групи на множині. Теорему вперше було опубліковано у 1927 році. У 1937 році вона була незалежно наново доведена Дьордем Поя, який потім значно популяризував результат, застосовуючи його до багатьох лічильних задач, зокрема до переліку хімічних сполук.
Теорему перерахування Поя може бути включено до та до .
Спрощена, невиважена версія
Нехай скінченна множина, та є групою перестановок з (або скінченною групою симетрій, яка діє на ). Множина X може бути кінцевою множиною кульок, а може бути обраною групою перестановок кульок. Наприклад, якщо є намисто з кульок, то важлива поворотна симетрія, так що є циклічною групою , в той час як, якщо є намистом, а повороти та відображення мають відношення, так що — діедральна група порядку .
Нехай, що — кінцевий набір — кольору кульок — так що — безліч кольорових аранжувань намист (більш формально: — множина функцій )
Тоді група діє на . У теоремі перерахування Поя підраховується число орбіт під кольорових аранжувань кульок за такою формулою:
де це кількість кольорів і є число циклів групового елемента , коли розглядаються як перестановки .
Повна, зважена версія
У більш загальній та важливішій версії теореми кольори також зважуються одним або кількома способами, і кількість кольорів може бути нескінченна за умови, що набір кольорів має твірну функцію з кінцевими коефіцієнтами. В одномайновій справі, припустимо, що
є твірною функцією набору кольорів, тож існує кольорів ваги для кожного цілого . У багатоваріантному випадку вага кожного кольору є вектором цілих чисел і є батьківська функція , яка табулює кількість кольорів із кожним уведеним важелем. Теорія перерахунку використовує іншу багатомірну твірну функцію, яка називається індексом циклу :
де є число елементів та є число k-циклу групового елемента в якості перестановки .
Кольорова композиція — це орбіта дії на множині (де є набір кольорів, та позначає сукупність всіх функцій ). Вага такого пристрою визначається як сума ваг за всіма . Теорема стверджує, що породжувальна функція кількості кольорових компонентів з вагою визначається:
або в багатомірному випадку:
Щоб зменшити до спрощеної версії, наведеної раніше, якщо є кольорів, і всі мають вагу , то та
У знаменитому застосуванні лічильників дерев (див. Нижче) та ациклічних молекул, розташування «кольорових кульок» насправді є розташуванням домовленостей, таких як гілки кореневого дерева. Таким чином, твірна функція для кольорів походить від твірної функції для механізмів, а теорема перерахування Поя стає рекурсивною формулою.
Приклади
Кольорові куби
Скільки способів кольорувати сторони тривимірного куба з m кольорами, аж до обертання куба? Група обертання C куба діє на шести сторонах куба, які еквівалентні намистинкам. Індекс циклу — це
яка отримується шляхом аналізу дії кожного з 24 елементів C на 6 сторін куба, див. тут для подробиць.
Ми беремо всі кольори, щоб мати вагу 0 і виявити, що є
різні фарби.
Графи з трьома та чотирма вершинами
Граф на вершинах можна інтерпретувати як розташування кольорових кульок. Набір «намистин» — це сукупність можливих ребер, а набір кольорів відповідає наявним (чорним) або відсутнім (білим) ребрам. Теорія перерахування Поя може бути використана для обчислення кількості графів з точністю до ізоморфізму з фіксованим числом вершин або функції породження цих графів за кількістю їхніх ребер. Для останньої задачи можна сказати, що чорне, тобто, присутнє ребро має вагу 1, тоді як відсутнє або біле ребро має вагу 0. Таким чином, є твірною функцією для набору кольорів. Відповідна група симетрії — це , симетрична група на m букв. Ця група діє на множині можливих ребер: перестановка φ ребру ставить у відповідність ребро . За допомогою цих визначень клас ізоморфних графів з вершинами буде такий самий, як орбіта дії на множині кольорових компонентів; кількість ребер графу дорівнює вазі розташування.
Вісім графіків на трьох вершинах (перед виявленням ізоморфних графів) показано справа. Існує чотири класи графіків ізоморфізму, також показані справа.
Індекс циклу групи , що діє на безліч трьох ребер, є
Таким чином, згідно з теоремою про перерахування, породжуюча функція графів на 3 вершинах з точністю до ізоморфізму буде
яка спрощується до
Таким чином, є лише один граф з кількістю ребер від 0 до 3.
Індекс циклу групи , що діє на множині з 6 ребер
Отже
що спрощує
Кореневі трійкові дерева
Набір з кореневих трійкових дерев складається з кореневих дерев, де кожен вузол (або нелітакова вершина) містить рівно трьох дітей (листя або підроди). Малі трійкові дерева показані справа. Зверніть увагу, що кореневі трійкові дерева з вузлами еквівалентні кореневим деревам з вершинами ступеня не більше 3 (ігноруючи листя). Взагалі, дві кореневі дерева є ізоморфними, коли їх можна одержувати з іншого, переміщуючи дітей своїх вузлів. Іншими словами, група, яка діє на дітей вузла, є симетричною групою . Ми визначаємо вагу такого трійкового дерева як кількість вузлів (або вершини без листа).
Ви можете побачити кореневе, трійкове дерево як рекурсивний об'єкт, який є або листком, або вузлом із трьома дітьми, які самі по собі є трійковими деревами. Ці діти еквівалентні бісеру; індекс циклу симетричної групи , що діє на них, є
Теорема про перерахування Поя перетворює рекурсивну структуру кореневих трійкових дерев на функціональне рівняння для батьківської функції кореневих трійкових дерев за кількістю вузлів. Це досягається шляхом «розмальовування» трьох дітей із кореневими трійковими деревами, зваженими за номером вузла, так що функція генерації кольорів дається
що дає теорема про перерахування
Це еквівалентно такій формулі повторення для числа кореневих трійкових дерев з вузлами: де та — це невід'ємні цілі числа.
Перші кілька значень є
1, 1, 1, 2, 4, 8, 17, 39, 89, 211, 507, 1238, 3057, 7639, 19241 (послідовність A000598 в OEIS)
Доведення теореми
Спрощена форма теореми про перерахування Поя випливає з леми Бернсайда, яка говорить, що кількість орбіт фарбування є середнім числом елементів фіксована перестановка з за всіма перестановок . Зважена версія теореми має схоже доведення, але з формою леми Бернсайда для зваженого перерахунку. Це еквівалентно застосуванню леми Бернсайда окремо на орбітах різної ваги.
Для чіткішого позначення, позначимо змінними твірної функції від . Враховуючи вектор ваг , позначимо відповідний мономаначний член . Застосування леми Бернсайда до орбіт дій ваги , число орбіт дій цієї ваги є:
де це набір кольорів ваги які також фіксуються . Якщо ми підсумовуємо всі можливі ваги, отримаємо
Тим часом груповий елемент із структурою циклу буде
до індексу циклу . Елемент фіксує елемент з тоді і тільки тоді, коли функція постійна на кожному циклі групи . Для кожного такого циклу
виробляюча функція за масою ідентичні кольори з набору, переліченого , є
Звідси випливає, що функція, що породжує, за масою точок, фіксованих , є підсумком зазначеного вище терміну по всіх циклах , тобто
що дорівнює
Підставляти це для у сумі над усіма дає індекс заміщеного циклу як заявлено.
Примітки
Посилання
Applying the Pólya-Burnside Enumeration Theorem by Hector Zenil and Oleksandr Pavlyk, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
Frederic Chyzak Enumerating alcohols and other classes of chemical molecules, an example of Pólya theory .
Математичні теореми
|
15701576
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heudreville-en-Lieuvin
|
Heudreville-en-Lieuvin
|
Heudreville-en-Lieuvin is a commune in the Eure department in northern France.
Population
See also
Communes of the Eure department
References
Communes of Eure
|
4761208
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%20%28%D0%AE%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
|
Кувшиново (Юхновський район)
|
Кувшиново (Юхновський район)
Кувшиново — присілок в Юхновському районі Калузької області Російської Федерації.
Населення становить 38 осіб. Входить до складу муніципального утворення Присілок Колихманово.
Історія
Від 2004 року входить до складу муніципального утворення Присілок Колихманово
Населення
Примітки
Населені пункти Юхновського району
|
604864
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0
|
Тимпалка
|
Тимпалка — невелика річка, що тече територією Ярського району Удмуртії, Росія, ліва притока Сади.
Бере початок на Красногорській височині, в селі Новий Путь. Протікає на північний схід, впадає до Сади в селі Тимпал. Верхня течія пересихає. Має декілька дрібних приток.
На річці розташовані села Новий Путь, Тюрики та Юр.
Річки Ярського району
Річки басейну Лекми (притока Чепци)
|
3098492
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Kong%20Tennis%20Open%202018%2C%20%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4
|
Hong Kong Tennis Open 2018, парний розряд
|
Hong Kong Tennis Open 2018, парний розряд
Чжань Хаоцін і Латіша Чжань були чинними чемпіонками, але цього разу Латіша не змогла взяти участь через медичні причини. Хаоцін грала в парі з Ян Чжаосюань, але не змогла захистити свій титул, оскільки в першому колі їх перемогли Надія Кіченок і Анастасія Родіонова.
Саманта Стосур і Чжан Шуай виграли титул, у фіналі перемігши пару Аояма Сюко і Лідія Морозова з рахунком 6–4, 6–4.
Сіяні пари
Сітка
Посилання
Main Draw
Hong Kong Tennis Open, парний розряд
2018
|
3477783
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D1%83
|
Азулежу
|
Азулежу — це форма португальського та іспанського кахлю. Азулежу зустрічається у інтер'єрах та екстер'єрах церков, палаців, звичайних будинків, шкіл, а нині ресторанів, барів і навіть залізничних станцій або станцій метро . Воно використовувалось не лише як орнаментальна форма мистецтва, але й мало специфічну функціональну здатність, як регулювання температури в будинках.
Існує також традиція їх виробництва в колишніх іспанських та португальських колоніях Північної Америки, Південної Америки, Гоа, Португаломовної Африки, Східного Тимору та Філіппін .
Особливий успіх азулежу знайшов і в Лігурії (Італія), завдяки тісним зв'язкам між християнськими та ісламськими територіями Піренейського півострова та Республікою Генуя. Спочатку його імпортували (в більшості випадків із Севільї чи Гранади), а пізніше почали виробляти самостійно.
Азулежу, як і раніше, є головним аспектом португальської архітектури, оскільки його застосовують на стінах, підлозі та навіть стелі. Багато азулежу-літописів є основними історичними та культурними джерелами історії Португалії.
Історія
XIII—XV століття
Слово «азулежу» походить з : ель-заліж, що означає «шліфований камінь», оскільки ідея полягала у імітації візантійської та римської мозаїк.
Вплив Персії на розвиток азулежу ми бачимо у переплетенні ліній, геометричних чи квіткових мотивах. Виробництво ель-заліжу досі відбувається в арабському світі за двома основними традиційними напрямками: «Єгипетський ель-заліж» та «Марокканський ель-заліж», останній — найвідоміший.
Ці техніки роботи з кахлем були започаьковані в Португалії королем Мануелем I після візиту до Севільї 1503 року. Кахлі наносили на стіни, використовували для мощення підлоги, які і зараз можна побачити, наприклад, в арабській кімнаті Національного палацу Сінтри.
Також португальці запозичили мавританську традицію Horror vacui («страх порожніх просторів») і повністю покривали стіни азулежу.
XVI століття
Гончарі з Італії приїхали в Севілью на початку XVI століття і створили там майстерні. Вони привезли з собою техніку майоліки. Першим італійським гончарем, що переїхав до Іспанії, був Франческо Нікулосо, який оселився в Севільї в 1498 році. Прикладами його роботи все ще можна милуватися у Севільському Алькасарі. Під впливом стилю Ренесанс, запровадженого італійськими художниками, більшість азулежу були поліхромними, які відтворювали алегоричні чи міфологічні сцени, сцени з життя святих чи Біблії, або сцени полювання. Маньєризм та гротескний стилі, з їх його химерними уявленнями, мали також великий вплив на розвиток азулежу.
До середини XVI століття португальці продовжували імпортувати кахель, здебільшого з Іспанії, також і з Антверпена (Фландрія). Одним з ранніх португальських майстрів XVI століття був Марсаль де Матуш, якому приписують створення «Сусанни і старійшин» (1565 р.) у Кінта-да-Бакалуа, Азейтеу, а також «Поклоніння пастухам» (у Національному музеї азулежу в Лісабоні).
«Чудо Святого Рока» (в церкві Святого Рока, Лісабон) — перша датована композиція португальського азулежу (1584). Це робота Францишку де Матуша, ймовірно, племінника і учня Марсаля де Матуша.
XVII століття
Церкву Святої Марії де Марвілла у Сантарені покривають вже поліхромним азулежу, зараз воно одне з вражаючих інтер'єрних декорувань в Португалії.
Коли діагональні кахлі замінились повторюваним малюнком горизонтальних поліхромних, майстри отримати можливість створювати новий дизайн з різними мотивами, переплітаючи маньєристичні малюнки із зображеннями троянд та камелій. Найчастіше зображували сцени з життя Христа чи святих. Ці килимові композиції (azulejo de tapete), досконало обрамлені фризами та бордюрами, вироблялись у великій кількості протягом усього XVII століття. Найкращі приклади цих композицій можна знайти в Церкві ду Сальвадор в Еворі, університетській каплиці в Коїмбрі та інших.
Тоді ж з'являються ще інші мотиви у фризах: птахи навколо ваз із квітами, дельфіни чи путто, так звані альбарради. Творців азулежу, напевно, надихнули фламандські малюнки ваз для квітів, наприклад, Яна Брейгеля Старшого.
Такий тип композиції азулежу, як aves e ramagens («птахи та гілки»), увійшов у моду між 1650 та 1680 роками. На розвиток цього типу вплинули зображення на друкованому текстилі, що ввозився з Індії: індуїстська символіка, квіти, тварини та птахи.
У другій половині XVII століття іспанський художник Габріель дель Барко показав Португалії синьо-білу плитку з Делфта в Нідерландах. Майстерні Яна ван Оорта та Віллема ван дер Клоета в Амстердамі створили великі панно з кахлю з історичними сценами для своїх багатих португальських клієнтів, як, наприклад, для Палацу маркеза Фронтейри в Бенфіці (Лісабон). Але коли король Педро II припинив увесь імпорт азулежу між 1687 і 1698 роками, майстерня Габріеля дель Барку взяла на себе виробництво.
Остання велика партія кахлів з Нідерландів була поставлена в 1715 році.
XVIII століття
Період кінця XVII — початку XVIII століття став «Золотим століттям азулежу», так званим Циклом майстрів (Ciclo dos Mestres). Масове виробництво кахлів було розпочато не лише через більший внутрішній попит, а й через великі замовлення, що надходили з португальської колонії Бразилії. Церкви, монастирі, палаци і, навіть, житлові будинки були вкриті зсередини та зовні азулежу з розкішними елементами бароко.
Найвидатнішими майстрами азулежу в перші роки XVIII століття були: Антоніу Перейра, Мануель душ Сантуш, майстерня Антоніу де Олівейра Бернардіша та його сина Полікарпу де Олівейра Бернардіша ; майстер PMP (відомий лише за його монограмою) та його працівники Теотоніу душ Сантуш та Валентін де Альмейда; Бартоломей Антуніш та його учень Ніколау де Фрейташ. Оскільки їхня творчість припала на часи правління короля Жуана V (1706—1750), стиль цього періоду також називають — Жуаніна.
У цей же період з'являються перші «фігури запрошень» (figura de convite), розроблені Майстром PMP — кахлі азулежу з фігурами в натуральну величину (піхоти, алебардирдистів, дворяни або ж елегантно одягненими дамами), як правило, розміщені при вході у палаци (наприклад, Палац Мітра), у патіо та сходах. «Фігури запрошень» можна зустріти лише в Португалії.
У 1740-х роках смаки португальського суспільства змінилися від монументальних панелей до більш дрібних і делікатно виконаних панно у стилі рококо. Такі панно зображали галантні та пасторальні теми, подібні до мотивів творчості французького художника Антуана Ватто . Прикладами таких панно є фасад та сади Палацу герцогів де Мескітела в Карніде (Лісабон) та Галерея даш Мангаш у Національному палаці Келуш.
Реконструкція Лісабона після землетрусу 1755 року породила більш утилітарну роль азулежу. Цей функціональний стиль став відомий як Помбальський стиль, названий в честь маркіза Помбальського, відповідального за відбудову країни. Невеликі кахлі азулежу почали з'являтися на будівлях як захист від майбутніх катастроф.
У Мексиці, де виробляють мексиканська майоліку — кераміку Тавалера, є кілька прикладів використання азулежу на будівлях та особняках. Особливо цікавий особняк Каса-де-лос-Азулехос у Мехіко, який був побудований у 1737 році для графа та графині Ель-Валле-де-Орізаба. Традиції виготовлення кераміки були завезені до Мексики на початку XVI століття.
Почали з'являтися простіші та ніжніші неокласичні дизайни кахлів з більш приглушеними кольорами. На це вплинули гравюри Роберта та Джеймса Адамса. Фабрика « Real Fábrica de Louça do Rato», на чолі з головним майстром Себаштіаном де Альмейда і художником Франсішку де Паула-і-Олівейра, стала в цей період важливим виробником впізнаваних кахлів, так званих, рато-кахлів. Ще одним важливим живописцем азулежу в цей період був Франсішку Жоржі да Кошта.
Під впливом португальської культури, у місті Сан-Луїс, в Мараньяні, Бразилія, утворилась найбільша міська агломерація азулежу з XVIII—XIX століть у всій Латинській Америці. У 1997 році історичний центр Сан-Луїса був визнаний Об'єктом Світової спадщини ЮНЕСКО.
XIX століття
У першій половині ХІХ століття у виробництві декоративних кахлів спостерігався спад, зумовлений спочатку вторгненням наполеонівської армії, а потім соціальними та економічними змінами. Близько 1840 року бразильці-іммігранти розпочали виробництво азулежу в промислових масштабах у Порту. Хоча ці фабрики випускали кахлі високого ґатунку в одному або двох кольорах, лісабонські фабрики почали використовувати інший метод — трансферного друку.
Хоча виробництво азулежу перейшло на промислові масштаби, мистецтво ручного розпису кахлів нікуди не зникло, так продовжували працювати Мануель Жоакін де Жезуш та Луїш Феррейра. Феррейра був директором лісабонської фабрики Viúva Lamego і виклав увесь її фасад алегоричними сценами на азулежу. Він виготовив панно, відоме як Ferreira das Tabuletas, із зображенням ваз для квітів, дерев та алегоричних фігур, використовуючи техніку тромплей. Ці розписані вручну панно є прекрасними зразками еклектичної романтичної культури кінця XIX століття.
XX століття
На початку XX століття почали з'являтися азулежу в стилі Модерн. Художники у цьому стилі — Рафаел Бордалу Пінейру, Жуліо Сезар да Сілва та Жозе Антоніу Жорже Пінту.
У 1885 році Рафаель Бордалу Пінейру заснував власну фабрику в Калдаш-да-Раїнья, яка своїми вриробами прославила це місто. Музей Сан-Рафаель при фабриці присвячений фантастичним творам уяви художника — декоративним плитам та його сатиричним кам'яним фігурам, таким як Zé Povinho (зображення тривожної людини).
Приблизно в 1930-х роках азулежу в стилі ар деко почав виготовляти художник Антоніу Кошта.
Монументальне оздоблення, що складається з 20 000 кахлів азулежу, у залі залізничної станції Сау Бенту в Порту створив Жорже Колазу. На цих панно він зобразив історичній сюжети у стилі романтичної картини-листівки. Це одне з найпомітніших творів на основі азулежу, створеного у ХХ столітті.
Інші художники цього періоду: Маріу Бранку та Сільвештре Сільвештрі прикрасили в 1912 році бічний фасад Церкви ду Карму (Порту), та Едуарду Лейте, який виклав азулежу Каплицю Санта-Катаріни, імітуючи стиль 18 століття (Порту).
Відомі художники 20-го століття: Жорже Баррадаш, Карлуш Ботелья, Жорже Мартінш, Са Ногейра, Менез та Паула Регу.
Марія Кейл спроєктувала абстрактні панелі азулежу на початкових дев'ятнадцяти станціях Лісабонського метрополітену (між 1957 і 1972 роками). Ці творі стали рушійною силою відродження мистецтва азулежу, яке на той час було в деякому занепаді. Її роботи на станції Intendente вважаються шедевром сучасного мистецтва азулежу.
Сучасність
Національний музей азулежу в Лісабоні вміщує найбільшу в світі колекцію португальських кахлів азулежу.
Також азулежу можна зустріти у Канаді, США, Філіппінах, Колонії-дель-Сакраменто, Уругваї, Макао, Бразилії, Перу та кількох містах Мексики.
Через поширеність азулежу та відносну простоту доступу до історичних та часто закинутих будівель по всій Португалії, цей тип кахлю вразливий до вандалізму та крадіжок. У Лісабоні часто можна зустріти торговців такими азулежу на вуличних ярмарках та на чорному ринку.
З 2013 року владою Лісабону заборонено зносити будівлі з покритими азулежу фасадами задля захисту своєї культурної спадщини.
Найбільша кількість крадіжок відбувається в столиці країни. Влада Лісабону вважає, що 25 % від загальної кількості художніх кахлів було втрачено у період з 1980 по 2000 роки.
Організація SOS Azulejo, створена в 2007 році у складі Поліції визначила обмеження та контроль продажу старовинного кахлю на чорних ринках як свою головну мету на сьогодні. У Лісабоні також створено «Банк Азулежу», який збирає та зберігає близько 30 тис. кахлів вже знесених або тих будівель, що підлягають знесенню. Подібні організації, що засновані та утримуються за рахунок пожертв місцевих жителів, існують у містах Авейру, Порту і Овар.
У серпні 2017 року було прийнято новий закон із запобігання як знесення будівель, покритих азулежу по всій країні, так із ініціювання реставраційних робіт.
Примітки
Керамічне мистецтво
Азулєжу
|
1517502
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4
|
Миколаївський лікеро-горілчаний завод
|
Миколаївський лікеро-горілчаний завод
Державне підприємство «Миколаївський лікеро-горілчаний завод» — підприємство харчової промисловості в Миколаєві (Україна). Входить до складу державного підприємства «Укрспирт». Серед продукції мінеральна вода і лікеро-горілчані вироби.
Історія
1901 року в Миколаєві за адресою Соборна, 69 був побудований «Казенний винний склад № 3». Склад належав Міністерству фінансів. 1908 року склад перейменували в «Казенний горілчаний завод».
Після Жовтневої революції підприємство отримало назву «виноробна філія Центрдержспирту». 1950 року на заводі почалася модернізація.
2000 року була запатентована торговельна марка «Нікольска».
2007 року концерн «Укрспирт» вніс «Миколаївський лікеро-горілчаний завод» в перелік заводів, що підлягають ліквідації.
В 2010 році завод був ліквідований. Разом з Миколаївським ліквідовуються ще 4 підприємства (всього 80 підприємств в Україні виробляють спирт). Діюче обладнання розподілено між заводами-флагманами в цій галузі.
Примітки
Посилання
Миколаївський лікеро-горілчаний завод на сайті «Бізнес-новини Миколаєва»
Засновані в Україні 1901
Підприємства Миколаєва
Підприємства спиртової промисловості Російської імперії
Підприємства спиртової промисловості СРСР
Виробники горілки України
1901 у Миколаєві
Підприємства харчової промисловості Миколаївської області
|
226771
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C%20%28%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%29
|
Тростянець (Залозецька селищна громада)
|
Тростянець (Залозецька селищна громада)
Тростянець — село в Україні, у Залозецькій селищній громаді Тернопільського районі Тернопільської області. Розташоване на річці Смолянка, на півночі району.
Було центром сільської ради, якій підпорядковувалося с. Білокриниця. Від 2016 року належить до Залозецької селищної громади. У зв'язку з переселенням жителів хутори Заруб, Засільський, Крутнів Гай, Підбілоголовський виведені з облікових даних.
Відповідно до Розпорядження Кабінету Міністрів України від 12 червня 2020 року № 724-р «Про визначення адміністративних центрів та затвердження територій територіальних громад Тернопільської області» увійшло до складу Залозецької селищної громади.
Населення становить 251 особу (2007).
Історія
Перша писемна згадка датується 1437 роком.
1941 року поблизу Тростянця нацисти розстріляли 202 військовополонених бійців ЧА (на братській могилі, що розташована біля перехрестя доріг Залізці–Зборів–Тростянець, 1948 року споруджено пам'ятник: Обеліск, у нижній частині якого зображена голова жінки-матері. Біля обеліска є 22 плити з іменами загиблих. Реконструйовано 1978 року).
Пам'ятки
Церква святої Параскеви П'ятниці (1893; зруйнована 1944; перебудована 1950-ті з костелу).
Геологічна пам'ятка природи місцевого значення Складка облямування рифових вапняків.
Соціальна сфера
Діють ЗОШ 1 ступ., клуб, бібліотека, ФАП, торговельний заклад.
Відомі люди
Народилися
релігійний та громадський діяч А. Локоть.
культурно-громадський діяч В. Локоть.
Примітки
Джерела
Мельничук Б., Уніят В. Тростянець //
Села Тернопільської області
Населені пункти Тернопільського району
Залозецька селищна громада
|
1643091
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%85%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%20%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
|
Охріменко Григорій Васильович
|
Охріменко Григорій Васильович (26 квітня 1950 р.) — український археолог, дослідник праісторії Волині. Заслужений працівник освіти України, кандидат історичних наук.
Життєпис
Народився в м. Прилуки Чернігівської області в сім'ї службовців. З чотирирічного віку проживав з батьками в с. Малохатки Старобільського району Луганської області. Де закінчив восьмирічну школу. Після здобуття в 1967 р. середньої освіти у загальноосвітніх школах м. Прилуки та м. Бориспіль на Київщині працював робітником в м. Києві, займався самоосвітою, цікавиться культурно-мистецьким життям столиці.
У 1968—1972 рр. навчався на історичному факультеті Луцького державного педагогічного інституту імені Лесі Українки. З перших днів перебування в місті брав участь в археологічних експедиціях на унікальному комплексі давніх поселень Гнідавська Гірка в с. Рованці Луцького району під керівництвом кандидата історичних наук М. Кучери та М. Матвієйка. Захоплюється неолітичною керамікою, що незабаром стала предметом його професійних наукових зацікавлень на все життя. Під час літніх канікул здійснює пізнавальні поїздки до українських святинь в Чернігів, Новгород-Сіверський, Черкаси, Полтаву, Запоріжжя, на острів Хортицю, до Одеси, Берестя, Мінська, Ленінграда. В подорожніх маршрутах — експозиції музеїв, інтер'єри церков та храмів, пам'ятки історії, архітектури та культури. На останньому курсі навчання самостійно проводить рятівні розкопки на пам'ятках в Луцьку (вул. Короленка), с. Рованці, публікує в місцевій пресі невеликі літературні твори, повідомлення про здійснені археологічні відкриття.
З 1972 р. живе і працює учителем історії та завучем школи с. Майдан-Липно Маневицького району на Волинському Поліссі. Одружується, в сім'ї народжується четверо дітей. З ініціативи наукових керівників доктора історичних наук Ігоря Свєшнікова (м. Львів) та доктора історичних наук, професора Дмитра Телєгіна (м. Київ) молодий дослідник самотужки проводить обстеження спочатку навколишніх населених пунктів, а відтак і по всій території Волинської та сусідньої Рівненської областей. Особливе зацікавлення викликають поселення та стоянки кам'яної доби, доби бронзи. Виявлені поодинокі артефакти та пам'ятки знаходять оприлюднення в постійних публікаціях в місцевій районній, обласній пресі, київських та московських виданнях, матеріалах краєзнавчих і наукових конференцій. Активна пошукова і краєзнавча діяльність Григорія Охріменка, пошук нових форм залучення дітей до науково-дослідної роботи знаходить підтримку небайдужих людей: йому присвоюють звання вчителя-методиста, а згодом при підтримці Всеукраїнської спілки краєзнавців і заслуженого працівника освіти України.
З 1994 р. Г. Охріменко працював за сумісництвом науковим співробітником Полісько-Волинського народознавчого центру в м. Луцьку.
З 2001 р. — працював спочатку на посаді наукового, а з 2006 р. — провідного наукового співробітника відділу охорони пам'яток історії та культури Волинського краєзнавчого музею. В цей час вийшли друком книги «Археологічні пам'ятки Волині» (у співавторстві із М. Кучинком, 1995), «Волинська неолітична культура» (2001), «Культура лінійно-стрічкової кераміки» (2001). У 2002 р. успішно захистив в Інституті археології НАН України кандидатську дисертацію «Неоліт Волині».
З 2005 р. дослідник запрошений на викладацьку роботу до Волинського національного університету імені Лесі Українки, де в даний час займає посаду доцента кафедри археології та допоміжних історичних дисциплін. Одночасно не перериває роботу в обласних краєзнавчому музеї та Малій Академії Наук, здійснюючи щороку численні пошукові експедиції та археологічні розвідки і розкопки на пам'ятках, що зазнають постійних руйнувань внаслідок господарської діяльності людини.
Веде велику науково-дослідну, пошукову та популяризаторську пам'яткоохоронну діяльність. Протягом понад 30 років ним обслідувано майже всі відомі на даний час пам'ятки прадавньої історії Великої Волині, на багатьох із них проведено стаціонарні археологічні розкопки. Постійна польова практика дала можливість створити повноцінні фондові колекції артефактів у ряді музеїв краю, зокрема у Волинському та Маневицькому краєзнавчих, відкрити і занести до державного реєстру десятки невідомих досі археологічних об'єктів, ввести до наукового обігу тисячі знахідок. З-під пера невтомного дослідника щороку виходить 1,5-2 десятки наукових та науково-популярних статей, 2-3 монографії або краєзнавчих збірники. Він постійний учасник всіх обласних та регіональних, ряду всеукраїнських та міжнародних наукових і краєзнавчих конференцій.
Зацікавлення
Діапазон дослідницьких зацікавлень Григорія Охріменко досить широкий. Серед них — проблеми фінального палеоліту, мезоліт, неоліт, мідна доба, доба бронзи та заліза, стратифікація суспільства, духовна культура первісних спільнот, керамічне виробництво, історія раннього землеробства на Волині та Поліссі, предмети озброєння енеоліту — доби бронзи, давні металеві вироби, кременярство доби бронзи і напої з журавлини. Науковому вирішенню цих питань присвячені монографії та збірники дослідника:
«Розвиток керамічного виробництва на Волині» (археологічний, етнографічний, мистецький аспекти) (у співавторстві з М. Кучинком, Н. Кубицькою, 2003),
«Археологічна спадщина Яна Фітцке» (2005),
«Нариси культури давньої Волині» (2006),
«Олександр Цинкаловський та праісторія Волині» (2007),
«Культура Волині та Волинського Полісся княжої доби» (у співавторстві з М. Кучинком, В. Савицьким, 2008),
«Кам'яна доба на території Північно-Західної України (ХІІІ — ІІІ тис. до н. е.)» (2009)
та ін. Значною є діяльність науковця по поверненню із забуття творчої спадщини відомих в минулому дослідників краю Олександра Цинкаловського та Яна Фітцке.
Праці
Охріменко Г., Волинська неолітична культура / Г. Охріменко. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2001. — 154 с.
Охріменко Г., В. Кам'яна доба на території Північно-Західної України (XII—III тис. до н. е.) / Г. В. Охріменко. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2009. — 520 с.
Охріменко Г., Культура лінійно-стрічкової кераміки на Волині / Г. Охріменко. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2001. — 138 с.
Охріменко Г., Населення Волині в праісторичні часи: розвиток матеріал. та духов. культури / Г. О. Охріменко. — Вид. 2-е, доповн. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2004. — 250 с.
Охріменко Г., Населення Волині та Волинського Полісся в праісторичні часи: розвиток матеріал. та духов. культури / Г. О. Охріменко. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2003. — 224 с.
Охріменко Г., В. Неоліт Волині: ч. І / Г. В. Охріменко. — Луцьк: Де Марк, 1994. — 119 с.
Охріменко Г., В. Неоліт Волині: ч. ІІ / Г. В. Охріменко. — Луцьк: Де Марк, 1993. — 119 с.
Охріменко Г., Розвиток керамічного виробництва на Волині: (археол., етногр., мист. аспекти) / Г. Охріменко, М. Кучинко, Н. Кубицька. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2003. — 246 с.
Археологічна спадщина Яна Фітцке / за заг. ред. канд. іст. наук Г. В. Охріменка. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2005. — 488 с.
Кучинко М. М., Культура Волині та Волинського Полісся княжої доби: навч. посіб. / М. М. Кучинко, Г. В. Охріменко, В. М. Савицький. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2008. — 328 с.
Кучінко М. М., Археологічні пам'ятки Волині / М. М. Кучінко, Г. В. Охріменко. — Луцьк, 1991. — 137 с.
Кучінко М. М., Археологічні пам'ятки Волині / М. М. Кучінко, Г. В. Охріменко. — Вид. 2-е, виправл. і доповн. — Луцьк: Вежа, 1995. — 167 с.
Нариси культури давньої Волині / за заг. ред. канд. іст. наук. Г. В. Охріменка. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2006. — 600 с.
Олександр Цинкаловський та праісторія Волині / Г. Охріменко, Н. Скляренко, О. Каліщук, В. Ткач, О. Романчук. — Луцьк: Волин. обл. друк., 2007. — 740 с. : 19 с. іл.
Пашкевич Г. О., Матеріали до вивчення неоліту Волині / Г. О. Пашкевич, Г. В. Охріменко ; АН УРСР, Ін-т археології. — , 1990. — 47 с.
Джерела
Мазурик Ю., «Сучасні дослідники Волині: Охріменко Григорій Васильович» / Ю. Мазурик // Нариси культури давньої Волині. — Луцьк, 2006. — С.55.
Вересневий І., «Можливо, це той Охріменко» / І. Вересневий // Зоря Комунізму. — 1987. — 1 листопада.
Вересневий І., «Охріменкові відкриття» / І. Вересневий // Зоря Комунізму. — 1986. — 5 липня.
Посилання
Біографія: Охріменко Григорій Васильович
Охріменко Г. В. Етнокультурні процеси на території Західної Волині за доби бронзи: монографія / Г. В. Охріменко, Н. В. Скляренко, С. М. Локайчук ; Східноєвроп. нац. ун-т ім. Лесі Українки та ін. — Луцьк: Вежа-Друк, 2018. — 404 с.
Нариси етнокультурної історії Північно-Західної України доби бронзи: монографія / Г. Охріменко, Н. Скляренко, І. Маркус та ін. — Луцьк: Вежа-Друк, 2016. — 428 с.
Українські археологи
Кандидати історичних наук України
Уродженці Прилук
Випускники Луцького педагогічного інституту
|
1100728
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/9258%20%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81
|
9258 Джонполджонс
|
9258 Джонполджонс (9258 Johnpauljones) — астероїд головного поясу, відкритий 29 вересня 1973 року.
Тіссеранів параметр щодо Юпітера — 3,697.
Примітки
Див. також
Список астероїдів (9201-9300)
Посилання
http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/NumberedMPs
Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 1973
Головний пояс астероїдів
|
985965
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%20%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80
|
Алан Гігер
|
Алан Гігер (22 січня 1936, Су-Сіті, Айова, США) — американський фізик і хімік, лауреат Нобелівської премії з хімії (2000, спільно з А. Макдіармід і Х. Сіракава).
Закінчив університет Небраски (бакалавр, 1957) і Каліфорнійський університет в Берклі (доктор філософії, 1961). У 1962—1982 працював в Пенсільванському університеті. З 1982 — професор фізики в Каліфорнійському університеті в Санта-Барбарі, в 1982—1999 директор Інституту полімерів і органічних матеріалів. З 1999 одночасно працює в різних комерційних компаніях.
Спільно з Аланом Макдіармідом і Хідекі Сіракава розробив методи отримання органічних полімерних матеріалів, електропровідність яких порівнянна з електропровідністю металів.
Примітки
Література
Зеленін К. М., Ноздрачов А. Д., Поляков Є. Л. Нобелівські премії з хімії за 100 років. — СПб.: Гуманістики, 2003. 872 с.
Shirakawa H., McDiarmid A., Heeger A. Twenty-five Years of Conducting Polymers. / / Chem. Commun. 2003. P. 1-4.
Посилання
Сторінка Алана Хігер на сайті Каліфорнійського університету в Санта-Барбарі
Автобіографія Алана Хігер на сайті Нобелівського комітету
Алан Хігер — біографія
Уродженці Су-Сіті
Хіміки США
Члени і члени-кореспонденти Національної академії наук США
Доктори філософії
Члени Національної інженерної академії США
Фізики США
Члени Американського фізичного товариства
Випускники Університету Каліфорнії у Берклі
|
4557611
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%20%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%28%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BC.%201503%29
|
Кшеслав Курозвенцький (пом. 1503)
|
Кшеслав Курозвенцький (пом. 1503)
Кшеслав Курозвенцький гербу Порай (бл. 1440 — 5 квітня 1503) — польський римо-католицький і державний діяч, дипломат; куявсько-поморський єпископ (1494—1503), канцлер великий коронний (1484—1503).
Життєпис
Народився Кшеслав близько 1440 року в сім'ї люблінського каштеляна та Еви Чорної з Горчиць гербу Сулима. Мав 5 братів — , , Станіслава, Яна, ; та 2 сестер — Анну й Урсулу.
1459 року розпочав навчання у Краківській академії, 1462 року здобув ступінь бакалавра.
Церковна кар'єра
Кшеслав Курозвенцький 1459 року став каноніком влоцлавським, 1476 року краківським, 1480 року ґнєзненським, 1482 року перемишльським. Був латинським парохом (пробощем) у Бохні (1474), кантором познанської катедральної капітули (1480—1484, ґнєзненським деканом (1478–1487 і 1492—1494) і кантором (1489); кантором (1484—1486), пробстом і деканом краківським (1493). 1494 року був обраний куявсько-поморським єпископом, до обов'язків приступив на початку 1495 року. У своїй дієцезії провів 3 синоди, переслідував прибічників гуситського руху.
Політична кар'єра
Кшеслав Курозвенцький також виконував важливі державні функції. З 1472 року працював у королівській канцелярії писарем, з 1474 року секретарем, потім секретарем великим коронним короля Казимира Ягеллончика (1476—1479), канцлером великим коронним (1484—1503). 1490 року був послом до Угорщини з метою посадження на тамтешній трон королевича Яна Ольбрахта, одним із найближчих прибічників якого він був. 1496 року засвідчив видання Пйотркувського статуту. 1497 року разом із Миколаєм Подльодовським був у посольстві до молдавського воєводи Штефана III щодо спільного походу проти турків. 6 травня 1499 року підписав у Кракові акт поновлення польсько-литовської унії. Підписав декрет обрання Олександра Ягеллончика польським королем 3 жовтня 1501 року. 1501 року він був одним із можновладців, які змусили Олександра Ягеллончика видати Мельницький привілей, який значно обмежив владу короля. Був підписантом пйотркувсько-мельницької унії 1501 року.
Був протектором Яна Ласького, майбутнього примаса Польщі, якого він взяв працювати до своєї канцелярії, відправив до Риму отримувати титул куявсько-поморського єпископа, а також якому неодноразово передавав важливі церковні посади.
Помер Кшеслав Курозвенцький 5 квітня 1503 року у Вольбужі, похований у Катедральній базиліці Небовзяття Пресвятої Діви Марії у Влоцлавеку 27 квітня.
Примітки
Джерела
Prałaci i kanonicy katedry metropolitalnej gnieźnieńskiej od roku 1000 aż do dni naszych / Podług źródeł archiwalnych, opracował Jan Korytkowski. — Gniezno, 1883. — T. II. — S. 400—406.
Kujawski W. Krzesław z Kurozwęk jako wielki kanclerz koronny i biskup włocławski. — Warszawa, 1987.
Kujawski W. Krzesław z Kurozwęk, wielki kanclerz koronny i biskup włocławski // Studia Włocławskie. — 2004. — № 7. — S. 342—351.
Випускники Ягеллонського університету
Куявські римо-католицькі єпископи
Великі канцлери коронні
Секретарі великі коронні
Королівські секретарі
Гнезненські каноніки
Краківські каноніки
Влоцлавські каноніки
К
Духовні сенатори Речі Посполитої
|
1558139
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/FB-DIMM
|
FB-DIMM
|
FB-DIMM
Fully Buffered DIMM, FB-DIMM (Повністю буферизована DIMM) — стандарт комп'ютерної пам'яті, який використовується для підвищення надійності, швидкості, і щільності підсистеми пам'яті. У традиційних стандартах пам'яті лінії даних підключаються від контролера пам'яті безпосередньо до ліній даних кожного модуля DRAM (іноді через буферні регістри, по одній мікросхемі регістра на 1-2 чипа пам'яті). Із збільшенням ширини каналу або швидкості передачі даних, якість сигналу на шині погіршується, ускладнюється розводка шини. Це обмежує швидкість і щільність пам'яті. FB-DIMM використовує інший підхід для вирішення цих проблем. Це подальший розвиток ідеї registered модулів — Advanced Memory Buffer здійснює буферизацію не тільки сигналів адреси, але й даних, і використовує послідовну шину до контролера пам'яті замість паралельної.
Специфікації FB-DIMM, як і інші стандарти пам'яті, опубліковані JEDEC. FB-DIMM була реалізована тільки для чипів DDR2 SDRAM.
Технологія
Архітектура Fully Buffered DIMM вводить нову мікросхему Advanced Memory Buffer (AMB), розташовану між контролером пам'яті і чипами DRAM. На відміну від паралельної шини, використовуваної в традиційних системах DRAM-пам'яті, в FB-DIMM використовується послідовна шина між контролером пам'яті і AMB. Так досягається збільшення «ширини» (канальності) пам'яті без надмірного збільшення кількості контактів контролера пам'яті. В архітектурі FB-DIMM контролер пам'яті не займається безпосереднім записом в чипи пам'яті; ця функція перенесена в AMB. У цьому чипі відбувається регенерація і буферизація сигналів. На додаток AMB реалізує виявлення і корекцію помилок. З іншого боку, наявність AMB з проміжним буфером збільшує латентність.
Використовується пакетний протокол, кадри можуть містити дані і команди. Серед команд можна виділити команди DRAM (активація рядка — RAS, читання шпальти — CAS, оновлення — REF та ін), команди управління каналом (наприклад, запис в конфігураційні регістри), команди синхронізації. Канали зв'язку несиметричні і однонаправлені, від основного контролера пам'яті йде канал шириною 10 біт (10 диф. пар) для команд і для даних, до нього шириною 14 біт — для даних і для статусних повідомлень. AMB чипи одного каналу пам'яті організовуються в ланки, тобто шина від контролера пам'яті йде на перший AMB каналу. Кожен наступний AMB підключається за принципом точка-точка до попереднього.
Канал FB-DIMM працює на частоті, в 6 разів більшої частоти DIMM, наприклад для FB-DIMM на базі чипів пам'яті DDR2-533 (частота 533 МГц) диференційний канал працюватиме на частоті 3,2 ГГц. Для передачі одного кадру потрібно 12 циклів шини. Розмір кадру від контролера пам'яті до AMB дорівнює 120 бітам, розмір кадру від AMB дорівнює 168 бітам. Кадри містять CRC і заголовок.
Див. також
Примітки
Комп'ютерна пам'ять
|
1064863
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cummins
|
Cummins
|
Cummins Inc. is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and distributes engines, filtration, and power generation products. Cummins also services engines and related equipment, including fuel systems, controls, air handling, filtration, emission control, electrical power generation systems, and trucks.
Headquartered in Columbus, Indiana, Cummins sells in approximately 190 countries and territories through a network of more than 600 company-owned and independent distributors and approximately 7,200 dealers. Cummins reported a net income of $2.15 billion on sales of $28 billion in 2022.
History
The Cummins Engine Company was founded in Columbus, Indiana on February 3, 1919, by mechanic Clessie Cummins and banker William Glanton Irwin. The company focused on developing the diesel engine, which was invented 20 years earlier. Despite several well-publicized endurance trials, it was not until 1933 that their Model H engine, used in small railroad switchers, proved successful. The Cummins N Series engines became the industry leader in the post-World War II road-building boom in the United States, with more than half of the heavy-duty truck market using Cummins engines from 1952 to 1959. In the 1960s, the company opened an assembly plant in Shotts, Scotland (closed in 1996). By 2013, Cummins had operations in 197 countries and territories.
Business units
Cummins Engine Business
Cummins Engine Business Unit consists of aftermarket support, mid-range, heavy-duty, and high-power engines. Its markets include heavy and medium-duty trucks, buses, recreational vehicles (RV), light-duty automotive, and several industrial uses, including construction, mining, marine, oil, gas, railroad and military equipment.
One of the most popular engines built is the 5.9-liter I6 engine used in the Dodge Ram heavy-duty pickups starting in 1988. In 2007, a 6.7-liter version of the Cummins straight-six engine became optional on the RAM pickup. In 2008, Cummins was a named defendant in a class-action suit related to 1998-2001 model year Dodge Ram trucks, model 2500 or 3500, originally equipped with a Cummins ISB 5.9 liter diesel engine built using a pattern 53 Block. The case has been settled, but some qualified Chrysler owners may receive $500 for repairs to the block, which was alleged to crack and create a coolant leak.
In April 2013, Cummins utilized technology developed by Westport Innovations to ship large natural gas-fueled engines to truck manufacturers in the United States as trucking companies began converting portions of their fleets to natural gas and the natural gas distribution network in the United States began to expand.
Cummins has a technical center in Darlington, England, for developing products for the European, Middle Eastern, and Asian markets.
Cummins Power Systems Business (formerly Cummins Power Generation)
Cummins Power Systems Business Unit consists of alternators, automatic transfer switches, commercial power systems, consumer systems, engines, and paralleling systems.
All of the above stem from the Cummins Onan Corporation, whose products remain in service today.
This Business Unit was formed recently, following a merge of the Power Generation Unit and High Horsepower Sub-Division.
On August 22, 2017, United Rentals announced it had acquired all mobile power generation assets from Cummins. To maintain fleet and customer service continuity, some Cummins employees joined United Rentals.
Cummins Component Business
Cummins Component Business Unit consists of emission solutions, filtration (Fleetguard), fuel systems, turbo technologies (Holset), and electronics. The Cummins Turbo Technologies unit designs and manufactures turbochargers and related products on a global scale, for diesel engines above 3 liters. Its Emission Solutions unit develops and supplies catalytic exhaust systems and associated products to the medium and heavy-duty commercial diesel engine markets. Cummins Filtration designs, manufactures and distributes heavy-duty and light-duty air, fuel, hydraulic and lube filtration, chemicals and exhaust system technology products for diesel and gas-powered equipment. In contrast Cummins Electronics designs engine control units and sensors for Cummins diesel engines.
Cummins Distribution Business
Cummins Distribution Business consists of engine and power generation distribution as well as service and parts. The distribution unit of Cummins consists of 17 Cummins owned distributors and 10 joint ventures, covering 90 countries and territories through 234 locations.
Subsidiaries
Cummins Turbo Technologies
The Holset Engineering Co. was a British company that produced turbochargers, primarily for diesel and heavy-duty applications.
In 1973 the company was purchased by Cummins after briefly being owned by the Hanson Trust. Holset now operates facilities in China, India, Brazil, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
In 2006, the division officially changed its name to Cummins Turbo Technologies to be identified more closely with its parent company. The turbocharger products still use the Holset brand name.
Cummins Power Systems
In 1986, Cummins began the acquisition of Onan and completed it in 1992. Since then, Onan has evolved into Cummins Power Generation (now Cummins Power Systems), a wholly-invested division of Cummins. The Onan name continues to be used for modern versions of their traditional engine-driven generators for RV, marine, commercial mobility, home standby, and portable use.
Cummins Inc. (NYSE: CMI) announced that it will be unifying its brand strategy across its Power Systems business segment, which provides high-speed engines from 760 – 4400 HP and power generation equipment from 2–3,500 kW, including standby and prime power gen sets, alternators, switchgear and other components. Currently, the portfolio features the Cummins, Cummins Power Generation and Cummins Onan brands. With immediate effect, the branding will be consolidated under the Cummins brand. The Cummins Power Generation and Cummins Onan brands will be retired and the Onan name synonymous with mobile gensets, will be repositioned as a generator product line under the newly unified Cummins brand in the RV market.
Cummins Inc. will also be permanently changing all “Fun Roads” branding to Cummins RV moving forward as well and the Fun Roads brand will also be retired. As Onan will now be repositioned as an RV product line, with the new rv.cummins.com website and social media platforms serving as tools for RVers across the country to find relevant information like product specs and a sales and service locator.
“Looking to unify Cummins into one cohesive, unified brand, we decided that consolidating both products (engines and generators) into the Cummins RV family only strengthens the brand and more uniformly speaks to our manufacturers and consumers,” said Jodie Wilson. “The brand changing will not affect product or service offerings, but will help us to continue on our promise of delivering dependability across the globe.”
Rebranding occurred globally on all marketing activities, as product branding changed across all manufacturing plants beginning July 2017.
President Joe Biden visited the Cummins plant in Fridley, Minnesota on April 3, 2022. It was part of his "Investing in America" tour. Cummins had announced a US$1 billion initiative to produce clean energy technology, including electrolyzers for hydrogen cells in Fridley.
Cummins Emission Solutions
Exhaust and emissions after-treatment company Nelson Industries was purchased in 1999, due to the increasing importance of exhaust after-treatment systems for meeting future emissions standards. The division changed its name to Cummins Emission Solutions to be identified more closely with their parent company.
China operations
Cummins has some joint ventures with Chinese manufacturers, such as Dongfeng Cummins, a joint venture with Dongfeng Automobile Company, as well as Guangxi Cummins Industrial Power with LiuGong. One of the most successful joint ventures is the joint venture with Foton called Beijing Foton Cummins Engine Company. This joint venture developed the ISG/X12 engine platform in the mid 2010s. The ISG/X12 in China has surpassed 240,000 units per year making it the highest volume heavy duty engine in the Cummins product line. The ISG/X12 is the foundation for all Cummins future engine platforms.
Other entities were Cummins Beijing, Chongqing Cummins Engine, Xi’an Cummins Engine, Wuxi Newage Alternators, Xiangfan Fleetguard, Wuxi Cummins Turbo Technologies.
India operations
Cummins India is the Indian subsidiary of Cummins. Cummins India is publicly traded on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange of India (NSE). Cummins began its India operations on 17 February 1962 in a joint venture with the Kirloskar Group. The ownership structure of the joint venture was divided as follows:
Cummins - 50%
Kirloskar Group - 25.5%
Retail Investors - 24.5%
In 1996 Cummins Inc. bought Kirloskar shares. Now it is a Cummins Inc. subsidiary. As of 2013, the Cummins group had revenues over $1.5 billion, 20 factories and 9000 employees in India.
Cummins conducts a significant part of its R&D in India at the Cummins Research and Technology centre that was established in 2003. Cummins has built a technical centre in Pune which houses over 2500 engineers, called CTCI (Cummins Technical Centre India).
Cummins India has made significant contributions to local skill development by establishing the MKSSS's Cummins College of Engineering for Women, a women-only engineering college in Pune.
Applications
IS (Interact Series) - family of engines used for on-highway applications, trucks, buses and RVs
ISF 2.8-liter I4 - used in GAZ GAZelle (Business and Next series) and Foton Tunland light trucks
ISV 5.0-liter V8 - used in the 2016 and newer Nissan Titan XD truck, up to 2019 model year
ISB 5.9-liter I6, 190 HP - used in first, second, and third-generation Ram 2500 and 3500 trucks until 2007
ISB 6.7-liter I6 - used in third, fourth and fifth generation Ram 2500-5500 trucks, school buses, Alexander Dennis buses, medium-duty trucks, such as Freightliner and International. Also used in Kenworth and Peterbilt called the Paccar PX6 or PX7.
ISC 8.3-liter I6 - discontinued
ISL 8.9-liter - I6 - used for a variety of applications, and a very common engine for buses
ISL G 8.9-liter - I6 natural-gas-powered, used for a variety of applications
ISM 11-liter I6 - used for a variety of vocational applications in lesser regulated areas
ISG 12-liter I6 - used primarily in Chinese HD trucks
ISX 12-liter I6 - used in heavy-duty trucks
ISX G 12-liter I6 - natural-gas-powered; used in heavy-duty trucks
ISD 12.4-liter I6 - used in tractor applications in lesser regulated areas
ISX 15 liter I6 - used in heavy-duty trucks
V555 9.1-liter V8 - used in heavy machinery and large trucks
V903 14.8-liter V8 - used in Bradley fighting vehicles and other military applications
QS (Quantum Series) - family of engines used for off-highway applications, such as marine, rail/industrial, construction, power generation and agriculture
QSF 2.8-liter I4
QSF 3.8-liter I4
QSB 4.5-liter I4
QSB 6.7-liter I6
QSL 9-liter I6
QSG 12-liter I6
QSX 15-liter I6
QSK 19-liter I6
QSK 23-liter I6
QST 30-liter V12
QSK 38-liter V12
QSK 45-liter V12
QSK 50-liter V16
QSK 60-liter V16
QSK 78-liter V18
QSK 95-liter V16
X Series (Next-Generation) - evolution of IS engine family
X12
X15 Performance 15-liter I6
X15 Efficiency 15-liter I6
Concept vehicles
Cummins Aeos - An electric-powered conventional truck.
Clean Air Act violations
In 1998, the EPA announced fines totaling $83.4 million against Cummins and six other diesel engine manufacturers, the largest fine to date. The fines came after manufacturers evaded testing by deliberately deactivating emissions controls during highway driving to give the appearance of being in full regulatory compliance during standard laboratory testing. The manufacturers also agreed to spend more than $1 billion to correct the problem. The trucks used engine ECU software to engage pollution controls during the 20-minute lab tests to verify compliance with the Clean Air Act, but then quietly disabled the emissions controls during normal highway cruising, thereby emitting up to three times the maximum allowed NOx pollution.
In December 2023, Cummins was fined $1.675 billion by the U.S. Justice Department for violations of the Clean Air Act. Cummins was found to have installed devices designed to bypass or disable emissions controls on 960,000 Dodge and Stellantis RAM pickup truck diesel engines between 2013 and 2023. It will also pay $325 million in remedies and recalls.
Carbon footprint
Cummins reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 595 Kt (-94 /-13.7% y-o-y). The company plans to reduce total emissions (Direct + Indirect) 50% by 2030 from a 2018 base year and also aims to reach net-zero by 2050.
See also
Cummins Corporate Office Building
Cummins UK
Cummins-Wärtsilä
Komatsu
J. Irwin Miller
Brammo
References
External links
Cummins Corporate Web Site
Cummins Spare Parts Catalogue
Auto parts suppliers of the United States
Gas engine manufacturers
Diesel engine manufacturers
Locomotive engine manufacturers
Marine engine manufacturers
Motor vehicle engine manufacturers
Manufacturing companies based in Indiana
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1919
1919 establishments in Indiana
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Trucking industry in the United States
Columbus, Indiana
American brands
Fuel cell manufacturers
Electrical generation engine manufacturers
Turbocharger manufacturers
|
5811122
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillian%20Jacobs
|
Gillian Jacobs
|
Gillian Jacobs
Gillian MacLaren Jacobs (born October 19, 1982) is an American actress. She is known for playing Britta Perry in the NBC sitcom Community (2009–2015), Mickey Dobbs in the Netflix romantic comedy series Love (2016–2018), and Mary Jayne Gold in Transatlantic (2023), also on Netflix. Her other notable television roles include Mimi-Rose Howard in the fourth season of the HBO comedy-drama series Girls (2015) and Atom Eve in the animated superhero series Invincible (2021–present).
She has also appeared in films, such as Gardens of the Night (2008), Don't Think Twice (2016), Ibiza (2018), I Used to Go Here (2020) and The Fear Street Trilogy (2021).
Early life
Gillian MacLaren Jacobs was born in Pittsburgh on October 19, 1982, the only child of college administrator Martina Magenau and investment banker William F. Jacobs Jr. Her parents divorced when she was two years old, and she was raised by her mother in Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania. Her family owned a brewery, where her grandfather was president and CEO until it closed in 1978.
Jacobs began studying acting at the age of four and attended weekend acting classes at the Pittsburgh Playhouse while growing up. She performed with the Pittsburgh Public Theater, where she was a perennial contender in the Public's Shakespeare Monologue Contest, leading her to be cast as Titania in its production of A Midsummer Night's Dream. After graduating from Mt. Lebanon High School in 2000, she moved to New York City to attend the Juilliard School, where she graduated with a BFA in 2004.
Jacobs has never played organized sports.
Career
Jacobs' first acting role was Adele Congreve on the television series The Book of Daniel. Although she played Kim in the pilot of Traveler, the role was given to Pascale Hutton when ABC acquired the series; the series was canceled after eight episodes. Jacobs subsequently made guest appearances on Fringe and Law & Order: Criminal Intent. In 2006, she starred in an Off-Off-Broadway production of Christopher Denham's cagelove. While overall critical reaction to the play was negative, Jacobs earned praise in several reviews. The New York Times advised readers to "remember the name of Gillian Jacobs, a stunning Juilliard graduate who has the glow of a star in the making".
Jacobs has appeared in theatrical productions such as The Fabulous Life of a Size Zero (2007), A Feminine Ending (2007), and The Little Flower of East Orange (2008). In March 2009, she joined the cast of the NBC single-camera comedy series Community as Britta Perry, a high school dropout who aspires to become a psychologist. Her film work includes Blackbird (2007), Choke (2008), Gardens of the Night (2008), The Box (2009), Revenge for Jolly! (2012), Bad Milo! (2013), Walk of Shame (2014), The Lookalike (2014), Life Partners (2014), Hot Tub Time Machine 2 (2015), Visions (2015), Don't Think Twice (2016), and Brother Nature (2016). She voiced Sta'abi in the Nickelodeon series Monsters vs. Aliens, and Atom Eve in the Amazon Prime animated series Invincible. Community was canceled by NBC on May 9, 2014, and later that month, it was reported that Jacobs had landed a recurring role as Mimi-Rose Howard in the fourth season of the HBO series Girls.
In June 2014, Yahoo! Screen picked up Community for a sixth season. It was announced on September 16, 2014, that Jacobs was cast to star as Mickey in the Netflix original comedy series Love, which ran from February 2016 to March 2018.
Jacobs directed the 2015 documentary short The Queen of Code about computer scientist and United States Navy rear admiral Grace Hopper. In 2017, Jacobs co-starred in Janicza Bravo's first full length feature, Lemon, which debuted at Sundance Film Festival. In 2018, she directed Curated, a narrative film short, as a part of a series produced by TNT and Refinery29.
In 2020, Jacobs starred in the comedy-drama film I Used to Go Here, directed by Kris Rey. In 2020, she directed "Higher, Further, Faster," an episode of Marvel's 616, a documentary series about the impact of Marvel Comics on culture.
In February 2021, she and co-host Diona Reasonover premiered a STEM-focused podcast, Periodic Talks, on Stitcher Radio. In July 2021, she had a supporting role in the Netflix horror films The Fear Street Trilogy as Christine "Ziggy" Berman.
In 2023, she guest starred on two episodes of The Bear as Tiffany Jerimovich.
Personal life
Jacobs does not drink alcohol or take any recreational drugs, a choice she made when she was younger after watching some family members struggle with addiction. She revealed that her father was an addict and that she was fearful of becoming the same, a feeling reinforced in her youth by reading the book Go Ask Alice, which follows a teenage girl who becomes addicted to drugs. Jacobs is in a relationship with television writer Christopher Storer, creator of the series The Bear, in which she guest starred.
Filmography
Film
Television
Web
Stage
Audio
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1982 births
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Pittsburgh
Actual play performers
American film actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Juilliard School alumni
Living people
People from Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania
American people of French descent
|
1551489
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%20%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%20%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
|
Бурдик Василь Миколайович
|
Бурдик Василь Миколайович
Василь Миколайович Бурдик (Стави, Кагарлицький район, Київська область — , Миколаїв) — український театральний актор, народний артист України.
Життєпис
Народився року в селі Стави Кагарлицького району Київської області в сім'ї сільського вчителя.
З дитячих років брав участь у театральних постановках свого батька на сцені сільського будинку культури. Після закінчення школи поступав до Київського державного інституту театрального мистецтва імені І. Карпенка-Карого, проте невдало. Протягом двох років працював вчителем фізкультури в рідному селі, грав на сцені сільського клубу.
У 1965 році на запрошення режисера Анатолія Скибенка вступив до театральної студії Київського українського драматичного театру імені Івана Франка.
Після закінчення студії у 1967 році переїхав до Миколаєва. З 1 вересня того ж року — актор Миколаївського обласного українського музично-драматичного театру.
У 1980 році вступив на режисерський факультет Київського державного інституту театрального мистецтва імені І. Карпенка-Карого, який закінчив у 1985 році.
За роки творчої діяльності зіграв понад 500 різнопланових ролей у театрі. Викладав акторську майстерність, сценічний рух, читав лекції з історії театру в «Академії пані Куліси», студії, заснованій при Миколаївському українському театрі драми й музичної комедії.
У 2002 році переніс інфаркт міокарда. У 2006 році з нього було знято категорію «Майстер сцени», у 2007 році переведений на пів-ставки, а навесні 2008 року звільнений з театру.
Помер року.
Провідні ролі
Костянтин Ольшанський («Десант у безсмертя» А. Умеренкова);
Парфентій Гречаний («Партизанська іскра» Б. Арова та М. Саєнка) — премія ЛКСМУ імені Миколи Островського;
Антей («Оргія» Лесі Українки);
Гирш («Для домашнього вогнища» І. Франка);
Кайдаш («Кайдашева сім'я» І. Нечуй-Левицького);
Ной («Ноєв ковчег» В. Босовича);
Василь («Циганка Аза» М. Старицького);
Сірко («За двома зайцями» М. Старицького);
Дядько Тарас («Мина Мазайло» П. Куліша);
Андрій Дудка («Голий президент» Д. Шевцова);
Дон Алонсо («З коханням не жартують» П. Кальдерона).
Нагороди і почесні звання
Лауреат республіканської премії ЛКСМУ імені Миколи Островського — за роль Парфена Гречаного у спектаклі «Партизанська іскра»;
Заслужений артист Української РСР (1983);
Народний артист України (19.09.2002).
З 1992 по 2006 роки утримував категорію «Майстер сцени».
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт Миколаївської обласної організації НРУ
Официальный сайт Анатолия Малярова
«Николаевские новости»: Сегодня похоронят Василия Бурдыка
Актори Миколаївського українського музично-драматичного театру
Випускники Київського національного університету театру, кіно і телебачення імені Івана Карпенка-Карого
|
4192031
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F%20%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%97
|
Геологія Ісландії
|
Геологія Ісландії — є унікальною і становить особливий інтерес для геологів. Ісландія лежить на дивергентній межі між Євразійською та Північноамериканською плитами та одночасно над гарячою точкою, Ісландським плюмом. Вважається, що плюм спричинив утворення самої Ісландії; острів вперше з’явився над поверхнею океану приблизно 16–18 мільйонів років тому. Результат — острів, що характеризується постійним вулканізмом та геотермальними явищами, такими як гейзери.
Виверження Лакі 1783 р. спричинило великі руйнування та загибель людей, що призвело не лише до голоду, внаслідок якого загинуло близько 25 % населення острова, але й до падіння глобальних температур, оскільки діоксид сірки викидався в Північну півкулю. Це спричинило неврожай в Європі та, можливо, посуху в Індії. За оцінками, внаслідок виверження загинуло понад шість мільйонів людей у всьому світі.
У період з 1963 по 1967 рік, новий острів Суртсей був створений біля південно-західного узбережжя внаслідок виверження вулкана.
Геологічна історія
Утворення Північної Атлантики та походження Ісландії
Ісландія розташована над Серединно-Атлантичним хребтом. Деякі вчені вважають, що гаряча точка під Ісландією могла сприяти розриву суперконтиненту Пангея та подальшому формуванню Північної Атлантики. Магматичні гірські породи, що виникли з цієї гарячої точки, були знайдені по обидва боки Серединно-Атлантичного хребта, що виник 57–53 мільйони років тому, приблизно в той час, коли Північна Америка та Євразія розділилися і розпочався спрединг морського дна на північному сході Атлантики. Геологи можуть визначити рух плит відносно ісландської гарячої точки, досліджуючи магматичні породи в усьому регіоні Північної Атлантики. Це можливо, оскільки певні гірські породи, пов’язані з вулканізмом «гарячих точок», можна трактувати як вулканічні сліди, залишені Ісландською гарячою точкою. Припускаючи, що гаряча точка нерухома, геологи використовують те, що називається "системою відліку гарячих точок", для збору оцінок руху плит та створення карт руху плит на поверхні Землі щодо нерухомої точки.
Більшість дослідників руху плит сходяться на думці, що гаряча точка Ісландії, ймовірно, деякий час розташовувалась під Гренландією. Оскільки Північно-Атлантичний океан продовжував розширюватися, Гренландія колись розташовувалась на південний схід від гарячої точки Ісландії і, ймовірно, пройшла над нею на 70–40 млн. років тому. Деякі дослідження з використанням нових даних про рух плит, зібраних з гарячих точок з усього світу, дозволяють припустити, що шлях гарячої точки Ісландії відрізняється від шляху, передбаченого старішими дослідженнями. Багато старих гірських порід (датовані 75–70 млн. років), розташованих по всій території на захід, не лише розташовані поблизу припущених шляхів гарячої точки Ісландії, але також пов’язані з вулканізмом гарячих точок. Це означає, що гаряча точка Ісландії може бути набагато старшою за найраніший рифтинг того, що зараз є найпівнічнішою північно-східною Атлантикою. Якщо це правда, то більша частина рифтоутворення в Північній Атлантиці, швидше за все, була спричинена витонченням і випинанням кори, а не більш прямим впливом мантійного плюму, який підтримує Ісландську гарячу точку.
В інших наукових роботах про шлях гарячої точки Ісландії не виявлено такий спрямований на захід слід до Канади (де знайдені вищезазначені старіші магматичні породи), що означає, що старі магматичні породи, знайдені в Північній Атлантиці, можуть не походити з цієї гарячої точки. Хоча точний шлях Ісландської гарячої точки обговорюється, переважання геофізичних доказів, таких як геотермальний тепловий потік над Гренландією, показує, що гаряча точка, ймовірно, рухалася під Гренландією приблизно 80–50 млн. років тому.
Близько 60–50 млн.років тому, коли Ісландія була розташована поблизу східного узбережжя Гренландії та Середино-Атлантичного хребта, вулканізм, можливо породжений гарячою точкою Ісландії, з’єднав євразійський та північноамериканський континенти та утворив сухопутний міст між континентами під час того, як вони продовжували розходитись. Ця особливість відома як Гренландсько-Шотландський поперечний хребет, і зараз вона лежить нижче рівня моря. Близько 36 млн. років тому Ісландська гаряча точка повністю контактувала з океанічною корою і, можливо, живила сегменти Серединно-Атлантичного хребта, які продовжували формувати найдавніші скелі, розташовані безпосередньо на схід та захід від сучасної Ісландії. Найдавніші підземні гірські породи сучасної Ісландії мають вік 16,5 млн. років.
Хоча більшість вчених вважають, що Ісландія є островом оскільки одночасно контактує з мантійним плюмом та активно розривається Серединно-Атлантичним хребтом, деякі інші переконливі сейсмологічні та геофізичні докази ставлять під сумнів наявність мантійного плюму / гарячої точки. Деякі геологи вважають, що недостатньо однозначних доказів свідчать про те, що під Ісландією існує мантійний плюм, оскільки тепловий потік морського дна через літосферу, що оточує Ісландію, не відхиляється від нормального теплового потоку океанічної літосфери, на який не впливає плюм. Ця гіпотеза про холодну кору прямо протистоїть ідеї, що Ісландія розташована над гарячим мантійним плюмом. Додаткові дані вказують на те, що сейсмічні хвилі, створені під Ісландією, поводяться не так, як очікувалося на підставі інших сейсмічних досліджень поблизу гіпотетичних мантійних плюмів. Оскільки це одне з місць, де на суші можна спостерігати поширення морського дна, і де є дані про мантійний шлейф, геологічна історія Ісландії, ймовірно, залишиться популярним напрямком досліджень.
Зледеніння
Простягання льодовика
Нунатаки та вільні від льоду території
Інтергляціали
Туя і підльодовиковий вулканізм
Голоценові зміни та вулканізм
Повторне поширення рослин
Посилення вулканізму
Ґрунтоутворення
Гляціоізостазія
Голоценові відкладення
Прибережна ерозія
Типи гірських порід
Вулканічні відклади
Толеїтичний вулканічний ряд
Лужний вулканічний ряд
Гіалокластит
Тефра і зола
Плутонічні (інтрузивні) породи
Дайки
Сілли
Плутони
Осадові відкладення
Одним з рідкісних прикладів осадових порід в Ісландії є послідовність морських і неморських відкладень, що є на півострові Тьорнес на півночі Ісландії. Ці пліоценові та пізньоплейстоценові відкладення складаються з мулу та пісковиків, у нижчих шарах збереглися скам’янілості. Основними видами викопних речовин, знайденими на Тьорнесі, є черепашки морських молюсків та рослинні залишки (лігніт).
Вулканізм
Тектонічна структура Ісландії характеризується різними сейсмічно та вулканічно активними центрами. Ісландія межує на півдні з хребтом Рейк'янес, який є сегментом Серединно-Атлантичного хребта, а на півночі з хребтом Кольбейнсі. Рифтинг у південній частині Ісландії зосереджений у двох основних паралельних рифтових зонах. Рифт півострова Рейк'янес на південному заході Ісландії є продовженням хребта Рейк'янес, що з'єднується із Західною вулканічною зоною (WVZ). Більш активна Східна вулканічна зона (EVZ) є рифтовим стрибком, хоча незрозуміло, як відбувалося поширення основної рифтової активності. Зсув між WVZ і EVZ здійснюється в сейсмічній зоні Південної Ісландії, районі, що характеризується високою активністю землетрусів. EVZ на півночі переходить у Північну вулканічну зону (NVZ), яка включає вулкан Крапла. NVZ пов’язаний з хребтом Кольбейнсі через зону руйнування Тьорнеса, ще один важливий центр сейсмічності та деформації.
Після майже 800 років тиші, на півострові Рейк'янес розпочалася вулканічна активність у 2021 році. Після початку виверження вулкану Фаградальсф'ядль 19 березня 2021 року експерти журналу National Geographic передбачили, що це "може ознаменувати собою початок десятиліть вулканічної діяльності". Станом на 16 квітня 2021 року виверження тривало.
14 січня 2024 року, на півострові Рейк'янес почалося виверження вулкана. Лава досягла невеликого рибальського містечка Гріндавік та почала руйнувати будинки, що змусило евакуювати мешканців.
Активна тектоніка
10 липня 2023 року, на півострові Рейкьянес, неподалік від столиці Ісландії Рейк’явіка, після декількох днів сейсмічної активності почалося виверження вулкана. Згідно повідомлення Iceland Monitor, за тиждень до цього, з району виверження надходили повідомлення про значний підйом ґрунту у багатьох місцях. Наступного дня, 4 липня, в регіоні відбулася низка землетрусів. Відтоді кількість підземних поштовхів зросла до тисяч, багато з яких перевищували 4 бали за шкалою Ріхтера, а деякі перевищували 5 балів. Вулкан розташований неподалік від місця попередніх вивержень, що відбулися у 2021 та 2022 роках. Дослідники, які спостерігають за розвитком подій, показали драматичні кадри виверження новітнього "молодого" вулкана Землі, кратер якого ефектно повалився, викидаючи в повітря "бризки" розплавленої лави. Відомо, що цей вулкан утворився внаслідок підземного землетрусу, який відкрив тріщину завдовжки 4,3 кілометра. Дослідники зазначають, що "народженню" вулкана також передував "сейсмічний рій" з 7000 землетрусів, які були зафіксовані в цьому регіоні. Дані дослідницької групи Університету Ісландії свідчать про те, що його тектонічна активність сповільнилася приблизно через тиждень після початку виверження.
19 грудня 2023 року, близько 21:00 (за місцевим часом), вдруге за рік, на півострові Рейк'янес, після кількох сильних землетрусів почалося виверження вулкана. Магнітуда землетрусу досягла 4,2 балів. Близько 22:46 того ж дня, в районі міста Гріндавік почалося виверження вулкана. Влада почала евакуацію населення.
Розташована між Євразійською та Північноамериканською тектонічними плитами, Ісландія є гарячою сейсмічною та вулканічною точкою, оскільки дві плити рухаються у протилежних напрямках. Хоча землетруси в Ісландії є повсякденним явищем, ці землетруси є попереджувальним знаком, що країна вступає у фазу підготовки до наступного вулканічного виверження. Станом на 27 жовтня 2023 року, як повідомило агентство Reuters, на півострові Рейк'янес на південному заході Ісландії сталося понад 5500 невеликих землетрусів за останні три дні, що збільшує ймовірність виверження вулкана.
Сучасні льодовики
Льодовики покривають близько 11 % території Ісландії; найбільший з них — Ватнайокутль. Оскільки багато льодовиків вкривають діючі вулкани, підльодовикові виверження можуть становити небезпеку через раптові повені, спричинені талою льодовиковою водою, відомою як єкуллойп. Ісландські льодовики загалом відступали протягом останніх 100 років; Ватнайокутль втратив аж 10 % свого обсягу.
Вплив людини та природні катастрофи
Надмірний випас худоби
Ерозія грунту
єкуллойпи
Флюороз
Виверження Лакі
Землетрус у Ісландії 2008 року
Знеліснення
Використання геотермальної енергії
Див.також
Примітки
Посилання
Карти та ілюстративні фото з Юніон-коледжу
Trønnes, R.G. 2002: Field trip: Introduction. Geology and geodynamics of Iceland. In: S. Planke (ed.) Iceland 2002 – Petroloeum Geology Field Trip Guide, prepared for Statoil Faroes Licence Groups by Volcanic Basin Petroleum Research, Nordic Volcanological Institute and Iceland National Energy Authority, p. 23-43.
Thor Thordarson. Outline of Geology of Iceland. Chapman Conference 2012
Bamlett M. and J. F. Potter (1994) "Iceland". Geologists' Association Guide No.52 .
Interview of geologist Gro Birkefeldt Møller Pedersen about Iceland's geology, in particular its volcanoes.
Геологія за країною
Геологія Ісландії
|
12487974
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufous%20chatterer
|
Rufous chatterer
|
Rufous chatterer
The rufous chatterer (Argya rubiginosa) is a species of bird in the family Leiothrichidae.
It is found in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.
Its natural habitats are dry savanna and subtropical or tropical dry shrubland.
This species was formerly placed in the genus Turdoides but following the publication of a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic study in 2018, it was moved to the resurrected genus Argya.
References
Collar, N. J. & Robson, C. 2007. Family Timaliidae (Babblers) pp. 70 – 291 in; del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Christie, D.A. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 12. Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
rufous chatterer
Birds of East Africa
rufous chatterer
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot
|
2777718
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen%20Cup%201994%2C%20%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4
|
Volkswagen Cup 1994, одиночний розряд
|
Volkswagen Cup 1994, одиночний розряд
Мартіна Навратілова була чинною чемпіонкою, але не змогла захистити свій титул, оскільки у чвертьфіналі її перемогла Мередіт Макґрат з рахунком 6–7, 6–2, 6–4.
Макґрат потім виграла титул, перемігши у фіналі Лінда Гарві-Вілд з рахунком 6–2, 6–4.
Сіяні гравчині
Сіяну чемпіонку виділено жирним, тоді як для інших сіяних прописом вказано коло, в якому вони вибули. Перші восьмеро сіяних тенісисток виходять без боротьби в друге коло.
Мартіна Навратілова (чвертьфінал)
n/a
Кіміко Дате (2-ге коло)
Наталія Звєрєва (півфінал)
Гелена Сукова (3-тє коло)
Сабін Аппельманс (2-ге коло)
Лорі Макніл (3-тє коло)
Наталі Тозья (3-тє коло)
Емі Фрейзер (1-ше коло)
Наоко Савамацу (2-ге коло)
Інес Горрочатегі (3-тє коло)
Бренда Шульц (1-ше коло)
Чанда Рубін (1-ше коло)
Наталія Медведєва (1-ше коло)
Патті Фендік (3-тє коло)
Джинджер Гелгесон-Нілсен (1-ше коло)
Сітка
Фінальна частина
{{4TeamBracket-Tennis3
| RD1=Півфінали
| RD2=Фінал
| RD1-seed1=
| RD1-team1=
| RD1-score4-1=6
| RD1-score4-2=7
| RD1-score4-3=
| RD2-seed1=
| RD2-team1=
Верхня половина
Секція 1
Секція 2
Нижня половина
Секція 3
Секція 4
Посилання
Volkswagen Cup 1994 Draw
1994
Тур WTA 1994
|
5171914
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%85%20%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%20%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
|
Бух Микола Костянтинович
|
Бух Микола Костянтинович
Микола Костянтинович Бух (6 листопада 1853 — після 1934) — український і російський революціонер-народник. Прізвисько «Іван Васильович».
Біографія
Народився в Калузі в сім'ї високого державного чиновника, високопосадовця Костянстина Андрійовича(?) Бух. Брат — (1847, Рязань — 1917, Петроград) — російський революціонер, а пізніше відомий економіст.
У 1873 році вступив до Медико-хірургічної академії; включився у революційний рух у Петербурзі. В 1874 брав участь у «ходінні в народ», кинувши навчання в академії і перейшовши на нелегальне становище. Не був розшуканий і тому не судимий на «процесі 193-х». Входив у "бакуністський" гурток самарців (Н Головіна, П. Чернишов, Л. Городецький та ін.).
1875 року увійшов до гуртка "Південних бунтарів" (або "Київських бунтарів"), який діяв на території України. У 1877-1878 роках працював у таємній друкарні, що друкувала "Начало" ("Початок"). У 1878 року після передачі друкарні землевольцям знову брав участь у роботі.
У серпні 1879 року прийнятий у «Землю і Волю» і після розділу організував друкарню «Народної Волі» у Саперному провулку. Було обрано членом Виконавчого комітету «Народної волі».
18 січня 1880 року озброєний опір при арешті. У "процесі 16-ти" засуджений до 15 років каторги, яку відбував на Карі. 1895 року повернувся з Сибіру.
До кінця 1917 року примикав до есерів.
Після Жовтневої революції жив у Харкові. Помер після 1934 року .
Спогади
Бух М.К. "Автобіографія" // Діячі СРСР та революційного руху Росії: енциклопедичний словник Гранат. Москва: Радянська енциклопедія, 1989.
Бух М.К. "Спогади" / передмова. Фелікса Кона. М: Вид-во Всесоюзн. Общ-ва політкаторжан та сс. -поселенців, 1928. 199 с. (онлайн-версія)
Бух М.К. "Перша друкарня «Народної Волі» // Каторга та заслання. 1929. №8-9". З. 54-93.
Бух М.К. "У Петропавлівській фортеці // Каторга та заслання". 1930. №7 (68). С. 113-125; №11 (72). С. 98-114.
Бух М.К. "Перший процес народовольців // Каторга та заслання". 1931. № 7 (80) С. 108-141.
Бух М.К. "На каторжному положенні / / Каторга та заслання". 1931. №11-12 (84-85). З. 190—209.
Бух М.К. "Підпільний революціонер — великий вчений [про Є.С. Федорова]" // Каторга та заслання. 1930. №10 (71). З. 194—195.
Бух М.К. "Рачковський // Літопис революції". 1922. №1. С. 208-215.
Посилання
Автобіографія
Біографія
Патронова О. Г. Державні злочинці на Нерчинській каторгі (1861 – 1895 рр.): Біобібліографічний довідник. Частина I (А – І) / Матеріали до «Енциклопедії Забайкалля». Випуск 1. - Коротка біографія, бібліографія
Співробітники Харківської державної наукової бібліотеки ім. В. Г. Короленка
Померли у 20 столітті
Народовольці
Російські революціонери
Померли в Харкові
Уродженці Калуги
Народились 1853
Народились 18 листопада
Народники
Українські революціонери
Члени Партії соціалістів-революціонерів
|
1955124
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9
|
Ломницький
|
Ломницький — прізвище.
Антоній Ломницький (1881—1941) — польський математик, один із засновників Львівської математичної школи.
Єремія Іван Ломницький (1860—1916) — український церковний діяч, вихователь, місіонер, ієромонах-василіянин.
Мар'ян Ломницький (1845—1915) — польський науковець-натураліст на Галичині.
Ярослав Ломницький (1873—1931) — польський ентомолог, палеонтолог і геолог. Син Мар'яна Ломницького.
Інше
Ломницький Штит — вершина в Високих Татрах (Західні Карпати), на території Словаччини.
3168 Ломницький Штит — астероїд головного поясу.
Ломницький Став, Ломницький Ставок (слово Skalnaté pleso, раніше Lomnické pleso, німець Steinbachsee, угорська Kőpataki-tó) — льодовикове озеро (словацька pleso) в Словацьких Високих Татрах, розташоване в Ломницькій долині, під південними схилами Ломниці .
|
2780368
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%B3-%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80
|
Чаг-Бар
|
Чаг-Бар — село в Ірані, у дегестані Баят, у бахші Новбаран, шагрестані Саве остану Марказі. За даними перепису 2006 року, його населення становило 46 осіб, що проживали у складі 13 сімей.
Клімат
Середня річна температура становить 11,25°C, середня максимальна – 30,80°C, а середня мінімальна – -11,04°C. Середня річна кількість опадів – 268 мм.
Примітки
Населені пункти шагрестану Саве
|
6710947
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr%20Chernyshyov
|
Aleksandr Chernyshyov
|
Aleksandr Chernyshyov
Aleksandr Alekseyevich Chernyshyov (21 August 1882 – 28 April 1940), anglicised Alexander Chernyshov, was an electrical engineer. He graduated from Saint Petersburg Polytechnical Institute in 1907, and worked there until the end of his life. His research consisted of radio engineering and high-voltage techniques. He won the Lenin Prize in 1930.
References
All Russian Genealogical Tree
Soviet engineers
Engineers from the Russian Empire
Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University alumni
1882 births
1940 deaths
Burials at Bogoslovskoe Cemetery
|
3071611
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%8F
|
Соціальна медіатерапія
|
Соціальна медіатерапія - це форма експресивної арт-терапії. Вона полягає у використанні процесу створення та обміну контентом користувачів як способу спілкування і розуміння людей. Соціальна медіатерапія поєднує у собі різні експресивні терапевтичні аспекти: психотерапію, арт-терапію, письмову та театральну терапію. В рамках соціальної медіатерапії синхронний або асинхронний діалог відбувається через обмін аудіо, текстовою або візуальною інформацією. Цифровий контент публікується в Інтернеті як форма терапії..
Історія виникнення
Час, витрачений на електронну пошту, вебсайти, обмін миттєвими повідомленнями та користування соціальними медіа, збільшився: з 1999 року більше 2,554 мільйони людей стали користувачами Інтернету. Це змінило спосіб спілкування між людьми та конотацію певних слів. Поняття "ідентичність" (identity), "друг" (friend), "вподобання" (like) і "підключений" (connetcted) змінилися та підлаштувалися під технології. На людей впливають обміни даними, соціальний маркетинг і технологічні інструменти. Пристрої, які дозволяють нам бути онлайн змінили соціальні очікування та соціальні норми. Терапевти починають досліджувати шляхи, через які можна впливати на особисті взаємозв’язки клієнтів. Нарешті деякі лікарі також розуміють етичні значення їх власного професійного використання соціальних медіа.
Сьогодні існує багато терапевтичних послуг, що пропонуються онлайн. Професіонали «психічного здоров’я» можуть розширювати можливості, пропонуючи свої послуги через e-mail чи відео-конференції. E-терапія, інтернет-консультація, кібер-терапія та соціальна медіатерапія схожі у тому, що кожен з методів використовує Інтернет для лікування пацієнтів.
Дискусія
Кажучи про предмет онлайн терапії, слід зауважити що існують як плюси, так і мінуси. Критика надання терапії через онлайн методи виникає через стурбованість у відсутності фізичного контакту. Існують важливі особливості терапії, що створюється за допомогою методу "віч-на-віч", тобто фізичної присутності, такі як перенесення та контрперенесення. Ці методи не можуть бути створені через онлайн терапію. Patricia R. Recupero та Samara E. Rainey у своїй статті «Усвідомлена згода на Е-терапію» (Informed Consent to E-Therapy), яка була опублікована у American Journal of Psychotherapy зазначають, що відсутність особистої взаємодії збільшило ризик помилкового діагнозу і непорозумінь між е-терапевтом і пацієнтом, збільшивши таким чином ризик невизначеності для клініциста. Також існує стурбованість, що такі онлайн методи відволікають від самої терапії. Крім цього були порушені питання конфіденційності та приватності. Але варто зазначити, що існують критики, які оскаржуть дані теорії та стверджують, що відстань не має ніякого значення.
Заступник головного редактора українського The Village Марк Лівін наголошує, що "Журналістика — це справді певною мірою терапія, яка призводить до внутрішніх змін. Журналістика стала для мене інструментом, за допомогою якого я зміг отримати відповіді на запитання".
Див. також
Соціальні медіа
Терапія
Посилання
|
11978082
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahlerstedt
|
Ahlerstedt
|
Ahlerstedt is a municipality in the District of Stade, Lower Saxony, Germany.
It belonged to the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen. In 1648, the Prince-Archbishopric was transformed into the Duchy of Bremen, which was first ruled in personal union by the Swedish and from 1715 on by the Hanoverian Crown. In 1823 the Duchy was abolished and its territory became part of the Stade Region.
Local council
The local council has 17 members, according to the 2016 elections:
FWG: 11 seats
CDU: 3 seats
SPD: 2 seats
NPD: 1 seats
References
Stade (district)
|
1920410
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Marcus%20Island%20%28CVE-77%29
|
USS Marcus Island (CVE-77)
|
USS Marcus Island (CVE-77)
Авіаносець «Маркус Айленд» — ескортний авіаносець США часів Другої світової війни, типу «Касабланка».
Історія створення
Авіаносець «Маркус Айленд» був закладений 15 вересня 1943 року на верфі Kaiser Shipyards у Ванкувері під ім'ям «Kanalku Вау», але 6 листопада 1943 року перейменований на «Маркус Айленд». Спущений на воду 16 грудня 1943 року, вступив у стрій 26 січня 1944 року.
Історія служби
Після вступу в стрій авіаносець «Маркус Айленд» брав участь в десантних операціях на Західні Каролінські острови (вересень 1944 року), у битві в затоці Лейте, в десантах на о. Лейте (жовтень-грудень 1944 року).
15 грудня 1944 року авіаносець був легко пошкоджений камікадзе.
Після ремонту брав участь в десантній операції в затоці Лінгаєн (о. Лусон, січень 1945 року) та на Окінаву (квітень-червень 1945 року).
Після закінчення бойових дій корабель перевозив американських солдатів та моряків на батьківщину (операція «Magic Carpet»).
12 грудня 1946 року авіаносець «Маркус Айленд» був виведений в резерв.
12 червня 1955 року він був перекласифікований в ескортний вертольотоносець CVHE-77. 7 травня 1959 року корабель був перекласифікований в допоміжний авіатранспорт AKV-27.
29 лютого 1960 року «Маркус Айленд» був виключений зі списків флоту і зданий на злам.
Див. також
Авіаносці типу «Касабланка»
Література
Энциклопедия авианосцев. Под общей редакцией А. Е. Тараса / Минск, Харвест; Москва, АСТ, 2002
Авианосцы Второй мировой. Новые властелины океанов. //С. А. Балакин, А. В. Дашьян, М. Э. Морозов. — М.:Коллекция, Яуза, 2006. ISBN 5-699-17428-1
С. А. Балакин — Авианосцы мира. 1939—1945. Великобритания, США, СССР.
Посилання
Фотогалерея на navsource.org
Авіаносці типу «Касабланка»
|
1744625
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic%20Mapping%20Tools
|
Generic Mapping Tools
|
Generic Mapping Tools (GMT) are an open-source collection of computer software tools for processing and displaying xy and xyz datasets, including rasterization, filtering and other image processing operations, and various kinds of map projections. The software stores 2-D grids as COARDS-compliant netCDF files and comes with a comprehensive collection of free GIS data, such as coast lines, rivers, political borders and coordinates of other geographic objects. Users convert further data (like satellite imagery and digital elevation models) from other sources and import them. GMT stores the resulting maps and diagrams in PostScript (PS) or Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) format.
Users operate the system from the command line: this enables scripting and the automation of routine tasks. More or less comprehensive graphic user interfaces are available from third parties, as well as web applications, bringing the system's functionality online.
Paul Wessel and Walter H. F. Smith created GMT in 1988 at Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, officially releasing it on October 7, 1991 under the GNU General Public License. The letters GMT originally stood for Gravity, Magnetism and Topography, the three basic types of geophysical data. Besides its strong support for the visualization of geographic data sets, the software includes tools for processing and manipulating multi-dimensional datasets. GMT is most widely used by Earth and Ocean scientists.
References
External links
Interactive online map generation using GMT.
Some examples.
iGMT is a graphical front-end for GMT.
Information on how to use OpenStreetMap data within GMT.
Database-related software for Linux
Earth sciences graphics software
Free GIS software
Graphics-related software for Linux
Plotting software
1991 software
GIS software
|
17956934
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landtag%20of%20North%20Rhine-Westphalia
|
Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia
|
Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia
The Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia is the state parliament (Landtag) of the German federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia, which convenes in the state capital of Düsseldorf, in the eastern part of the district of Hafen. The parliament is the central legislative body in the political system of North Rhine-Westphalia. In addition to passing of laws, its most important tasks are the election of the Minister-President of the state and the administration of the government. The current government is a coalition of the CDU and the Greens, supporting the cabinet of Minister-President Hendrik Wüst since June 2022.
The last state election took place on 15 May 2022.
Legislature
The State Parliament is the central legislative body of the state. It establishes or changes laws that fall within its legislative authority, which includes the regulation of education, police matters, and municipal law.
Legislative process
Bills can be brought before the parliament by a parliamentary group (caucus) or a group of at least seven members of parliament. Additionally, the state government itself can bring relevant bill proposals to parliament for consideration. In practice, most bill proposals originate from the government. These generally are detailed proposals submitted in writing. They are first read and heavily discussed in a plenary assembly open to all members of parliament, before being given over to a specific committee (or sometimes more than one) that is organized around a relevant subject matter and will therefore provide specific counseling on the matter. If necessary, the bill proposal will also be delivered to external experts that are in contact with lobby groups, and to those who will be directly affected by the bill's passage. The specific parliamentary committees will then pass the reformulated bill with recommended decisions back to the parliament at large for a second reading. At this stage, members of parliament again make suggestions regarding the bill. Each member has the ability to make suggestions to change the bill, and afterwards, the assembly will vote on each proposed amendment individually before finally voting on the entire bill. Bills are enacted by majority vote, as the constitution does not require any more stringent criteria for passage. The parliament operates by a quorum decision-making process, meaning that only half of its legal members must be present. Constitutional amendments and the budget must go through the advisory process three times, instead of the standard two. For any proposed legislature, a third reading, deliberation, or committee counseling can be requested either by a party or by at least a quarter of the assembly. The President of the Parliament delivers each ratified law to the Minister-President, who signs and disseminates it as part of her duties as head of state for North Rhine-Westphalia. The law enters into force after it is written in the Law and Ordinance Record for the State of North Rhine-Westphalia (Gesetz- und Verordnungsblatt für das Land Nordrhein-Westfalen).
Petitions and referendums
Referendums in Germany are similar to bill proposals from parliament and the state government in that they can be submitted by the people to parliament to undergo the same legislative process. If parliament rejects the referendum, then a plebiscite is undertaken in which the people at large can vote. A successful plebiscite leads to the referendum being passed as law. A plebiscite can also be enacted at the request of the government, if parliament fails to pass one of their proposed bills. In practice, this form of direct democracy does not play a large role in the legislative process.
Limitations of legislative authority
The authority of the state parliament in numerous legal areas has waned in the last few decades. This is due to the overriding legal authority of the federal government in Berlin. Indeed, while the Federal Reforms of 2006 more clearly defined the legal authorities of both federal and state governments, especially with regards to each other, it has also led to greater legislative activity by the federal government in many areas, which has in turn narrowed the field of authority possessed by the states. The European Union likewise has a strong influence on the passage of laws at the national level. Other than the direct participation of the state President-Ministers in the Bundesrat of Germany, the states have no direct contact with the European Union. However, through the Bundesrat, each state has a direct say in national matters, including those that involve the EU.
Election of Minister-Presidents
As stated in Article 51 of the State Constitution, the State Parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia elects the Minister-President of North Rhine-Westphalia "from its center" ("aus seiner Mitte") in a secret election that requires at least half of parliament's legally-seated members to vote in favor. Therefore, the Minister-President must always first be a member of parliament. If a majority of affirmative votes is not reached in the first vote, a second (and possibly third) vote is held within 14 days, with whoever winning a simple majority becoming Minister-President. If no such majority results, a runoff vote between two nominees takes place. The winner of this vote then becomes Minister-President. Abstentions and invalid votes do not count as votes cast. Thus far, the Minister-President has always been approved in the first vote, with the exceptions of the reelection of Franz Meyers on 25 July 1966 and the election of Hannelore Kraft on 14 July 2010, both of whom were elected in the second round of voting. The removal of the Minister-President is possible at any time through a motion of no confidence, which requires a majority of dissenting votes. As of 2013, there have been two successful votes of no confidence on the State Parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia (the first on 20 February 1956 and the second on 8 December 1966). Parliament has no direct influence on the appointment or dismissal of other state ministers, who (together with the Minister-President) make up the government. A vote of no confidence dissolves the government and therefore automatically dismisses all state ministers.
Provided that no single party wins an absolute majority, a coalition is formed in most cases between several parties whose members together make up a majority of parliament and who can, therefore, easily elect an agreed upon Minister-President. Occasionally the governing coalition is a minority government. The Minister-President, in most cases, puts the government together with people from the coalition parties. In practice, the election of a Minister-President leads to a stable government with a clear majority that can exert considerable influence over the legislative process and thus pursue its own legislative agenda.
Though the electorate does not vote directly for the Minister-President, the selected person is generally a dominant figure in the state political system, and since the larger parties declare their lead candidate before the election, voting for a particular party means voting in favor of having that lead candidate be in the running for President-Minister. The lead candidate for smaller coalition parties are regularly included in the government as ministers.
Control of the government
Compared to the state government, the state parliament has extensive powers. It can call members of government in for questioning before parliament, and it has the power to approve the state budget proposed by the government. Parliament also votes on closed states contracts. And, as mentioned above, parliament has the power to dissolve the government through a motion of no confidence. The Court of Audit controls the use of state funds by all state governmental bodies. This court likewise controls the finances of the parliament, but it also reports to parliament, which elects the court's highest members.
Election of constitutional judges
Parliament elects four members of the Constitutional Court for the State of North Rhine-Westphalia (Verfassungsgerichtshof für das Land Nordrhein-Westfalen) to terms of six years each. Altogether this court has seven members. The long term of office, which is staggered so that each judge will not face reelection at the same time, ensures that parliament cannot place undue pressure on the court through election manipulation. This is meant to strengthen the independence of the judges on the court.
Election of members to the Federal Convention
While the state government appoints representatives to the Bundesrat at its own discretion, parliament elects the state's representatives to the Federal Convention. The number of representatives of each party present in the Federal Convention is dependent on how many representatives belonging to that party are in the state parliament. Based on population statistics, North Rhine-Westphalia is responsible for about a fifth of the members of the Federal Convention. Roughly half of these individuals are, by virtue of their membership in the federal parliament (Bundestag (Germany), already members of the Federal Convention. The state parliament fills all those seats designated to the state that remain.
Organization
The majority of work by the parliament takes place in committees, rather than in plenary sessions (which include all parliament members). In general, members of the state parliament are career politicians and sit together according to what party they belong to. At the beginning of each legislative period, parliament members elect a Präsidium, which is headed by the President of the Parliament (distinct from the Minister-President), and a Council of Elders (Ältestenrat), which is essentially a board to help with managerial issues. It is also during this period that committee seats are filled.
President of the parliament
The Präsidium is headed by the President of the Parliament (Landtagspräsident), who is chosen from among the ranks of parliament. In general, the President of the Parliament comes from the largest constituent political party in the government. The following individuals have been Parliament President:
Members
Election
Overview
The Parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia is elected by a system of personalized proportional representation. Parliament members are selected by a universal, equal, direct, secret, and free vote. Parliament has at least 181 members. Additionally, the inclusion of overhang seats and leveling seats is possible. 128 members are elected by a direct mandate to represent specific constituencies. The remaining seats are allocated to candidates who appear on party lists. Each voter has two votes. The first vote is cast directly for a candidate to represent a specific district. The second vote is for a party and largely determines the relative size of each party's bloc in the new parliament.
Eligible voters
All Germans who have reached the age of 18, who live in North Rhine-Westphalia at least 16 days before the election, and who are not excluded from voting due to court decision are eligible to vote in the state parliamentary elections. If they have moved to the state between closing of the electoral rolls 35 days before the election and the eligibility cut-off 16 days before the election, they need to assert their right to vote by appealing to the voter registry in their new community. Those who wish to stand for office must be a registered resident of North Rhine-Westphalia for at least three months prior to the election. The state has 17,554,329 residents (as of 31 December 2012), of which about 13.2 million citizens have the right to vote.
Electoral districts
The state is divided into 128 electoral districts of approximately equal population. If an electoral district differs more than 20% from the average size, new borders are drawn up. Each electoral district is calculated to contain roughly 140,000 residents. In practice, each political district of the state (somewhat similar to county) is broken up into several overlapping electoral districts (with the exception of the district of Höxter and the district of Olpe). The division of the state into electoral districts is only relevant to the direct election of candidates with the first vote (as opposed to the second vote, which is specifically for party lists).
Nominations
Nominations for the election in each electoral district can come from parties, vote groups, and individual voters. Party lists can only be put up for a vote by the parties themselves. Nominations for individual candidates, as well as for party lists, must be submitted to the district's election registry no later than 6 pm on the 48th day before the election. This deadline can be shortened by resolution of the parliament. Parties that are not in the state parliament or have not been nominated to the Bundestag from North Rhine-Westphalia in the last electoral period must submit at least 1000 signatures from legal voters in support of the party. For district nominations, both parties as well as non-party potential candidates must submit at least 100 signatures from registered votes in support of their candidacy in the electoral district. Each voter is only allowed to support a single nomination, and a nomination is only permitted to name a single candidate, whose name must be the same as it is listed on the party list. Nominations from parties and electoral groups must be decided by secret ballot of their members or by delegates selected likewise by secret ballot; however the state leaderships of the parties have a unique right to appeal the decision of these nominations. If such an appeal is filed, the process must be repeated to either confirm the candidate or to select a new one. Through this rule, the leadership of the CDU successfully opposed a candidate in one of the electoral districts of Cologne during the parliamentary elections of 2005.
Election of direct candidates
The first vote that each voter casts is for a direct candidate to represent one of the 128 electoral districts. The winner of this vote enters the state parliament regardless of how the second vote (for the party list) turns out. Since 1954 only candidates from the two biggest parties, the CDU and the SPD, have been selected through the direct first vote. Theoretically, this directly elected member of parliament should represent all the residents of the electoral district, but in practice, their party membership plays a paramount role in their work in parliament. When a party receives more candidates by direct vote (the first vote) than they would be entitled to through the party list vote (the second vote), the extra candidates are said to occupy overhang seats (detailed below).
Distribution of seats in parliament
For the distribution of seats for each party, the second vote is of particular significance. In an effort to balance representation, the second vote is not counted when:
The party voted for receives less than 5% of the valid votes cast, and
when the voter's first vote is cast for a successful candidate who did not stand for election as a member of a party and is therefore not on a party list. These votes are disregarded because they would allow a voter both to elect a candidate directly and to vote for a separate group of politicians, effectively letting the voter elect more than one candidate.
Since the founding of the country, direct mandates have only gone to candidates of parties that received more than 5% of the votes. In addition to the 181 seats filled by the first vote, the remaining seats are divided based on the results of the second vote, using the Sainte-Laguë method and excluding those ruled out by the above listed rules. These seats are distributed to candidates among the winning parties in the order that they were listed in the party list.
With about 70% of their parliament members elected by direct mandate, North Rhine-Westphalia has the highest proportion of directly elected members of any state in Germany (with most of the others, as well as in the Federal Parliament, having only around 50% of their members elected directly). This means that a party often gets more seats to represent specific electoral districts than they are entitled to based on party list votes, which results in overhang seats. In this case, the other parties obtain leveling seats, in order to establish a proportional allocation of seats; the size of parliament, therefore, is not fixed, but rather expands in relation to the number of overhang and leveling seats. In theory, several parties can have overhang seats at the same time, though this has not yet occurred. Of course, this scheme for adding seats can lead to an expansion of parliament to a size larger than is necessary to produce proportional representation.
From 1985 until 2012 (with the exception of the 2010 elections), every parliamentary election had overhang seats so that parliament routinely had more representatives than the minimum number necessary.
Ballot
The left column of the ballot is designated for the first vote, which is for a direct candidate, and the right column is for the second vote, which is for a party list. The order of the parties depends first on the number of votes achieved by each party in the last state election. These are followed by parties running for the first time, listed in the order that they registered with the state electoral commission.
Replacing individual members
Through resignation, loss of eligibility, or death, outgoing members of parliament will be replaced, regardless of whether they were elected by direct mandate or through the lists, by the next person on the party list who has not yet taken office (for instance, if ten of eleven people on a party list are sent to parliament, but one of those ten resigns, then the eleventh person who did not get elected will take his place). For members who were elected directly and do not belong to a party list, a special election is held.
For the loss of a seat as a result of the banning of a party, it is necessary to distinguish between representatives who were elected directly from an electoral district, versus those who were elected from the lists. In the case of a direct mandate, a new election takes place in which the individual who lost his seat is not eligible to run. Regarding those elected from lists, the representative in question will only be replaced if they were elected as part of an unconstitutional party.
Terms
The parliament elected in 1947 only had a term of three years. The constitution from 1950 then established a four-year term for members of parliament, which was extended to five years in 1969. The term for each parliament member begins at the first session of parliament, and a regular parliamentary election must take place within the last three months of the term. Each new parliament convenes for the first time within 20 days of the election, but not before the end of term for the outgoing parliament. Parliament can be dissolved by a majority vote of its members, and this occurred for the first time on 14 March 2012. The state government has never dissolved parliament since before this could happen, the electorate would have to approve a bill through referendum that the state government had proposed and that the parliament had already rejected. In all cases, new elections must take place within 60 days of the dissolution of parliament.
Changes to electoral law
After the election in 2005, parliament shrank from 201 regular members to 181, after the electoral districts were reduced from 151 to 128, and the list-elected members were increased from 50 to 53. (Of course, due to overhang and leveling seats, parliament still has over 200 members.)
The method to divide the seats based on votes for the parties (the second vote) also changed in 2005, switching from the largest remainder method to the Sainte-Laguë Method.
Until 2005, the voting system in North Rhine-Westphalia was quite distinct from both the federal system and those found in the other states of Germany. While federal elections had already instituted the two vote system discussed above, North Rhine-Westphalia voters only had one vote to cast for the candidate of their choice in their electoral district. These votes then were also counted for the list of the candidate's political party and were used to divide the seats not apportioned to particular electoral districts. This disadvantaged certain parties, such as the Left Party (with candidates only in 116 districts) and the Ecological Democratic Party (only in 78 districts), since they could not field candidates in every district, and thus did not have the same number of potential voters for their lists. The introduction of the second vote in May 2010 changed all that.
Election results
Landtag 2012
In the 2012 state election, which brought to power the 16th Parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia, parliament was again made up of five parties. However, the Left Party fell below the 5% threshold and was forced to give up its seats in parliament, while the Pirate Party, with 7.8% of the popular vote, captured 20 seats. The SPD won 99 seats, while the CDU managed to pick up 67. This marked the first time in 12 years that the SPD won the largest percentage of votes, and it marked a transition of their minority coalition with the Greens to one with a legislative majority. The following table details the results:
|-
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left colspan="2" rowspan="2" width=400 |Party
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center colspan="3" |Popular vote
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center colspan="3" |Seats
|-
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right width=60|Votes
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right width=40|%
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right width=50|+/–
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right width=30|Seats
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right width=30|+/–
|-
| Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands - SPD|| 3,050,160 || 39.1% || 4.6% || 99 || 32
|-
| Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands - CDU|| 2,050,633 || 26.3% || 8.3% || 67 ||
|-
| Bündnis 90/Die Grünen|| 884,136 || 11.3% || 0.8% || 29 || 6
|-
| Freie Demokratische Partei – FDP|| 669,971 || 8.6% || 1.9% || 22 || 9
|-
| Piratenpartei Deutschland|| 608,957 || 7.8% || 6.2% || 20 || 20
|-
| Die Linke|| 194,239 || 2.5% || 3.1% || 0 || 11
|-
| bgcolor="white"| || align=left |Other parties|| 335,730 || 4.4% || 0.9% || 0 ||
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9"
| align="right" colspan="2" | Valid votes
| 7,794,126
| 98.6%
|
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 bgcolor=#BAB8B9 |
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9"
| align="right" colspan="2" | Invalid votes
| 107,796
| 1.4%
|
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9"
| align="right" colspan="2" | Totals and voter turnout
| 7,901,922
| 59.6%
| 0.3%
| 237
| 56
|- style="background-color:#BAB9B9"
| colspan="2" | Electorate
| 13,264,231
| 100.00
| —
| colspan=2|
|-
| colspan=11 align=left | Source: Die Landeswahlleiterin des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen
|}
Parliament before 2012
The first parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia was actually appointed during the British occupation following WWII, and was not replaced by a democratically elected body until 1947. Until 2005, the state was a stronghold of the SPD and social democracy, with each President-Minister between 1966 and 2005 coming from that party. Under the leadership of Karl Arnold, the CDU lead the government from 1947 until 1956 (the longest period that the CDU has been in power in the state). They again held the position of President-Minister from 1958 until 1966 under Franz Meyers as coalition leader, and during the period of SPD rule from 1966 until 2005, they were the largest party in parliament during two election periods. They could not, however, organize a coalition either time. The 2005 state parliament elections led for the first time in decades their return to power over the SPD, who nevertheless maintained their domination in the Ruhr. The CDU suffered heavy losses in the elections of 2010, but remained a strong force in parliament. Because they could not form a majority with the FDP and after the SPD rejected offers of a grand coalition under a CDU Minister-President, the SPD and the Greens formed a minority government under Minister-President Hannelore Kraft (SPD), who was elected to the position with support from the Left.
Proportion of women in parliament
In the most recent legislative period (which elected the 16th Parliament of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia), the proportion of female deputies in parliament was nearly 30%. After falling during recent election periods, this percentage increased slightly over the 15th Parliament, which was 27.07% female, but was lower than both the 14th Parliament (31.02%), as well as the 13th (32.47%).
The Greens have the highest percentage of women in parliament, at 51.7%, which is well above the SPD, which is 33.3% female, the CDU, at 22.4%, and the FDP, at 18.2%. At the bottom of the list is the Pirate Party, whose representatives are only 15% female.
The leadership of the 16th Parliament is once again led by a woman, namely the newly elected President of Parliament Carina Gödecke, who replaced Eckhard Uhlenberg.
As in previous election periods, the state party leaders are entirely male. For two parties (the Pirate Party and the Greens), the management of the parties' parliamentary groups is in the hands of women.
Additionally, the election of Hannelore Kraft marks the first time ever that a woman has headed the state government. Likewise, Sylvia Löhrmann remains a Deputy Minister-President.
The following table compares the percentage of women in parliament from each party in the current parliament term and the previous one. Figures from the previous term are denoted by parentheses:
(Figures from the website of the State Parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia.))
See also
1995 North Rhine-Westphalia state election
2000 North Rhine-Westphalia state election
2005 North Rhine-Westphalia state election
2010 North Rhine-Westphalia state election
2012 North Rhine-Westphalia state election
2017 North Rhine-Westphalia state election
List of members of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia 2017-2022
References
External links
Official Landtag Webpage
North Rhine-Westphalia
Politics of North Rhine-Westphalia
Buildings and structures in Düsseldorf
Organisations based in Düsseldorf
Tourist attractions in Düsseldorf
|
2274465
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mymensingh
|
Mymensingh
|
Mymensingh is a metropolitan city and capital of Mymensingh Division, Bangladesh. Located on the bank of Brahmaputra River, about north of the national capital Dhaka, it is a major financial center and educational hub of north-central Bangladesh. It is the administrative center of Mymensingh District and Mymensingh Division. As of 2022, Mymensingh City Corporation is the 7th largest city in terms of area and the 8th largest in terms of population in the country, with a population of 576,927 people.
The city was constituted by the British East India Company on 1 May 1787. According to Ministry of Public Administration, Mymensingh is ranked 4th in district status. The population density of Mymensingh city is 44,458/km2 (115,150/sq mi), making it the second most densely populated city in Bangladesh. Mymensingh attracts 25 percent of all the health tourists visiting Bangladesh. Mymensingh is an anglicization of the name Momen Singh, referring to a Muslim ruler called Shah Momin or Momin Singh, an ethnic Bengali Muslim ruler. Its elevation is over 19 m above sea level, the highest of Bangladesh's major cities. Mymensingh is close to Tura, a city in Meghalaya from the Gobrakura Land Port.
Mymensingh is associated with the Old Brahmaputra river, handcrafted duvets called Nakshikantha, and a rural ballad called Maimansingha Gitika. The cadet college established in Tangail in 1963 was called Momenshahi Cadet College. The city is known for educational institutions.
History
Mymensingh is one of the sixteen old districts of Bangladesh which was constituted by the British East India Company on 1 May 1787. Being more than 220 years old, Mymensingh has a rich cultural and political history. In the beginning, Begunbari was chosen as the headquarters of the district. However, the district headquarters was relocated to Mymensingh when Begunbari devastated by a flash flood. Earlier Mymensingh was called Nasirabad, after Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah. During the British Raj, this district was ruled by Talukdar Zamindars and most of the inhabitants of the town were Hindus, forming 78% of the population in the last census before Partition. However, many Hindu families, including the Talukdar Zamindars left Bangladesh during Partition in 1947. A second spell of exodus took place following the Indo-Pak war of 1965. Many people born and raised Mymensingh have left for West Bengal since the 1960s. The exodus continues albeit at a slower pace.
From the early 20th century Muslims moved into town. Since then this city has played an important role as a centre for secularism. The Vidyamoyee Uccha Balika Bidyalaya and Muminunnesa Women's College have played a great role in educating Bengali Muslim women. A majority of first-generation successful Bangladeshi women have attended these schools and colleges, including the first woman justice of the High Court of Bangladesh, Justice Nazmun Ara Sultana. On 1 December 1969, Tangail subdivision was separated from Mymensingh and a new District of Tangail was formed. Then in 1977 another new district Jamalpur (including Sherpur) was formed.
The nine-month liberation war of Bangladesh started on 27 March 1971. Mymensingh remained free from the occupation army until 23 April 1971. Pakistani occupation forces deserted Mymensingh on 10 December, and Mukti Bahini took over on 11 December, just five days ahead of the victory of Dhaka on 16 December.
Geography and climate
The city has no officially defined geographical limits. Since the 1980s the city has expanded with fast urbanisation. Mymensingh city is clearly marked by the old Old Brahmaputra River flowing along its north. Shambhuganj is situated on the other side of the Brahmaputra, connected by the Shambhuganj Bridge. Other ends of the city are marked respectively by the beginning of the Bangladesh Agricultural University campus, the Mymensingh Medical College, Army cantonment and, finally, Sultanabad, a township built for the followers of Aga Khan. A railway line connecting Dhaka with northern districts, built between 1885 and 1899, passes through the city and divides it into two sides.
The climate of Mymensingh is a little colder than Dhaka, as it is closer to the Himalayas, and sufficient to be a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa) instead of a tropical savanna or tropical monsoon climate as found further south in Bangladesh. The monsoon starts in May or June and continues till August. It rains heavily and sometimes for days and weeks. During the monsoon, the temperature varies between . The temperature falls below in winter which is spread over December and January and may well include November and February. The highest temperature is felt during April–May period, when it mat rrach as high as . High humidity causes heavy sweating during this period. For western travelers, the best time to visit is between November and February.
Administration
Mymensingh is the headquarter of one of the eight administrative divisions of Bangladesh. Divisional Commissioner, who is the administrative chief of Mymensingh Division, DIG for Mymensingh division and other divisional civil servants have their own offices in the city, which functions as part of the government administrative setup. Deputy Commissioner (DC) who is the administrative chief of Mymensingh District, Civil Surgeon and other district level civil servants have their offices in the city.
One mayor and ward commissioners are elected for five-year terms by direct votes. Mymensingh City Corporation is responsible for all the administrative work related to city governance.
Demographics
At the time of the 2011 census, Mymensingh Municipality had 54,869 households and a population of 258,040. 44,429 (17.22%) were under 10 years of age. Mymensingh had a sex ratio of 953 females per 1000 males and a literacy rate of 73.91% (for 7+ years). In 2022, the expanded Mymensingh City Corporation had 135495 households and a population of 576,927. It had a sex ratio of 965 females per 1000 males and a literacy rate of 84.41%.
Economy
Historically, Mymensingh district was known for jute production which was termed 'golden fibre' due to revenue it generated as a cash crop. Due to the high demand for polythene bags and other economic reasons, the jute industry has significantly declined. As Mymensingh is the capital of Mymensingh Division, government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce. Mymensingh also has a large unskilled and semi-skilled labour population, who primarily earn their livelihood as hawkers, Rickshaw pullers, taxi drivers, mechanics and other such professions. Agriculture is the most important sector contributing to GDP, followed by the growing service sector in the city. The increasing demand for fish in the local and global markets has generated a new opportunity for local fishermen as well as businessmen to exploit fishing in Mymensingh, and today it is very important to the economy. People have changed their paddy fields to ponds and are cultivating fish. Prawns, sometimes reaching a very large size in the winter, are sold in Mymensingh in great numbers.
The entire area between Durgabari Road, and Maharaja Road comprises the traditional shopping area. There are places like Ganginarpar, Boro Bazaar, Choto Bazaar, Mechua Bazaar within this area. There are spots like Jilapi Patty which is for making and selling jilapi. The main road from Notunbazar to the railway station & C.K. Ghosh Road to Charpara hosts a number of shops for manufactured products and clothing.
Public utilities
City centre
The city center of Mymensingh is along the Ganginarpar Road, which is known as the vein or life line of Mymensingh city. Some more busy area of the city are Chorpara Moor, Town Hall Moor, Zero Point Moor & Bridge Moor.
Cuisine
The staple food is plain rice with a curry of fish or meat. Normally people start with fried or steamed vegetable and dal, a kind of lentil soup. Often people squeeze a citron slice or take additional salt while eating and add fresh shallots and green pepper as seasoning. Traditional snacks and savouries include seasonal pitha of various kinds, dal-puri, and shingara. Home made desserts include Khyr, Payesh and Shemai. Sweets soaked in syrup of sugar, such as Jilapi, are mostly bought from shops. Pan, a digestive made out of betel nuts, spices, tobacco, and certain other ingredients are eaten by many people, some of which consume it with aromatic Dzorda. For dinner or lunch, a simple formula is to prepare "khichuri", the broth of rice and lentils, seasoned with spices, and served with chutney or pickles. Ghee (butter) may be spread just before eating. The meal may end with sweet curd. Muri (puffed rice), chira (flattened rice) and khoi (popped rice) are substitutes for rice. They are eaten with gur (jaggery) which is a kind of unrefined sugar. They may be mixed with yogurt or milk before eaten. People use only the right hand for eating.
Landmarks
The Old Town Hall, built by Maharaja Surya Kanta Acharyya had hosted thousands of drama, meeting and cultural functions since 1878. It was demolished in 2006 and is being rebuilt by the Mymensingh Pourashava.
Bangladesh Parishad, situated at Chhoto Bazar Road, the regional centre of Pakistan Council in Mymensingh, set up in 1969, came to be known as Bangladesh Parishad after establishment of Bangladesh in 1971. It was a government institution under the Ministry of Information and housed a public library with a collection of books and magazines. The library has 35,656 volumes on all subjects. It also had a hall to hold literary and cultural functions. Till the 1980s, Bangladesh Parishad was a hub of cultural activity of post-liberation Mymensingh. It was most active in the late 1970s when Ashraf Ali Khan was its chief executive.
Shishu Academy was set up under the initiative of president Ziaur Rahman in 1980. Its Mymensingh office was opened in the 1990s.
The first Shahid Minar was built in 1958 on crossing of the Amrita Babu Road, close to Mymensingh Pourashava. It was relocated to the Town Hall premises in the mid-1990s.
Amarabati Natya Mandir was the first theatre built in the heart of Mymensingh town in the 1930s. Later it was converted into a cinema named Chayabani. The Town Hall became the sole venue for staging a play or drama. Bahubrihi is one of the drama circles that has played a key role in sustaining the drama movement in Mymensingh since the 1970s. Singing was part of daily life for most people since the 19th century. Mithun Dey and Sunil Dhar were two local music teachers since the 1960s. Sunil Dhar established a music school at Atharo Bari Building in the 1980s. Folk Ballads: Maimansingha Gitika. There are three cinema halls in Mymensingh town. Most of these halls are very old but still in operation. Cable TV connectivity was launched in 1999 and together with DVD and VCR, most people now prefer home entertainment With Dish Cable Line. However, on special occasions such as Eid, new year, Puja, and other vacations, people still watch movies in the cinema halls. Aloka was the oldest cinema hall, which was demolished in 2006 to make a modern shopping and residential complex. Other cinema halls are Chayabani, Purabi and Shena-Auditorium.
Muslim Institute library is a public library which was established in 1934. The Bangladesh Parishad library has died down since the 1980s. The local Bar also has a library of its own rich in legal books and journals.
The "Alexandar Castle" or "Lohar Kutir" as it is locally known, is where Maharaja Surya Kanta Acharya invited Grand Duke Boris of Russia and General Sir George White, and built it for his stay and a same Russian styled also built by the Ponni of Tangail. Rabindranath Tagore also was in Alexandra castle for participating a citizen gathering. This earthquake-proof steel and timber building was built after his much vaunted "Crystal Palace" or "Rang Mahal" as it was locally known, was destroyed by the Great Bengal Earthquake of 12 June 1897. Subsequently, "Soshi Lodge" or "Mymensingh Palace" was built at the site of "Rang Mahal". However Maharaja Surya Kanta died before "Soshi Lodge" could be completed. It was completed by Maharaja Soshi Kanta Acharyya. Both the buildings had once contained innumerable works of art, artefacts, sculptures and antiques collected from all over the world. Both these buildings have been declared as National Heritage Monuments. But unplanned development already damaged the scenario of rare Russian architecture in this country.
Bipin Park is a small park near Boro Bazaar right on the Brahmaputra River.
Museums
The Mymensingh Museum was established in 1969.Though its collection comes from the palaces of zamindars of the greater Mymensingh region, it lacks proper preservation.
The Zainul Abedin Museum was established in a house on the Brahmaputra River in 1975. The art gallery includes the paintings of Zainul Abedin, a pioneer of the country's modern art movement, as well as an art school, art cottage, and open-air stage.
The Fish Museum & Biodiversity Center, also known as FMBC, is operated by Bangladesh Agricultural University.
Religious buildings
Anjuman Eid-gah Maidan
Under the auspices of the governor of East Pakistan Abdul Monem Khan, the prayer ground was established in 1962 on of land, including a pond. Every year congregation of Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha are held here in the morning. The prayer ground is walled on sides with coconut trees growing. This place was used to accommodate the Elephants of Maharaj Surya Kanta Acharya in colonial time.
Durga Bari Temple
Durga Bari Temple is one of the main religious centers for the Hindus living in Mymensingh. It is situated in the Durga Bari Road. Hindu Goddess Durga Devi is worshiped here. Kirtan is recited in the temple throughout the week.
Ramakrishna Math and Mission
Ramakrishna Ashrama of Mymensingh is situated at 182, Ramakrishna Mission Road. Ramakrishna Math is a monastic organisation for men brought into existence by Sri Ramakrishna.
St Patrick's Cathedral Church
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mymensingh is a diocese located in the city of Mymensingh in the Ecclesiastical province of Dhaka in Bangladesh. Bishop Ponen Paul Kubi, CSC, DD is head of the Diocese of Mymensingh. Most of the people in this diocese are from Garo tribal community. Bishop is also a Garo tribal. A total of 76,047 Catholics and 6665 Protestant Christians live here. People are employed as farmers and day laborers in rural areas, and many people live in cities as migrant workers.
Mymensingh Baptist Church
The Mymensingh Baptist Church is located near to the town hall.
Sports
The "Panditparar Math" is a vast field on the bank of the Brahmaputra, in front of the Circuit House, which is used by the sports persons of the city. It has produced many notable cricket players like Prabir Kumar Sen, one of the few wicket keepers to stump Don Bradman and Hemanga Bose. The former vice captain of Bangladesh national cricket team, Mahmudullah was born in this district and he served Bangladesh cricket team proudly. Mymensingh has the country's oldest football club (alongside Wari Club Dhaka), Mymensingh Mohammedan Sporting Club, established in 1898.
Body building has become a favourite pastime for many of the young adults of the town. The Muslim Institute has a well equipped gymnasium since the 1950s. Physician Abdul Halim was a renowned bodybuilder in the 1960s who became Mr. East Pakistan in a nationwide competition. Farhad Ahmed Kanchon, who later became a Member of the Parliament in the late 1970s, was also a regular.
Education
]
Many students come from other districts for education. The city contains a number of universities, colleges and schools, including:
Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University
Bangladesh Agricultural University
Mymensingh Medical College
Mymensingh Engineering College
Mymensingh Girls' Cadet College
Ananda Mohan College
Shahid Syed Nazrul Islam College
Muminunnesa Women's College
Mymensingh Polytechnic Institute
Agricultural University College, Mymensingh
Notre Dame College, Mymensingh
Women Teachers Training College
Royal Media College
Mymensingh Zilla School
Vidyamoyee Govt. Girls' High School
Govt. Laboratory High School, Mymensingh
Mukul Niketon High School
Cantonment Public School and College, Mymensingh
Mymensingh Govt. College
Muslim Girls High School And College, Mymensingh
Progressive Model School, Mymensingh
Premier Ideal High School - Mymensingh
Transportation
The distance from Mymensingh to Dhaka is about from the Mohakhali bus stop. The city was linked with Dhaka after the railway lines were connected around 1865. The road link to Dhaka was via Tangail until the president ordered the completion of the half-finished N3 national highway between Dhaka and Mymensingh via Bhaluka. In 2012, the bus fare in the city was around TK.100–220 (US$1.45–$2.75) per person. However, rickshaw and "Auto" is the main mode of transportation within the city area, and the growth of the number of cars is highly progressive. Three-wheelers started to ply toward the end of the 1990s.
Train is by far the cheapest means to get to Mymensingh: Narayanganj-Bahadurabad Ghat Line. Apart from a number of local and direct trains, Ekota Express, Aghnibina Express, Tista Express, Brahmaputra Express, Jamuna Express and Balaka Express connect the town with the capital of Dhaka. Train fares range from 55 tk to 483 tk ($0.68 to $4) per person depending upon the class and the train itself. There are 7 Seat Categories. Shuvon 120 tk, Shuvon Chair 140 tk, First class Seat 185 tk, First class Birth 280 tk, Snigdha 271 tk, AC seat 322 tk, Ac Birth 483 tk. It takes almost or over 3 hours to reach Mymensingh from Dhaka by train. There are 3 main stopages station: Dhaka Airport railway station, Joydebpur and Gafargaon Upazila. All inter-city trains connect the city with Jamalpur town as well. Several local trains run between Mymensingh town to Kishoreganj and Netrokona.From 2012 a special train started from Mymensingh to "Bongobondhu Jamuna Shetu" named "Dholesshori Express". Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina was present there at the starting day of the new train. The Haor Express train is popular among passengers who visit from Mohongonj(Netrokona) to Dhaka via Mymensingh. Some years ago, a special train called 'Demu Train" started at the route Mymensingh to Joydevpur (Gajipur).
Health care and cemeteries
Maharaja Suryakanata set up the first public hospital in Mymensingh along the river Brahmaputra. This is now a leprosy hospital and now called the "S K Hospital." Mymensingh Medical College hospital was established in 1962 and is one of the oldest and biggest hospitals in Bangladesh. Since the end of the 1990s, private investment in the medical sector has gone up and a number of private hospitals of various sizes and clinics have been established. Situated over about of land, the Golkibari Cemetery is the largest Muslim cemetery of the town. There is another Muslim graveyard at Kalibari named Kalibari Gorosthan. The Hindu Shmoshanghat in Kewatkhali by the side of Brahmaputra railway bridge and the Christian cemetery of the colonial British are also present, and various other smaller cemeteries.
Media and literature
Bharat Mihir was one of the oldest newspapers published from Mymensingh in British India. Its publication commenced in 1875. After independence in 1971, Habibur Rahman Sheikh published in 1979 the first daily under the name and title Dainik Jahan, following his decade-long trial with weekly Banglar Darpan which had been launched in 1972. He also published a women's monthly under the title Chandrakash for almost a decade. The other newspapers published from the city include Dainik Ajker Bangladesh and Dainik Ajker Khabar. Newspapers published from Dhaka came by train and was available around the noon till the 1980s. Hawkers riding bicycle would deliver newspapers from home to home by the afternoon. As the roadlink with Dhaka improved, buses were used for transportation of Dhaka newspapers. Now newspapers from Dhaka arrive Mymensingh by 9.00 in the morning and are delivered to homes by the noon.
Mymensingh Press Club, situated near Ganginarpar is a vibrant hub for the intellectuals, teachers, literature and cultural activists, in addition to media peoples. It hosts literary events, cultural functions and such other activities on a regular basis. Mymensingh Press Club was established towards the end of 1959. It was set up in course of a provincial conference of journalists and editors of the-then East Pakistan, held on 7–8 March 1959. Literary circles of note were Sahitya Sava and Troyodaosh Sammilini. Earlier, in the 1960s, a leader of the Ahmadya community, Ahmad Toufiq Chowdhury, had set up printing press in his residence at Maharaja Road to bring out a periodic magazine entitled Writupatra. Poets Musharraf Karim and Farid Ahmed Dulal and writer Iffat Ara are some of the important literary names from Mymensingh. In 1985, Ara set up a press in her own residence to bring out the monthly Dwitiyo Chinta.
Notable people
Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose was born in Bikrampur, Bengal presidency (now Munshiganj, Bangladesh) on 30 November 1858. The name of Munshiganj is associated with people like anti-British leader Mahadev Sannyal, writer Upendra Kishore Roychowdhury, Sukumar Ray and Leela Majumdar, musician and a disciple of Rabindranath Tagore, Shilpacharya Zainul Abedin, novelist Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay who received early education in Mymensingh town, Humayun Ahmed a Bengali writer, Mahmudul Hasan – Islamic Scholar, P.C. Sorcar – magician, Abul Fateh diplomat, statesman, Sufi, Liberation hero and the first Foreign Secretary of Bangladesh, acting president of Bangladesh during the war of liberation Syed Nazrul Islam in addition to three other presidents of the country, including, Justice Abu Sayeed Chowdhury and Shahabuddin Ahmed. Politician and author Abul Mansur Ahmed, the-then Governor of East Pakistan Abdul Monem Khan, educationist principal Ibrahim Khan, poets Nirmalendu Goon, Helal Hafiz, and Abid Azad, geologist Subhrangsu Kanta Acharyya, writer Jatin Sarker.
Golam Samdani Quraishy, writer, founder GS-BCUTA, Shahid Akhand, Helena Khan, Iffat Ara, are associated with Mymensingh.
The Oscar-winning Indian filmmaker Satyajit Ray and Bollywood actress Rani Mukerji's family hail from Mymensingh. Taslima Nasreen, the feminist writer hails from the district as well.
Gallery
References
Further reading
Khan Mohammad Abdullah, Moymonsigh-er Etihash, 1966, Mymensingh.
Darji Abdul Wahab, Moymonsigh-er Choritavidhan, 1986, Mymensingh.
F. A. Sachse, Mymensingh Gazetteer, Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, 1917, Calcutta.
Asoke Mitra, Towards Independence – 1940–1947, 1997, New Delhi.
Kedarnath Mojumder, Moymonsingh-er Biboron, 1987, Mymensingh.
Kedarnath Mojumder, Moymonsingh-er Etihash, 1987, Mymensingh.
External links
Muktagacha, a historical place of Mymensingh District
Mymensingh District in Banglapedia
Mymensingh WEB Portal
Populated places in Mymensingh District
|
610437
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8F%20%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%20%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%20%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83%20%C2%AB%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%20%D0%A1%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%C2%BB
|
Вузькоколійна залізниця Кедабекського мідіплавільного заводу «Брати Сіменс»
|
Вузькоколійна залізниця Кедабекського мідіплавільного заводу «Брати Сіменс»
Кедабекська вузькоколійна залізниця — перша вузькоколійна залізниця в Азербайджані, побудована фірмою братів Сіменс, на території Кедабекського району Азербайджану, для з'єднання між собою медіплавельних заводів між Кедабеком і селищем Келакенд.
Побудована в 1884 році, загальна довжина близько 31 км, ширина колії 750 мм.
Спочатку на дорозі працювали два локомобілі, один потужністю 10 к.с. інший 12 к.с., пізніше вони були замінені на паровози.
У 1888 році дорогу продовжили до села Байрамли, де розташовувалися заводські склади. Парк рухомого складу складався з 4 паровозів, один потужністю в 40 к.с. три інших потужністю в 60 к.с. і 31 вагон-платформа.
Закрита в 1940 році.
Кедабекський район
Вузькоколійні залізниці Азербайджану
Засновані 1884
|
3478367
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudascozonus%20racemosporus
|
Pseudascozonus racemosporus
|
Pseudascozonus racemosporus — вид грибів, що належить до монотипового роду Pseudascozonus.
Примітки
Джерела
Brummelen, J. van. 1985. Pseudoascozonus, a new genus of Pezizales. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences Section B. 94:363–367 — P. 363
Роди грибів
Пецицоміцети
1985 у науці
|
43342623
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men%27s%20team%20sabre%20at%20the%202014%20World%20Fencing%20Championships
|
Men's team sabre at the 2014 World Fencing Championships
|
Men's team sabre at the 2014 World Fencing Championships
The Men's team sabre event of the 2014 World Fencing Championships was held from 20–21 July 2014.
Medalists
Draw
Finals
Top half
Bottom half
Placement rounds
5–8th place
9–16th place
13–16th place
Final classification
References
Bracket
Final classification
2014 World Fencing Championships
|
3305162
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82-%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%20%28%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E-%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%96%29
|
Вайт-Горс (Нью-Джерсі)
|
Вайт-Горс (Нью-Джерсі)
Вайт-Горс — переписна місцевість (CDP) в США, в окрузі Мерсер штату Нью-Джерсі. Населення — 9791 особа (2020).
Географія
Вайт-Горс розташований за координатами (40.191823, -74.701372). За даними Бюро перепису населення США в 2010 році переписна місцевість мала площу 8,13 км², з яких 7,96 км² — суходіл та 0,17 км² — водойми.
Демографія
Згідно з переписом 2010 року, у переписній місцевості мешкали особи в домогосподарствах у складі родини. Густота населення становила 1168 осіб/км². Було 4018 помешкань (494/км²).
Расовий склад населення:
До двох чи більше рас належало 1,5 %. Частка іспаномовних становила 8,6 % від усіх жителів.
За віковим діапазоном населення розподілялося таким чином: 19,3 % — особи молодші 18 років, 60,7 % — особи у віці 18—64 років, 20,0 % — особи у віці 65 років та старші. Медіана віку мешканця становила 44,6 року. На 100 осіб жіночої статі у переписній місцевості припадало 91,8 чоловіків; на 100 жінок у віці від 18 років та старших — 90,0 чоловіків також старших 18 років.
Середній дохід на одне домашнє господарство становив долари США , а середній дохід на одну сім'ю — доларів . Медіана доходів становила долари для чоловіків та доларів для жінок. За межею бідності перебувало 2,4 % осіб, у тому числі 1,5 % дітей у віці до 18 років та 3,3 % осіб у віці 65 років та старших.
Цивільне працевлаштоване населення становило особи. Основні галузі зайнятості: освіта, охорона здоров'я та соціальна допомога — 21,5 %, роздрібна торгівля — 15,9 %, публічна адміністрація — 11,8 %, науковці, спеціалісти, менеджери — 9,6 %.
Примітки
Джерела
Переписні місцевості Нью-Джерсі
Населені пункти округу Мерсер (Нью-Джерсі)
|
39686082
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina
|
Women in Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
Women in Bosnia and Herzegovina are European women who live in and are from Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), women of Bosnia and Herzegovina have been affected by three types of transition after the Bosnian War (1992-1995): the "transition from war to peace", economic transition, and political transition. After the Second World War the fast economic growth and industrialization alleviated poverty and accelerated the introduction of Bosnian women into the workforce in a variety of professions, including a strong representation of women in STEM that remains true in the present day.
Background
Bosnia and Herzegovina declared sovereignty in 1991 and independence from the former SFR Yugoslavia in 1992. The Bosnian War (1992-1995) was responsible for extreme acts of violence (ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War) and an economic collapse. Today Bosnia and Herzegovina is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious society - the population consists of: Bosniaks 48.4%, Serbs 32.7%, Croats 14.6%, and others 4.3%; while the religious makeup is: Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, and other 14% (as of 2013). Most of the population is rural: only 39.8% of total population is urban. The literacy rate for age 15 and over is higher for males (99.5%) than females (97.5%) - 2015 est.
Gender equality
Guided by the constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the country's Gender Equality Law of 2003 was passed to promote and advance the equality between men and women. Laws related to elections, as well as other laws, were amended to be in line with the constitution. As a result, the law on election provides that "30% of all candidates must be women".
Before a new Criminal Code came into force in 2003, the law on rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina contained a statutory exemption for marriage, and read: "Whoever coerces a female not his wife into sexual intercourse by force or threat of imminent attack upon her life or body or the life or body of a person close to her, shall be sentenced to a prison term of one to ten years".
Gender roles
Bosnia has a cultural and religious patriarchal tradition according to which women are expected to be submissive to men. Women are expected to perform most housework, including cooking, cleaning, and child rearing. The economic devastation of the civil war has had a negative effect on women's participation in the economy, although women are better integrated in agriculture work than in other fields.
In post-conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina, women are a driving force for change. After the war, the resulting effects included the lowering of their public and social standing, and some women opted to travel outside the country to search for jobs. Women from rural areas are often more marginalised, because of their lower level of education and inclination to tradition, which dictates that they must be subservient to men.
According to an Ottoman Muslim account of the Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39) translated into English by C. Fraser, Bosnian Muslim women fought in battle since they "acquired the courage of heroes" against the Austrian Germans at the siege of the Osterwitch-atyk (Östroviç-i âtık) fortress. Bosnian Muslim women and men were among the casualties during the Battle of Osterwitchatyk. Bosnian Muslim women fought in the defense of the fortress of Būzin (Büzin). Women and men resisted the Austrians at the Chetin (Çetin) Fortress. The women of the Bosnians were deemed to be militaristic according to non-Ottoman records of the war between the Ottomans and Austrians and they played a role in the Bosnian success in battle against the Austrian attackers. Yeni Pazar, Izvornik, Östroviç-i âtık, Çetin, Būzin, Gradişka, and Banaluka were struck by the Austrians. A French account described the bravery in battle of Bosnian Muslim women who fought in the war.
According to C. Fraser: "Polygamy, so peculiar to Mohammedan countries, does not prevail to any great extent in Bosnia, and both sexes enjoy the privilege of choosing their companions for life. An unmarried female appears in public without a veil, and respect is shown to the mother of a family. In all these respects they differ widely from the inhabitants of eastern countries."
According to A. J. Schem: "Polygamy has never gained prevalence among the begs. The women go veiled in public, but enjoy at home a freedom and privilege greater than those of the Turkish women. The young women are allowed to receive attentions from the young men, and the young man who contemplates marriage is permitted to spend the evening with his betrothed, while she sits concealed from his view by a wall or shutter. It is related of the Bosnian women by a Turkish historian that when the first captives were taken to the Turkish court at Brussa, before the capture of Constantinople, they appeared to the chiefs like living genii from Paradise."
According to János Asbóth: "Meanwhile, from the gardens on the hillsides a monotonous singing, in sharp nasal and head notes, rings through the town. In spite of strict harems and veils, the girls know how to attract the attention of the youths. Those out for a walk never weary of lauding a beautiful voice in proportion to the penetrating shrillness of its tones. The enchanted youth follows the sounds, and creeps up to the garden fence, and thus do most of the Bosnian marriages begin. The lad may perhaps have known the songstress from childhood up, when she as yet wore no veil, but only a great cloth over her head. He mayhap caught sight of a full-blown maiden during the last days before she took the veil. If it is the right young man, the coy doe allows herself, after a few such hedge visits, to be drawn into conversation ; after a week, perhaps she raises her veil. Should he be able once to grasp her hand through the fence or through a chink in the gate, it is a sign of agreement; and then, provided that the youth meet with the approval of the parents, nothing further stands in the way of their happiness. Besides, under the mother's watchful eye, matters can hardly go so far, if the parents do not approve of the young man. There are scamps who will thus play with several girls in succession ; but they soon become notorious, and the mothers warn their daughters against them."
After Bosnian Muslim men went MIA during wartime, in order to get divorces, their wives became Hanbali or Shafi'i instead of Hanafi, since Hanafis had to delay a very long time before divorce could be allowed from an MIA husband.
Sexual violence during the Bosnian War
Women suffered mass sexual violence and sexual servitude during the Bosnian War, and the Bosnian genocide, when violence assumed a gender-targeted form through the use of rape. Estimates of the total number of women raped during the war range from 12,000 to 50,000.
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) declared that "systematic rape", and "sexual enslavement" in time of war was a crime against humanity, second only to the war crime of genocide.
Reproductive rights
The maternal mortality rate is 11 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.). The total fertility rate is 1.27 children born/woman (2015 est.), which is below the replacement rate. The contraceptive prevalence rate is 45.8% (2011/12).
Violence against women
In recent years, Bosnia and Herzegovina has taken steps to address the issue of violence against women. This included enacting The Law on Protection from Domestic Violence in 2005, and ratifying the Istanbul Convention.
See also
Women's Antifascist Front of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a Second World War feminist organization
Gender roles in post-communist Central and Eastern Europe
References
Bibliography
Society of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina women
|
796222
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80
|
Енотр
|
Енотр — персонаж давньогрецької міфології, молодший син царя Аркадії Лікаона.
Переправився на кораблях в Італію за 17 поколінь до Троянської війни та став царювати на території, що пізніше отримала назву Енотрія, біля Авзонійської затоки. За його ім'ям народ названий енотрами.
Примітки
Давньогрецькі герої
Епоніми
Стародавня Італія
Персонажі давньогрецьких міфів
|
80897
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Borman
|
Frank Borman
|
Frank Borman
Frank Frederick Borman II (March 14, 1928 – November 7, 2023) was an American United States Air Force (USAF) colonel, aeronautical engineer, NASA astronaut, test pilot, and businessman. He was the commander of Apollo 8, the first mission to fly around the Moon, and together with crewmates Jim Lovell and William Anders, became the first of 24 humans to do so, for which he was awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.
Four days before he graduated with the West Point Class of 1950, in which he was ranked eighth out of 670, Borman was commissioned in the USAF. He qualified as a fighter pilot and served in the Philippines. He earned a Master of Science degree at Caltech in 1957, and then became an assistant professor of thermodynamics and fluid mechanics at West Point. In 1960, he was selected for Class 60-C at the USAF Experimental Flight Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California and qualified as a test pilot. On graduation, he was accepted as one of five students in the first class at the Aerospace Research Pilot School.
Borman was selected as a NASA astronaut with the second group, known as the Next Nine, in 1962. In 1966, he set a fourteen-day spaceflight endurance record as commander of Gemini 7. He served on the NASA review board which investigated the Apollo 1 fire, and then flew to the Moon with Apollo 8 in December 1968. The mission is known for the Earthrise photograph taken by Anders of the Earth rising above the lunar horizon as the Command/Service Module orbited the Moon, and for the reading from Genesis, which was televised to Earth from lunar orbit on Christmas Eve. During the Apollo 11 Moon landing mission, he was the NASA liaison at the White House, where he viewed the launch on television with President Richard Nixon.
After retiring from NASA and the Air Force in 1970, Borman became senior vice president for operations at Eastern Air Lines. He became chief executive officer of Eastern in 1975, and chairman of the board in 1976. Under his leadership, Eastern went through the four most profitable years in its history, but airline deregulation and the additional debt that it took on to purchase new aircraft led to pay cuts and layoffs, and ultimately to conflict with unions, resulting in his resignation in 1986. He moved to Las Cruces, New Mexico, where he ran a Ford dealership with his son, Fred. In 1998, they bought a cattle ranch in Bighorn, Montana.
Early life and education
Frank Frederick Borman II was born on March 14, 1928, at 2162 West 11th Avenue in Gary, Indiana, the only child of Edwin Otto Borman (1901–1994), who owned an Oldsmobile car dealership there, and his wife Marjorie Ann Borman (née Pearce; 1904–1989), who named him after his paternal grandfather. He was of German descent. His great-grandfather Christopher Borman immigrated from Germany in the late 19th century and worked as a tuba player in a traveling circus. Because he suffered from numerous sinus and mastoid problems in the cold and damp weather, his family moved to the better climate of Tucson, Arizona, which Borman considered his hometown. His father bought a lease on a Mobil service station.
Borman attended Sam Hughes Elementary School in Tucson, where he played soccer and baseball. He then went to Mansfeld Junior High School, where he tried out for the football team. He was not good enough, so he formed his own team with some local boys, sponsored by a local jewelry store. He earned some money with a newspaper route, delivering copies of the Arizona Daily Star.
After Mansfeld, Borman went on to Tucson High School, where he was an honor student. He played quarterback on the junior varsity team, and then became the second-string quarterback on the varsity team. The first-string quarterback broke his arm during the first game, and was out for most of the season. Although every one of the four forward passes he attempted that year was incomplete, the team went on to win the state championship. He also started dating Susan Bugbee, a sophomore at his school.
After the United States entered World War II in 1941, his parents found work at a new Consolidated Vultee aircraft factory in Tucson. His first ride in an airplane had been when he was five years old. He learned to fly at the age of 15, taking lessons with a female instructor, Bobbie Kroll, at Gilpin Field. When he obtained his student pilot certificate, he joined a local flying club. He also built model airplanes out of balsa wood.
Borman was helping a friend build model planes, when his friend's father asked him about his plans for the future. Borman told him that he wanted to go to college and study aeronautical engineering, but his parents did not have the money to send him to an out-of-state university, and neither the University of Arizona nor Arizona State University offered top-notch courses in aeronautical engineering at that time. His football skills were insufficient to secure an athletic scholarship, and he lacked the political connections to secure an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point. He therefore planned to join the Army, which would allow him to qualify for free college tuition under the G.I. Bill.
His friend's father told him that he knew Richard F. Harless, the congressman who represented Arizona. Harless already had a principal nominee for West Point, but Borman's friend's father convinced Harless to list Borman as a third alternative. Borman took the West Point entrance examination, but since his chances of a West Point appointment were slim, he also took the Army physical, and passed both. But the end of the war had changed attitudes towards joining the military, and the three nominees ahead of him all dropped out. Instead of reporting to Fort MacArthur on graduation from high school, he went to West Point.
Borman entered West Point on July 1, 1946, with the Class of 1950. It was a difficult year to enter. Many members of the class were older than he, and had seen active service in World War II. Hazing by the upperclassmen was common. Another challenge was learning how to swim. He tried out for the plebe football team; his skills were insufficient, but head coach Earl Blaik took him on as an assistant manager. In his final year, Borman was a cadet captain, commanding his company, and manager of the varsity football team.
Borman chose to be commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Air Force (USAF) on June 2, 1950. Before the United States Air Force Academy was built, the USAF was authorized to accept up to a quarter of each West Point graduating class. So that USAF officers graduating from West Point had equal seniority with those graduating from the United States Naval Academy, the entire class was commissioned four days ahead of their graduation. Borman graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree on June 6, 1950, ranked eighth in his class of 670.
Borman drove back to Tucson with his parents in his brand-new Oldsmobile 88 for the traditional sixty-day furlough after graduation. He had split up with Susan while he was at West Point, but had since reconsidered. She had earned a dental hygiene degree at the University of Pennsylvania, and was planning to commence a liberal arts degree at the University of Arizona. He persuaded her to see him again, and proposed to her. She accepted, and they were married on July 20, 1950, at St. Philip's in the Hills Episcopal Church in Tucson.
Air Force
After a brief honeymoon in Phoenix, Arizona, Borman reported to Perrin Air Force Base in Texas for basic flight training in a North American T-6 Texan in August 1950. The top students in the class had the privilege of choosing which branch of flying they would pursue; Borman elected to become a fighter pilot. He was therefore sent to Williams Air Force Base, near Phoenix, in February 1951 for advanced training, initially in the North American T-28 Trojan, and then the F-80 jet fighter. Fighter pilots were being sent to Korea, where the Korean War had broken out the year before. He asked for, and was assigned to, Luke Air Force Base near Phoenix—Susan was eight months pregnant—but at the last minute his orders were changed to Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada. There, he practiced aerial bombing and gunnery. His first child, a son called Frederick Pearce, was born there in October. Borman received his pilot wings on December 4, 1951.
Soon after, Borman suffered a perforated eardrum while practicing dive bombing with a bad head cold. Instead of going to Korea, he was ordered to report to Camp Stoneman, from whence he boarded a troop transport, the on December 20, 1951, bound for the Philippines. Susan sold the Oldsmobile to buy air tickets to join him. He was assigned to the 44th Fighter-Bomber Squadron, which was based at Clark Air Base, and commanded by Major Charles McGee, a veteran fighter pilot. Initially, Borman was restricted to non-flying duties due to his eardrum; although it had healed, the base doctors feared it would rupture again if he flew. He persuaded McGee to take him for flights in a T-6, and then a Lockheed T-33, the trainer version of the Shooting Star. This convinced the doctors, and Borman's flight status was restored on September 22, 1952. His second son, Edwin Sloan, was born at Clark in July 1952.
Borman returned to the United States, where he became a jet instrument flight instructor at Moody Air Force Base in Georgia, mainly in the T-33. In 1955, he secured a transfer to Luke Air Force Base. Most of his flying was in F-80s, F-84s, swept-wing F-84Fs and T-33s. In 1956, he received orders to join the faculty at West Point, after first completing a master's degree in aeronautical engineering. Not wanting to spend two years qualifying for a non-flying posting that could last for another three years, he searched for a master's degree course that took only one year, and settled on the one at the California Institute of Technology. He received his Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering in June 1957, and then became an assistant professor of thermodynamics and fluid mechanics at West Point, where he served until 1960. He found he enjoyed teaching, and was still able to fly a T-33 from Stewart Air Force Base on weekends. One summer he also attended the USAF Survival School at Stead Air Force Base in Nevada.
In June 1960, Borman was selected for Class 60-C at the USAF Experimental Flight Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California, and became a test pilot. His class, which included Michael Collins and James B. Irwin, who also later became astronauts, graduated on April 21, 1961. Thomas P. Stafford, another future astronaut, was one of the instructors. On graduation, Borman was accepted as one of five students in the first class at the Aerospace Research Pilot School, a postgraduate school for test pilots to prepare them to become astronauts. Fellow members of the class included future astronaut Jim McDivitt. Classes included a course on orbital mechanics at the University of Michigan, and there were zero-G flights in modified Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker and Convair C-131 Samaritan aircraft. Borman introduced training with the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter. It would be flown up to , where the engine would cut out for lack of oxygen, and then coast up to . This would be followed by a powerless descent, and restarting the engine on the way down. A pressure suit was required.
On April 18, 1962, NASA formally announced that it was accepting applications for a new group of astronauts who would assist the Mercury Seven astronauts selected in 1959 with Project Mercury, and join them in flying Project Gemini missions. The USAF conducted its own internal selection process, and submitted the names of eleven candidates. It ran them through a brief training course in May 1962 on how to speak and conduct themselves during the NASA selection process. The candidates called it a "charm school". Borman's selection as one of the Next Nine was publicly announced on September 17, 1962. Chuck Yeager, the commandant of the USAF Test Pilot School at Edwards, told him: "you can kiss your godamned Air Force career goodbye." During his Air Force service, Borman logged 3,600 hours of flying time, of which 3,000 was in jet aircraft.
NASA
Borman moved with his family to Houston, Texas, where the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) was still being established, and signed his first home construction contract, for $26,500. Following the precedent set by the Mercury Seven, each of the Nine was assigned a special area in which to develop expertise that could be shared with the others, and to provide astronaut input to the designers and engineers. Borman's assignment was the Titan II booster used by Project Gemini, although he had no experience in that area. The assignment involved many trips to the Martin Marietta plants in Denver, Colorado, and Baltimore, Maryland, where the Titan IIs were built. His responsibility included the Emergency Detection System (EDS) developed for an abort situation. Borman agreed with Wernher von Braun that reliance would have to be placed on automated systems in situations where human reaction time would not be fast enough. This was much to the consternation of old hands like Warren J. North, the NASA Chief of the Flight Crew Support Division, who did not accept the notion that an automated system was superior to the skill of a human being.
There was also classroom work. Initially, each of the astronauts was given four months of classroom instruction on subjects such as spacecraft propulsion, orbital mechanics, astronomy, computing, and space medicine. There was also familiarization with the Gemini spacecraft, Titan II and Atlas boosters, and the Agena target vehicle. Jungle survival training was conducted at the USAF Tropic Survival School at Albrook Air Force Station in Panama, desert survival training at Stead Air Force Base in Nevada, and water survival training on the Dilbert Dunker at the Naval Air Station Pensacola in Florida and on Galveston Bay. There were fifty hours of instruction in geology, with field trips to the Grand Canyon and Meteor Crater in Arizona. Borman thought it was a waste of time. "I didn't care about picking up rocks," he later told an interviewer, "I wanted to beat the Soviets to the Moon".
Project Gemini
When the Chief of the Flight Crew Operations, Mercury Seven astronaut Deke Slayton, drew up a tentative schedule of Project Gemini flights, he assigned Mercury Seven astronaut Alan Shepard command of the first crewed flight, Gemini 3, with Next Nine astronaut Tom Stafford as his co-pilot. Mercury Seven astronaut Gus Grissom would command the backup crew, with Borman as his co-pilot. Under the crew rotation system Slayton devised, the backup crew of one mission would become the prime of the third mission after. Borman would therefore become the co-pilot of Gemini 6, which was planned as a long-duration fourteen-day mission.
An Apollo mission to the Moon was expected to take at least a week, so one of the objectives of Project Gemini was to test the ability of the crew and spacecraft components to operate in space for that length of time. When Shepard was grounded in October 1963, Grissom and Borman became the prime crew of Gemini 3. Grissom invited Borman to his house to talk to him about the mission, and after a long discussion, decided that he could not work with Borman. According to Gene Cernan, "the egos of Grissom and Borman were too big to fit into a single spacecraft". Slayton therefore replaced Borman with John Young.
Slayton still wanted Borman for the two-week flight, which had now slipped to Gemini 7, so Borman was assigned as backup commander of Gemini 4, with Jim Lovell as his co-pilot. This was officially announced on July 27, 1964, and their assignment to Gemini 7 followed on July 1, 1965, with Ed White and Michael Collins as their backups. Borman was one of four members of his group chosen to command their first missions, the others being McDivitt, Neil Armstrong, and Elliot See, although See was killed in a jet crash three months before his mission. Prime and backup crews trained for the mission together, and Borman found the experience as a backup valuable, amounting to a dress rehearsal of their own mission.
That Gemini 7 would last for fourteen days was known from the beginning, and gave Borman time to prepare. To keep fit, he and Lovell jogged a day, and played handball after work. They visited the McDonnell Aircraft plant in St. Louis, Missouri, where their spacecraft was built. At , it was heavier than any previous Gemini spacecraft. Special procedures were developed for the stowage of consumables and garbage. A lightweight space suit was developed to make the astronauts more comfortable.
A major change affecting the mission occurred when the Agena target vehicle for Gemini 6 suffered a catastrophic failure. This mission was intended to practice orbital rendezvous, a requirement of Project Apollo and therefore an objective of Project Gemini. Borman was at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) to observe the launch of Gemini 6, and heard two McDonnell officials, spacecraft chief Walter Burke and his deputy, John Yardley, discuss the possibility of using Gemini 7 as a rendezvous target. Borman rejected the idea of docking the two spacecraft, but otherwise thought the idea had merit.
After some discussion about how it could be accomplished, it was approved. The 6555th Aerospace Test Wing dismantled Gemini 6 and assembled Gemini 7 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 19. Gemini 7 was launched at 14:30 local time on December 6, 1965. Then the race was on to launch Gemini 6 with Wally Schirra and Tom Stafford on board, which was accomplished at 08:37 local time on December 15. Gemini 6 completed the rendezvous with Gemini 7 at 14:33. The two craft came within of each other. At one point Schirra held up a sign in the window for Borman to read that said: "Beat Army". Schirra, Stafford and Lovell were all United States Naval Academy graduates; Borman was outnumbered.
When Schirra and Stafford pulled away and returned to Earth, Borman and Lovell still had three days to go, in a space the size of the front seat of a small car. Borman began hoping that something would go wrong and excuse an early return. Finally, on December 18, it was time to return. The two astronauts were pumped up with the help of the stimulant dexedrine. The re-entry was accomplished flawlessly, and the Gemini 7 spacecraft splashed down from the recovery vessel, the aircraft carrier . Borman had never been on an aircraft carrier before, and was awed by its size. Borman was awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal for this mission, and was promoted to colonel. At 37, he was the youngest full colonel in the Air Force.
Project Apollo
Apollo 1
In planning for Project Apollo, Slayton designated new crews under the command of the experienced astronauts who commanded the early Gemini missions. On missions with a lunar module, the senior pilot (later known as the command module pilot) would also be an experienced astronaut, as he would have to fly the command module solo. Borman was given the assignment of backup for the second mission, an Earth-orbital mission without a lunar module. He would then command the fourth, a medium Earth orbit mission with a lunar module. He was given Charles Bassett for a senior pilot and Bill Anders as the pilot (later known as the lunar module pilot); Bassett was expected to fly on Gemini 9, but he died in the air crash that also killed See. Borman was then given Stafford as senior pilot and Collins as pilot. Subsequently, Stafford was given his own crew, and Anders was reassigned to Borman's crew. As Collins had spaceflight experience on Gemini 10, he became the senior pilot. The second mission was scrubbed, but Borman's remained unchanged, although now it was to be the third mission, and he had no backup responsibility. The crew selection was officially announced in a NASA press release on December 22, 1966.
On January 27, 1967, the crew members of the first crewed Apollo mission (Apollo 1 — then designated AS-204), Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee, were killed in a fire aboard their command module. Following this deadly accident, the AS-204 Accident Review Board was charged with investigating the root causes of the fire and recommending corrective measures. Borman was chosen as the only astronaut to serve on the nine-member review board. He inspected the burnt-out command module and verified the positions of the switches and circuit breakers. In April 1967, while serving on the board, Borman was one of five astronauts who testified before the United States House of Representatives and United States Senate committees investigating the Apollo 1 fire (the others were Shepard, Schirra, Slayton and McDivitt). Borman faced tough and sometimes hostile questioning. Borman's testimony helped convince Congress that Apollo would be safe to fly again. He told them: "We are trying to tell you that we are confident in our management, and in our engineering and in ourselves. I think the question is really: Are you confident in us?"
In the aftermath of the disaster, Joe Shea resigned as manager of the Apollo project. Robert Gilruth, the director of the MSC, offered the position to Borman, who turned it down. The job was given to Gilruth's deputy, George Low; Borman accepted a temporary posting to the North American Aviation plant in Downey, California, where the command modules were made, to oversee the implementation of the recommendations of the AS-204 Accident Review Board. Borman was forced to confront one of the root causes of the disaster: the natural tension between getting the job done on time and building the spacecraft as well as possible.
Borman argued with test pilot Scott Crossfield, who was in charge of safety engineering at North American, over the design of an effective emergency oxygen system. Borman refused to accept the design because it did not protect the crew from noxious fumes. Crossfield then opposed the delivery of North American's S-II, the second stage of the Saturn V Moon rocket, which Crossfield deemed unsafe. Borman informed management at North American that he could not work with Crossfield, and Crossfield eventually left the company. A redesigned hatch that allowed the astronauts to exit within seconds instead of minutes added to the weight of the spacecraft. The parachutes had to be redesigned to ensure they could hold the additional weight, and re-testing them cost $250,000. This led to a clash with George Mueller, who thought the cost was excessive.
Apollo 8
Borman's medium Earth orbit lunar module test mission was now planned as Apollo 9, and tentatively scheduled for early 1969, after a low Earth orbit one commanded by McDivitt in December 1968. The crew assignments were officially announced on November 20, 1967, but in July 1968 Collins suffered a cervical disc herniation that required surgery to repair. He was replaced by Lovell in July 1968, reuniting Borman with his Gemini 7 crewmate. When Apollo 8's LM-3 arrived at the KSC in June 1968, more than a hundred significant defects were discovered, leading Gilruth to conclude that there was no prospect of LM-3 being ready to fly in 1968.
In August 1968, in response to a report from the CIA that the Soviet Union were considering a lunar fly-by before the end of the year, Low proposed a bold solution to keep the Apollo program on track. Since the next Command/Service Module (CSM) (designated as "CSM-103") would be ready three months before LM-3, a CSM-only mission could be flown in December 1968. Instead of repeating the flight of Apollo 7, it could be sent to the Moon, entering lunar orbit before returning to Earth. This also meant that the medium Earth orbit mission could be dispensed with, keeping to the schedule for a lunar landing in mid-1969. With the change in mission for Apollo 8, Slayton asked McDivitt if he still wanted to fly it. McDivitt turned it down; his crew had spent a great deal of time preparing to test the LM, and that was what he still wanted to do. When Borman was asked the same question, he answered "yes" without any hesitation. Slayton then decided to swap the crews and spacecraft of the Apollo 8 and 9 missions.
Apollo 8 was launched at 12:51:00 UTC (07:51:00 Eastern Standard Time) on December 21, 1968. On the second day Borman awoke feeling ill. He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea; this left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces, which the crew cleaned up as best they could. Borman did not want anyone to know about his medical problems, but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control. The Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a 24-hour flu, as Borman thought, or an adverse reaction to a sleeping pill. Researchers now believe that he was suffering from space adaptation syndrome, which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness. Space adaptation syndrome had not occurred on Mercury and Gemini missions because those astronauts could not move freely in the small cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo command module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness.
On December 24, Apollo 8 went into lunar orbit. The crew made ten orbits of the Moon in twenty hours before returning to Earth. The mission is known for the Earthrise photograph taken by Bill Anders of the Earth rising above the lunar horizon as the command module orbited the Moon, and for the televised reading from Genesis in lunar orbit, released for worldwide broadcast. About six weeks before the launch, NASA's deputy director for public affairs, Julian Scheer, had told Borman that a television broadcast was scheduled for this time, and suggested that they find something appropriate to say. Borman had consulted with Simon Bourgin, who worked at the United States Information Agency, and had accompanied Borman and Lovell on a goodwill tour of the Far East after the Gemini 7 mission. Bourgin, in turn, consulted Joe Laitin, a former United Press International reporter, who suggested that the Apollo 8 crew read from the Book of Genesis after his wife Christine had come up with the idea. The text was transcribed onto fireproof paper for the broadcast. "One of the things that was truly historic", Borman later joked, "was that we got that good Catholic Bill Anders to read from the King James Version of the bible."
The Apollo 8 spacecraft splashed down in darkness at 10:51:42 UTC (05:51:42 EST) on Friday, December 27. Borman had argued for this; a daylight landing would have required orbiting the Moon at least twelve times, and Borman did not think this was necessary. When the spacecraft hit the water, Borman did not flick the switch to release the parachutes quickly enough. They dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down. In this position, the flashing light beacon could not be seen by the recovery helicopters. Borman inflated the bags in the nose of the spacecraft, which then righted itself. Mission ground rules required a daylight recovery, so the crew had to wait 45 minutes until local sunrise before the frogmen could open the hatches. Borman became seasick and threw up, and was glad when he could be taken on board the recovery ship, the aircraft carrier .
Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval in the United States and most of the world. They were the first human beings to orbit another celestial body, having survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as having only a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo 8 was summed up in a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that stated simply, "Thank you Apollo 8. You saved 1968."
The crew were accorded ticker tape parades in New York, Chicago and Washington, D.C., where they were awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal, which was presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Borman was also awarded the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal. Afterward, Borman was sent on a goodwill tour of Europe, with a secondary objective of finding out more about the space programs of other NATO countries. He was accompanied by Bourgin and Nicholas Ruwe, the assistant chief of protocol at the State Department. Borman met with Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Philip and a teenage Princess Anne at Buckingham Palace in the UK, with President Charles de Gaulle in France, Pope Paul VI in Rome, and King Baudouin and Queen Fabiola of Belgium.
Apollo 11
Space journalist Andrew Chaikin claims that, following the death of Gus Grissom, Borman became Slayton's choice to command the first Moon landing attempt. In the fall of 1968, Slayton offered command of the first landing to Borman, who turned it down. Long before Apollo 8 lifted off, Borman had decided that it would be his last flight, and that he would retire in 1970. After twenty years' service in the Air Force, he would qualify for a pension. Borman told an interviewer in 1999 that "my reason for joining NASA was to participate in the Apollo Program, the lunar program, and hopefully beat the Russians. I never looked at it for any individual goals. I never wanted to be the first person on the Moon and frankly, as far as I was concerned, when Apollo 11 was over the mission was over. The rest was frosting on the cake."
For the Apollo 11 Moon landing mission in July 1969, Borman was assigned as NASA liaison to President Richard Nixon at the White House. He viewed the launch from the President's office. Nixon initially had prepared a long speech to read to the astronauts on the Moon during a phone call, but Borman persuaded him to keep his words brief and non-partisan. He also convinced the President to omit the playing of the "Star Spangled Banner", which would have required the astronauts to waste two and a half minutes of their time on the surface standing still. He accompanied the President in Marine One, when it flew to the recovery ship, the aircraft carrier to meet the crew of Apollo 11 on their return.
Other military activities
In June 1970, Borman retired from NASA and the U.S. Air Force as a colonel. He later cited family stress as a major reason for leaving the astronaut corps, in particular his wife's alcohol dependency. For his services as an astronaut, the Air Force awarded him the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Legion of Merit.
In August 1970, he undertook another special presidential mission, a worldwide tour to seek support for the release of American prisoners of war held by North Vietnam. At the conclusion of his 25-day mission to 25 countries, Borman briefed Nixon on September 1 at the Western White House in San Clemente, California. While the mission was not an abject failure, his fame failed to compensate for his lack of political experience and gravitas. On September 22, he appeared before an unusual joint meeting of Congress conducted at the request of the National League of Families of American Prisoners and Missing in Southeast Asia in his capacity as presidential envoy. He noted that the POWs were being treated poorly, and urged Congress "not to forsake your countrymen who have given so much for you."
Borman performed one more assignment for the military. In 1976, there was a major cheating scandal at West Point. Faculty noticed remarkably similar answers to an examination paper for Electrical Engineering 304, a required course, that had been given to over 800 cadets to complete on their own. Cheating was a violation of the Cadet Honor Code, and cheaters were subject to expulsion. Cadets were tried by 12-member honor boards of cadets that functioned as grand juries; but the system was prone to abuse, and those cleared on appeal to the five‐member appeal boards of officers that functioned as courts were often punished with "silence", a form of shunning. Borman was appointed to head a special commission to investigate and report to the Secretary of the Army. Eventually, 92 cadets were readmitted, and graduated with the Class of 1978; more than 60 others declined the offer of amnesty, and chose to complete their education elsewhere.
Borman's son Frederick, of the West Point Class of 1974, was accused of taking a bribe. It was alleged that while a member of a cadet honor code board he had accepted a $1,200 payment to fix a case involving two cadets accused of cheating. Frederick was cleared of all charges after taking a polygraph test. Borman's younger son, Edwin, of the West Point Class of 1975, was also accused of improprieties, but there was no evidence to support the allegations, and they were dismissed.
Eastern Air Lines
In early 1969, Borman became a special advisor to Eastern Air Lines. The following year he completed Harvard Business School's six-week Advanced Management Program. He joined Eastern Air Lines on July 1, 1970, and moved to Miami. In December he became its senior vice president for operations. On the evening of December 29, 1972, Borman received a phone call informing him that Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 had disappeared off the radar near Florida's Everglades. He took a helicopter, which was able to land in the darkness from the crash site, and waded waist-deep through the murky swamp, helping rescue crash victims and load survivors into rescue helicopters.
The accident put the spotlight on the airline's Lockheed L-1011 TriStar aircraft, which suffered from maintenance problems, particularly with the turbine blades of the Rolls-Royce RB211 engine. This made it difficult to fly them at a profit. The airline also had 25 Boeing 727-100QC aircraft capable of being quickly changed from passenger to cargo aircraft. These weighed more than the airline's standard 727-100s, and therefore consumed more fuel, which made them only marginally profitable when fuel prices were low, but jet fuel prices quadrupled in the 1970s. Eastern also spent $200,000 on a down payment for two Concordes, although it had no suitable routes to fly them on.
Borman was promoted to executive vice president-general operations manager and was elected to Eastern's board of directors in July 1974. In May 1975, he was elected president and chief operating officer by the board. He was named chief executive officer of Eastern in December 1975, and became chairman of the board in December 1976. Borman disliked aspects of American corporate culture, such as plush offices, luxury Cadillac and Mercedes company cars and a Lockheed JetStar corporate jet for executives, while firing or furloughing employees. After he became Eastern's CEO, he saved the company $9 million annually in salaries by firing 81 middle managers and 31 vice presidents. He drove to work in a second-hand Chevrolet Camaro with an engine he rebuilt himself. He sold the JetStar, and, as at North American, banned drinking on company time, which he considered also included lunchtime. The end of the three-martini lunch came as a shock to many executives.
Eastern had not turned a profit since 1969. To reduce costs, Borman convinced employees to accept a wage freeze in 1976, with an eight percent raise in 1977, and then a five-year Variable Earnings Program (VEP). Under the VEP, employees contributed 3.5 percent of their annual salaries to a special profit insurance fund. If Eastern did not achieve a two percent return on each revenue dollar, the fund was used to make up the difference. If the company did earn more than two percent, the excess money was returned to the employees, who could earn back up to twice their contributions. To get his changes through, Borman visited the airline's facilities in 28 states to bring his proposals to his employees.
With the VEP in hand, Borman was able to refinance the debt on the company's 254 aircraft. Profits jumped to a record $67.3 million in 1978. During this time, the employees received double their VEP payments. Borman ordered $1.4 billion worth of new, more fuel-efficient aircraft, and the company's debt ballooned to $2.3 billion. But 1979 was the last profitable year until 1985. In the intervening five years, Eastern ran at a loss, accumulating $380 million in losses. The company's debt-to-equity ratio stood at 8:1, and servicing the debt required $235 million annually in interest payments, representing about cents in every dollar earned.
The cause of the decline in profitability was only partly due to the company's debt; there was also airline deregulation in 1978, which caused the number of airlines in the United States to increase from 30 to nearly 100. Some of the newcomers offered unprofitable and unsustainable low prices to gain market share. In just the first three-quarters of 1984, Eastern lost $128 million. Borman negotiated an agreement with the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA) for a 22 percent pay cut, while the International Association of Machinists (IAM) and the Transport Workers Union (TWU) (representing the flight attendants) accepted an 18 percent cut. Employees were nominally compensated with grants of company stock, but its value declined from $60 a share in 1966 to $6 a share in 1983.
Eastern posted a profit of $6.3 million on gross revenues of $4 billion in 1984, but this was not enough to satisfy the creditors, who demanded a two percent profit. Borman laid off 1,000 flight attendants and cut the pay of 6,000 more by over 20 percent. He also slashed the pay of executives and middle managers by 20 to 25 percent. In the first quarter of 1985, earnings were up to $24.3 million, 35 cents a share, after setting aside $28.9 million for the employees. It was the third consecutive profitable quarter in a row. Borman attempted to negotiate further cuts with the unions, threatening bankruptcy. The ALPA and TWU accepted, but the IAM did not. Over ten years, the three unions had given up $836 million in wages and benefits, and the company had little to show for it. Charlie Bryan, the head of the IAM, said that the union would accept the deal only if Borman resigned. In response, Eastern's board decided to sell the airline to Texas Air Corporation, headed by Frank Lorenzo. Borman resigned from Eastern in June 1986. It was a personal defeat, but hardly a personal financial disaster; he received a severance payment of $900,000, and drew a consultant's fee of $150,000 a year from it until 1991.
Borman served on the South African Board of Inquiry into the 1986 aircraft crash that killed Mozambican president Samora Machel.
Retirement
Borman and Susan left Miami, and moved to Las Cruces, New Mexico. For a time, he was the majority owner of a Las Cruces Ford dealership founded by his son, Fred. He was a member of the boards of directors of Home Depot, National Geographic, Outboard Marine Corporation, Automotive Financial Group, Thermo Instrument Systems and American Superconductor. He was CEO of Patlex Corporation, a small company that held patents in lasers, from July 1988 to August 1996. That year, he published an autobiography, Countdown, co-written with Robert J. Serling.
In 1998, Borman purchased a cattle ranch in the Bighorn Mountains of southern Montana, running 4,000 head of cattle on . In addition to tending cattle, Borman continued his hobbies in rebuilding and modeling aircraft. Notably, he owned and painstakingly rebuilt a very rare World War II single-engine fighter, the Bell P-63 Kingcobra. It won the prestigious Grand Champion Warbird award when Borman exhibited it at Oshkosh in 1998. He also personally flew it in airshows. He was a member of the Society of Antique Modelers (SAM). In 1998, he moved to Billings, Montana. His wife Susan suffered from Alzheimer's disease, and he spent much of his time caring for her. Eventually she was placed in a nursing home, where he visited her each day, until her death on September 7, 2021.
Following John Glenn's death in December 2016, Borman became the oldest living American astronaut. He was eleven days older than his Apollo 8 crewmate, Jim Lovell. Both celebrated their 90th birthdays in March 2018. Borman gave the commencement address to the University of Arizona's 2008 graduating class, and was reunited with Lovell and Anders for celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Apollo 8 in December 2018 at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, where the spacecraft in which they orbited the Moon is on display. "I have never said it before publicly", declared Borman, "but these two talented guys, I'm just proud that I was able to fly with them. It was a tough job done in four months, and we did a good job."
Borman died from a stroke at the Billings Clinic on November 7, 2023, at the age of 95.
Character and views
Borman was once described by a NASA psychiatrist as the least complicated man he had ever met. In his business career he was described as autocratic. He had a Tolstoy quotation on a wall in his office: "The only legitimate happiness is honest hard work and the surmounting of obstacles".
Awards and honors
Borman, along with his Gemini 7 crewmate Lovell and the Gemini 6 crew, received the 1965 Harmon Trophy. He and Lovell were awarded the trophy a second time for the Apollo 8 mission in 1968. The Apollo 8 crew was also awarded the Robert J. Collier Trophy for "achievement in astronautics". Former deputy administrator of NASA and then Secretary of the Air Force Robert Seamans Jr. awarded them the General Thomas D. White USAF Space Trophy at the National Geographic Society, and Vice President Spiro Agnew presented them with the society's Hubbard Medal. Time magazine chose the crew of Apollo 8 as its Men of the Year for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the year, and they were featured on the January 3, 1969, cover. Jim Lovell accepted the Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy for space achievement from President Richard Nixon on behalf of the Apollo 8 crew. On October 1, 1978, Borman was awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor for his command of Apollo 8.
Borman, who built model airplanes throughout much of his life, was awarded the Academy of Model Aeronautics Distinguished Service Award in 1968. Borman, along with other recipients such as baseball player Mickey Mantle and actress Polly Bergen, was awarded the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1969. Borman received the honor for the science and exploration category. He was also awarded the Society of Experimental Test Pilots James H. Doolittle Award in 1976, the Tony Jannus Award in 1986, the Airport Operators Council International Downes Award in 1990, and the NASA Ambassador of Exploration Award in 2012. He was awarded honorary doctorates from Whittier College, the University of Arizona, South Dakota School of Mines, Illinois Wesleyan University, the University of Pittsburgh, Indiana University, Arizona State University, Clarkson University, Hope College, and the Air University.
Borman was one of ten Gemini astronauts inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1982. He and Senator Barry Goldwater were two of four individuals inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1982. In 1990, Borman was selected for the Arizona Aviation Hall of Fame's inaugural class. He was among the second class that was inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1993. He was also inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame in 1990 and the DeMolay International Hall of Fame.
In media
In From the Earth to the Moon, a 1998 HBO miniseries, Borman was played by David Andrews. He was interviewed in the 2008 Discovery Channel documentary When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions, and appeared in the 2005 documentary Race to the Moon, which was shown as part of the PBS American Experience series. The film centered on the events that led up to the Apollo 8 mission. On November 13, 2008, Borman, Lovell and Anders appeared on the NASA TV channel to discuss Apollo 8 on the 40th anniversary of the mission. Borman was featured on Episode 655 of the radio program This American Life titled "The Not-So-Great Unknown", airing on August 24, 2018; his interview with David Kestenbaum in Act One of the episode titled "So Over the Moon" centered on his unconventional outlook towards space travel. Borman's face was used on the cover of Led Zeppelin's second album.
Tributes
I-80/I-94 in Lake County, Indiana, which runs through his birth town of Gary, Indiana, is named the Frank Borman Expressway.
A K–8 school on Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona, is named in Borman's honor.
A school in Phoenix, Arizona, is named Frank Borman Junior High School.
A school in Denton, Texas, is named Borman Elementary School.
A park in Gary, Indiana, is named Borman Square Park.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
1928 births
2023 deaths
1965 in spaceflight
1968 in spaceflight
20th-century American businesspeople
American aerospace engineers
American airline chief executives
American autobiographers
American chief operating officers
American flight instructors
American people of German descent
American test pilots
Apollo 8
Apollo program astronauts
Aviators from Indiana
California Institute of Technology alumni
Collier Trophy recipients
Eastern Air Lines
Engineers from Indiana
Harmon Trophy winners
Military personnel from Tucson, Arizona
National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees
People from Gary, Indiana
Recipients of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the NASA Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the NASA Exceptional Service Medal
Tucson High School alumni
U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School alumni
United States Air Force astronauts
United States Air Force colonels
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame inductees
United States Military Academy alumni
Project Gemini astronauts
NASA Astronaut Group 2
|
5189976
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%20%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%86%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
|
Бурилін Андрій Іванович
|
Бурилін Андрій Іванович
Андрій Іванович Бурилін (село Спас Калузького повіту Калузької губернії, тепер Калузької області, Російської Федерації — розстріляний , місто Москва, тепер Російська Федерація) — радянський державний діяч, голова Калузького облвиконкому.
Життєпис
Народився в селянській родині. Закінчив Ленінградський комунальний інститут.
У 1929 році, ще навчаючись в інституті, почав працювати в Ленінградському міському відділі комунального господарства.
Член ВКП(б) з 1930 року.
З 1941 року служив у Червоній армії: старший помічник начальника відділу забезпечення та планування автоперевезень, начальник 2-го відділу штабу тилу Ленінградського фронту. Учасник німецько-радянської війни.
У 1944—1947 роках — заступник голови виконавчого комітету Ленінградської обласної ради депутатів трудящих — голова Ленінградської обласної планової комісії.
3 жовтня 1947 — січень 1949 року — голова виконавчого комітету Калузької обласної ради депутатів трудящих.
У січні — листопаді 1949 року — заступник голови виконавчого комітету Ленінградської обласної ради депутатів трудящих — голова Ленінградської обласної планової комісії.
У листопаді 1949 року — завідувач відділу «Ленвидаву».
15 листопада 1949 року заарештований у «Ленінградській справі». Розстріляний 28 жовтня 1950 року, похований на Донському цвинтарі Москви.
Посмертно реабілітований 14 травня 1954 року.
Нагороди і звання
орден Червоного Прапора
орден Вітчизняної війни ІІ ст.
медалі
Примітки
Джерела
Бурилин Андрей Иванович
Члени КПРС
Репресовані в СРСР
Реабілітовані в СРСР
|
439229
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied%20invasion%20of%20Italy
|
Allied invasion of Italy
|
Allied invasion of Italy
The Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied amphibious landing on mainland Italy that took place from 3 September 1943, during the Italian campaign of World War II. The operation was undertaken by General Sir Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group (comprising General Mark W. Clark's American Fifth Army and General Bernard Montgomery's British Eighth Army) and followed the successful Allied invasion of Sicily. The main invasion force landed on the west coast of Italy at Salerno on 9 September as part of Operation Avalanche, while two supporting operations took place in Calabria (Operation Baytown) and Taranto (Operation Slapstick).
Background
Allied plan
Following the defeat of the Axis powers in North Africa in May 1943, there was disagreement between the Allies about the next step. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill wanted to invade Italy, which in November 1942 he had called "the soft underbelly of the axis" (American General Mark W. Clark would later call it "one tough gut"). Churchill noted that Italian popular support for the war was declining and an invasion would remove Italy from the Axis, thus weakening Axis influence in the Mediterranean Sea and opening it to Allied traffic. This would allow the reduction of shipping capacity needed to supply Allied forces in the Middle East and Far East theaters at a time when the disposal of Allied shipping capacity was in crisis and permit an increase of British and American supplies to the Soviet Union. In addition, it would tie down German forces in Italy. Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader, had been strongly pressuring Churchill and Roosevelt to open a "second front" in Europe, which would lessen the German Army's focus on the Eastern Front, where the bulk of its forces were fighting in the largest armed conflict in history against the Soviet Red Army.
However, U.S. Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall and much of the American staff wanted to avoid operations that might delay the main invasion of Europe, which had been planned as early as 1942, and which finally materialized as Operation Overlord in 1944. When it became clear that no cross-channel invasion of occupied France could be undertaken in 1943, both parties agreed to an invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, with no commitment made to follow-up operations. After the highly successful outcome of the Sicilian campaign had become clear, both Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, the U.S. President, accepted the necessity of continuing to engage the Axis before the start of the campaign in northwest Europe. Discussions had been ongoing since the Trident Conference held in Washington, D.C. in May, but it was not until late July, with the fall of Italian Fascist Prime Minister Benito Mussolini, that the Joint Chiefs of Staff instructed General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean theater, to go ahead.
Despite the overwhelming success of the Sicilian campaign, a significant number of Axis forces managed to avoid capture and escape to the mainland. Contemporary Axis propaganda portrayed this as a success. In late July, the fascist government fell and Mussolini was removed as head of the Italian government, envoys of which soon began approaching the Allies to make peace. It was believed a quick invasion of Italy might hasten Italian surrender and produce quick military victories over the German troops trapped fighting in a hostile country. However, Italian (and more so German) resistance proved relatively strong, and fighting in Italy continued even after the fall of Berlin in April 1945. In addition, the invasion left the Allies in a position of supplying food and supplies to conquered territory, a burden that would otherwise have fallen on Germany. As well, Italy occupied by a hostile German army would have created additional problems for the German commander-in-chief (C-in-C), Albert Kesselring.
The Allies had originally planned to cross from the island of Sicily into the "arch" area (Taranto) of the Italian mainland, envisioning a limited invasion of the Italian "boot", whence they would advance up the western coast, anticipating a strong defense by both German and Italian forces. The overthrow of Mussolini made a more ambitious plan feasible, and the Allies decided to make their invasion two-pronged by combining the crossing of the British Eighth Army under General Sir Bernard Montgomery into the mainland with the simultaneous seizure of the port of Naples further north. Although the Americans were mindful of Napoleon's maxim that Italy, like a boot, should be entered from the top, the range limits of Allied fighter aircraft based in Sicily reduced their choices to two landing areas: one at the Volturno River basin to the north of Naples and the other south of Naples at Salerno (though separated from Naples by the mountainous Sorrento peninsula). They chose Salerno because it was closer to their air bases. In addition, Salerno had better surf conditions for landing; its harbor allowed transport ships to anchor close to the beaches, which were narrower for the rapid construction of exit roads; and there was also an excellent pre-existing road network behind them.
Operation Baytown was the preliminary step in the plan in which the British Eighth Army would depart from the port of Messina, Sicily, across the narrow Straits and land near the tip of Calabria (the "toe" of Italy), on 3 September 1943. The short distance meant landing craft could launch from there directly, rather than be carried by ship. The British 5th Infantry Division (Major-general Gerard Bucknall) of XIII Corps, under Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey, would land on the north side of the "toe" while its 1st Canadian Infantry Division (Major-General Guy Simonds) would land at Cape Spartivento on the south side. Montgomery was strongly opposed to Operation Baytown. He predicted it would be a waste of effort since it assumed the Germans would give battle in Calabria; if they failed to do so, the diversion would not work, and the only effect of the operation would be to place the Eighth Army south of the main landing at Salerno. He was proved correct; after Operation Baytown, the British Eighth Army moved 480 km north to the Salerno area against no opposition other than engineering obstacles.
Plans for the use of Allied airborne forces took several forms, all of which were cancelled. The initial plan to land glider-borne troops in the mountain passes of the Sorrento Peninsula above Salerno was abandoned on 12 August. Six days later it was replaced by Operation Giant, in which two regiments of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division (Major General Matthew Ridgway) would seize and hold crossings over the Volturno River. This was at first expanded to include the entire division, including an amphibious landing by the 325th Glider Infantry Regiment, then deemed logistically unsupportable and reduced to a two-battalion drop at Capua to block the highway there. The Italian surrender on 3 September led to the cancellation of Operation Giant I and its replacement by Operation Giant II, a drop of the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment on and Cerveteri airfields, northwest of Rome. This was intended to aid Italian forces in saving Rome, one of the most culturally significant cities in the western world, from German razing, a condition of the Italian armistice. Because the distance from the Allied beachheads precluded any substantial Allied support of the airborne troops, Brigadier General Maxwell D. Taylor, the acting assistant division commander (ADC) of the 82nd Airborne Division, was spirited into Rome to assess the willingness of Italian troops to cooperate with the Americans. Taylor's judgment was that the operation would be a trap and he advised cancellation, which occurred late on the afternoon of 8 September after pathfinders had already taken off aboard their troop carrier aircraft.
The main landings (Operation Avalanche) were scheduled to take place on 9 September, during which the main force would land around Salerno on the western coast. It would consist of the U.S. Fifth Army, under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, comprising the U.S. VI Corps under Major General Ernest J. Dawley, the British X Corps under Lieutenant-General Richard McCreery, with the 82nd Airborne Division in reserve, a total of eight divisions and two brigade-sized units. Its primary objectives were to seize the port of Naples to ensure resupply, and to cut across to the east coast, trapping Axis troops further south. The naval task force of warships, merchant ships and landing craft totaling 627 vessels came under the command of Vice Admiral Henry K. Hewitt. Following the disappointing air cover from land-based aircraft shown during the battle of Gela in the Sicily landings, Force V of and four escort carriers augmented the cruisers , , , and fourteen destroyers of Hewitt's command. Cover for the task force was provided by Force H under the command of Vice Admiral Algernon Willis, a group of four British battleships and two fleet carriers with destroyers, which was directly subordinate to the C–in–C Mediterranean Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham.
In the original planning, the great attraction of capturing the important port of Taranto in the "heel" of Italy had been evident and an assault had been considered but rejected because of the very strong defenses there. However, with the signing of the armistice with the Italians on 3 September, the picture changed. It was decided to carry the British 1st Airborne Division (Major-General George Hopkinson) to Taranto using British warships, seize the port and several nearby airfields and follow up by shipping in Lieutenant-General Charles Allfrey's British V Corps and a number of fighter squadrons. The airborne division, which was undergoing training exercises in two locations apart, was ordered on 4 September to embark on 8 September. With such short notice to create plans, Operation Slapstick was soon nicknamed Operation Bedlam.
The Avalanche plan (using less than half the troops landed during Operation Husky) was daring, considering possible resistance by six German divisions. The Fifth Army would be landing on a very broad front, using only three assault divisions (one American, the 36th, under Major General Fred L. Walker, in VI Corps, and two British: the 46th, under Major-General John Hawkesworth, and 56th (London), under Major-General Douglas Graham, in X Corps), and the two corps were widely separated, both in distance and by the Sele River. Clark initially provided no troops to cover the river, offering the Germans an easy route to attack, and only belatedly landed two battalions to protect it. Furthermore, the terrain was highly favorable to the defender. Planning for the Salerno phase was accomplished in only forty-five days, rather than the months that might be expected. A U.S. Army Ranger force, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William O. Darby, consisting of three U.S. Ranger battalions (the 1st, 3rd and 4th), and two British Commando units, under Brigadier Robert Laycock (consisting of No. 2 (Army) Commando and No. 41 (Royal Marine) Commando), was tasked with holding the mountain passes leading to Naples, but no plan existed for linking the Ranger force up with X Corps' follow-up units. Finally, although tactical surprise was unlikely, Clark ordered no naval preparatory bombardment or naval gunfire support take place, despite experience in the Pacific Theater demonstrating it was necessary. (Major General Walker, commanding the U.S. 36th "Arrowhead" Division, believed the defenders, from Traugott Herr's LXXVI Panzer Corps, were too scattered for it to be effective.) The element of surprise was further limited by belated discovery of naval minefields off Salerno requiring landing craft to spend two hours traveling from the transports to the landing beaches.
On the German side, Kesselring lacked the strength to push the Salerno landing back, and was refused two panzer divisions from northern Italy to assist him.
Operation Avalanche was planned under the name Top Hat and supported by a deception plan, Operation Boardman, a false threat of an Allied invasion of the Balkans.
Axis defensive organization
In mid-August, the Germans had activated Army Group B under Erwin Rommel with responsibility for German troops in Italy as far south as Pisa. Army Command South under Albert Kesselring continued to be responsible for southern Italy and the German High Command formed a new army headquarters to be Army Command South's main field formation. The new German 10th Army headquarters, commanded by Heinrich von Vietinghoff, was activated on 22 August. The German 10th Army had two subordinate corps with a total of six divisions which were positioned to cover possible landing sites. Under Hermann Balck's XIV Panzer Corps was the Hermann Göring Airborne Panzer Division (under Wilhelm Schmalz), 15th Panzergrenadier Division (Eberhard Rodt) and 16th Panzer Division (Rudolf Sieckenius); and under Traugott Herr's LXXVI Panzer Corps was 26th Panzer Division (Heinrich Freiherr von Luttwitz), 29th Panzergrenadier Division (Walter Fries) and 1st Parachute Division (Fritz-Hubert Graser). Von Vietinghoff specifically positioned the 16th Panzer Division in the hills above the Salerno plain.
Battle
Operations in southern Italy
On 3 September 1943, the British Eighth Army's XIII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey and composed of the 1st Canadian and British 5th Infantry Divisions, launched Operation Baytown under General Bernard Montgomery's direction. Opposition to the landings was light and the Italian units surrendered almost immediately. Albert Kesselring and his staff did not believe the Calabria landings would be the main Allied point of attack, the Salerno region or possibly even north of Rome being more logical. He had already therefore ordered General Traugott Herr's LXXVI Panzer Corps to pull back from engagement with the Eighth Army, leaving only 29th Panzergrenadier Division's 15th Panzergrenadier Regiment in the 'toe' of Italy. By 3 September, most of this unit was in prepared positions at Bagnara Calabra, some from the landings which it had orders to hold until 6 September. After this they were to withdraw to join the rest of the 29th Panzergrenadier Division which was concentrating at Castrovillari, some to the rear. The Krüger Battle Group (two battalions of 71st Panzergrenadier Regiment, 129th Reconnaissance Battalion and detachments of artillery and engineers) under 26th Panzer Division, would then stand at Nicotera, roughly up the coast from Bagnara.
On 4 September, the British 5th Infantry Division reached Bagnara Calabra, linked up with 1st Special Reconnaissance Squadron (which arrived by sea) and drove the 3rd Battalion, 15th Panzergrenadier Regiment from its position. On 5 September the allies flew above Soveria Mannelli (central Calabria) and bombed all along the downstream area of the town, where Nazi bases and warehouses stood. Fortunately, the urban area was barely damaged. On 7 September, contact was made with the Krüger Battle Group. On 8 September, the 231st Independent Brigade Group, under Brigadier Robert "Roy" Urquhart, was landed by sea at Pizzo Calabro, some behind the Nicotera defenses. They found themselves attacked from the north by a mobile force from 26th Panzer Division and from the south by the Krüger Battle Group which was withdrawing from the Nicotera position. After an initial attack that made no headway, the Krüger Battle Group veered away but the northern attack continued throughout the day before the whole German force withdrew at dusk.
Progress was slow as demolished bridges, roadblocks and mines delayed the Eighth Army. The nature of the countryside in the toe of Italy made it impossible to by-pass obstacles and so the Allies' speed of advance was entirely dependent on the rate at which their engineers could clear obstructions. Thus, Montgomery's objections to the operation were proved correct: the Eighth Army could not tie down German units that refused battle and the main obstacle to their advance was the terrain and German demolitions of roads and bridges.
By 8 September, Kesselring had concentrated Heinrich von Vietinghoff's 10th Army, ready to make a rapid response to any Allied landing. In Calabria, Herr's LXXVI Panzer Corps had two divisions concentrated in the Castrovillari area. Its third division, 1st Parachute Division (1. Fallschirmjäger-Division), was deployed toward Taranto. The rearguard in the toe was BattleGroup von Usedom, comprising a single battalion (1/67th Panzergrenadier Regiment) with detachments of artillery and engineers. Meanwhile, Balck's XIV Panzer Corps was positioned to face possible landings from the sea with 16th Panzer Division in the Gulf of Salerno, the Hermann Göring Division near Naples and the 15th Panzergrenadier Division to the north in the Gulf of Gaeta.
On 8 September (before the main invasion), the surrender of Italy to the Allies was announced, first by General Eisenhower, then in the Badoglio Proclamation by the Italian government. Italian units ceased combat and the Navy sailed to Allied ports to surrender. The German forces in Italy were prepared for this and implemented Operation Achse to disarm Italian units and occupy important defensive positions.
Operation Slapstick commenced on 9 September. The first echelon of the British 1st Airborne Division arrived on four British cruisers, a U.S. cruiser, and the British fast minelayer . The Italian battleships Andrea Doria and with two cruisers passed by, en route to surrender in Malta. There were no Germans in Taranto and so disembarkation was unopposed. The only casualties occurred when Abdiel, at anchor, struck a mine and sank in minutes, with 168 killed and 126 injured. On 11 September, as patrols were sent further afield, there were some sharp encounters with elements of the German 1st Parachute Division. But 1st Parachute could do little but skirmish and fall back because most of its strength was attached to the 26th Panzer and Hermann Göring Divisions at Salerno. Major-General George Frederick Hopkinson, General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the British 1st Airborne Division, was killed in one of these actions. By 11 September the ports of Bari and Brindisi, still under Italian control, were occupied.
Salerno landings
Operation Avalanche–the main invasion at Salerno by the American Fifth Army under Lieutenant General Mark Clark–began on 9 September 1943, and in order to secure surprise, it was decided to assault without preliminary naval or aerial bombardment. However, as Admiral Henry Hewitt, the amphibious force commander, had predicted, tactical surprise was not achieved. As the first wave of Major General Fred L. Walker's U.S. 36th Infantry Division approached the Paestum shore at 03:30 a loudspeaker from the landing area proclaimed in English: "Come on in and give up. We have you covered." The Allied troops attacked nonetheless.
Major General Rudolf Sieckenius, commander of the 16th Panzer Division had organised his forces into four mixed arms battle groups which he had placed roughly apart and between back from the beaches. The Dőrnemann group was just east of Salerno (and therefore were opposite Major General John Hawkesworth's British 46th Infantry Division when it landed), the Stempel battle group was between Pontecagnano and Battipaglia (and so faced Major General Douglas Graham's British 56th Infantry Division), the Holtey battle group was in a reserve role at Persano on the Sele river which formed the corps boundary between Lieutenant General Richard McCreery's British X Corps and Major General Ernest Dawley's U.S. VI Corps, while the von Doering battle group responsible for the Albanella to Rutino sector was south-east of Ogliastro, somewhat south of the U.S. 36th Division's beaches.
The British X Corps, composed of the British 46th and 56th Infantry Divisions and a light infantry force of U.S. Army Rangers and British Commandos of Brigadier Robert "Lucky" Laycock's 2nd Special Service Brigade, experienced mixed reactions to its landings. The U.S. Rangers met no opposition and with support from the guns of seized their mountain pass objectives while the Commandos, from No. 2 (Army) Commando and No. 41 (Royal Marine) Commando, were also unopposed and secured the high ground on each side of the road through Molina Pass on the main route from Salerno to Naples. At first light units of No. 2 Commando moved towards Salerno and pushed back a small force of tanks and armoured cars from the 16th Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion. The British Commandos captured the town of Salerno after some serious fighting that cost 40 (Royal Marine) Commando and 41 Commando nine killed and thirty-seven wounded.
The two British infantry divisions, however, met determined resistance and had to fight their way ashore with the help of naval bombardments. The depth and intensity of German resistance forced British commanders to concentrate their forces, rather than driving for a linkup with the Americans to the south.
At Paestum, the two lead battalions of the 36th (Texas) Division (from the 141st and 142nd Infantry Regiments) received stiff resistance from two companies of the von Doering group. German observers on Monte Soprano directed fire onto the landing craft. LST 336 took 18 hits, and some LCTs and DUKWs sheered away to avoid German shellfire. The division had not been in combat before and as a result of the Italian surrender, there was a general belief amongst the soldiers that the landings would be routine. The 141st Infantry lost cohesion and failed to gain any depth during the day which made the landing of supporting arms and stores impossible, leaving them without artillery and anti-tank guns. However, the 142nd Infantry fared better and with the support of the 143rd Infantry, the reserve formation which had landed by 08:00, were able to push forward. Minesweepers cleared an inshore channel shortly after 09:00; so by late morning destroyers could steam within of the shoreline to shell German positions on Monte Soprano. USS Philadelphia and Savannah focused their guns on concentrations of German tanks, beginning a barrage of naval shells which would total eleven-thousand tons before the Salerno beachhead was secured.
By the end of the first day the Fifth Army, although it had not gained all its objectives, had made a promising start: the British X Corps' two assault divisions had pushed between inland and the special forces had advanced north across the Sorrento Peninsula and were looking down on the Plain of Naples. To the south, the U.S. 36th Division had established itself in the plain to the right of the Sele river and the higher ground to a depth of , although the 141st Infantry was still stuck near the beach. However, the XIV Panzer Corps commander, Hermann Balck, had seen the 16th Panzer Division's battle groups perform as intended and he had ordered both the Hermann Göring Division south to the battle and later in the day had been able to order 15th Panzergrenadier likewise. Meanwhile, to the south, the 29th Panzergrenadier Division from LXXVI Panzer Corps had also been directed to Salerno. Neither side had gained the initiative.
Luftwaffe response
Luftwaffe planes began strafing and bombing the invasion beaches shortly after 04:00 on the morning of 9 September before X Corps seized the Montecorvino airfield inland later that day, destroying three dozen German planes. However, failure to capture the high ground inland left the airfield within easy range of German artillery and therefore unusable by Allied aircraft. On 10 September, German bombers began targeting Admiral Hewitt's flagship while the ship was serving as General Clark's headquarters. The flagship called thirty "red alerts" over a period of 36 hours in response to 450 Luftwaffe flying sorties. Admiral Hewitt reported: "Air situation here critical." The Allied aircraft carriers had intended to withdraw on 10 September, but remained with the invasion so that their Supermarine Seafires could provide the air cover which invasion planners had expected to operate from Montecorvino.
Eighty-five Allied vessels were hit by German bombs off Salerno. Fritz X glide bombs dropped by Dornier Do 217s disabled USS Savannah and narrowly missed USS Philadelphia on the morning of 11 September. The following morning, Clark moved his headquarters ashore, and Hewitt transferred with his staff to the small amphibious force flagship so the large Ancon could retire to North Africa.
Consolidation of the beachhead
The Allies fought to expand their beachhead for three days while the Germans defended stubbornly to mask the build-up of their reinforcements for a counter-offensive. On 10 September, Clark visited the battlefield and judged that it was unlikely that X Corps would be able to push quickly east past Battipaglia to link with VI Corps. Since X Corps' main line of thrust was to be north towards Naples, he decided to move the VI Corps left hand boundary north of the Sele river and move the bulk of Major General Troy Middleton's U.S. 45th Division into the gap. In view of the enemy reinforcements approaching from the north he also ordered a battalion-sized mixed arms group to reinforce the Rangers the next day. Over the same period, German reinforcements filtered into the battlefield. Units, short of transport and subjected to other delays, arrived piecemeal and were formed into ad hoc battle groups for immediate action. By 13 September, all the immediately available reinforcements had arrived including additional elements from the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division which had been released by Generalfeldmarschall Kesselring from further north near Rome. By contrast, the Allied build-up was constrained by the limited transport available for the operation and the pre-determined schedule of the build-up based on how, during the planning phase, it had been anticipated the battle would develop. By 12 September, it had become clear that the Fifth Army had an acute shortage of infantry on the ground. That day, General Sir Harold Alexander, the 15th Army Group commander, reported to General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), in London: "I am not satisfied with the situation at Avalanche. The build-up is slow and they are pinned down to a bridgehead that has not enough depth. Everything is being done to push follow-up units and material to them. I expect heavy German counter-attack to be imminent."
By 12 September, X Corps had taken a defensive posture because every battalion was committed and there were no reserves available to form an attack. In the south, the 36th Division made some progress but towards midday a counterattack by elements of the 29th Panzergrenadier Division overran the 1st Battalion, 142nd Infantry Regiment.
German counterattacks
On 13 September, the Germans launched their counteroffensive. While the Hermann Göring battle groups attacked the northern flank of the beachhead, the main attack was on the boundary between the two Allied Corps which ran roughly from Battipaglia to the Tyrrhenian sea, with the greatest weight due to fall on the VI Corps side On the morning of 13 September, elements of Major General Walker's 36th Division attacked and captured Altavilla from the high ground some behind Paestum, but a counterattack forced them to withdraw as darkness fell. During the afternoon, two German battlegroups, the Kleine Limburg and the Krüger, had attacked Persano and overrun the 1st Battalion, 157th Infantry before crossing the Sele to engage the 2nd Battalion of the 143rd Infantry and virtually wipe it out.
The battle groups continued their strike south and south-west until reaching the confluence of the Sele and its large tributary the Calore, where it was stopped by artillery firing over open sights, naval gunfire and a makeshift infantry position manned by artillerymen, drivers, cooks and clerks and anyone else that Major General Walker could scrape together. Clark's staff formulated various evacuation plans: Operation Brass Rail envisioned Clark and his 5th Army headquarters staff leaving the beachhead to establish headquarters afloat aboard . Operation Sealion envisioned shifting British X Corps to Paestum with VI Corps, while the alternative Operation Seatrain envisioned shifting VI Corps to the X Corps sector. The navy protested that reversing the landing process would be impossible since loading beached landing craft would make them heavier and unable to withdraw from the beach. Advice from superiors and subordinates convinced Clark to continue fighting, and he later denied seriously considering evacuation.
The U.S. VI Corps had by this time lost the best part of three battalions, and so the forward units of both its divisions were withdrawn to reduce the length of the defensive line. The 45th Division consolidated at the Sele - Calore position while the 36th Division was on the high ground on the seaward side of the La Caso stream (which flowed into the Calore). The new perimeter was held with the assistance of Major General Matthew Ridgway's 82nd Airborne Division. Two battalions (roughly 1,300 paratroopers) of Colonel Reuben Tucker's 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR), after the cancellation of Giant II, had been assigned to execute the final version of Operation Giant I at Capua on the evening of 13 September. Instead, they jumped inside the beachhead, guided by Rebecca/Eureka beacons and moved immediately into the line on the right of VI Corps. The next night, with the crisis past, 2,100 paratroops of Colonel James Gavin's 505th PIR also parachuted into the beachhead and reinforced the two battalions of the 504th. A clear sign of the crisis passing was when, on the afternoon of 14 September, the final unit of 45th Division, the 180th Infantry Regiment, landed, Clark was able to place it in reserve rather than in the line. The 325th Glider Infantry Regiment, reinforced by the 3rd Battalion, 504th PIR, landed by sea on 15 September. A night drop of 600 paratroops of the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion to disrupt German movements behind the lines in the vicinity of Avellino was widely dispersed and failed, incurring significant casualties. In the X Corps sector the lead elements of Major General George Erskine's British 7th Armoured Division began to land, along with the 23rd Armoured Brigade.
With strong naval gunfire support from the Royal Navy and well-served by Fifth Army's artillery, the reinforced and reorganized infantry units defeated all German attempts on 14 September to find a weak spot in the lines. German losses, particularly in tanks, were severe. On 14 September and the following night, Tedder ordered every available aircraft to support the Fifth Army, including the strategic bomber force. Over 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped during the daylight hours.
On 15 September both the 16th Panzer and 29th Panzergrenadier Divisions went on the defensive, marking the end to the thrust towards Paestum. Further north the Schmalz group of the Hermann Göering Division achieved surprise, attacking the 128th (Hampshire) Brigade (comprising three battalions, the 2nd, 1/4th and 5th, of the Hampshire Regiment), of the British 46th Division, on the high ground east of Salerno. The armoured column following up was intercepted and driven back, leaving the German infantry exposed.
The Allied bomber effort continued on 15 September, although slightly less intensively than the previous day, as did the naval bombardment. The arrival of the British battleships and , with guns, off the beaches provided the Allied troops with a morale boost, although Valiant was not required to shoot and Warspites 29 rounds were awe-inspiring but a minor contribution to the 2,592 naval rounds fired that day.
On 15 September, Kesselring reported to the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht that the Allied air and naval superiority had forced LXXVI Panzer Corps onto the defensive, and that a decisive success would depend on the attack by XIV Panzer Corps. If this failed, the 10th Army must break off the battle to avoid being 'mangled'.
On 16 September, the Schmalz group renewed its efforts on the X Corps front but with no more success, although No. 2 Commando suffered casualties, including 31-year-old Captain Henry Wellesley, the then-Duke of Wellington, who was killed. The Allied air forces and navies continued to batter enemy targets, although during an air attack by Dornier Do 217 K-2 bombers armed with Fritz X radio-controlled glide bombs, Warspite was hit and disabled, which required her to be towed to Malta for repair.
Eighth Army ordered to apply pressure
On 9 September, Montgomery's formations had been strung out along the coastal roads in the 'toe' of Italy. The build-up across the Straits of Messina had proved slow; he was therefore short of transport and decided to halt his formations to reorganize before pushing on. However, General Alexander issued orders on 10 September that "It is of the utmost importance that you maintain pressure upon the Germans so that they cannot remove forces from your front and concentrate them against Avalanche". This message was further reinforced on 12 September by a personal visit from Alexander's Chief of Staff, Brigadier A. A. Richardson. Montgomery had no choice- while reorganizing the main body of his troops, he sent light forces up the coast which reached Castrovillari and Belvedere on 12 September, still some from the Salerno battlefield. On 14 September, he was in a position to start a more general advance, and by 16 September the British 5th Infantry Division had reached Sapri, beyond Belvedere, where forward patrols made contact with patrols from VI Corps' 36th Division.
German withdrawal
On 16 September, the overall commander of forces in the Salerno area, General von Vietinghoff, reported to Field Marshal Kesselring that the Allied air and naval superiority were decisive and that he didn't have the power to neutralize it. The 10th Army had succeeded in preventing troops from being cut off, and continuing the battle would invite heavy losses. The approach of the Eighth Army was also posing a threat. He recommended breaking off the battle, pivoting on Salerno to form a defensive line, preparatory to a withdrawal on 18/19 September. Kesselring's agreement reached von Vietinghoff early on 17 September.
General Hermann Balck, commanding XIV Panzer Corps - the principal armoured formation near Salerno - wrote that his tanks ‘suffered heavily under Allied naval gunfire, with which [they] had nothing to counter'. This triggered an Axis forces retreat from areas which were covered by Allied naval gunfire.
General von Vietinghoff then reported to his superior that his attacks ‘were unable to reach their objective owing to the fire from naval guns and low-flying aircraft'. Allied air and naval support lines, aided by the Italian partisan movement, proved far superior to the German support, and were able to aid the Allied advance to a substantial degree.
Salerno mutiny
The Salerno battle was also the site of the Salerno Mutiny instigated by about 500 men of the British X Corps, which had by this time suffered over 6,000 casualties, who, on 16 September, refused assignment to new units as battle casualty replacements. They had previously understood that they would be returning to their original units, from which they had been separated during the fighting in the North African campaign. Eventually, the corps commander, Lieutenant-General Richard McCreery, persuaded about half of the men to follow their orders. The remainder were court-martialled. Three NCOs who led the mutiny were sentenced to death but the sentence was not carried out and they were eventually allowed to rejoin units.
Further Allied advances
With the Salerno beachhead secure, the Fifth Army began its attack northwest towards Naples on 19 September. On 20 September, Major General Ernest J. Dawley, the U.S. VI Corps commander, was relieved of his command by Clark and replaced by Major General John P. Lucas. The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division, after suffering serious casualties near Altavilla, was merged with British X Corps, joining the U.S. Army Rangers and the British 23rd Armoured Brigade on the Sorrento Peninsula to flank the German defenses at Nocera Inferiore, Sant'Antonio Abate, and Angri, which the British 46th Infantry Division attacked. The British 7th Armoured Division, passing through the 46th Division, was assigned the task of taking Naples, while the newly landed U.S. 3rd Infantry Division took Acerno on 22 September and Avellino on 28 September.
The Eighth Army made good progress from the "toe" in spite of German demolitions and linked with the British 1st Airborne Division at Taranto. Its left linked up with the Fifth Army's right on 16 September. The Eighth Army now concentrated its forces east of the Apennine Mountains and pushed north along the Adriatic coast through Bari. On 27 September, the Eighth Army captured the large airfield complex near Foggia, a major Allied objective.
At the same time British X Corps made good progress; they pushed through the mountain passes of Monti Lattari and captured a vital bridge over the Sarno River at Scafati. They surrounded Mount Vesuvius and prepared to advance on Naples. The Fascist troops occupying the city provoked a rebellion by the population which started on 27 September. With the swift advance by British X Corps and Naples in rebellion, the Germans were forced to evacuate. On 1 October, "A" Squadron of the 1st King's Dragoon Guards entered Naples, the first Allied unit to do so. The entire Fifth Army, now consisting of five American and three British divisions, reached the line of the Volturno River on 6 October. This provided a natural defensive barrier, securing Naples, along with the Campanian plain and the vital airfields on it, from a German counterattack.
Meanwhile, on the Adriatic Coast, the Eighth Army advanced to a line from Campobasso to Larino and Termoli on the Biferno river.
Aftermath
The 10th Army had come close to defeating the Salerno beachhead. The stubborn initial resistance by 16th Panzer Division's battlegroups and the Germans' ability to move land reinforcements more quickly than the Allies could land follow-up forces by sea or air nearly tipped the battle. The Fifth Army planners had concentrated the main weight of its forces in X Corps on its left-wing, in line with its major objective of advancing on Naples. However, this had left its right-wing too thinly manned to defend X Corps' right flank and left a particular weakness at the corps boundary. The Germans, aware of the limited time available to deal with the Salerno landings because of the inevitable arrival of the Eighth Army, were obliged to make hurried and uncoordinated attempts to force a quick decision, having failed to break through Allied lines and exploit the gains in the face of Allied air and naval superiority. It was at this time Adolf Hitler sided with the view of his Army Group commander in Northern Italy, Erwin Rommel, and decided that defending Italy south of Rome was not feasible. As a result, Kesselring was forbidden to call upon reserves from the Northern Army Group.
Kesselring's strategic arguments persuaded Hitler that the Allies should be kept away from German borders and prevented from gaining the oil resources of the Balkans. On 6 November, Hitler ordered Rommel to withdraw to Northern France and gave Kesselring command of the whole of Italy, instructing him that he keep Rome in German hands for as long as possible.
By early October 1943, the whole of southern Italy was in Allied hands. The Allied armies stood facing the Volturno Line, the first of a series of prepared defensive lines running across Italy from which the Germans chose to fight delaying actions, giving ground slowly and buying time to complete their preparation of the Winter Line, their strongest defensive line south of Rome. The next stage of the Italian campaign became a grinding and attritional slog against well-prepared defenses in terrain and weather conditions which favored defense. Weather conditions hampered the Allied advantages in mechanized equipment and air superiority. It took until mid-January 1944 to fight through three auxiliary defensive lines to reach the Gustav Line, the backbone of the Winter Line defenses, setting the scene for the four battles of Monte Cassino which took place between January and May 1944.
Clark's award
Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, the U.S. Fifth Army commander, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the second-highest U.S. award for valor in combat, for his front-line leadership during this crisis. He was frequently seen in the most forward positions encouraging the troops.
See also
Allied invasion of Italy order of battle
European Theatre of World War II
Military history of Italy during World War II
Footnotes
References
Terdoslavich, William. "Nothing Goes Right in Italy", in Fawcett, Bill, ed. How to Lose WWII, pp. 156–60. New York: Harper, 2000.
Further reading
External links
Winter Line Stories Original stories from the front lines of the Italian Campaign by US Army Liaison Officer Major Ralph R. Hotchkiss
Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Second World War (Italy)
Summary of the Italian Campaign
University of Kansas Electronic Library Bad link
Map of Europe during the Allied invasion of Italy (omniatlas.com)
1943 in Italy
September 1943 events
Italy
Battles of World War II involving Italy
Italy
United States Army Rangers
Italy
Italian campaign (World War II)
Italy
Italy
Military history of Salerno
Invasions of Italy
Italy
Italy
Military history of Canada during World War II
Italy
Italy
Italy
Italy
Italy
Military history of Campania
Military history of Calabria
Military history of Apulia
History of Taranto
|
4710175
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOWA
|
IOWA
|
IOWA («Айова») — білорусько-російська поп-група, утворена в 2007 році в Могильові.
Історія
Гурт «IOWA» утворений у 2007 році в Могильові, де музиканти спочатку грали альтернативний рок з елементами хард-року. Назва дано на честь одномінного альбому гурту Slipknot.
У 2010 році після низки атмосферних концертів, організованих Віталієм Галущаком у Санкт-Петербурзі, гурт вирішив переїхати до цього міста, де учасники колективу мешкають донині. Продюсер — Олег Баранов.
Вокалістка колективу Катерина Іванчикова у 2008 році співала у мюзиклі Іллі Олійникова «Пророк».
2012—2015
У березні 2012 року гурт став учасником телешоу «Червона Зірка на Першому». У травні того ж року кліп на пісню «Мама» зібрав перший мільйон переглядів. У липні 2012 року група представляла Росію на конкурсі «Нова хвиля», де отримала спеціальний приз «Вибір слухачів Love Radio». Колектив отримав також кілька позитивних відгуків від Валерії та Неллі Фуртадо. У грудні 2012 року, пісня «Мама» увійшла до звітного концерту «Червона Зірка: 20 найкращих пісень 2012 року», а гурт на Національній музичній премії, що проводиться Міністерством культури Білорусі, отримав звання «Відкриття року».
14 січня 2013 року з піснею «Шукаю чоловіка» хлопці виступили на телешоу " Давай Одружимося " на Першому каналі, а в березні з піснею «Мама» з'явилися на проекті «Великі танці», де працювали з командою Волгограда.
У 2014 році гурт випустив свій шостий за рахунком кліп «Весна». У квітні того ж року «IOWA» випустила новий сингл «Одно й те саме». Також ця пісня стала саундтреком до серіалу «Кухня». Сингл гурту «Проста пісня» цього ж місяця став одним із саундтреків до серіалу «Фізрук». 14 травня 2014 року сингл гурту «Усміхайся» посів перше місце в російському топ-чарті iTunes. 18 травня 2014 року IOWA виступила у торговому центрі VEGAS на Партійній зоні на дні народження телеканалу Муз-ТВ. У червні 2014 року сингл гурту «Усміхайся» став одним із саундтреків до серіалів «Солодке життя» та «Кухня». Пізніше пісня посіла друге місце серед найпопулярніших російськомовних пісень «iTunes» за перше півріччя 2014. Восени кліп на пісню «Усміхайся» набрав 3 мільйони переглядів на YouTube. 12 жовтня «IOWA» разом із групою «Звірі» дала концерт в Олімпійському парку Сочі в рамках розважальної програми після закінчення Гран-прі Росії «Формули-1»; гонорар групи за цей виступ становив 1,3 мільйона рублів.
18 листопада 2014 року вийшов дебютний альбом гурту, який отримав назву Export.
28 січня 2015 року у світ вийшов кліп «Одно й те саме», режисером якого став Володимир Бесєдін. Також гурт став володарем призу «За популяризацію білоруської музики за кордоном» на національній білоруській музичній премії «Ліра». 30 березня «IOWA» потрапила до номінації «Кращий гурт» на Премії RU. TV 2015. 31 березня стало відомо, що гурт номінований на Премію Муз-ТВ 2015 у категоріях «Прорив року» та «Краща пісня» за сингл «Маршрутка».
8 квітня 2015 року відбувся перший великий сольний концерт гурту в Москві в Crocus City Hall. 6 червня з великою сольною програмою «IOWA» виступила у Мінську.
15 вересня гурт став номінантом премії MTV EMA 2015 у категорії «Кращий російський артист». 2 липня відбулася прем'єра другого відеокліпу на пісню «Одно і те саме», лише цього разу на ремікс Ivan Spell. 23 вересня «IOWA» представила свою нову пісню «Б'є біт». 2 жовтня вийшов тизер до майбутнього кліпу, а вже 7 жовтня публіці було представлено відео.
3 жовтня гурт з хітом «Маршрутка» виступив на відкритті Нової хвилі 2015 року, а 7 жовтня на тому ж конкурсі презентував нову пісню «Б'є біт». 21 листопада гурт «IOWA» виконав хіт «Усміхайся» на двадцятій церемонії вручення музичної премії " Золотий грамофон 2015 ", де отримав свою першу нагороду. 29 листопада стало відомо, що гурт представлений у номінаціях «Пісня року» («Маршрутка») та «Кращий поп-гурт» на «Першій російській національній музичній премії». Здобути перемогу не вдалося в жодній категорії.
2016—теперішній час
1 січня 2016 року «IOWA» виступила з хітом «Маршрутка» на «Новорічній ночі на Першому каналі». 27 січня відбулася прем'єра тизера нового синглу та відеокліпу гурту — «Три дні холоду». 1 лютого відбулася прем'єра пісні, 16 лютого — кліпу. 3 лютого було оголошено, що гурт представлений у номінації «Улюблений російський виконавець» на премії «Kids' Choice Awards 2016». 14 лютого «IOWA» виступила на «Big Love Show 2016», де виконала «Б'є біт», «Маршрутка», «Одно й те саме» та «Усміхайся».
Солістка гурту, Катя Іванчикова, озвучила головну героїню у мультфільмі «Вовки та вівці: шалене перетворення» та записала до нього заголовний саундтрек «Залишайся собою».
13 квітня стало відомо, що «IOWA» представлена у номінації «Краща поп-група» на Премії Муз-ТВ 2016, а 28 квітня — на Премії RU. TV 2016 у номінаціях «Кращий гурт» та «Зірка танцполу» (кращий танцювальний кліп). 30 квітня гурт виступив із композицією «Радість» на шоу «Танці». 11 травня відбулася прем'єра нового синглу, який отримав назву «140». 27 травня було представлено відеокліп. 28 травня «IOWA» з піснею «Б'є біт» виступила на Премії RU. TV 2016, де їй вдалося перемогти у номінації «Кращий гурт». Під час перформансу трапився казус: у солістки довгий час не працював мікрофон, через що їй довелося лише танцювати майже половину виступу. 3 вересня гурт із композицією «140» виступив на відкритті Нової хвилі 2016. 5 вересня гурт розпочав зйомки відеокліпу на новий сингл «Мої вірші, твоя гітара». 3 жовтня був представлений тизер кліпу, а 25 жовтня — саме відео. Реліз пісні відбувся 20 жовтня.
За композицію «Мої вірші, твоя гітара» колектив отримав премію «Вища ліга». На «Третій російській національній музичній премії» «IOWA» була представлена у категорії «Кращий поп-гурт», у якому став переможцем. Ця нагорода стала першою для колективу цієї премії. Крім того, IOWA виступила на церемонії з піснею Погано танцювати.
11 травня 2019 року брала участь у проекті шоу " Пісні " на ТНТ та виступила спільно з Кирилом Медниковим із команди Gazgolder на пісню Маякі.
16 серпня 2020 року на офіційному YouTube-каналі групи був випущений кліп «Мрія» на знак підтримки протестувальників у Білорусі. 17 грудня того ж року була випущена live-версія кліпу, знята одним дублем у декораціях храму спільно з хором «EtnoDeffki». Також вокалістка гурту Катерина Іванчикова не раз висловлювалася про своє ставлення до протестів у своєму Instagram та в інтерв'ю.
Склад
Катерина Іванчикова — вокал, автор пісень
Леонід Терещенко — гітара, автор пісень
Василь Буланов — ударні, DJ
Олександр Гаврилов — бас-гітара, клавішні
Макс Боровиков — концертний менеджер
Дискографія
Студійні альбоми
Сингли
Примітки
Посилання
Сторінка групи у проекті Яндекс. Музика.
Сторінка групи на сайті телеканалу RU TV.
Дмитро Первушин. IOWA: «Бути простими — не соромно» // " Colta.ru ", 29.10.2014.
Інтерв'ю IOWA для журналу ICON
Катя IOWA: «Безграмотна людина тьмяніє в очах» // інтерв'ю для Країна FM
Інтерв'ю: «Коли нема чим зайнятися, настає депресія»
Музичні колективи 2010-х
Музичні колективи 2000-х
Музичні колективи, що з'явились 2009
Музичні гурти Санкт-Петербурга
Поп-рок гурти
Російські рок-гурти
Білоруські рок-гурти
Засновані в Білорусі 2009
|
1717278
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%20%28%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
|
Обознівська сільська рада (Кропивницький район)
|
Обознівська сільська рада (Кропивницький район)
Склад ради
Рада складається з 16 депутатів та голови.
Керівний склад ради
Примітка: таблиця складена за даними джерела
Населення
Згідно з переписом УРСР 1989 року чисельність наявного населення сільської ради становила 1980 осіб, з яких 919 чоловіків та 1061 жінка.
За переписом населення України 2001 року в сільській раді мешкало 1739 осіб.
Мова
Розподіл населення за рідною мовою за даними перепису 2001 року:
Примітки
Джерела
Картка ради на сайті Верховної Ради України
Адміністративний устрій Кропивницького району
|
3493197
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%28%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B1%29
|
Стена (паб)
|
Стена (паб)
«Стіна» — український патріотичний артрок-паб у Харкові.
Опис закладу
Заклад має авторське оформлення, що єднає в собі артрок-стилістику, антураж класичного «підпільного» рок-пабу і місця відпочинку творчої молоді та футбольних вболівальників.
Розташований в підвалі будинку № 13 на вулиці Римарській, навпроти легендарного для українських патріотів Харкова приміщення — Харківської «Просвіти», колишнього офісу Організації «Патріот України», де в 2014 році відбувся Бій на Римарській.
Паб відомий також тим, що навколо нього гуртується проукраїнські налаштоване культурне середовище, вболівальники ФК Металіст (Харків) та націонал-патріотичні гурти.
Особливостями меню пабу є подача до пива смажених вареників та салату олів'є.
Паб відомий також авторською серією алкогольних коктейлів, зокрема коктейлем «Кабаноff», названим на честь артдиректора пабу Михайла Кабанова.
Теракт в пабі
Адміністрація пабу відома своєю проукраїнською громадською позицією. Влітку 2014 року тут був розташований волонтерський пункт, який збирав допомогу для українських добровольців. Це стало причиною теракту, вчиненого проросійськими бойовиками (так званими «харківськими терористами») на чолі з Мариною Ковтун, що проходила курси військової підготовки на території РФ. Вибухівку було закладено під барну стійку. В результаті теракту постраждали 11 осіб, в тому числі артдиректор закладу Михайло Кабанов. Вже 19 грудня 2014 року паб був поремонтований і відкрився знову.
Див. також
Бій на Римарській
Михайло Кабанов
Примітки
Заклади громадського харчування України
Підприємства за алфавітом
Паби
Підприємства Харкова
|
2114679
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BA%20%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9
|
Богомольчик кримський
|
Богомольчик кримський
Богомол кримський (Ameles heldreichi taurica, у старій літературі — Ameles taurica) — підвид богомольчика Гельдрейха, його окрема популяція чи рідше окремий вид богомолів, поширений в Криму та на півдні України. Найдрібніший вид богомолів з фауни України. Самиця з вкороченими крилами, самець літає.
Опис
Бурувато-сірі богомоли, тіло з дрібними темними рисочками і цяточками, розміром 22-27 мм. Самці тендітні, з добре розвиненими прозорими крилами з темними жилками, літають. Надкрила самця вкривають все черевце. Самиця більш міцної будови, надкрила вкорочені, вкривають лише 1-ше черевне кільце. Крила дуже короткі, з чорно-фіолетовою плямою. Боки передньоспинки самиць з чорними шипиками.
Як і в усіх видів роду:
передньоспинка коротка, не довше передніх тазиків
очі конічні, з горбиком на верхівці
перший членик задньої лапки короткий.
Від номінативного підвиду Ameles heldreichi heldreichi відрізняється такими ознаками:
черевце у самиці розширене на верхівці
самиця менша в довжину від самця
особливості будови задньої лапки
особини дрібніші, очі більш заокруглені.
Поширення
Відомий з Криму, Запорізької та Херсонської областей. У 1996—2006 роках вперше знайдений на степових ділянках Темрюцького району Краснодарського краю Росії.
Таксономія
Описаний у 1903 році як окремий вид роду Parameles російським ентомологом з Криму. Типовий матеріал, ймовірно, втрачений. Надалі назву зведено до синоніму Ameles heldreichi. Проте деякі систематики вважають цього богомола підвидом A. heldreichi.
Примітки
Джерела
Вид у базі даних богомолів
Богомоли України
Amelinae
Тварини, описані 1903
Підвиди комах
Ендемічна фауна України
|
29089
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%27%D1%94%D1%80
|
Гематопаренхіматозний бар'єр
|
Гематопаренхіматозний бар'єр (або гістогематичний) — структурний утвір на шляху обміну речовин (газів). Містить ендотелій капілярів, перикапілярні простори, неклітинну речовину, цитоплазматичні мембрани клітин, цитоплазму та мембрани органел.
Прикладом гістогематичного бар'єру є гематоенцефалічний бар'єр між кровоносною та центральною нервовою системами.
Функції
Забезпечення сталості складу і фізико-хімічних властивостей тканинної рідини;
Перешкоджання переходу чужорідних речовин з крові в тканини і з тканин в кров;
Здійснення й регуляція обмінних процесів між кров'ю і тканинами.
Клітинна біологія
|
15736274
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouvray-Saint-Denis
|
Rouvray-Saint-Denis
|
Rouvray-Saint-Denis is a commune in the Eure-et-Loir department in northern France.
History
It has long been thought that it was the site of the Battle of the Herrings in 1429, when Sir John Fastolf beat off an attack on an English convoy taking supplies to the siege of Orléans; but in his biography of Fastolf, The Real Falstaff, Stephen Cooper argues that the battle is more likely to have taken place at Rouvray-Sainte-Croix.
Population
See also
Communes of the Eure-et-Loir department
References
Communes of Eure-et-Loir
|
446698
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%20%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B2
|
Башта вітрів
|
Башта вітрів (Афіни)
Башта вітрів (Севастополь)
|
1677608
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D2%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%20%D0%B7%20%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%94
|
Гаґен з Троньє
|
Гаґен з Троньє (Hagen von Tronje, Hagen von Troia) — персонаж германсько-скандинавського епосу («Пісня про Геґні, вбивцю Сіґурда», «Сага про Тідрека») та один із головних персонажів «Пісні про Нібелунгів». Hagen — германська форма його імені, середньоверхньонімецька — Hagene, скандинавська — Högni або Hogni.
Гаґен в «Пісні про Нібелунгів»
В «Пісні про Нібелунгів» Гаґен фігурує як Гаґен з Троньє. Троньє іноді ототожнюється з містом Троґен в Бельгії, іноді — з міфічною Троєю (в поемі «Вальтарій» IX-го століття він згадується як «нащадок троянського роду»). В молодості Гаґен виховувався у короля гунів Етцеля, завдяки чому володіє знаннями про гунів. У поемі Ортвід Мецський називає його «дядею» (вірш 83).
Гаґенові взагалі притаманним є міфічне всезнання. Наприклад, в 3-й авентюрі «Пісні про Нібелунгів» король Гюнтер відсилає за Гаґеном у момент приїзду Зіґфріда й Гаґен з першого погляду впізнає Зіґфріда (хоча раніше його не бачив) й видає про нього нагора детальну інформацію. У 24-й авентюрі Гаґен передбачає загибель бургундів у країні гунів. У 25-й авентюрі він здійснює епічний подвиг: наодинці перевозить 10-титисячний загін бургундів через Дунай.
Образ Гаґена складний та неоднозначний. У першій частині «Пісні…» він є швидше негативним персонажем. Він — головний рушій конфлікту між Зіґфрідом та Ґюнтером. Саме він підштовхує королів вбити Зіґфріда й зорганізовує це вбивство. Саме він підступно вивідує вразливе місце на тілі Зіґфріда в його дружини, й вражає його списом у спину. Саме він підкидає труп Зіґфріда на поріг будинку Крімгільд.
Але у другій частині поеми Гаґен здійснює подвиг з переправою через Дунай, дізнається про майбутнє бургундів у оракулів, під страхом смерті відмовляється видавати Крімгільд таємницю скарбу Нібелунгів. Гаґен демонструє риси звитяжного воїна, але від цього не стає менш підступним та жорстоким: він вбиває юного сина Етцеля, без будь-якої причини відрубує руку придворному скрипалеві (пор. з Карною «Магабгарати», який також поєднує звитягу з жорстокістю). Гаґен гине ганебною смертю (від руки жінки), яка жахає Гільдебранда та Етцеля. Гільдебранд говорить: «Собі я не пробачу, коли за бійця з Троньє не помщуся» — й убиває Крімгільд в присутності її чоловіка, при чому останній не протидіє. Крімгільд (позитивний персонаж першої частини поеми) отримує заслужену смерть за вбивство Гаґена (негативного персонажа першої частини поеми).
Коли Зіґфрід збирається їхати до країни бургундів, його батько окремо попереджає його про Гаґена (строфи 53-54, 3-тю авентюра):
Та знай, що люди Ґунтера зарозумілі надто;
Сміливий Гаґен вартий усіх, як взяти разом,
Він не допустить жодної до короля образи.
Диви, мій сину, не сварись ніколи ти із ним,
Якщо ми й справді хочемо, щоб їхали свати.
Гаґен в скандинавському епосі
В скандинавських версіях Гаґен (Гьоґні) часто є позитивним персонажем, в головній масі пісень «Старшої Едди» він не вбиває Сіґурда-Зіґфріда, а навіть заступається за нього перед своїм старшим братом. В «Короткій пісні про Сіґурда» Гьоґні намагається відмовити Ґуннара від злодійського вбивства їх побратима Сіґурда:
Не добре нам
Чинити так —
Мечем сікти
Нами дані клятви.
Винятком є пісня «Мова Гамдіра», найдавніша в Едді, де згадується «Подвиг Гьоґні»:
Гамдір сказав,
духом відважний:
«Не похвалила б ти
подвигу Гьоґні,
коли вони Сіґурда
сон перервали,
ти сиділа на ложі,
а вбивці сміялись».
Але й у цій пісні «Старшої Едди» головним винуватцем вбивства постає не Гьоґні, а його старший брат:«Сіґурд помер… — в тому Ґуннар винен є!»У «Сазі про Тідрека» Гаґен-Гьоґні є сином надприродної істоти альба й матері королів Бургундії, тобто є зведеним братом бургундським королям. У такій інтерпретації поведінка Гаґена набуває міфічного сенсу: він не просто вбиває Сіґурда, а мститься тому за альбів, в яких Сіґурд відібрав скарб. Він є певною зброєю, яка несе смерть володарям проклятого скарбу.
В ісландській «Пісні про Атлі» (IX ст.) та в «Мові Атлі» (XII ст.) Гьоґні помирає жахливою смертю: йому вирізають серце.
«Хай серце Гьоґні
в руці моїй буде,
серце криваве
сина конунґа,
гострим ножем
з грудей вивергнуто».
У гренландській «Пісні про Атлі» збереглася давніша версія смерті Гаґена. Головна відмінність полягає в тому, що в «Пісні про Атлі» Ґудрун мститься своєму чоловікові за те, що він вбив її братів Ґуннара та Гьоґні, тоді як в «Пісні про Нібелунгів» Крімгільд (Ґудрун), навпаки, мститься братам за те, що вони вбили її чоловіка Зіґфріда (Сіґурда). Давніша форма переказу відображає мораль родового суспільства (брати ближчі від чоловіка), новіша — мораль феодального суспільства (чоловік ближчий від братів).
Гаґен в пізній літературі та кіно
В XX столітті Гаґен з'являється в німецькому фільмі «Нібелунги» (1924), де його грає Ганс Адальберт Шлеттов. В фільмі є відмінності від поеми, але загалом образ Гаґена істотно не змінився.
Ім'я «Гаґен» з поеми запозичив Нік Перумов для свого персонажа в романі «Загибель богів» з циклу «Літописи Гйорварда» — природженого воїна та учня Істинного Мага Гедіна.
Примітки
Посилання
Пісня про Нібелунгів (рос.)
Пісня про Нібелунгів
Вигадані персонажі
Одноокі міфічні істоти
|
4349050
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%20%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9
|
Мерл пурпуровоголовий
|
Мерл пурпуровоголовий (Hylopsar purpureiceps) — вид горобцеподібних птахів родини шпакових (Sturnidae). Мешкає в Центральній Африці.
Поширення і екологія
Пурпуровоголові мерли мешкають в Беніні, Нігерії, Камеруні, ЦАР, ДР Конго, Республіці Конго, Уганді, Екваторіальній Гвінеї, Габоні, Анголі. Вони живуть в рівнинних тропічних лісах.
Примітки
Шпакові
Птахи, описані 1851
Птахи Беніну
Птахи Нігерії
Птахи Камеруну
Птахи Центральноафриканської Республіки
Птахи Демократичної Республіки Конго
Птахи Республіки Конго
Птахи Уганди
Птахи Екваторіальної Гвінеї
Птахи Габону
Птахи Анголи
|
2837745
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C-%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F
|
Косьцелець-Кольонія
|
Косьцелець-Кольонія — село в Польщі, у гміні Мицелін Каліського повіту Великопольського воєводства.
У 1975-1998 роках село належало до Каліського воєводства.
Примітки
Села Каліського повіту
|
15058583
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gmina%20Kaliska
|
Gmina Kaliska
|
Gmina Kaliska
Gmina Kaliska is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Starogard County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. Its seat is the village of Kaliska, which lies approximately west of Starogard Gdański and south-west of the regional capital Gdańsk.
The gmina covers an area of , and as of 2022 its total population is 5,341.
Villages
Gmina Kaliska contains the villages and settlements of Bartel Mały, Bartel Wielki, Biedaczek, Cieciorka, Czarne, Dąbrowa, Frank, Iwiczno, Kaliska, Kamienna Karczma, Kazub, Łążek, Leśna Huta, Lipska Karczma, Młyńsk, Okoninki, Piece, Płociczno, Sowi Dół, Strych, Studzienice and Trzechowo.
Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Kaliska is bordered by the gminas of Czersk, Lubichowo, Osieczna, Stara Kiszewa and Zblewo.
References
Polish official population figures 2006
Kaliska
Starogard County
|
4349740
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D0%B5-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD
|
Уге-каган
|
Уге-каган (д/н — 846) — 14-й каган уйгурів у 840—846 роках.
Життєпис
Походив з династії Едіз. Третій син Кучлуг Більге-кагана. Власне ім'я невідоме. В китайських джерелах значиться як Удзє, що є перекрученою уйгурською посадою уге, тобто «радник».
840 року після поразки уйгурів від Киргизького каганату з 13 родами відступив на схід. Тут був обраний новим каганом. Відновив війну з киргизами, відбивши хану-китаянку Тайхе, на якій оженився. Втім не зміг відвоювати колишню столицю Орду-Балик. Зрештою під тиском супротивника зайняв лише східні землі колишнього Уйгурського каганату.
Невдовзі його вояки через голод стали нападати на танські володіння. Водночас в фортеці Тхяньде почав перемовини з китайськими чиновниками, визнаючи зверхність імператора У-цзуна. За це отримав 20 тис. лантухів хліба.
Проте становище уйгурів залишалося складним. У 841 році Уге-каган напав на Юньчжоу, Шофан в Ордосі, сплюндрував повіт Хеншуй, пройшов між Тяньде і Чжен, розграбувавши пасовища. Невдовзі завдав поразки декільком танським загонам. Заснував свою ставку біля гори Люйменьшань (на північ від Датуна). Втім наприкінці року чотири роди на чолі з Умусі уйгурів перейшли на бік танського імператора.
У відповідь 842 року каган атакував імперію, завдавши поразки генералу Люмяню, проте зрада старійшини Умуса з трьома родами, що перебіг до китайців, зруйнувало плани Уге. Він почав перемовини з імператорським двором, але марно. Війна поновилася, на початку якої Уге-каган вдерся до Юньчжоу, завдавши поразки танському війську. Але в наступні місяці колишні уйгурські старійшини почали рейди до володінь кагана, завдаючи дошкульних ударів. Разом з тим допомогу імперії надали племена кібі й шато.
13 лютого 843 року у вирішальній битві китайський генерал Лю Мян раптово атакував ставку кагана, знищив 10 тисяч уйгурів та ще стільки ж захопив у полон. Місце битви отримало назву «Гора вбитих гунів» — Шахушан. Після цього імператор оголосив поза законом релігію уйгурів — маніхейство.
Уге-каган втік до племені чорних татар (відомих як «чорновізники» або «чорнокибитники», у китайців — хей-чецзи). Тут намагався зібрати нове військо, почавши здійснювати напади на Киргизький каганат і танські землі. У 846 році танський уряд підкупив ханів татар, які вбили Уге. Також було знищено багато вояків й старійшин. За іншими відомостями загинув на Алтаї в битві з Лі Сичжуном (так тепер звався уйгур Умусі). Частина уйгурів підкорилася імперії Тан, а рештки оголосили каганом брата загиблого — Еняня.
Джерела
Warfare in inner Asian history : 500—1800. Di Cosmo, Nicola, 1957-. Leiden: Brill. 2002. p. 79. ISBN 9789004391789.
уйгурський каганат
Правителі IX століття
|
11690329
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Barrantes
|
Michael Barrantes
|
Michael Barrantes Rojas (born 4 October 1983) is a Costa Rican professional footballer who currently plays as a midfielder for Alajuelense.
On 6 November 2011, he scored two goals for Aalesund in the 2011 Norwegian Cup Final, in a 2–1 win against Brann, and was awarded the man of the match award. He won the Kniksen award as the best midfielder in the 2011 Tippeligaen.
Career
Club career
Deportivo Saprissa
Barrantes started his professional career with his native side A.D. Belén in 2003. Barrantes later joined the Costa Rican side Deportivo Saprissa after first playing two seasons for Puntarenas F.C. in 2007, much to the disappointment of Puntarenas fans. The following season he secured for his team the 2008 league title when he scored the winning goal in the last playoff match against LD Alajuelense. In May the following season he sustained a left knee injury that left him out for eight weeks.
Aalesunds FK
In July 2010, after delivering an impressive display during Saprissa's European tour, he was signed by Norwegian side Aalesunds FK on loan, joining his compatriot Pablo Herrera who was already at the club. After some initial hurdles with the paperwork, Barrantes quickly became a favorite both with the players and coaching staff. He received his starting debut with Aalesunds on 12 September in an away loss against Odd Grenland, during which he caused a penalty 50 seconds into the match. And it became evident that the midfielder needed time to adjust to the European style of playing. The following season proved to be much more successful for Barrantes, as his game play not only saw him become the center piece of the Aalesunds midfield, the club also decided to make the loan-spell permanent, six months ahead of time.
In the run-up to the 2011 season, Barrantes' qualities on the pitch was praised by both commentators and coaches such as Ole Gunnar Solskjær. The high expectations were matched by at times very good performances. He was credited with orchestrating the 2–3 away win against IK Start, as well as the 2–0 home win against Viking FK, where he netted the final goal. He was subsequently named Man of the match in the next four consecutive AaFK matches, and the local newspaper Sunnmørsposten crowned him King of the midfield. Despite a mid-table position for Aalesunds, Barrantes helped the team advance to the playoffs at the Europa league qualifiers. In addition he crowned the season with winning the domestic cup when Aalesunds beat SK Brann 2–1 in the finals, with Barrantes scoring twice and securing the title. At the end of the season, he was given the award "Midfielder of the year" by Norsk Toppfotball, despite speaking neither Norwegian nor English.
In the following 2012 season, despite being watched closely by a number of clubs, Barrantes remained in Aalesunds. With his opponents now familiar with his style of play, it proved to be much harder for him to dominate than in the previous season. Much to his frustration, the season turned out to be mixed for the team. However, on 13 May, he was made awarded the Captaincy for the first time, in the 3–1 home win against Strømsgodset IF. A week later, in a repeat scenario of the cup-final, Barrantes scored again against SK Brann to secure a 2–0 home win. On 15 July he again scored two goals in the home win against Fredrikstad FK, the match Barrantes claimed, was his best match that year. He repeated the feat in the away win against Fredrikstad a month later with an impressive left-foot goal from 30 meters, and again in the home win against Vålerenga Fotball with two goals on 21 October. In October with the season coming to an end, the club revealed that Barrantes had in fact been struggling with a pelvic injury throughout much of the 2012 season that kept him out of the pre-season, and that was the main reason behind his mixed success. However the club stated that when he is 100% well, he will again be the able to dominate the midfield.
Shanghai Shenxin
In June 2015, Barrantes signed for Shanghai Shenxin.
Wuhan Zall
On 15 January 2016, Barrantes transferred to China League One side Wuhan Zall.
International career
Barrantes made his debut for Costa Rica in a February 2007 friendly match against Trinidad and Tobago and went on to earn 54 caps, scoring four goals. He represented his country in fourteen FIFA World Cup qualification matches and played at the 2007 UNCAF Nations Cup as well as the 2007 and 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cups.
Career statistics
Club
International goals
Score and result lists Costa Rica's goals first.
Personal life
Barrantes lives with his wife, Andrea in Ålesund. In August 2012, they announced that they were expecting their first child. The child, a baby boy named Arjen (after Dutch winger Arjen Robben), was born in February 2013 in Ålesund.
Honours
Club
Saprissa
Liga FPD: Apertura 2008, Clausura 2010, Clausura 2018, Clausura 2020, Clausura 2021
CONCACAF League: 2019
Aalesund
Norwegian Football Cup (1): 2011
International
Costa Rica
Copa Centroamericana: 2007
Individual
Norwegian Midfielder of the Year (1): 2011
References
External links
Player profile – Nacion.com
Profile – Aalesund
1983 births
Living people
Footballers from San José, Costa Rica
Men's association football midfielders
Costa Rican men's footballers
Costa Rica men's international footballers
2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
Belén F.C. players
Puntarenas F.C. players
Deportivo Saprissa players
Aalesunds FK players
Shanghai Shenxin F.C. players
Wuhan Yangtze River F.C. players
Liga FPD players
Eliteserien players
Chinese Super League players
China League One players
Costa Rican expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Norway
Expatriate men's footballers in China
Costa Rican expatriate sportspeople in Norway
Costa Rican expatriate sportspeople in China
Municipal Grecia players
|
239671
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%20%28%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
|
Трудове (Кам'янський район)
|
Трудове (Кам'янський район)
Трудове — село в Україні, у Божедарівській селищній громаді Кам'янського району Дніпропетровської області.
Орган місцевого самоврядування — Божедарівська селищна рада. Населення — 94 мешканця.
Географія
Село Трудове знаходиться на відстані 0,5 км від сіл Зоря і Нова Праця, за 2 км від села Вільне. По селу протікає пересихаючий струмок з загатою. Поруч проходять автомобільна дорога і залізниця, станція Божедарівка за 4 км.
Населення
Мова
Розподіл населення за рідною мовою за даними перепису 2001 року:
Посилання
Погода в селі Трудове
Села Дніпропетровської області
|
13155337
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro-Rodr%C3%ADguez
|
Pedro-Rodríguez
|
Pedro-Rodríguez is a municipality located in the province of Ávila, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2006 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 204 inhabitants.
References
Municipalities in the Province of Ávila
|
5203685
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%20%D0%B2%20%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96
|
Жінки в Гаазі
|
Жінки в Гаазі — конференція Міжнародного конгресу жінок, що відбулася в Гаазі, Нідерланди, у квітні 1915 року, для пошуку мирних способів врегулювання воєнних конфліктів. Він прийняв понад 1100 делегаток і створив Міжнародний комітет жінок за постійний мир (International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace — ICWPP) під головуванням американської феміністки Джейн Аддамс. Це призвело до створення Міжнародної жіночої ліги за мир і свободу (Women's International League for Peace and Freedom — WILPF).
Історичний контекст
Конгрес Міжнародного жіночого виборчого альянсу 1915 року мав відбутися в Берліні. Коли почалася Перша світова війна, Deutscher Verband für Frauenstimmrecht (Німецький союз жіночого виборчого права) відмовився від участі. У номері Jus Suffragii за грудень 1914 року було опубліковано повідомлення про скасування. Відповідь на повідомлення, опубліковане в тому ж номері і написане голландською пацифісткою, феміністкою та суфражисткою Алеттою Якобс, яка пропонує провести конференцію в Нідерландах, оскільки це нейтральна країна. Визнаючи, що IWSA не може спонсорувати конференцію для обговорення зовнішньої політики та війни під час конфлікту, британська феміністка і пацифістка Кристал Макміллан приватно спілкувалася з Якобс, припускаючи, що окремі особи та організації можуть бути запрошені на з'їзд, який не спонсорується. Багато членкинь IWSA, включаючи німецьких лідерок Аніту Аугспург і Ліду Густаву Гейманн, повторили необхідність конференції та наголосили, що вона має бути автономною, щоб не завдати шкоди цілям жіночого руху.
Підготовка
У зв'язку з цим Алетта Якобс запросила представниць обох сторін конфлікту та нейтральних жінок на нараду з планування, яка відбулася в Амстердамі на початку лютого 1915 року. Метою конгресу було протестувати проти війни, що вирувала в Європі, і запропонувати шляхи запобігання війні в майбутньому. Серед присутніх були представниці Бельгії — Флор Бертон, пані Мулле та пані Ван Прааг; з Великої Британії — Кетлін Кортні, Емілі Ліф, Макміллан, Кетрін Маршалл і Теодора Вілсон Вілсон; з Німеччини — Аугспург, Гейманн, Фріда Перлен та пані фон Шлюмбергер; і 26 активісток з Нідерландів. На цій зустрічі було розроблено попередню програму, і було погоджено попросити голландських жінок сформувати комітет, який би взявся за всі заходи щодо Конгресу та розіслав запрошення. Витрати Конгресу були гарантовані присутніми британськими, голландськими та німецькими учасницями, які погодилися зібрати третину необхідної суми.
Запрошення взяти участь у Конгресі були надіслані жіночим організаціям і змішаним організаціям, а також окремим жінкам у всьому світі. Кожній організації було запропоновано призначити двох делегаток. Членкинями Конгресу могли стати тільки жінки, і вони повинні були висловити загальну згоду з резолюціями щодо попередньої програми. Цю загальну угоду було витлумачено таким чином, щоб означати переконання (а) що міжнародні суперечки повинні вирішуватися мирними засобами; (b) що парламентські виборчі права повинні бути поширені на жінок.
Делегатки за країнами
Під час війни було проблемним зібрати 1200 жінок-делегаток. Міністерство закордонних справ скоротило делегацію з Британії до 24 делегаток, і фактично лише дві (або три) потрапили до Гааги. Італія представлялася лише однією делегаткою, котра зауважила, що вона не представляє свою країну. Одна делегатка також приїхала з Канади, щоб представляти те, що в той час називалося «Колоніями». Ні Франція, ні Росія не надсилали делегацій через війну та ймовірність того, що присутність може здатися нелояльною. Бельгійська делегація прибула із запізненням, бо їм довелося отримати проїзні документи від німецької влади окупованої Бельгії, пройти обшук на прикордонному переході в Ессені, Бельгія, а потім 2 години йти пішки до Розендала, де вони сіли на поїзд до Гааги. Щоб зміцнити дух співпраці, Аугспург запросила сісти на трибуну всіх п'ятьох бельгійських делегаток. Лише Євгенія Гамер погодилася із застереженням, що їй дозволять виступити на конгресі, що було надано.
Серед представлених країн були США, які надіслали 47 делегаток; Швеція (12); Норвегія (12); Нідерланди (1000); Італія (1); Угорщина (9); Німеччина (28); Данія (6); Канада (2); Бельгія (5); Австрія (6), і Велика Британія (3, хоча ще 180 делегаток не змогли відплисти через закриття Північного моря з військових причин). Конгрес, який відвідала велика кількість відвідувачок, а також членкинь, пройшов надзвичайно успішно. Розгляд справи вівся з великою доброзичливістю, а відповідні постанови приймалися на робочих засіданнях.
Перебіг Конгресу
Конгрес відкрився 28 квітня і в ньому взяли участь 1136 учасниць як з нейтральних, так і з воюючих країн. Конгрес проводився за двома важливими правилами: 1) обговорення відносної національної відповідальності за нинішню війну або її ведення та 2) резолюції, що стосуються правил, за якими війна буде вестися в майбутньому, виходять за рамки Конгресу. Основна увага полягала в тому, щоб залишатися на встановленні миру негайно після закінчення конфлікту та розробці тривалих миротворчих заходів.
Конгрес прийняв більшу частину платформи Жіночої партії миру (Woman's Peace Party — WPP). Платформа WPP включала обмеження озброєнь, дипломатичне посередництво у війні, розробку законодавства та економічної політики для запобігання війні, а також створення міжнародних поліцейських сил замість національних збройних сил.
Серед резолюцій, прийнятих учасницями, було підтвердження необхідності миру та заборони передачі територій у мирному врегулюванні без згоди постраждалого населення. Інші резолюції закликали до створення міжнародної постійної ради для мирного посередництва протиріч між націями, залучення жінок до мирних процесів і надання жінкам виборчого права.
Учасниці конференції заснували Міжнародний комітет жінок за постійний мир, згодом відомий як Міжнародна жіноча ліга за мир і свободу (Women's International League for Peace and Freedom — WILPF). з президенткою Джейн Адамс.
Перші членкині Міжнародного комітету жінок за постійний мир
Австрія: Леопольдіна Кулка, Ольга Місар
Вірменія: Люсі Тумаян
Бельгія: Ежені Гамер, Маргеріт Сартон
Данія: Тора Даугаард, Клара Тиб'єрг
Німеччина: Аніта Аугспург, Ліда Ґустава Гейманн (секретарка і перекладачка)
Велика Британія та Ірландія: Кристал Макміллан (секретарка), Кетлін Кортні (перекладачка)
Угорщина: Вільма Глюкліх, Розіка Швіммер
Італія: Роза Дженоні
Нідерланди: Алетта Якобс, Ганна ван Б'єма-Гіманс (секретарка), Міа Буассевен
Норвегія: Емілі Арнесен, Луїза Кейгхау
Швеція: Анна Клеман, Емма Ганссон
США: Джейн Аддамс (президент), Фанні Ферн Ендрюс, Еліс Гамільтон
Див. також
Список жінок-пацифісток і борчинь за мир
Резолюція Ради Безпеки ООН 1325
Примітки
Посилання
Бібліографія
Квітень 1915
1915 у Нідерландах
Історія фемінізму
Миротворчість
Пацифістки
Пацифізм
Жінки на війні
|
990894
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miombo
|
Miombo
|
Miombo woodland is a tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome (in the World Wide Fund for Nature scheme) located in central and southern tropical Africa. It includes three woodland savanna ecoregions (listed below) characterized by the dominant presence of Brachystegia and Julbernardia species of trees, and has a range of climates ranging from humid to semi-arid, and tropical to subtropical or even temperate. The trees characteristically shed their leaves for a short period in the dry season to reduce water loss and produce a flush of new leaves just before the onset of the wet season with rich gold and red colours masking the underlying chlorophyll, reminiscent of autumn colours in the temperate zone.
Miombo woodlands extend across south-central Africa, running from Angola in the west to Tanzania in the east, including parts of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. They are bounded on the north by the humid Congolian forests, on the northeast by Acacia–Commiphora bushland, and on the south by semi-arid woodlands, grasslands, and savannas.
The woodland gets its name from miombo (plural, singular muombo), the Bemba word for Brachystegia species. Other Bantu languages of the region, such as Swahili and Shona, have related if not identical words, such as Swahili miyombo (singular myombo). These woodlands are dominated by trees of subfamily Detarioideae, particularly miombo (Brachystegia), Julbernardia and Isoberlinia, which are rarely found outside miombo woodlands.
Miombo woodlands can be classified as dry or wet based on the per annum amount and distribution of rainfall. Dry woodlands occur in those areas receiving less than 1000 mm annual rainfall, mostly in Zimbabwe, central Tanzania, eastern and southern Mozambique, Malawi, and southern Zambia. Wet woodlands are those receiving more than 1000 mm annual rainfall, mainly located in northern Zambia, eastern Angola, central Malawi, and western Tanzania. Wet miombo generally has a taller canopy 15 metres or more), more tree cover (60% or more ground cover), and greater species diversity than dry miombo.
Ecoregions
Three ecoregions are currently recognized.
Angolan wet miombo woodlands – Angola
Central Zambezian wet miombo woodlands – Angola, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, Tanzania, and Zambia
Dry miombo woodlands – southeastern Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, central and southern Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The dry miombo woodlands ecoregion includes the Eastern miombo woodlands and Southern miombo woodlands ecoregions previously delineated by the World Wide Fund for Nature.
Flora and fauna
Despite the relatively nutrient-poor soil, long dry season, and low rainfall in some areas, the woodland is home to many species, including several endemic bird species. The predominant tree is miombo (Brachystegia spp.). It also provides food and cover for mammals such as the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) and Lichtenstein's hartebeest (Sigmoceros lichtensteinii).
People
The miombo woodlands are important to the livelihoods of many rural people who depend on the resources available from the woodland. The wide variety of species provides non-timber products such as fruits, honey, fodder for livestock and fuelwood to various different largely Bantu peoples such as the Bemba people, Lozi people, Yao people, Luvale people, Shona people, and Luba people.
Notes
References
Campbell, Bruce M., ed. 1996. The Miombo Transition: Woodlands & Welfare in Africa, CIFOR,
External links
Earthtrends.wri.org: Map of Miombo forests-grasslands-drylands
Ecoregions of Africa
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Grasslands of Africa
Ecoregions of Angola
Ecoregions of Burundi
Ecoregions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ecoregions of Malawi
Ecoregions of Mozambique
Ecoregions of Tanzania
Ecoregions of Zambia
Ecoregions of Zimbabwe
Swahili words and phrases
Afrotropical realm biota
Afrotropical ecoregions
Zambezian region
|
3289741
|
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BB%20%28%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%81%D1%81%D1%83%D1%80%D1%96%29
|
Расселлвілл (Міссурі)
|
Расселлвілл (Міссурі)
Расселлвілл — місто в США, в окрузі Коул штату Міссурі. Населення — 778 осіб (2020).
Географія
Расселлвілл розташований за координатами (38.512762, -92.438506). За даними Бюро перепису населення США в 2010 році місто мало площу 2,07 км², уся площа — суходіл.
Демографія
Згідно з переписом 2010 року, у місті мешкало 807 осіб у 323 домогосподарствах у складі 212 родин. Густота населення становила 390 осіб/км². Було 360 помешкань (174/км²).
Расовий склад населення:
До двох чи більше рас належало 0,7 %. Частка іспаномовних становила 0,4 % від усіх жителів.
За віковим діапазоном населення розподілялося таким чином: 30,2 % — особи молодші 18 років, 60,3 % — особи у віці 18—64 років, 9,5 % — особи у віці 65 років та старші. Медіана віку мешканця становила 33,3 року. На 100 осіб жіночої статі у місті припадало 93,5 чоловіків; на 100 жінок у віці від 18 років та старших — 85,2 чоловіків також старших 18 років.
Середній дохід на одне домашнє господарство становив доларів США , а середній дохід на одну сім'ю — доларів . Медіана доходів становила доларів для чоловіків та доларів для жінок. За межею бідності перебувало 19,5 % осіб, у тому числі 32,1 % дітей у віці до 18 років та 10,1 % осіб у віці 65 років та старших.
Цивільне працевлаштоване населення становило 410 осіб. Основні галузі зайнятості: публічна адміністрація — 22,7 %, освіта, охорона здоров'я та соціальна допомога — 19,0 %, роздрібна торгівля — 10,5 %, будівництво — 10,0 %.
Примітки
Джерела
Міста Міссурі
Населені пункти округу Коул (Міссурі)
|
1757861
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Champlin
|
USS Champlin
|
USS Champlin may refer to the following ships of the United States Navy:
, a launched in 1918 and decommissioned in 1922; sunk in tests 1936
, a launched in 1942 and decommissioned in 1946; scrapped in 1972
Sources
United States Navy ship names
|
47671529
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20destroyer%20Valmy
|
French destroyer Valmy
|
French destroyer Valmy
Valmy was one of six s (contre-torpilleurs) built for the French Navy during the 1920s.
After France signed an armistice with Germany in June 1940 during World War II, Valmy served with the navy of Vichy France. She was among the ships of the French fleet scuttled at Toulon, France, on 27 November 1942.
Notes
References
World War II warships scuttled at Toulon
Maritime incidents in November 1942
Guépard-class destroyers
1928 ships
Ships built in France
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.