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Let's see what that would look like in 2D.
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Our universe is like a big, flat sheet.
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Bent in just the right way, wormholes could connect two very, very distant spots with a short bridge that you could cross almost instantaneously, enabling you to travel the universe even faster than the speed of light.
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So, where can we find a wormhole?
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General relativity says they might be possible, but that doesn't mean they have to exist.
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General relativity is a mathematical theory.
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It's a set of equations that have many possible answers, but not all maths describes reality.
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But they are theoretically possible, and there are different kinds.
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The first kind of wormholes to be theorized were Einstein-Rosen bridges.
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They describe every black hole as a sort of portal to an infinite parallel universe.
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Let's try to picture them in 2D again.
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Empty space-time is flat, but curved by objects on it.
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If we compress that object, space-time gets more curved around it.
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Eventually, space-time becomes so warped that it has no choice but to collapse into a black hole.
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A one-way barrier forms, the event horizon, which anything can enter, but nothing can escape.
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But maybe there is no singularity here.
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One possibility is that the other side of the event horizon looks a bit like our universe again, but mirrored upside down, where time runs backwards.
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In our universe, things fall into the black hole.
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In the parallel universe, with backwards time, the mirror black hole is spewing things out, a bit like a big bang.
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This is called a white hole.
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Unfortunately, Einstein-Rosen bridges can't actually be crossed.
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It takes an infinite amount of time to cross over to the opposite universe, and they crimp shut in the middle.
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If you go into a black hole, you won't become the stuff coming out of the white hole.
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You'll only become dead.
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So, to travel the cosmos in the blink of an eye, humans need a different kind of wormhole, a traversable wormhole.
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If string theory or one of its variations is the correct description of our universe, then we could be lucky, and our universe might even have a tangled web of countless wormholes already.
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Shortly after the big bang, quantum fluctuations in the universe at the smallest scales, far, far smaller than an atom, may have created many, many traversable wormholes.
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Threaded through them are strings, called cosmic strings.
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In the first billionth of a trillionth of a second after the big bang, the ends of these tiny, tiny wormholes were pulled light-years apart, scattering them through the universe.
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If wormholes were made in the early universe, whether with cosmic strings or some other way, they could be all over, just waiting to be discovered.
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One might even be closer than we realize.
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From the outside, black holes and wormholes can look very similar, leading some physicists to suggest the supermassive black holes in the center of galaxies are actually wormholes.
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It will be very hard to go all the way to the center of the Milky Way to find out, though, but that's okay.
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There might be an equally extremely hard way to get our hands on a wormhole.
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We could try to make one.
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To be traversable and useful, there are a few properties we want a wormhole to have.
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First, it must obviously connect two distant parts of space-time, like your bedroom and the bathroom, or Earth and Jupiter.
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Second, it should not contain any event horizons, which would block two-way travel.
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Third, it should be sufficiently sized so that the gravitational forces don't kill human travelers.
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The biggest problem we have to solve is keeping our wormholes open.
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No matter how we make wormholes, gravity tries to close them.
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Gravity wants to pinch it closed and cut the bridge, leaving only black holes at the ends.
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Whether it's a traversable wormhole with both ends in ours, or a wormhole to another universe, it will try to close unless we have something propping it open.
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For very old string theory wormholes, that's the cosmic strings job.
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For man-made wormholes, we need a new ingredient.
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This isn't anything like we find on Earth, or even antimatter.
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It's something totally new and different and exciting, with crazy properties like nothing that's ever been seen before.
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Exotic matter is stuff that has negative mass.
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Positive mass, like people and planets and everything else in the universe, is attractive because of gravity.
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But negative mass would be repulsive.
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It would push you away.
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This makes a kind of anti-gravity that props open our wormholes.
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And exotic matter must exert enormous pressure to push spacetime open, greater even than the pressure at the centers of neutron stars.
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With exotic matter, we could weave spacetime however we see fit.
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We may even have a candidate for this exotic matter, the vacuum of space itself.
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Quantum fluctuations in empty space are constantly creating pairs of particles and antiparticles, only for them to be annihilated an instant later.
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The vacuum of space is boiling with them, and we can already manipulate them to produce an effect similar to the negative mass we're looking for.
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We could use this to stabilize our wormholes.
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Once we're keeping it open, the ends would start together, so we'd have to move them around to interesting places.
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We could start by wiring the solar system, leaving one end of each wormhole in orbit around the Earth.
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We could fling others into deep space.
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The Earth could be a wormhole hub for a vast interstellar human civilization, spread over light-years, but only a wormhole away.
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However, wormholes have a dark side.
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Even opening a single wormhole kind of breaks the universe in fundamental ways, potentially creating time travel paradoxes and violating the causal structure of the universe.
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Many scientists think that this not only means they should be impossible to make, but that it's impossible for them to exist at all.
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So, for now, we only know that wormholes exist in our hearts, and on paper in the form of equations.
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We know you want to know more about universe stuff, so we're trying something new.
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Kurzgesagt and Brilliant are collaborating on a six-part video series about our favorite science and space things.
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Thanks to their help, there will be more videos on this channel in the next six months.
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Kurzgesagt has worked with Brilliant for a while now, and we love what they're doing.
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In a nutshell, Brilliant helps you to get ahead by mastering maths and science skills through actively solving challenging and fascinating problems.
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To support our collaboration with them, visit brilliant.org/nutshell and sign up for free today.
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The first 688 people that use the link will get 20% off their annual premium subscription.
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Nuclear energy creates an uneasy feeling of danger for many people.
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Ancient and dangerous minerals are concentrated to awaken seemingly unnatural powers, creating horribly toxic elements that if they escape, can and have killed people in horrible ways.
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How many people has nuclear energy killed, and how?
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Nuclear energy has been a thing since 1951, and since then, there have been around 30 reported accidents globally.
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Most of them were pretty minor compared to the two disasters everybody is familiar with, Fukushima and Chernobyl.
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Chernobyl is undoubtedly the worst nuclear accident in history for a number of reasons.
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The reactor technology was old and ill-prepared for emergencies, and the government response was slow and more concerned about image than damage control.
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Still, only 31 people died directly in the accident.
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But what makes nuclear energy scary is not reactors blowing up, but the radiation they release.
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So the real question is how many deaths through cancer and other diseases will Chernobyl cause?
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Here things get really complicated because you dip right into controversy, and just discussing the different estimates and how they were calculated deserves a video of its own.
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The most pessimistic estimate comes from a study commissioned by the European Green Party and projects up to 60,000 premature deaths by the year 2065.
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Most scientific studies come up with numbers much lower than this.
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The WHO has estimated that in total, the long-term death toll will be around 4,000.
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While the UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation concluded that even this figure could be too high.
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For more details on this, check our research document.
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The second big nuclear accident was Fukushima Daiichi in 2011.
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Fukushima did not only operate with much better technology that was less dangerous in the first place, much better security measures were in place, and the official response was fast and decisive.
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And so the current death toll is only 573.
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The major difference here is that these deaths were not a consequence of radiation.
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They were indirect deaths from the stress of the evacuation of the areas around the reactors and occurred almost entirely in older populations.
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Estimates of the possible long-term deaths from radiation vary widely, from none at all to about 1,000.
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In terms of the other long-term consequences, an increase in thyroid cancer in children has been observed, but according to the WHO, this is related to the increased screening rate.
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By 2018, there had been only one confirmed death among workers as a result of radiation-induced lung cancer.
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Now, let's compare this to renewable energy.
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Solar, wind, and geothermal energy basically only cause deaths as a result of construction and maintenance accidents.
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Unfortunately, their current share of global energy is pretty low.
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